Instrument

Instrument

Uses

Autopsy table

for placing and fixing the corpse

Refrigerators

for preservation of the corpse

Dissection scissors

used to hold or move structures

Arterial & jugular tubes

to draw or drain out all the blood before replacing it with embalming fluids likeformaldehyde for preservation of structures as practiced in Anatomy

Head rest

to elevate the head

Ropes

to tie the corpse in places so that it does not change posture during dissection

Rubber gloves

protective; vide link

Goggles

protective; vide link

Jackets, aprons, etc.

protective; vide link

Scalpels

to cut the skin, organs or fibrous structures like fascia

Bone saw

used to cut bones like that of the head

Skull breaker or often a (hammer and chisel)

to break open the vault of the skull

Sternal saw

for cutting into the chest of the body by cutting the sternum

Dissecting knife

sharp cutting instruments

Toothed forceps

for tearing or holding structures

Mallet

used as a hammer

Skull key

a T-shaped chisel used as a lever while removing skull cap[1]

Large knife

to cleanly cut the brain into anatomical sections

Rib shears

to cut through the ribs while opening the chest[2]

Dissecting scissors

for sharp cutting

Specimen jars

preservation of anatomical specimens

Metacarpal saw

vide: External link; a bone saw

Double-ended probe

used for probing either foramina

Tongue tie

to tie away the tongue so that it doesn't fall back into to pharynx

Formaldehyde

primary preservative for Anatomy; vide link

X-ray boxes

to view X-ray images

Anatomical directional terms are like the directions on a compass rose of a map. Like the directions, North, South, East and West, they can be used to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body. This is particularly useful when studying anatomy as it provides a common method of communication that helps to avoid confusion when identifying structures. Also as with a compass rose, each directional term often has a counterpart with converse or opposite meaning. These terms are very useful when describing the locations of structures to be studied in dissections. Anatomical directional terms can also be applied to the planes of the body. Body planes are used to describe specific sections or regions of the body. Below are examples of some commonly used anatomical directional terms and planes of the body. Anatomical Directional Terms: Anterior: In front of, front Posterior: After, behind, following, toward the rear Distal: Away from, farther from the origin Proximal: Near, closer to the origin Dorsal: Near the upper surface, toward the back Ventral: Toward the bottom, toward the belly Superior: Above, over Inferior: Below, under Lateral: Toward the side, away from the mid-line Medial: Toward the mid-line, middle, away from the side Rostral: Toward the front Caudal: Toward the back, toward the tail Anatomical Body Planes: Imagine a person standing in an upright position. Now imagine dissecting this person with imaginary vertical and horizontal planes. This is the best way to describe anatomical planes. Anatomical planes can be used to describe any body part or an entire body. (View a body plane image.) Lateral Plane or Sagittal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through your body from front to back or back to front. This plane divides the body into right and left regions. 

Median or Midsagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into equal right and left regions.



Parasagittal Plane: Sagittal plane that divides the body into unequal right and left

regions. Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane: Imagine a vertical plane that runs through the center of your body from side to side. This plane divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) regions. Transverse Plane: Imagine a horizontal plane that runs through the midsection of your body. This plane divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) regions. Understanding anatomical directional terms and body planes will make it easier to study anatomy. It will help you to be able to visualize positional and spacial locations of structures and navigate directionally from one area to another. Another strategy that can be employed to help you visualize anatomical structures and their positions is to use study aids such asanatomy coloring books and flash cards. It may seem a bit juvenile, but coloring books and review cards actually help you to visually comprehend the information.

Chapter 1: Introduction; Directional Terms; Body Cavities Human anatomy is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision. Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, which includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues), and cytology (the study of cells). Anatomy, physiology (the study of function) and biochemistry (the study of the chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical sciences when applied to the human body. As such, these subjects are usually taught together (or in tandem) to students in the medical sciences. In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and can be traced from very early embryos. The human body consists of biological systems, that consist of organs, that consist of tissues, that consist of cells and connective tissue. Click here for the Levels of Body Organization What you will be learning in this human anatomy course is the names of locations and structures of the human body. It will be presented by organ systems. It will require a lot of memorization, visualization, imagination and time.

Anatomical Position

As a standard point or frame of reference, the human body is described as being in the anatomical position when it is standing erect, facing you, feet together flat on the floor, the arms slightly raised from the sides with the palms facing forward. Here is a list of useful directional terms. Know not only what they mean, but how to correctly use them. Directional Terms

Supine................lying face up Prone.................lying face down Anterior (Ventral)............at the front Posterior (Dorsal)............at the back Cranial (Cephalic)...............toward the head Caudal..............toward the tail

Medial..............nearer the midline of the body or a structure Lateral..............Farther away from the midline of the body or a structure Ipsilateral...............On the same side of the body or structure Contralateral..............On the opposite side of the body or structure Proximal...................Closer to a structure Distal....................Further away from a structure Superficial................Closer to the surface Deep.....................Farther down below the surface

Planes of Sectioning We will spend time studying not only the surface anatomy of many organs, but we will also have to look at the interior anatomy of many organs. For example, the brain has a lot of interesting internal anatomy. In order to see these internal structures we will have to cut, or section, the various organs or parts of the body. Now three dimensionally there would have to be three different directions, or planes, that we can cut something.

(1:Coronal Section; 2:Transverse (Horizontal) Section; 3:Ventral (Anterior); 4:Dorsal (Posterior); 5:Midsagittal; 6:Proximal; 7:Distal; 8:Superior; 9:Inferior; 10:Medial; 11:Lateral

The first direction, or sectional plane, that we may use to cut a specimen could be to cut it in a horizontal plane. This type of cut would leave you with a top piece and a bottom piece. This type of section is called a transverse section or plane. A different type of cut would be to cut, or section, a specimen in a vertical direction so that you are left with a front piece and a back piece. This type of section is called a coronal section or plane. For example, if you wanted to look at the interior structures of the brain and how their shapes vary as you move from front to back inside the brain, you would need to make a series of coronal sections to follow the changes in the shape of the internal structures. The third direction that you may wish to cut a specimen, or the entire body, is to cut it into a right piece and a left piece. This type of section is called a sagittalsection or plane. Now be careful, I think we all automatically think to cut something equally in half right down the middle, but a sagittal section does not always have to be right down the middle. To cut a specimen right down the middle producing equal right and left halves is called a midsagittal section. To section a secimen into right and left pieces that are not necessarily equal (on off-center cut in the sagittal plane) is to make a parasagittal section. Remember, we are cutting up a organ or part of the body in order to better visualize the internal structures of that organ or area of the body. You will have to then use your imagination to visualize in your mind how it looks uncut.

1:Cranial; 2:Vertebral Canal; 3:Thoracic; 4:Abdominal; 5:Pelvic Before we start in detail naming many of the parts and structures of the human body, we must first step back and view the body as a series of hollow cavities or compartments that hold different organ systems. For example, we have a hollow skull for the brain. We also have a hollow chest, or thoracic cavity for the heart and lungs. We have a hollow abdominal cavity for the intestines and digestive organs. There is also the pelvic cavity housing primarily the reproductive organs in the female. So

hopefully you can agree that we do consist of many hollow compartments. Speaking of the abdominal and pelvic cavities, as you well know, the two cavities are right next to each other. The pelvic cavity below outlined by the pelvic bones while the abdominal cavity is directly above outlined by the muscles of the abdominal wall. Since there is not natural boundary between the pelvic cavity and the abdominal cavity (they are continuous), they are commonly referred to together as the abdominopelvic cavity.

1:Right Hypochondriac Region; 2:Right Lumbar Region; 3:Right Iliac (Inguinal) Region; 4:Epigastric Region; 5:Unbilical Region; 6:Hypogastric (Pubic) Region; 7:Left Hypochondriac Region; 8:Left Lumbar Region; 9:Left Iliac (Inguinal) Region. This introduces a rule that we will come across over and over. When we wish to combine two anatomical terms, we simply put them together with the letter 'o' between them. To refer to the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity together, we say the 'abdominal' + 'o' + 'pelvic' = 'abdominopelvic' cavity. So how do we place organs into these cavities and have them stay in place? Even trickier, how to we place an organ that is always moving, say the heart or the lungs or even your intestines, into one of these hollow cavities and keep it in place without firmly attaching it to the inside walls of the cavity since the organ needs to be able to move freely? Let's start with the heart as an example. If you imagine my closed fist as my heart, picture then a balloon right next to my 'fist/heart'. As I push my 'fist/heart' up against the balloon, one side of the balloon is in direct contact with my 'fist/heart' while the opposite side of the balloon is not touching my 'fist/heart'. As I continue to push my 'fist/heart' into the balloon, by 'fist/heart' will become completely surrounded by the balloon.

Yet the other side of the balloon is not touching my 'fist/heart', but is separated from it by the air in the balloon. Assume that the balloon is stick on the outside so that when I push my 'fist/heart' up against it farther and farther, the balloon sticks to my 'fist/heart'. If I hold the other side of the balloon with my other hand, my 'fist/heart' will not fall to the ground since it is stuck to the sticky surface of the balloon (remember, my 'fist/heart' is not suppost to be attached at the wrist). So now all I need to do is place this side of the balloon that is not in contact with the 'fist/heart' up inside my ribs and it will also stick. I've done it. My heart is free to beat and move, yet it won't fall down or wiggle loose since the other side of the balloon is attached to the insides of my ribs. Why this works so well is that it is just one single balloon. But one single balloon with two surfaces. One surface attached to the 'fist/heart' and the other surface attached to the insides of my ribs. This balloon is called the pericardium. Instead of the balloon being filled with air, it is filled with fluid, the pericardial fluid. Now the pericaridium can be named according to what surface you are talking about, the surface stuck to the heart or the surface stuck to the insides of the ribs. This is anatomy, so we give a name to each surface of the pericardium. The part of the pericardium that is stuck to the heart itself is called the visceral pericaridum while the other surface of the pericardium that is attached to the insides of the ribs is called the parietal pericardium. The pericardium has both the visceral portion and the parietal portion, but it is still one continuous balloon, one continuous membrane called the pericardium.

Now just to mention some very general, but important terms that relate to human anatomy. As you probably already know, the study of the creation and development of a new human, starting with the embryo is referred to as embryology, or sometimes referred to as developmental anatomy. You will very quickly discover in this course that we will be spending a lot of time looking at the different human organs, tissues and cells with a microscope. To look at and learn the surface anatomy of the liver is useful, but to really understand what the liver does, we will need to look directly at liver cells under the microscope. The common term for microscopic anatomy is histology. In fact, you may want to look into some of the very nice internet histology sites to practice learning what the various human cells look like under the microscope. There are also some very nice histology atlases for sale that might be useful to you for a course like this. But check out the internet sites first, since they are free, and any type of atlas is going to be expensive. In contrast to histology, when you study all the parts of the human body that you can see just with your eyes, with your 'naked eyes' as they say; this is referred to asgross

anatomy. So, for example, a gross anatomical structure would just be something you can see without the need for a microscope. In order to better examine certain organs and tissues, sometimes it is necessary to gently touch these structures. This is referred to as palpation. In order to feel your pulse, you would have to palpate the skin above a blood vessel. If you listen to the heart, or the lungs inflating and deflating, this is referred to as auscultation. And when the doctor thumps or gently taps on your body, this is referred to as percussion.

And finally, just to warn you, you are hopefully very motivated and anxious to get started learning all the parts of the human body. But before we can do that, we must first start with the basics. We must talk about what the parts of the human body are made up of first, and those are cells. And if are going to talk about human cells and their components, we must get even more basic and talk about molecules and even atoms. But don't worry, this is not a chemistry class. However, you will be exposed to some 'biochemistry' (chemistry as it applies to biology), so do not be afraid.

Human anatomical terms make up a distinct nomenclature to describe areas of the body, to provide orientation when describing parts of human anatomy,[1] and to distinguish different movements of the body. An understanding of these terms is necessary to study the human body in depth. Many of these terms are also applicable in animal anatomy (zootomy). Anatomical body position [edit] The international standard anatomical position is the position that provides a reference point for describing the structures of the human body. In this position, the body is standing erect with good posture and the face is looking directly forward. The feet are about six inches apart, flat on the floor and the toes pointing forward. The arms are down at the sides with the palms turned forward and thumbs pointing away from the body. When the body is lying face down in the anatomical position, this is called the prone position. When the body is lying face up, this is called the supineposition. Anatomical directions [edit] Front and back [edit] Anterior and ventral both mean toward the front of the body, while posterior and dorsal mean the back of the body. These terms are almost always used in pairs, with anterior pairing with posterior and ventral pairing with dorsal. The nose is on the anterior surface of the head. The spine is on the posterior (dorsal) side of the body. However, in the brain (at least the forward part of it), ventral means inferior (towards the jaw) and dorsal means superior (towards the top of the head). Above and below [edit] The terms superior, cranial, and cephalic all mean toward the head or the upper part of a structure while inferior andcaudal refer to the lower part of a structure or away from the head. For example, the shoulder is superior (cranial) to the elbow and the elbow is inferior (caudal) to the shoulder. These terms are also used in their respective pairs: 

superior with inferior

and 

cranial (or cephalic) with caudal.

Close to or away from the center of the body [edit]

Proximal means closer to the trunk (torso) while distal is away from the trunk. The statement “the knee is proximal to the foot” means the knee is closer to the torso than the foot. Conversely, the foot is distal to the knee. Near or away from the vertical longitudinal center of the body [edit] Medial describes a structure toward the midline of the body and lateral away from that median plane. Intermediatedescribes a structure between a medial and a lateral structure. The nose is medial to the ears while the ears are lateral to the nose. The cheeks are intermediate between the nose and the ears. Deep inside or near the surface [edit] Superficial means close to the surface of the body while deep means away from the surface. The brain is deep to the skull while the skull is superficial to the brain. Planes of the body [edit]

Diagram showing sagittal, coronal and transverse planes. Anatomists also divide the body into planes to facilitate discussion. These are the coronal or frontal plane, the sagittal, midsagittal or median sagittal, and the transverse or horizontal plane. These planes are defined using the anatomical position as a reference point. The coronal or frontal section divides the body lengthwise, anterior from posterior. When the body is divided by the coronal plane, the face is separated from the back of the head, the chest from the back, the palms from the back of the hands, the shins from the calves. The sagittal plane bisects the left and right sides of the body longitudinally. This plane runs down the center of the head, torso, and

between the legs and the feet. The transverse or horizontal plane runs perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the body, dividing it into upper and lower sections. Body landmarks [edit] Anatomists use specific terms to indicate visible areas of the body. The cephalon or cephalic region refers to the head. This area is further differentiated into the cranium (skull), facies (face), frons (forehead), oculus (eye area), auris (ear), bucca (cheek), nausus (nose), oris (mouth), and mentis (chin). The neck area is called the cervicis or cervical region. On the trunk of the body, the chest is referred to as the thoracic area. The shoulder in general is the acromial, while the curve of the shoulder is the deltoid. The back as a general area is the dorsum or dorsal area, and the lower back as the lumbus or lumbar region. The shoulderblades are the scapular area and the breastbone is the sternal region. The abdominal area is the region between the chest and the pelvis. The breast is called the mamma or mammary, the armpit as the axilla and axillary, and the navel as the umbilicus and umbilical. The pelvis is the lower torso, between the abdomen and the thighs. The groin, where the thigh joins the trunk, are the inguen and inguinal area. The entire arm is referred to as the brachium and brachial, the front of the elbow as the antecubitis and antecubital, the back of the elbow as the olecranon or olecranal, the forearm as the antebrachium and antebrachial, the wrist as the carpus and carpal area, the hand as the manus and manual, the palm as the palma and palmar, the thumb as the pollex, and the fingers as the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal. The buttocks are the gluteus or gluteal region and the pubic area is the pubis. Anatomists divide the lower limb into the thigh (the part of the limb between the hip and the knee) and the leg (which refers only to the area of the limb between the knee and the ankle). The thigh is the femur and the femoral region. The kneecap is the patella and patellar while the back of the knee is the popliteus and popliteal area. The leg (between the knee and the ankle) is the crus and crural area, the lateral aspect of the leg is the peroneal area, and the calf is the sura and sural region. The ankle is the tarsus and tarsal, and the heel is the calcaneus or calcaneal. The foot is the pes and pedal region, and the sole of the foot the planta and plantar. As with the fingers, the toes are also called the digits, phalanges, and phalangeal area. The big toe is referred to as the hallux.

Use of the terms right and left [edit] When anatomists refer to the right and left of the body, it is in reference to the right and left of the subject, not the right and left of the observer. When observing a body in the anatomical position, the left of the body is on the observer’s right, and vice versa. Regions of the abdomen and pelvis [edit] Anatomists and medical personnel divide the abdomen into smaller regions to facilitate study and discussion. The two most common schemes are division into four quadrants and also into nine areas. The abdominopelvic quadrants evenly divide the space of the torso below the diaphragm into four. They are referred to simply by location: the right upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, and left lower quadrant. The right upper quadrant contains the right portion of the liver, the gallbladder, right kidney, a small portion of the stomach, portions of the ascending and transverse colon and parts of small intestine. The left upper quadrant is the location of the left portion of the liver, the larger portion of the stomach, the pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of the transverse and descending colon and parts of the small intestine. In the right lower quadrant sits the cecum, appendix, part of the small intestines, the right reproductive organs, and the right ureter. The left lower quadrant houses the majority of the small intestine, some of the large intestine, the left reproductive organs and the left ureter. The nine divisions (sometimes also called nine quadrants, though the word 'quadrant' itself means division into four equal parts) of the abdominopelvic region are smaller than the four abdominopelvic quadrants and allow more detailed discussion of the area. These are the right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right inguinal (or right iliac), epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric (or pubic), left hypochondriac, left lumbar, and left inguinal (or left iliac). The right and left hypochondriac regions are the outer and uppermost segments. The epigastric lies between these two. The outer middle sections are the right lumbar and left lumbar regions, with the umbilical region between them. The lowest portions are the right and left iliac region with the hypogastric between these. The Perineum is considered to be the tenth division. Body cavities [edit] The body contains two main cavities, dorsal and ventral, that house and protect the internal organs. These cavities are subdivided to further distinguish location.

The dorsal body cavity is the space within the cranium (skull) and the spinal canal, which is surrounded by thevertebrae. The fluid filled space inside the cranium is called the cranial cavity, and it contains the brain. The spinal cavity is the space that encloses the spinal cord and extends from the cranial cavity to the base of the spine. The ventral body cavity contains the organs in the chest and abdomen. It is further divided by the diaphragm into the superior thoracic cavity and the inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs, heart, the lower esophagus, the thymus gland, and other organs of the cardiovascular, respiratory, and lymphatic systems. This cavity is subdivided into the right pleural cavity of the right lung, the left pleural cavity of the left lung, and the mediastinum, between the pleural cavities, which houses the trachea, esophagus, thymus, heart, and vessels connected to the heart. The medistinum contains the pericardial cavity, which is the area surrounding the heart. The abdominopelvic cavity is often divided into the superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavities. The abdominal cavity contains the digestive organs and glands, namely the liver, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, pancreas, stomach, small intestine and the majority of the large intestine. The pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvis and contains the inferior portion of the large intestine, bladder, uterine tubes, and reproductive organs. Types of movement [edit] See also: Anatomical terms of motion The body has a wide variety of movements available to it, depending on the joint where the movement occurs. Movement occurs when a muscle or muscles contract over joints and is dependent on the joint’s mobility and the location of the muscle in relation to the joint. The different types of movement have specific terms, often in pairs to describe opposite movements. Flexion occurs in the sagittal plane, when the angle of a joint is decreased. It occurs in hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints. When the knee is bent, this is a form of flexion. Conversely, extension occurs when the angle is increased along the same plane. Straightening of the leg is extension. Hyperextension occurs when the extension is beyond 180°. The neck is hyperextended when the chin tilts up toward the ceiling. Some people with flexible ligaments and tendons can hyperextend the elbows and knees,

which can cause injury in these joints. Flexion and extension of the ankle aredorsiflexion and plantar flexion, respectively. Abduction is the movement of a limb away from the median plane of the body. This occurs when someone jumps the arms legs apart, as in jumping jacks, and also when fanning the fingers and toes. Adduction is the reversal of this movement, bringing the limb back to the median plane. Circumduction is a circular movement of the joint, such as drawing a circle with the arm and wrist straight. It is a combination of abduction, adduction, flexion and extension in a ball-and-socket joint. A movement of the vertebrae in the coronal plane away from the midline is lateral flexion. The cervical and thoracic regions of the spine are most capable of this movement. It occurs when one moves the ear toward the shoulder with the nose facing forward. Rotation is movement of a bone around the longitudinal axis of that bone. Lateral (or external) rotation occurs when the anterior aspect rotates outward and medial rotation occurs when it rotates inward. Turning the head to look to the side is lateral rotation, and bringing it back to the center is medial rotation. These movements occur across all ball-and-socket joints. Pronation and supination occur at the elbow to rotate the wrist. Pronation is the turning of the palm from the anatomical position to face backward. Turning the palm forward is supination. Inversion is a movement of the foot to turn the sole medially while eversion turns it laterally. Gliding is the motion in any direction of two articulating surfaces sliding past one another. This minimum movement occurs in the carpal bones of the hands and tarsal bones of the feet and also between the clavicles and sternum. Protraction is movement anteriorly in the transverse plane. Biting the upper lip with the lower teeth is protraction of the jaw, and moving the jaw back to its normal position is retraction. Elevation is the motion of a limb superiorly, such as lifting the shoulders toward the ears. Depression is the opposite, inferior movement as in opening the mouth. Opposition is a movement unique to the thumb when it moves toward a finger or the palm to grasp something

Systematic and regional approaches to anatomy [edit] In the systematic approach to the study of anatomy, each system of the body, such as the digestive system, is studied as a thing in itself.[1] The regional approach observes all aspects of a particular region at one time.[1] For example, each muscle, organ, bone, nerve and any other structure in the abdomen is studied together, then the student continues in this fashion with each region. The regional approach better facilitates study with dissection, while the systematic approach is appreciated for its comprehensive look at each system throughout the body.