Instructor’s Manual Social Psychology R. Baron

Instructor’s Manual for

Baron and Branscombe

Social Psychology Thirteenth Edition

prepared by

Daniel A. Miller Indiana University – Purdue University, Fort Wayne

Boston New York San Francisco Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town Sydney

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ISBN 10: 0-205-20630-1 ISBN 13: 978-0-205-20630-8 Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE This Instructor’s Manual was written to accompany Social Psychology 13th Edition by Robert A. Baron, and Nyla R. Branscombe. The introduction that follows will briefly describe the goals of the manual, the format of the manual, and a listing of valuable teaching resources. GOALS OF THIS MANUAL (1) To be a ready-to-use manual filled with supplementary lecture ideas and classroom activities designed to help both the novice and experienced instructor develop a more stimulating course (2) Provide active learning experiences to enhance the student’s understanding of social psychology. FORMAT OF THIS MANUAL The following format will be used for each chapter: Chapter-at-a-Glance This easy to read grid provides a brief outline with the Learning Objective(s) for the chapter as well as corresponding Instructor Manual Resources (e.g., Lecture Launchers, In-Class and Outof-Class Activities), Test Bank questions, PowerPoint slides, and relevant MyPsychLab Assets for each section. Key Terms Here you have a full list of key terms (with corresponding main text page reference) for easy reference. Learning Objectives This section provides a list of objectives that students should master after reading the given chapter. The list can also double as critical thinking questions to stimulate students’ thinking about the material. Chapter Outline Here you will find a detailed outline of the chapter contents complete with reference to applicable Learning Objectives and bolded key terms with definitions. Lecture Launchers These lecture ideas provide solid springboards for in-class discussions with interesting ideas, topics, and information. Each Lecture Launcher is identified with a relevant Learning Objective.

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In-Class Activities and Demonstrations This section provides learning activities and handouts (e.g., in-class demonstrations and in-class experiments) designed to actively engage the students in the learning process. For most activities, step-by-step instructions are given in a Procedure section followed by a Results & Discussion section. When using a demonstration/activity in class, you may want to lay down the following ground rules prior to the demonstrations: → Students should not write their names on any of the materials unless instructed to do so. → Students can freely decline to participate at any time. → Occasionally there may be some mild deception involved. However, it is used for constructive purposes only (e.g., encourage honest responses). → The instructor will disclose the purpose of the exercise after the data is collected. Out-of-Class Assignments Each chapter has at least one, engaging Out-of-Class Assignment for you to use as a tool to further students understanding of class discussions/course materials. Video and Film Resources and Relevant Sources These sections provide listings along with a brief description of outside sources corresponding to each chapter. Appendix This manual offers a wealth of handouts that correspond to many of the activities and ideas provided. Electronic Microsoft WORD® versions of these are available on our Instructor’s Resource Center at http://www.pearsonhighered.com so you can easily modify them to meet your specific needs. Thank you for choosing Social Psychology 13th Edition! We sincerely hope that you find this carefully integrated Instructor’s Manual a valuable addition to your course materials.

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CONTENTS

Preface

i

Chapter 1

Social Psychology: The Science of the Social Side of Life

1

Chapter 2

Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World

17

Chapter 3

Social Perception: Perceiving and Understanding Others

34

Chapter 4

The Self: Answering the Question: “Who Am I?”

51

Chapter 5

Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World

64

Chapter 6

The Causes, Effects, and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice and Discrimination

81

Chapter 7

Interpersonal Attraction, Close Relationships, and Love

99

Chapter 8

Social Influence: Changing Others’ Behavior

119

Chapter 9

Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others

137

Chapter 10

Aggression: Its Nature, Causes, and Control

148

Chapter 11

Groups and Individuals: The Consequences of Belonging

164

Chapter 12

Social Psychology: A Guide to Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life

181

Appendix

Handout Masters

197

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CHAPTER 1 Social Psychology: The Science of the Social Side of Life CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Social Psychology: An Overview p. 5

Lecture Launchers: 1A, 1B In-Class Activities: A1.1, A1.2, A1.3, A1.4, A1.5, A1.6, A1.7 Out-of-Class Activities: “’Application’ Journals”* “Psychology Portfolio”* In-Class Activities: A1.8

MC 1-26 FI 1-4 SA 1-3 ES 1-2

Slides 2-7

MC 27-35 FI 5 SA 5 ES 3-4

Slides 8-14

The Role of Theory in Social Psychology p. 26

Lecture Launchers: 1C

MC 36-78 FI 6-8 SA 6-8 ES 6 MPL Feature Essay SIMULATE: "Predicting the Results of Scientific Research" MC 79-82 ES 7

Slides 15-25

Learning Objectives: 1.8-1.11

In-Class Activities: A1.3, A1.8, A1.9 Out-of-Class Activities: “Naturalistic Observation vs. Surveys” “Research Methodology”

Lecture Launchers: 1E, 1F In-Class Activities: A1.10

MC 83-90 FI 9-10 SA 9-10 ES 8

Slides 28-29

Learning Objectives: 1.1-1.4

Social Psychology: Advances at the Boundaries p. 12 Learning Objectives: 1.5-1.7 How Social Psychologists Answer the Questions They Ask: Research as the Route to Increased Knowledge p. 19

MYPSYCHLAB

Watch: Naturalistic Observation Explore: Interactive Correlations Stimulate: Evidence and Psychic Abilities

Slides 26-27

Learning Objectives: 1.12 The Quest for Knowledge and Rights of Individuals: In Search of an Appropriate Balance p. 28 Learning Objectives: 1.13-1.14 Getting the Most Out of this Book: A User’s Guide p. 30

*THIS ACTIVITY CAN BE ASSIGNED FOR ANY OF THE SECTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER

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Watch: Before Informed Consent

KEY TERMS confounded (p.25) correlational method (p. 22) debriefing (p. 29) deception (p. 28) dependent variable (p. 23) evolutionary psychology (p. 09) experimentation (p. 23) hypothesis (p. 22)

independent variable (p. 23) informed consent (p. 29) mediating variable (p. 26) multicultural perspective (p. 18) random assignment of participants to experimental conditions (p. 25) relationships (p.13) survey method (p. 20) systematic observation (p. 20)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 1, students should be able to: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14

Offer a definition of social psychology and discuss the types of issues this field considers. State the four key components of a science. Contrast social psychology with common sense approaches to knowledge. Consider the relationship between evolution and social behavior. Discuss some of the major contemporary research trends in social psychology. Define and discuss social neuroscience. Consider how implicit or nonconscious processes shape our behavior. Consider the advantages and limitations of systematic observations and the survey method. Describe the correlational method, including the meaning of correlational coefficients and the key drawback of this method. Outline the nature of the experimental method, including all of the key components of this methodology. Explain the role of mediating variables in causality. Define the term “theory” and describe the procedure involved in building theories. Consider when and how deception is used in social psychological research. Discuss the importance of informed consent and debriefing in social psychological research.

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CHAPTER 1 OUTLINE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF THE SOCIAL SIDE OF LIFE I.

Social Psychology: An Overview (LO 1.1) A. Social psychology is defined as the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior and thought in social situations. B. Social psychologists ask many different questions, ranging from “what is jealousy?” to “what is the relationship between heat and aggressive behavior?” These questions all have the goal of understanding the social side of life—how we think about others and interact with them.

II. Social Psychology Is Scientific in Nature (LO 1.2) A. Social psychology is a scientific discipline. Science is: 1. A set of values 2. Methods that can be used to study a variety of topics B. Core values of a scientific field: 1. Accuracy: A commitment to gathering and evaluating information about the world in as careful, precise, and error-free a manner as possible. 2. Objectivity: A commitment to obtaining and evaluating such information in a manner that is as free from bias as humanly possible. 3. Skepticism: A commitment to accepting findings as accurate only to extent they have been verified over and over again. 4. Open-mindedness: A commitment to changing one’s view—even views that are strongly held—if existing evidence suggests that these views are inaccurate. III. But Why Adopt the Scientific Approach? Isn’t Social Psychology Just Common Sense? (LO 1.3) A. Social psychology is often seen as common sense. However, there are many contradictory statements (e.g., “birds of a feather flock together” versus “opposites attract”) that present a conflicting view of people. Using the scientific method is the way to know which one of these statements is supported by the evidence. B. We often make errors in information processing (e.g., the planning fallacy, where we may underestimate how long it may take to complete a project). This is another reason why we should avoid relying on common sense and trust the scientific method. IV. Social Psychology Focuses on the Behavior of Individuals A. The field’s major interest lies in understanding the factors that shape the actions and thoughts of individuals in social settings. V. Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior and Social Thought A. The actions and characteristics of others 1. Having others watch us can affect our thoughts and behaviors (e.g., noticing an attractive person is looking at you and smiling at a party). 2. In addition, the physical characteristics of others may affect our thoughts and behaviors (e.g., feeling uncomfortable around someone with a disability). B. Cognitive processes 1. We are always trying to make sense out of the social world, and this basic fact leads us to engage in lots of social cognition—to think long and hard about other persons—and what we infer about these people influence how we behave towards them (e.g., if a friend Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3

is late in meeting us, we react with more annoyance if the excuse they give us is one they have given us before). C. Environmental variables 1. The physical environment does influence our feelings, thoughts, and behavior (e.g., feeling warm and uncomfortable can raise our feelings of aggression and irritability). D. Biological factors: Many of our behaviors, such as emotional reactions, may be partly due to genetic factors. 1. Evolutionary psychology: A branch of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in human behavior. 2. Three components of evolution: a) Variation: Organisms in a given species will vary. b) Inheritance: Some variations can be passed down from generation to generation. c) Selection: Certain variations help organisms survive. Over time, more members of the species possess the variation. 3. Social psychologists and the evolutionary perspective (LO 1.4) a) For example, social psychologists may study attractiveness. Choosing a mate may depend on the characteristics they show (e.g., reproductive capacity), according to the evolutionary perspective. b) It is important to note that the evolutionary perspective holds that we are born with innate tendencies or predispositions. Whether or not they are shown depends on our environment. VI.

The search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World A. One goal of science is the development of basic principles that are accurate regardless of when or where they are tested. However this goal is complicated by the existence of huge cultural differences and rapid changes in social life.

VII.

Social Psychology: Advances at the Boundaries (LO 1.5) A. Cognition and behavior: Two sides of the same social coin 1. Social psychologists are examining the link between social thought and overt social behavior. 2. What we think about influences our actions and the consequences of these actions affect our thoughts; it is a continuous loop. B. The role of emotion in the social side of life 1. Social psychologists have always been interested in emotions and moods, and with good reason: They play a key role in many aspects of social life (i.e. helping behavior). 2. This interest in emotions and moods has exploded in recent years. C. Relationships: How they develop, change, and strengthen—or end 1. Relationships are our social ties with other persons ranging from casual acquaintance or passing friendship, to intense, long term relationships such as marriage or lifetime friendships. 2. Social psychologists have long sought to understand the nature of social relationships – how they begin and change over time, and why, gradually some strengthen while others die. D. Social neuroscience: Where social psychology and brain research meet (LO 1.6) 1. Social neuroscience is an area of research in which social psychologists try to understand the neural and biological bases of social processes.

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2. Social psychologist use tools such as functional magnetic (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and other techniques to peer into the human brain as people engage in various activities and so to find out just what’s happening at any given time 3. For example research suggest (Van Berkum, Hollmean, Nieuwaland, Otten & Murre, 2009) found the people process information that disagrees with their attitudes or values very quickly (only 250 milliseconds after seeing them) – long before they can put such reactions into words. E. The role of implicit (nonconscious) processes (LO 1.7) 1. Some of our social thought and behavior is shaped by automatic processes that we may not be fully aware of on a conscious level. 2. For example, we tend to like things that are closely related to out self-concept, and these preferences can influence our behaviors (like where we choose to live) even though we are not aware of these preferences (e.g., people named Louis are more likely to live in St. Louis). F. Taking full account of social diversity 1. Due to shifts in demographics, psychologists have increasingly recognized the importance of taking cultural factors and differences into account. 2. Social psychology now adopts a multicultural perspective which seeks to understand the cultural and ethnic factors that can influence social behavior. VIII. How Social Psychologists Answer the Questions They Ask: Research as the Route to Increased Knowledge A. Systematic observation: carefully observing behavior as it occurs. 1. Naturalistic observation takes place in natural settings (e.g., shopping malls) and the observer watches behavior inconspicuously, being careful not to influence the people they are watching in any way. B. Survey method: A large group of people are asked to respond to questions concerning their behavior and/or attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward affirmative action programs). 1. Advantages of the survey method: (LO 1.8) a) A large amount of information from many people can be gathered relatively easily. b) Researchers can obtain opinions about new social issues quickly, as surveys can be readily created. 2. Survey requirements: a) The survey participants must be representative of the larger population from which they are drawn, so conclusions can be reached. b) Survey questions should not seem to suggest a right or wrong answer, so researchers must be careful about the wording of items. C. Correlation: The search for relationships (LO 1.9) 1. A correlation is the tendency for one event to change as the other changes. a) Correlations help researchers make predictions (e.g., how well a students will do in college based on their SAT scores). b) Correlations are represented by a number, ranging from -1 to +1. The further away from 0 a correlation is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. c) Positive correlations mean as one variable increases, the other variable also increases (e.g., as age increases, the amount in one’s bank account increases). d) Negative correlations mean as one variable increases, the other variable decreases (e.g., the number of days a student is absent from class and his or her grade). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 5

2. The correlational method involves making careful observations of each variable, and then performing appropriate statistical tests to determine whether and to what degree the variables are correlated. 3. If two variables are correlated, it does not mean that one causes the other. Changes in one may not cause changes in the other. There could be other variables impacting upon the relationship (e.g., there is a positive correlation between weight and income. However, we cannot conclude that weight gain causes income to increase. A third variable, age, is related to both weight gain and income. In other words, as we age, we tend to gain weight and have higher incomes.). 4. Correlational studies are useful for describing relationships. However, the experimental method helps researchers explain relationships (i.e., correlation does not imply causation). D. The experimental method: Knowledge through systematic intervention. The experimental method is research method in which one or more factors are systematically changed to determine whether such change will affect one or more other factors. (LO 1.10) 1. Experiments allow researchers to determine if there is a cause and effect relationship between variables. 2. Experimentation is basic nature—the experimental method involves two key variables. a) Independent variable: the factor that is systematically varied by the researcher. b) Dependent variable: the aspect of behavior being studied that is thought to be influenced by the independent variable. c) Example: Examine the relationship between an assistant’s handshake and participants’ first impressions of the assistant. The handshake can be varied in firmness (weak, moderate, or firm). This is the independent variable. Participants can then rate their impression of the assistant. This is the dependent variable. If firm handshakes lead to more favorable impressions, the researcher can conclude that firmness of handshake causes different impressions (because firmness was systematically changed by the researcher). 3. Experimentation: Two Key requirements for its success a) Random assignment to experimental conditions: each participant has an equal chance of being in each group (each level of the independent variable). This ensures that any differences the researcher sees are due to the independent variable. b) Keep all factors constant so that no other factors besides the variable of interest may be influencing the participants’ behavior (e.g., assistant cannot act friendlier in the “firm handshake” condition. If they did, we could not tell whether it was friendliness or firmness of handshake that caused a difference in participants’ impressions.). (1) In situations like the example above the independent variable is said to be confounded with another variable (i.e., handshake firmness is confounded with friendliness). 4. External validity: the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to real social situations and to people beyond those in the study. 5. Which research method should social psychologists choose? Experiments are ideal when asking many questions related to social behavior and thought. However, due to practical and/or ethical constraints, some research questions must be answered with systematic observation or the correlational method. E. Further thoughts on causality: The role of mediating variables (LO 1.11) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6

1. You can think of mediating variables as the middle of the causal chain from independent variable to dependent variable. 2. Mediating variables help us to understand why one variable produces changes in another variable. 3. For example, handling a gun increases aggression through increases in testosterone. In this example, handling a gun is the independent variable, aggression is the dependent variable, and testosterone is the mediator (it is why handling a gun makes people more aggressive). IX. The Role of Theory in Social Psychology (LO 1.12) A. In trying to explain behavior, social psychologists construct general frameworks called theories. B. Building a Theory: 1. A theory is proposed based on existing evidence from research. 2. The theory helps organize information related to the topic of interest and allows us to make predictions. 3. These predictions (the hypotheses) are then tested in research. 4. If the results are consistent with the theory, then it is supported and we are more confident in the theory. If the results do not support the theory, then we must consider modifications to the theory, which can then be further tested. 5. Eventually, a theory is either accepted or rejected, but is still always open to change as new research methods and new findings related to the theory are obtained. C. It is important to note that theories and hypotheses are never proven; they are supported or not supported. X. The Quest for Knowledge and the Rights of Individuals: In Search of an Appropriate Balance A. Unlike other fields of science, social psychologists sometimes need to use the techniques of deception in their research. (LO 1.13) 1. Deception is a technique where researchers temporarily withhold information about the nature of a study from their participants. 2. Deception is used because many times, if the participants knew the purpose of the research, their behavior would change based on that information. Therefore, many studies would not yield valid results without some form of deception. 3. For example, if researchers told their participants that they are studying whether extreme heat leads to aggression, the participants may act in line with that knowledge, or even act against it. 4. Research participants may be emotionally distressed once they learn they have been deceived. This is a serious ethical issue that needs to be considered by researchers. 5. Participants may also feel resentful that they were deceived, and may be left feeling suspicious of all social psychologists. 6. Social psychologists agree that deception should never be used to convince people to participate in research. 7. Two safeguards should be used to help minimize the effects of deception: (LO 1.14) a) Informed consent: Participants should be provided with as much information about a study as possible before they decide if they wish to participate in it. b) Debriefing: Supplying participants with full information about the nature and purpose of the study after they have participated in it. Explaining deception and why it was necessary should be part of the debriefing process.

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8. Most of the time, participants react much more favorably when they see that deception cannot be avoided in some cases, and that the benefits of the research outweigh the risks.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS 1A: Themes in Social Psychology (LO 1.1) Students often feel overwhelmed on the first day of class, so you may want to begin by providing an informal overview of the major themes in social psychology. The following is a short list of quotes that capture the essence of social psychology (relevant topics are in parentheses). Social Cognition and Perception • “we see what we want or expect to see” (attributions, impression formation, stereotypes) • “we construct our own social reality” (the self, errors, prejudice) • “we take shortcuts when processing social information” (schemas, heuristics) Social Influence • “we may create in others the behaviors that we expect” (self-fulfilling prophecy) • “power of the situation” (conformity, obedience) • “power of self-persuasion” (cognitive dissonance, self-perception) Social Interaction • “we are all social animals” (group processes, interpersonal attraction) • “many hands make light work” (loafing, helping behavior) • “we are both the products and creators of our social worlds” (health, organizations) 1B: “That’s Completely Obvious” (LO 1.3) Students often view research findings in social psychology as “obvious,” “predictable,” or based on “common sense.” Because of this, instructors often emphasize the most surprising findings in order to stimulate student interest. According to a recent study, however, obvious findings are not necessarily perceived to be trivial. In a series of studies, introductory psychology students with no prior exposure to social psychology judged almost 400 social psychological findings for obviousness, general importance, and importance to establish with empirical research. Richard et al. (2001) found that the students judged the most obvious research findings to be (a) the most important, and (b) the most worthy of conducting research to determine the validity of the finding. Thus, instructors who confine their attention to nonobvious phenomena may fail to cover research that their students find important. Richard, F.D., Bond, Jr., C.F., & Stokes-Zoota, J.J. (2001). “That’s completely obvious . . . and important”: Lay judgments of social psychological findings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 497-505.

1C: It’s Just a Theory (LO 1.12) In my courses (D. Miller), students have often respond to the presentation of a theory with the following: “Well…..that’s just a theory.” I have come to realize that students often assume theories are just guesses, or opinions without support. I try to counter this notion with the following demonstration that illustrates that some of the things students think are “facts” are really theories. In the beginning of class, ask your students how color vision is produced? Almost always your students will respond with something like “the cones in our retinas allow us to see in color.” Next ask them if this is a fact or a theory? Usually they respond with fact. Tell them that this is not a fact, but what they are describing is known as Trichromatic Theory, first proposed by Thomas Young in the nineteenth century. In a nutshell, this theory says there are three types of cones in the eye: A blue sensing cone, a green sensing cone, and a red sending cone. The cones activate in various degrees to produce color vision. However, there is also an alternative theory of color vision (opponent-process theory) proposed by Ewald Hering in 1870, which says that it is not cones that are responsible for color vision, but ganglion cells that respond to different wave lengths of light. According to opponent processes theory there is a blue-yellow processor, a red-green processor and a black-white processor. Each processor is capable of responding Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 9

either of the colors that give it its name, but not both at the same time. This is why there is no such color as reddish-green. Additional evidence for opponent-process theory comes from experiences with negative afterimages. Show the class the image of the flag that is at the end of the slides for Chapter One. After staring at this slide for several minutes, take the image away and the students will see an afterimage of the American flag. This effect occurs because, according to this theory, when receptors for a color become fatigued, a sort of rebound in the receptors produces the opponent color. 1D: Ethics—Where Should We Draw the Line? (LO 1.14) Middlemist, Knowles, and Matter (1976) conducted a naturalistic field study to determine the degree to which invasion of one’s personal space arouses stress. The researchers observed male users of a college restroom through a periscope to determine whether onset of urination and amount of time taken to complete urination would be affected by the presence of a nearby confederate. Is this an invasion of the subjects’ privacy? Ask your students whether they believe this is a legitimate psychological study. A recent article examines students’ perceptions about the ethics of this questionable study. Middlemist, R.D., Knowles, E.S., & Matter, C.F. (1976). Personal space invasions in the lavatory: suggestive evidence for arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 541-546. Reeves, R.A., Baker, G., & Goldberg, S.J. (1996). The effects of researcher precautions on perceptions of the ethicality of unobtrusive field experiments. Journal of Psychology, 130, 321-327.

1E: Informed Consent and Demand Characteristics (LO 1.14) Does the requirement of obtaining informed consent from research subjects have any effect on their behavior in an experiment? Gardner (1978) and Dill et al. (1982) propose that human subject regulations may be a source of methodological artifact. Dill, C.A., Gilden, E.R., Hill, P.C., & Hanselka, L.L. (1982). Federal human subject regulations: A methodological artifact? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 417-425. Gardner, G.T. (1978). Effects of federal human subjects regulations on data obtained in environmental stressor research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 628-634.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A1.1: Top Reasons to Be a Social Psychologist (see Handout 1-1) (LO 1.1) This humorous demonstration can be done early in the semester to introduce students to some of the pioneers of social psychology, or at the end of the semester to reiterate the important contributions of these famous social psychologists. Handout 1-1 is a partial list of hypothetical reasons to be a social psychologist (adapted from Todd Nelson, 1998, SPSP “Dialogue”). A1.2: Getting Acquainted Exercise (LO 1.1) As a get-to-know-you exercise on the first day of class, the instructor often goes around the room and asks each student to tell a little something about themselves to the class. Typically, after the first few students reveal some information about themselves, a clear pattern (norm) develops and all the responses start to sound highly similar. For example, the typical response might be, “My name is _______. I’m a _____ (class) and my major is ______. I took this class because _____.” Most students unknowingly follow this norm, filling in the blanks with the information that applies to them. Thus, just as it is typical for the person sitting next to you to go next, it also appears customary to conform to the “get-to-knowyou” norm. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 10

To shed additional light on this issue, ask a few new students discretely before the start of class (or plant a few students from a previous semester) to add something unusual to the typical response (e.g., “I’m from _____” or “My favorite color is _____”). As each student responds, observe whether a new norm is established or not. After the last person finishes, you could bring up issues regarding norm formation, power of conformity, and social influence (e.g., normative influence). A1.3: First-Day First Impressions (LO 1.1 and LO 1.10) This demonstration may be useful on the first day of class for instructors teaching two sections of social psychology. Procedure 1. Vary your style of dress (e.g., formal vs. casual) in the two different sections and gather the students’ first impressions of you. 2. Have the students rate you on several trait dimensions using a semantic differential format. For example: attractive —!—!—!—!— unattractive open-minded —!—!—!—!— closed-minded conservative —!—!—!—!— liberal talkative —!—!—!—!— quiet emotional —!—!—!—!— unemotional self-confident —!—!—!—!— lacking in self-confidence Results & Discussion • You can discuss methodological (e.g., between-subjects designs) and conceptual issues (e.g., impression formation). Lyons, A. (1984). Teaching of Psychology, 8, 173-174. A1.4: Contradictory Statements (LO 1.3) Divide the class in half. Have one group come up with examples to support the statement “Birds of a feather flock together.” Have the other group come up with examples to support the statement “Opposites attract.” Once again emphasize that while observations are important, adhering to the scientific method to resolve conflicts is at the heart of research in social psychology. A1.5: Common Sense Ideas and Scientific Study (see Handouts 1-2a and 1-2b) (LO 1.3) The present exercise is designed to show students that, despite the intuitive appeal of common sense ideas, they should be careful in wholeheartedly accepting them. The exercise can be done as either an outof-class assignment or an in-class activity. Typically, the results indicate that students find neither of the contradicting statements surprising. In-Class Activity • Half of the students in the class should be given the statement that similar people like each other, and the other half should receive the opposites attract statement. Each student should be asked to work independently in response to the statement he or she received. Once they have rated the statement, divide the class into discussion groups of four or five (making sure that only those receiving similar statements are in the same group). Have the students share their responses, then ask a spokesperson from each group to read the statements they were given, and share with the class supportive reasons for their conclusions.

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Out-of-Class Assignment • Each student in the class should recruit a few people to complete the similarity leads to attraction version and a few people to complete the opposite attracts version of the handout. Have the students bring their subjects’ ratings to class so the class can examine whether both of these conflicting statements are rated to be true. A1.6: 20-20 Hindsight (see Handouts 1-3a and 1-3b) (LO 1.3) The hindsight bias, or the “I knew it all along phenomenon,” often leads students to view research in social psychology as obvious and commonsensical. For example, 80% of students polled “knew” Clarence Thomas would be voted in as Supreme Court Justice, yet the week before, only 60% of a different group of students thought he would get approval. In another study, Demakis (1997) found that students who predicted the outcome of the O.J. Simpson trial post-verdict were more accurate in predicting O.J. would be acquitted than students who predicted the outcome pre-verdict. Similar demonstrations can be conducted with other events that have discrete outcomes such as sport events (Super Bowl, the World Series), elections, and popular criminal trials (see Handout 1-3a and 1-3b). Procedure 1. Prior to the outcome of the Super Bowl, distribute Handout 1-3a to one class. 2. Following the outcome of the Super Bowl, distribute Handout 1-3b to another class. Note: The demonstration works better if you have different classes make pre- and post-event predictions. Results and Discussion • After collecting the data, perform a chi-square analysis on Question 1, and an independent measures t-test on Question 2. Typically, you’ll get a robust hindsight bias effect. • Emphasize to the students that they should be aware that the hindsight bias may operate while they are reading about studies in social psychology. Encourage students to guess the outcome of the study prior to giving them the results. Demakis, G.J. (1997). Hindsight bias and the Simpson trial: Use in introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 24(3), 190-191.

A1.7: Genetics as an Explanation of Behavior (LO 1.4) The evolutionary perspective has received recent attention by social psychologists. Divide the class in half and have students debate whether it is genetics, environment, or both that determine behavior. Have them come up with specific examples where they believe that genetics plays a role in explaining behavior. A1.8: Recreating Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) (see Handout 1.5) (LO 1.7 and 1.10) Jennifer Tickle presented a very interesting class activity at the 2007 SPSP teaching pre-conference. This demonstration recreates the Bargh et al. study in which students were primed for old age, and then walked more slowly down the hall. This is an excellent demonstration of how implicit processes can affect our behavior without our conscious awareness. This demonstration can also be used to highlight the basic scientific method. See Handout 1-5 for detailed instructions of how to perform this demonstration. A1.9: Designing Research (LO 1.8 and 1.9) Have students come up with a research question related to life on campus. In small groups, have the students generate a hypothesis and outline how they would do their study using systematic observation. Then, have students transform their study into a correlational study and an experiment. Have the students practice constructing an informed consent and debriefing form.

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A1.10: Ethics in Research (see Handout 1-4) (LO 1.14) To examine students’ perceptions of what is ethical, ask the students to read brief descriptions of actual nonreactive studies collected by Wilson and Donnerstein (1976). Then have the students answer some, or all, of the following questions about each of the experiments. For each question, the students should answer “yes,” “no,” or “not sure.” 1. If you discovered that you had been a subject in this experiment, would you feel that you had been harassed or annoyed? 2. If you discovered that you had been a subject in this experiment, would you feel that your privacy had been invaded? 3. Do you feel that such an experiment is unethical or immoral? 4. Would you mind being a subject in such an experiment? 5. Do you feel that psychologists should be doing such an experiment? 6. Is doing such an experiment justified by its contribution to our scientific knowledge of behavior? 7. Does such an experiment lower your trust in social scientists? 8. Do you feel that the psychologist’s actions in this experiment are against the law? Wilson, D.W., & Donnerstein, E. (1976). Legal and ethical aspects of nonreactive social psychological research: An excursion into the public mind. American Psychologist, 31, 765-773.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS “Application” Journals Miller (1997) suggests having students keep an application journal (one entry per week) in order to (a) facilitate the learning of social psychological concepts, and (b) apply the course concepts to their daily social experiences to promote self-knowledge. Miller believes these journals can provide 12 possible forms of self-knowledge defined by applying four cognitive operations (labeling, explaining, making inferences, and self-assessing) to each of three different aspects of the self (thoughts, feelings, and behaviors). Personal Note A (G. Schreer): Recently, I started having my students keep application journals they could hand in before each exam for extra credit. When surveyed at the end of the semester, most students reported that the journals provided valuable self-insight and helped them to better prepare for exams. Personal Note B (G. Schreer): I also recommend saving the best examples and sharing them (anonymously, of course) with subsequent courses. Often I find student-generated examples are more relevant and interesting to the class. Miller, S. (1997). Self-knowledge as an outcome of application: Journal keeping in social psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 24(2), 124-125.

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Psychology Portfolio Another technique to apply social psychological theory to real world issues is to have students create a portfolio of newspaper and magazine clippings. Rider (1992) suggests that students collect articles, editorials, cartoons, etc. (at least one per chapter), and write a brief explanation of how it illustrates a concept from class or the readings. Rider, E.A. (1992). Understanding and applying psychology through the use of news clippings. Teaching of Psychology, 19, 161-163.

Naturalistic Observation vs. Surveys (LO 1.8) To help students to see the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods, ask half the students to conduct a survey on gender differences in seat belt use and the other half to observe whether people buckle up after getting into their cars. You can address such issues as unobtrusiveness, social desirability, potential confounds, and external validity. Research Methodology (see Handout 1-4) (LO 1.10) After the students read short descriptions of research methodologies, ask them to identify the independent and dependent variables and then ponder the questions that follow.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Against All Odds: Inside Statistics, Experimental Design (1989, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Compares observational research and experimental research, and also discusses the importance of randomization and replication. Discovering Psychology: Understanding Research (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Introduces the importance of scientific method and critical thinking in experimental research. Invitation to Social Psychology (1975, 25 minutes, HRM). • Introduces the subject matter and methodology of social psychology. Includes research on interpersonal events in a cafeteria, reactions of bystanders on a city street, Milgram’s obedience study, and Zimbardo’s prison simulation. Methodology: The Psychologist and the Experiment (1975, 30 minutes, CRM). • Uses Schachter’s fear and affiliation study and Riesen’s physiological experiment on visual motor coordination to introduce research methods and design. Social Psychology (1971, 30 minutes, CRM). • Introduces the methods of social psychology in the context of racial integration (busing). Social Psychology (1990, 30 minutes, IM). • Provides a broad overview of social psychology that includes attitudes and prejudice, group behavior, and the power of social roles.

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RELEVANT SOURCES Anderson, C.A., Lindsay, J.J., & Bushman, B.J. (1999). “Research in the Psychological Laboratory: Truth or Triviality?” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 3-9. • This article examines the truism that studies from psychological laboratories are low in external validity. Aronson, E., Ellsworth, P.C., Carlsmith, J.M., & Gonzales, M.H. Methods of research in social psychology (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. • Provides an in-depth examination of ethical issues and experimentation, including details on independent and dependent variables. Berscheid, E. (1992). A glance back at a quarter century of social psychology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 525-533. • Examines the early years of social psychology struggling to find an identity to the robust field it is today. Coats, E.J., & Feldman, R.S. (Eds.). (2001). Classic and Contemporary Readings in Social Psychology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. • Provides an edited collection of 30 paired selections of classic and contemporary articles in social psychology. Duffy, K & Krolikowski, G. (2007). Annual Editions: Social Psychology (7th ed.). Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. • Provides an excellent collection of current articles selected from popular magazines, newspapers, and non-technical journals. Gosling, S.D., & Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O.P. (2004). Should we trust Web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93-104. • This article compares internet samples to “traditional” psychology samples. Jones, E.E. (1998). Major developments in social psychology during the past five decades. In D. T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (4th ed., pp. 3-57). New York: McGraw-Hill. • Provides a thorough coverage of major findings in social psychology over the past 50 years. Lesko, W.A. (2011). Readings in social psychology: General, classic, and contemporary selections 8th ed.). Pearson. • The collection of readings provides the reader with a range of articles in social psychology and is accompanied by critical thinking and integrative questions Nier, J. (Ed.). (2010). Taking Sides: Clashing Views in Social Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: McGrawHill. • Presents current controversial issues in a debate-style format designed to stimulate student interest and develop critical thinking skills. Palmer, J.A., & Palmer, L.K. (2002). Evolutionary psychology: The ultimate origins of human behavior. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 15

•

This book examines how evolutionary psychology explains and predicts human behavior in contexts such as mating and reproduction, social interactions, and personality.

Pettijohn, T.F. (Ed.). (2000). Notable Selections in Social Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. • Provides a carefully-edited collection of classic research articles in social psychology that parallel most social psychology texts. Ruscher, J.B., & Hammer, E.Y. (Eds.). (2008). Current Directions in Social Psychology (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. • Provides a collection of articles written by experts in the field about cutting edge research that may not yet appear in an introduction textbook. Rosnow, R.L., & Rosenthal, R. (2008). Beginning behavioral research: A conceptual primer (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. • This book provides a good overview of basic research methods in psychology, including systematic observation, correlations, and experimentation. Ross, A.S., & Grant, M. (1994). Experimental and nonexperimental designs in social psychology. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark. • Provides an in-depth analysis of research designs used in social psychology and discusses the importance of searching for alternative explanations.

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CHAPTER 2 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

Heuristics: How We Reduce Our Effort in Social Cognition p. 37

Lecture Launchers: 2A, 2B In-Class Activities: A2.5, A2.6, A2.7 Out-of-Class Activities: “Influence of Drastic Cases in the News”

MC 1-17 FI 1-4 SA 1 ES 1 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: "Attention Test"

Slides 3-8

Watch: Attention Test

MC 18-13 FI 5-7 SA 2-4

Slides 9-13

Watch: Self-fulfilling Prophecies

Learning Objectives: 2.2-2.5

Lecture Launcher: 2A, 2B, In-Class Activities: A2.1, A2.2, A2.3, A2.4,

Automatic and Controlled Processing: Two Basic Modes of Social Thought p. 48

Lecture Launchers: 2C

MC 44-52 FI 8-9 SA 5 ES 2

Slides 14-18

Lecture Launchers: 2D, 2E, 2F In-Class Activities: A2.8, A2.9, A2.10 Out-of-Class Activities: “Differentiating between Errors in Cognition” Lecture Launchers: 2G In-Class Activities: A2.11

MC 53-77 FI 10 SA 6-8 ES 3

Slides 19-24

MC 78-90 FI 10 SA 6-8 ES 3

Slides 25-31

Learning Objectives: 2.1 & 2.6

Schemas: Mental Frameworks for Organizing Social Information p. 43

Learning Objectives: 2.7-2.8 Potential Sources of Error in Social Cognition: Why Total Rationality Is Rarer Than You Think p. 52 Learning Objectives: 2.9-2.14

Affect and Cognition: How Feelings Shape Thought and Thought Shapes Feelings p. 59

Learning Objectives: 2.12-2.14

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Watch: Wellness Study

KEY TERMS affect (p. 37) affective forecasts (p. 63) anchoring and adjustment heuristic (p. 41) automatic processing (p. 48) availability heuristic (p. 40) counterfactual thinking (p. 56) conditions of uncertainty (p. 38) heuristics (p. 37) information overload (p. 38) magical thinking (p. 58) metaphor (p. 46) mood congruence effects (p. 60)

mood dependent memory (p. 60) optimistic bias (p. 53) overconfidence barrier (p. 53) perseverance effect (p. 46) planning fallacy (p. 54) priming (p. 45) prototype (p.38) representativeness heuristic (p. 38) schemas (p. 44) social cognition (p. 36) terror management (p. 58) unpriming (p. 45)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 2, students should be able to: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14

Discuss what is meant by “social cognition” and list the basic assumptions that most social psychologists have with respect to cognitive processes. State the basic purpose and function of schemas, as well as the three basic processes that they influence. Explain the role of priming and unpriming in the activation and persistence of schemas. Consider how our schemas may (or may not) be altered in the face of new information. Discuss how the self-fulfilling prophecy may operate in certain applied settings, such as classroom environments. Explain why we often use heuristics and the consequences of their use. Contrast two different types of heuristics. Compare and contrast automatic and controlled processing in social thought. Discuss the benefits of automatic processing in social thought and how automatic thought can influence our behavior. Discuss the optimistic bias and its specific forms the overconfidence barrier and the planning fallacy. Identify the effects that counterfactual thinking may have on our mood and general well-being. State the meaning of “magical thinking,” as well as the principles that pertain to this pattern of cognition. Consider how affect can influence cognition by discussing mood-dependent memory, mood congruence effects, and the effects of mood on creativity and use of heuristics. List the ways that cognition can influence affect. Discuss the evidence for social neuroscience in two separate systems for the processing of social information.

CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE SOCIAL COGNITION: HOW WE THINK ABOUT THE SOCIAL WORLD

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I. Social Cognition: How we think about the social world, try to understand it, and understand ourselves and our place in it. (LO 2.1) A. Much of social thought is automatic—occurs without effort. B. Sometimes social thought is controlled. That is, sometimes we think very carefully in an effortful manner. C. Much of our quick thinking occurs through the use of heuristics – simple rules for making complex decision or drawing inferences in a rapid manner and seemingly effortless manner. II. Heuristics: How We Reduce Our Effort in Social Cognition (LO 2.6) A. We can only process a certain amount of information at any given time. Additional information can put us into a state of information overload—the demands on our cognitive system are so great that we can no longer handle it and our ability to process information is exceeded. B. We use many heuristics (or mental shortcuts) to deal with large amounts of information quickly avoiding information overload, especially under conditions of uncertainty – where the “correct” answer is difficult to know or would take a great deal of effort to determine. C. Representativeness: Judging by Resemblance 1. The representativeness heuristic refers to making a judgment about another person based on the following rule: “The more alike a person is to a typical member of a certain group (Prototype), the more likely he or she belongs to that group.” 2. For example, if we find out someone likes math puzzles and has no interest in social issues, we may be more likely to guess that the person is an engineer rather than a lawyer (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). 3. This heuristic will not always lead us to the right conclusions, as we sometimes disregard base rates. D. Availability: If I can retrieve instances, they must be frequent 1. The availability heuristic refers to making judgments based on how easily we can bring information to mind. 2. The easier it is to bring instances of an event, group, or category to mind, the more frequent or important we believe it to be. 3. This can also lead to errors, in that we may overestimate the likelihood of events that are powerful, but occur relatively infrequently. For example, many people think it is more dangerous to fly than drive—when the reverse is actually true—because plane crashes receive more coverage in the media than car crashes. This helps make information about plane crashes more available and leads one to believe that they are more frequent. E. Anchoring and Adjustment: Where You Begin Makes a Difference 1. When using the anchoring and adjustment heuristic, we tend to have a number that we use as a “starting point” and we then make adjustments. 2. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic is powerful, it can even influence highly trained legal experts, and such experts were more likely to give harsher sentences when presented with harsh recommendations (anchors) regardless of where these anchors came from (Englich, Mussweiler, and Strack, 2006). F. Status Quo Heuristic: What is, is good 1. Status quo heuristic – objects and options that are more easily retrieved from memory may be judged in a heuristic fashion as “good,” and as better than objects and options that are new, rarely encountered, or represent a change from the status quo. III. Schemas: Mental Frameworks for Organizing—and Using—Social Information (LO 2.2) A. Schemas are mental frameworks that aid in the organization of social information. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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1. Schemas guide the processing of social information. 2. Schemas are built through experience and relied upon when we encounter a new social situation. 3. Schemas are shaped by our culture, but can be useful in understanding the customs in a different culture. 4. Schemas help us make sense of a complex social world. IV. The Impact of Schemas on Social Cognition: Attention, Encoding, Retrieval (LO 2.2) A. Schemas affect three basic cognitive processes: 1. Attention: The information that we detect. a) Schemas act to filter our attention. b) If we are in a state of cognitive overload, we will rely more heavily on schemas, as they help reduce cognitive effort. c) Information related to a schema is more likely to be noticed. d) Information inconsistent with a schema may be ignored or discounted. 2. Encoding: A process by which the information we have detected is placed in our memory. a) Information that agrees with our schemas is encoded. b) Information that is in stark contrast with our schemas captures our attention so much that it may be saved in a separate, unique memory file. 3. Retrieval: The process of recovering information from memory so that we may use it. a) In general, people tend to easily recognize information consistent with existing schemas. b) However, when individuals are asked to actually recall information rather than indicate whether they recognize it a strong tendency to remember information that is incongruent with schemas appears. V. Priming: Which Schemas Guide Our Thought? (LO 2.3) A. The stronger and more well-developed schemas are, the more likely they are to influence our thinking. B. Schemas can also be temporarily activated by what is known as priming—when recent experiences make some schemas more active than they would otherwise be, and as a result, they exert stronger effects on our current thinking (e.g., hearing the word bread, make us think about the word butter). 1. Recent evidence suggests that priming effects are more powerful than once believed, some studies showing the effect lasting a full seventeen years. 2. Evidence suggests that primes can be deactivated through a process known as unpriming. a) Priming only persists until it somehow finds expression. Once it does, the effect dissipates or is unprimed. VI. Schema Persistence: Why Even Discredited Schemas Can Sometimes Influence Our Thoughts and Behaviors (LO 2.4) A. The disadvantages of schemas: 1. Schemas can lead to distortions in our understanding of the environment and form the bases for many stereotypes. 2. Schemas show a strong perseverance effect a tendency to stay unchanged despite contradictory information. 3. Schemas can sometimes lead to self-fulfilling prophecies—influencing our responses to the social world in ways that make it consistent with the schema. (LO 2.5) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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a) A classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) confirmed the existence of the self-fulfilling prophecy. They administered IQ tests to elementary school students. They randomly chose some students and informed the teachers that those students would “bloom” academically that year. When the researchers returned eight months later, they found that, indeed, the students who were expected to “bloom” that year actually did. This was due to the expectations of the teachers more than actual ability. The students that were expected to “bloom” received more attention, praise, and feedback from the teachers. The behavior of the teachers toward the students actually made their expectations a reality. B. Thus, schemas are like a double-edged sword: They help us process vast amounts of information quickly, but sometimes lead us to perceive the world in ways that are not accurate. VII.

Reasoning by Metaphor: How Social Attitudes and Behavior are Affected by Figures of Speech A. Metaphor – a linguistic device that relates or draws a comparison between one abstract concept and another dissimilar concept. B. As shown in Table 2.1 metaphors can have an impact of social judgments.

VIII.

Automatic and Controlled Processing: Two basic Modes of Social Thought A. Social thought can occur in either of two distinctly different ways. (LO 2.7) 1. Automatic processing occurs when, after a substantial amount of experience with a task or type of information, we can carry out the task or process the information in what seems to be an effortless, automatic, and nonconscious way. 2. Controlled processing occurs when we carry out the task or process the information in a systematic, logical, careful and highly-effortful manner. 3. Research has shown that when we are evaluating various aspects of the social world, different parts of the brain are involved with controlled versus automatic reactions/judgments. B. Automatic processing and automatic social behavior (LO 2.8) 1. Schemas, because they are so well-learned, have the ability to shape our behavior automatically even without conscious awareness. a) Priming rudeness, for example, can make participants behave in a rude manner (Bargh, Chen, and Burrows, 1996). 2. Automatic processes not only have the ability to trigger particular behaviors (rudeness), but also seems to prepare people for future interaction with the persons or groups who are the focus of this automatic processing. C. The benefits of automatic processing: Beyond mere efficiency (LO 2.8) 1. In addition to automatic processing being quick and efficient, one additional benefit is that it may produce decisions we are more satisfied with. 2. This may occur because the unconscious mind has greater capacity to weigh our many preferences than does the conscious mind.

IX.

Potential Sources of Error in Social Cognition: Why Total Rationality Is Rarer Than You Think A. Humans are not computers; sometimes the way in which we process information can be biased. B. A basic tilt in social thought : Our powerful tendency to be overly optimistic 1. The optimistic bias: Our tendency to see the world through rose-colored glasses. (LO 2.9) a) A tendency to expect that things will turn out well.

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b) Most people believe that they are more likely to experience positive outcomes in their lives and less likely to experience negative outcomes (Shepperd, Ouellette, & Fernandez, 1996). 2. Similar to the optimistic bias, we often have greater confidence in our beliefs or judgments than is justified – an effect known as the overconfidence barrier. a) One important reason we display overconfidence is that we lack the relevant feedback that would help moderate our confidence. 3. The rocky past versus the golden future: when we think about the past, we often recognize that our past was a mix of good times and bad times. However, when we forecast the future, we only think about the good times ahead. 4. The planning fallacy: An aspect of the optimistic bias, this refers to our propensity to make optimistic predictions about how long it may take to complete a certain task. a) For example, writing a paper tends to take quite a bit longer than we originally think it will. b) This occurs because we tend to look to the future when we are planning, and so we do not look back and remember how long it took us to complete a similar task in the past. 5. When we do recall past experiences, we tend to attribute taking longer than expected to complete a task to external factors (ones that were beyond our control). We then tend to overlook obstacles that we encountered in the past and that we may very well encounter again. C. Situation-Specific sources of error in social cognition: Counterfactual thinking, thought suppression, and magical thinking. 1. Counterfactual thinking: A tendency to visualize alternative outcomes in a situation other than the outcomes that actually occurred (i.e., thinking about “what might have been”). (LO 2.10) a) We use counterfactual thinking to imagine better outcomes (e.g., we would have done better on a test if we had studied more) or worse outcomes (e.g., we would have been in a car accident if we had not noticed a car swerving into our lane). b) When we imagine better outcomes (upward counterfactuals), we experience dissatisfaction. We may continue to focus on missed opportunities. c) Alternatively, if individuals compare their current outcomes with less favorable ones, they may experience positive feelings of satisfaction. d) If we view negative outcomes as unavoidable, this tends to protect our wellbeing. For example, if someone suddenly dies, but nothing could be done to save them, it makes the death a little bit easier to accept. 2. Magical thinking: Assumptions that do not hold up under rational scrutiny. (LO 2.11) a) Principles of magical thinking: (1) We assume that our thoughts can affect the physical world in ways not controlled by the laws of physics (e.g., if we think about a professor calling on us, it will influence the likelihood that he or she will call on us). (2) Law of similarity: Objects that are similar to one another share basic properties (e.g., we would not want to eat a piece of chocolate in the shape of a spider). b) Magical thinking is similar to a lot of the superstitious beliefs that we have (e.g., that the number thirteen is unlucky). They do not hold up to logic and reason, but they still may exert a powerful influence on us. 3. Terror management: efforts to come to terms with our eventual death. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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a) When we come face-to-face with the certainty of our own deaths, we try to manage the strong reactions this produces, and one way of doing this is to engage in irrational thinking. X. Affect and Cognition: How Feelings Shape Thought and Thought Shapes Feelings (LO 2.12) A. The term affect refers to our current moods or feelings. B. It appears that our feelings influence our thoughts (cognitions) and our thoughts can influence our feelings. 1. The Influence of Affect on Cognition a) When we are in any situation, we almost cannot help that our mood will influence our perception of others and the world around us (e.g., a job interviewer is likely to rate a candidate higher if they are in a good mood). b) Our mood can affect memory as well: (1) Mood-dependent memory: refers to the fact that what we tend to remember while in a certain mood is partly influenced by what we learned when we were previously in that mood. Here the nature of the information does not matter. (For example, if we store information in long-term memory when we are in a good mood, we are more likely to remember that information when we are in a similar mood.) (2) Mood congruence effects: We tend to store, or remember, positive information when we are in a positive mood and negative information when in a negative mood. In other words, according to Blaney (1986), we remember information that is congruent with our current mood state. Here the nature of the information (positive versus negative) matters. c) Our mood can influence our creativity. (1) The results of several studies suggest that being in a happy mood can increase creativity. d) Our moods can also influence the extent to which we rely on heuristics. (1) Persons experiencing positive affect are more likely than persons experiencing negative affect to engage in heuristic thought. 2. The Influence of Cognition on Affect (LO 2.13) a) Schachter (1964) suggested that we often do not have direct knowledge of our feelings or attitudes. Therefore, we infer their nature from cues in the outside world. For example, if we feel an increase in arousal while almost colliding with a reckless driver, we would conclude that we are feeling anger. b) If we activate schemas with a strong affective component, we not only may label another person, but a schema may tell us how to feel about that person. c) Cognition and the regulation of affective states: Since negative events in life are unavoidable, we must learn to cope with negative emotions. We make use of our thoughts in the emotion regulation process. (1) For example, if we make ourselves believe that we “never had a chance” to make it to the store to take advantage of a big sale, we decrease the unpleasantness of disappointment. In sum, we have regulated our affective states. (2) In times of personal distress, we may also make a strategic decision to engage in a temptation that makes us feel better in the short term (e.g., eating an unhealthy snack), but is not good for us in the long run. So we must be careful when using this strategy to reduce negative affect. C. Affect and cognition: Social neuroscience evidence for two separate systems (LO 2.14) 1. Recent evidence suggests that two distinct systems for processing social information may exist in the human brain. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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a) One system is concerned with reason or logical thought. b) The other system deals primarily with affect or emotion.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 2A: Not Knowing Why We Do What We Do Nisbett and Wilson (1977) provide great examples demonstrating that we often do things without really knowing why. Sure, we devise complex explanations for our behavior based on implicit theories, but often we are unaware of the true cause. To give your students a preview of things to come, you can discuss the following: • •

In dissonance studies, no subjects reported experiencing dissonance prior to changing their attitudes. In fact, most were unaware that attitude change took place. In helping studies, people are much less likely to help in the presence of others, yet not one subject said the presence of others would influence them. Many felt the plight of the victim— not how many people are present—is what influenced their decision to help or not.

Nisbett, R.E., & Wilson, T.D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259.

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2B: Information Overload (LO 2.1-2.2) Social cognition is greatly influenced by information overload. Because we are bombarded with thousands of stimuli, it is argued, we need to be efficient in screening, sorting, and storing social information. But an alternative view is that humans simply are not very good at remembering the content of information that is presented to them. Jacoby and Hoyer (1982) had subjects view a thirty-second videotape in U.S. shopping malls and then had them answer twelve true/false questions pertaining to the videotape. Despite the facts that (a) the videotape was viewed under ideal conditions, (b) the tape was of short duration, and (c) the testing was done immediately after viewing, only 3.5 percent of the respondents answered all twelve questions correctly. Could it be that what we remember is simply not an accurate representation of what we see? Jacoby, J., & Hoyer, W.D. (1982). Viewer miscomprehension of televised communication: Selected findings. Journal of Marketing, 46, 12-26.

2C: Differentiating between Automatic and Conscious Processing (LO 2.7) In small groups, have students come up with examples of tasks that are well-learned for them now (automatic), but required a great deal of effort when they were first learning them (e.g., driving a car). 2D: False Consensus Effect and Risky Behaviors (LO 2.9) Although the false consensus effect was not discussed in the book, it is yet another type of bias in judgments and the following information may be used to kick off talking about biases in judgment and how they affect behavior. Researchers have reported that students often overestimate the number of their peers who engage in risky behaviors such as binge-drinking, smoking, drug use, and unprotected sex. This overestimation or misconception, in turn, may cause some people to take part in risky behaviors because they are under the false assumption that “everyone else is doing it.” To investigate how student perceptions of binge-drinking may influence actual binge-drinking on college campuses, Haines (1994) asked college students to estimate the number of their peers who binge-drink on campus. Not surprisingly, he found that students consistently overestimated the number of heavy drinkers. Following this finding, Haines devised an intervention strategy that involved showing (and hopefully convincing) students that their peers do not binge-drink as much as they believe. Several years after the intervention began, estimates of binge-drinking dropped from 70% to 54% and the percentage of actual reported binge-drinking dropped from 45% to 33%. Haines believes that showing students their peers don’t drink as much as they think helped to create an environment that allows students who would rather not drink, but think everyone else does, to operate according to their own values and not succumb to their distorted perceptions of reality. Ask your students to discuss whether they think this intervention would work on their campus. Haines, M.P. (1994, Dec.). APA Monitor.

2E: Identifying the Planning Fallacy (LO 2.10) Have students recall the last time they worked on a major project (e.g., a paper for a class). Have students remember, to the best of their ability, whether the project took longer to complete than they had anticipated and what kind of plans they made to avoid any delays in the future. Have them particularly focus on what they attributed delays to (e.g., busy time in the semester).

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2F: Counterfactual Thinking that Protects (LO 2.10) Have students think about the last time they experienced regret. What was the context? Did they have thoughts of “what might have been?” Did they help themselves feel better by imagining a worse scenario or did they feel worse by imagining a better scenario? 2G: Affect and Cognition (LO 2.13)

Folk wisdom suggests that when someone smiles at us we smile back, but when someone frowns we do not reciprocate the frown. To test this, Hinsz and Tomhave (1991) had a confederate smile or frown at people passing by while another person determined their facial reactions. They found that over half the subjects responded to a smile with a smile, whereas very few subjects responded to a frown with a frown. Hinsz, V., & Tomhave, J. (1991). Smile and (half) the world smiles with you, frown and you frown alone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 586-592.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A2.1: Schemas Can Influence Our Encoding and Perception of Information (LO 2.2) The following exercise can be used to show how schemas can influence how we perceive and encode information. First explain to the class that a schema is like an expectation. When activated, schemas make ambiguous information fit our expectations. Procedure 1. Go to following Web site in class (note you will need to have audio and visual capabilities in the class room): http://jeffmilner.com/backmasking.htm 2. Tell the class you are going to play some music clips backwards and they are to listen for the hidden message. For half of the class, set up an expectation of what it is they are supposed to hear (activate a sort of schema) by displaying the reserve lyrics. For example, when you play “Another One Bites the Dust” by Queen backwards, you are supposed to hear “it is fun to smoke marijuana.” Do not let the other half of the class see these lyrics. 3. Play the Clip 4. Ask the class how many people heard the reverse message. Results The people who had an expectation of what to hear will hear the “hidden message,” those without an expectation will hear indistinguishable noise. In reality there are no real hidden messages in these songs. But when you have an expectation of what it is you are supposed to hear, your perception bends to conform to this expectation.

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A2.2: Schemas Can Influence Our Retrieval of Information (LO 2.2) The following exercise can be used to show how schemas can influence our retrial of information— making us remember things that did not happen (false memories). Procedure 1. Read the class the following list of words: 1. Bed 2. Silence 3. Snore 4. Tired 5. Awake

6. Toss 7. Slumber 8. Fatigue 9. Turn 10.Night

11. Dark 12. Clock 13. Comfort 14. Rest 15. Dream

2. Give the class about a minute to recall as many words as possible. 3. Ask them to tell you some of the words they recalled—usually a large number of people in the class will recall the word sleep even though it was not said. Results & Discussion Discuss how schemas can influence retrial of information. A2.3: Schemas and Eyewitness Testimony (see Handout 2-1) (LO 2.2) A study by Tuckey and Brewer (2003) examined the use of schemas in recalling different aspects of a crime. You can examine this with your students by having them read an account of a crime (Tuckey and Brewer used a bank robbery; you may want to vary the type of crime). Then you can discuss the scenario with your students to see how much they recall. See the handout for a sample scenario. Tuckey, M.R., & Brewer, N. (2003). The influence of schemas, stimulus ambiguity, and interview schedule on eyewitness memory over time. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 101-118.

A2.4: Belief Perseverance (LO 2.4) One reason why false beliefs persist is belief perseverance—persistence of one’s beliefs even when discredited. For example, Anderson et al. (1980) had one group of participants read a scenario depicting a risk-prone person as a better firefighter, while another group considered a scenario depicting a cautious person as the better firefighter. Both groups were then asked to give evidence supporting the case they read about. For example, the risk-prone group might think risky firefighters are braver, while the cautious group might believe that cautious firefighters are more careful. Interestingly, when the researchers later discredited the information, the participants still held their self-generated beliefs. To demonstrate belief perseverance, try the following exercise: Procedure 1. At the beginning of class, ask your students to copy down a statement and write it ten times. For example, “The professor’s spouse’s favorite color is purple.” 2. At the end of class, mention in passing, “The statements you had copied were not true—the professor’s spouse’s favorite color is blue.” 3. A week or so later, ask the class to write down what the professor’s spouse’s favorite color was. Results & Discussion • If belief perseverance results, many students’ initial beliefs should prevail. Discuss why beliefs persevere in the presence of discredited information.

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Anderson, C.A., Lepper, M.R., & Ross, L. (1980). Perseverance of social theories: The role of explanation in the persistence of discredited information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1037-1049.

A2.5: Representative and Availability Heuristics (see Handout 2-2) (LO 2.6) The following exercise can be used to show how we often use mental shortcuts when making social judgments. For example, we often judge things by how well they match the typical case (representativeness heuristic). We also judge things by how quickly examples come to mind (availability heuristic). On Handout 2-2, items 1–3 address the representative bias, and items 4–6 address the availability heuristic. Procedure 1. Make an overhead of Handout 2-2. Results & Discussion • The correct answer and the typical response many students will give are: i)

Item 1 2 3 4 5 6

•

Correct Response p= .3 all equally likely all equally likely stroke (4:1) heart attacks (30:1) 11% are violent 50% c a car accidents murder much higher much higher k as first letter

When giving the answers, discuss why heuristics occur. For example, the representativeness bias occurs because we often ignore information about how prevalent some pattern is in the population (base-rate fallacy), and we process information based on how much it resembles the typical example (e.g., typical coin toss, typical six-person family). For the availability examples, we tend to over-recall vivid information (e.g., car accidents), and highly accessible information comes to mind quicker.

Adapted from Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207-232.

A2.6: Availability Heuristic and Assertiveness (see Handouts 2-3a, 2-3b) (LO 2.6) In another example demonstrating the availability heuristic, Schwartz et al. (1991) found that people asked to think of 6 instances of their assertiveness rated themselves as more assertive compared to people asked to think of 12 instances of assertiveness. Procedure 1. Distribute Handout 2-3a to half the class and Handout 2-3b to the other half. (Note: Be sure the students know the difference between assertive actions and aggressive actions.) Results & Discussion • Theoretically, those asked to generate 12 instances of assertiveness should rate themselves as less assertive, because it is harder to come up with 12 examples. Personal Note (G. Schreer): I have not been able to replicate this finding. Schwartz et al. (1991). Teaching of Psychology, 18. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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A2.7: Representative Heuristic: “Gray Elephant from Denmark” (LO 2.6) The Internet is filled with mind tricks and brainteasers that can provide quick and easy illustrations of the availability heuristic. One popular example is given below. Procedure Read the following instructions to your students step-by-step: 1. pick a number from 1-9 2. subtract 5 3. multiply by 3 4. square the number (multiply by the same number – not square root) 5. add the digits until you get only one digit (i.e., 64=6+4=10=1+0=1) 6. if the number is less than 5, add five, otherwise subtract 4 7. multiply by 2 8. subtract 6 9. map the digit to a letter in the alphabet 1=A, 2=B, 3=C, etc. 10. pick a name of a country that begins with that letter 11. take the second letter in the country name and think of a mammal that begins with that letter 12. think of the color of that mammal Results & Discussion • Next, tell the class “most of you are thinking of a gray elephant from Denmark.” Of course most students will be amazed by your unbelievable psychic powers; however, discuss with them how these examples utilize the availability heuristic by causing them to respond with information that is most accessible in their minds. A2.8: Using Projective Techniques to Illustrate the Confirmation Bias (see Handouts 2-4a and 2-4b) (LO 2.9) Although the confirmation bias was not discussed in the book, it is yet another type of bias in judgments and the following demonstration may be used to kick off talking about biases in judgment and how they affect behavior. Although this exercise developed by Wiederman (1999) was originally designed for examining the subjectivity of projective tests in psychological assessment courses, it can easily be used to illustrate the confirmation bias—the tendency to search for information that confirms our beliefs (rather than disconfirm). Procedure 1. Make an overhead containing Handouts 2-4a and 2-4b. 2. Have half of the class read the description of Jeff A. (depressed, alienated) and half read the description of Jeff B. (aggressive). 3. After the students read the brief description, show them a few projective test stimuli (e.g., Rorschach Cards and TAT), while simultaneously reading them Jeff’s responses to the stimuli. You can generate your own ambiguous responses or see Wiederman (1999) for an example. 4. After reading Jeff’s responses, ask the students to write down the one or two most salient responses Jeff made regarding the projective stimuli. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Results & Discussion • Wiederman (1999) found that 95% of the subjects who received the description of Jeff B. emphasized aggressive content in the TAT compared to 38% of the students who received the description of Jeff A. Similarly, subjects who received Jeff A. were more likely to emphasize depressive content as compared to subjects exposed to Jeff B. (56% vs. 16%, respectively). • Discuss how this demonstration illustrates how previous expectations (aggressive vs. depressed) often lead us to search for information that confirms our beliefs. Wiederman, M.W. (1999). A classroom demonstration of potential biases in the subjective interpretation of projective tests. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 37-39.

A2.9: Using Astrological Signs to Illustrate the Confirmation Bias (see Handouts 2-5a, 2-5b, and 25c ) (LO 2.9) To give students the opportunity to experience confirmation bias firsthand, Munro and Munro (2000) suggest using personality descriptors associated with each of the zodiacal signs to demonstrate expectancy confirmation. Procedure: 1. Show Handout 2-5a, which shows 4 trait descriptors characteristic of each zodiacal sign (this provides students with expectations). Ask the students to select the zodiacal sign that best describes their personality. By show of hands, ask the students to raise their hands if they thought the personality descriptors also happened to be their zodiacal sign (calculate a %, see below). 2. Then show Handout 2-5b, which shows 4 different trait descriptors, labeled with letters only (i.e., without the zodiacal sign) and ask the students to select the letter that best describes their personality. Then put up Handout 2-5c and ask students to raise their hands if they selected their actual zodiacal sign (calculate a %, see below). Results & Discussion • To calculate a %, divide the number of matches by the total number of students in the class and compare that to chance (8.3% or 1/12). If the percentage of matches is greater than chance for Handout 1 compared to Handout 2, the confirmation bias has been supported. To determine significance, calculate a χ2 where the expected frequencies are 1 match for every 11 mismatches. • Discuss how this demonstration provides evidence that prior expectations can lead people to process information in a biased way, such that their expectations are confirmed. More specifically, discuss how the confirmation bias may affect scientific research and everyday judgments. Munro, G.D., & Munro, J.E. (2000). Using daily horoscopes to demonstrate expectancy confirmation. Teaching of Psychology, 27, 114-116.

A2.10: Suppressing Unwanted Thoughts (see Handouts 2-6a and 2-6b) (LO 2.12) Researchers have found that the harder we try to suppress unwanted thoughts, the more they persist (cf. Macrae et al. 1994; Wegner & Erber, 1992). Procedure 1. To demonstrate the hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts, distribute Handouts 2-6a or 2-6b, which asks the students to avoid thinking about a white bear. 2. During this time, they are instructed to write down each time they think of the unwanted bear.

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Results & Discussion • Typically, people have a hard time not thinking about the taboo thought. Macrae, C.N., Bodenhausen, G.V., Milne, A.B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 808-817. Wegner, D.M., & Erber, R. (1992). The hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 903-912.

A2.11: Mood and Memory (LO 2.12) Have students debate the issue of mood impacting what we remember. Have students list some occupations in which a person must be especially careful in not letting their mood affect their judgments (e.g., teachers).

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Influence of Drastic Cases in the News (LO 2.6) Ask the students to watch the news for reports of extreme cases of behavior in order to find evidence that news analysts overemphasize drastic cases in reporting the news. Does reporting acts of terrorism, for instance, lead us to a distorted perception of the views of the average resident of the terrorists’ home countries (e.g., Arabs, Muslims, Serbs, etc.)? Have students discuss the role the media plays in representative and availability heuristics. Differentiating between Errors in Cognition (see Handout 2-7) (LO 2.9) Since there are a number of potential errors in social cognition, have students practice differentiating between them by identifying which error is present in the example given.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Are We Scaring Ourselves to Death? (1994, 55 minutes, ABC). • This 20-20 report shows how biased media coverage (e.g., plane crashes) can lead to overestimation of certain events (availability heuristic). Communication: Social Cognition and Attribution (29 minutes, Allyn & Bacon). • A dramatization is used to generate an exchange between Robert A. Baron and Margaret Clark on the principles of social cognition. Discovering Psychology: Constructing Social Reality (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Explores the factors that contribute to our interpretation of reality, including the self-fulfilling prophecy. Discovering Psychology: Judgment and Decision Making (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Examines the errors that contaminate individual and group decision making (e.g., availability, representativeness, and anchoring heuristics; risky choices; and groupthink). Information Processing (1971, 29 minutes, CRM). • Provides a humorous look at the basic principles and far-reaching ramifications of human information processing. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Productivity and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect (1987, 28 minutes, CRM). • Demonstrates the self-fulfilling prophecy in a work environment. Wired Science: Episode 101 (2007, 15 minutes, PBS) • The face reader segment of this episode a new MIT media lab device that reads facial expressions helps children with Asperger’s Syndrome. You can stream the video from the following Web site: http://www.pbs.org/kcet/wiredscience/episode

RELEVANT SOURCES Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. Boston, MA: McGrawHill. • Highlights the cutting-edge research in social neuropsychology, mainstream experimental socialcognitive psychology, and cultural psychology. Bless, H., & Forgas, J.P. (Eds.). (2000). The message within: The role of subjective experience in social cognition and behavior. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Provides an overview of the role of various subjective experiences (e.g., affective states, metacognitive feelings, etc.) in social cognition. Chang, E.C., Asakawa, K., & Sanna, L.J. (2001). Cultural variations in optimistic and pessimistic bias: Do easterners really expect the worst and westerners really expect the best when predicting future life events? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 476-491. • Provides evidence for a cultural difference in the optimistic and the pessimistic bias between participants of European-American descent and participants of Japanese descent. Einstein, D.A., & Menzies, R.G. (2004). The presence of magical thinking in obsessive compulsive disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 42, 539-549. • Extends the literature on the link between magical thinking and superstitious behavior to obsessive compulsive disorder. Knight, B.G., Maines, M.L., & Robinson, G.S. (2002). The effects of sad mood on memory in older adults: A test of the mood congruence effect. Psychology and Aging, 17, 653-661. • Expands the literature on mood congruence effects to include a sample of older adults as well as younger adults. Roese, N.J., Olson, J.M. (Eds.). What might have been: The Social Psychology of counterfactual thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. • Examines the mechanisms underlying counterfactual thinking and the consequences it has on the individual.

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Ruby, C.L., & Brigham., J.C. (1996). A criminal schema: The role of chronicity, race, and socioeconomic status in law enforcement officials’ perceptions of others. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 95-111. • Investigates the extent to which law enforcement officials’ perceptions of criminality bias their cognitive schemas of the typical criminal. Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B., & Lichtenstein, S. (1980, June). Risky assumptions. Psychology Today, 4, pp. 44-48. • Presents examples of how errors in human thinking get us into trouble (e.g., over-confidence phenomenon and vividness effects). Tenenbaum, H.R., & Leaper, C. (2002) Are parents’ gender schemas related to their children’s gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 38, 615-630. • Reviews 43 articles and concludes that there is a significant relationship between the gender schemas of parents and the gender-related ideas of their children.

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CHAPTER 3 Social Perception: Perceiving and Understanding Others CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Nonverbal Communication: The Unspoken Language of Expression, Gazes, Gestures, and Scents p. 70

Lecture Launchers: 3A, 3B In-Class Activities: A3.1, A3.2

MC 1-25 FI 1-4 SA 1-2 ES 1

Slides 3-13

Lecture Launchers: 3C, 3D In-Class Activities: A3.3, A3.4, A3.5, A3.6, A3.7, A3.8 Out-of-Class Activities: “Applying Attribution Theory” Lecture Launchers: 3E In-Class Activities: A3.9, A3.10 Out-of-Class Activities: “Self and OtherEnhancement in Everyday Life”

MC 28-72 FI 5-9 SA 3-7 ES 2-3

Slides 14-31

Learning Objectives: 3.1-3.6

Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Others’ Behavior p. 81

Learning Objectives: 3.7-3.10

Impression Formation and Impression Management: Combining Information about Others p. 93

Learning Objectives: 3.11-3.13

MYPSYCHLAB

Listen: Internal Attribution External Attribution

MC 73-90 FI 10-11 SA 8-10 ES 4 MPL Feature Essay “Impressions and Expressions”

Slides 97-106

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Stimulate: Impression Formation Impressions and Expressions

KEY TERMS action identification (p. 85) actor-observer effect (p. 88) attribution (p. 70) body language (p. 73) consensus (p. 83) consistency (p. 83) correspondence bias (p. 86) correspondent inference (p. 81) distinctiveness (p. 83) fundamental attribution error (p. 86)

implicit personality theories (p. 96) impression formation (p. 70) impression management (p. 70) linguistic style (p. 78) microexpressions (p. 78) noncommon effects (p. 82) nonverbal communication (p. 70) self-serving bias (p. 89) social perception (p. 70) staring (p. 73) thin slices (p. 95)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 3, students should be able to: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

Describe the major purpose and functions of social perception. Define what is meant by nonverbal communication. Describe the five (or perhaps six) basic emotions expressed in unique facial expressions. Does this mean we are limited to only a small number of facial expressions? Describe how nonverbal communications are transmitted (basic channels of nonverbal communication). Identify and describe the five key nonverbal cues that may allow us to recognize deception. Explain how lying may be contagious. Compare and contrast the key elements of Jones and Davis’ theory of correspondent inference with those of Kelley’s theory of attribution. Explain the difference between internal and external causes and controllable versus uncontrollable, as well as stable versus unstable factors. Describe and contrast the major attributional errors: the correspondence bias, the actorobserver effect, and the self-serving bias. Consider cultural differences with respect to these biases. Discuss how attribution theory has been applied to the study of depression. Discuss how Asch’s research on central and peripheral traits supports his view that forming impressions involves more than simply adding together individual traits. Discuss implicit personality theories. List self-enhancement tactics and other-enhancement tactics used in impression management, and describe research results on whether these tactics “pay off” for persons using them.

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CHAPTER 3 OUTLINE SOCIAL PERCEPTION: PERCEIVING AND UNDERTANDING OTHERS I.

Social Perceptions are the processes through which we try to understand other people. ( LO 3.1) A. We spend much time and effort in attempting to understand what other people are like, why other people behave the way that they do, and how people might act in the future. B. Sometimes we are successful in “reading” other people. But, we sometimes make errors in social perception. C. There are three aspects of social perception: nonverbal communication, attribution, and impression formation and management.

II. Nonverbal Communication: The Unspoken Language of Expressions, Gazes, and Gestures (LO 3.2) A. Nonverbal Communication is communication via unspoken language. 1. Includes nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, eye contact, and body language. 2. In trying to understand others, there are many temporary factors that can cause changes in behavior (e.g., changes in mood). While we can ask people directly about how they are feeling, they may be reluctant to disclose how they are really feeling. In these cases, we can rely on nonverbal cues, which are more indirect methods for gaining information about other people. 3. According to DePaulo and colleagues (2003), even when people try to hide their inner feelings from us, they may be revealed in things like body language. Nonverbal behavior, in other words, may be difficult to control. B. Nonverbal Communication: The Basic Channels. There are four basic channels or routes for nonverbal communication (LO 3.4) 1. Facial expressions a) Our feelings and emotions are often reflected in our faces. Specific facial expressions offer clues to how we are feeling. b) There are five basic emotions that can be inferred from our facial expressions: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, and disgust (sometimes surprise is added to this list). (LO 3.3) c) It is important to note that there are many possible combinations of emotions that can be seen on our faces (e.g., anger and fear). d) While some recent research has shown that facial expressions are not completely universal across cultures, they need much less translation than spoken languages. 2. Eye Contact (gazes and stares) a) When interacting with someone who has their eyes covered with sunglasses, we may feel uncomfortable. b) We can learn a lot about another person from their eyes. c) Usually a high level of eye contact is positive. A lot of eye contact signals things such as friendliness, while a little eye contact signals things like shyness. d) Staring is a form of eye contact where one continues to gaze steadily at another person, regardless of what that other person does. This makes a person uncomfortable, as staring often indicates anger or hostility (i.e., a “cold stare”). According to Greenbaum and Rosenfield (1978), staring makes us so ill at ease that we may cease interacting with someone who is staring at us and may leave the situation entirely. 3. Bodily Movements Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 36

a) As our moods change, our body language (the position, posture, or movements of our bodies) changes. b) Gestures, which can be culturally-specific, also provide information about another person (e.g., a “thumb’s up” means “I agree” or “That sounds good”). 4. Touching a) The appropriateness of touching depends on the situation. b) Touch can indicate a range of factors, including affection, dominance, and aggression. c) When touching is viewed as appropriate, it typically produces positive reactions. d) Handshakes are a common form of touching. Research has shown when someone has a firm handshake, they are seen as more extroverted, and are generally more liked. C. Scent: Another source of nonverbal social information 1. Research by Miller and Maner (2010) indicates that changes in women’s internal chemistry occurring during the menstrual cycle can be transmitted to others (especially, perhaps, men) through subtle olfactory cues. a) Men who smelled the t-shirts worn by ovulating women showed higher testosterone levels than those who sniffed t-shirts worn by non-ovulating women, or t-shirts not worn by anyone. III. Are Facial Expression an Especially Important Source of Information About Others? A. Growing research suggest that facial expressions are especially important non-verbal cues. 1. For example people tend not to habituate to facial expressions in the same way they do to other stimuli. a) This is especially true for negative facial expressions. B. To the extent a person’s neutral facial expression resembles a particular emotional expression; they are seen as showing this emotion even when in fact they are not experiencing any strong emotion. 1. For example, male faces are seen as resembling angry expressions to a greater extent than female faces. C. The facial expressions of others not only tell us how they are feeling, but can also influence how we feel ourselves. 1. The view that facial expressions can actually trigger emotions is known as the facial feedback hypothesis. IV. The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Do We Show What We Feel and Feel What We Show? A. Results suggest that feedback from our facial muscles do indeed play a role in shaping our emotional experiences. So it seems to be the case that what we show on faces influences what we experience “inside.” V. Deception: Recognizing It through Nonverbal Cues, and Its Effects on Social Relations (LO 3.5) A. We can detect deception on the part of another person by paying attention to nonverbal cues, such as changes in posture or facial expressions. B. With respect to nonverbal cues, the following information was found to be very helpful: 1. Microexpressions are transitory facial expressions that last less than a second. They can be very revealing in terms of how another person truly feels. a) We can tell if someone is lying if we ask them a question and their microexpression is in the form of a frown, but then they quickly smile.

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2. Another nonverbal cue that exposes deception is known as interchannel discrepancies. This means that there may be inconsistencies between nonverbal cues from one’s basic channels. a) For example, one may be able to maintain eye contact, but not control a facial expression. It is difficult to control all the basic channels when one is lying. 3. Certain aspects of eye contact can signal lying. For example, lying is related to more blinking and the pupils being more dilated than when telling the truth. a) The person may have an unusually high level of eye contact while they try to fake honesty. 4. A person who is lying may also show exaggerated facial expressions, such as smiling more broadly. C. A person’s linguistic style can be revealing of deception. 1. When people are lying, the pitch of their voices often rises—especially when they are highly motivated to lie. Similarly, they often take longer to begin—to respond to a question or describe events 2. We often do not pick up on nonverbal cues to lying because we may be focusing on what the person is saying, not how they are interacting with us. D. Lying appears to be contagious, if we are exposed to someone who lies frequently; we are more likely to lie ourselves. (LO 3.6) VI. Attribution: Understanding the Causes of Others’ Behavior A. Attribution is the process of identifying the causes of another person’s behavior, which will give us insight into their stable traits and dispositions. 1. Sometimes we are even seeking to understand the causes of our own behavior as well. B. Theories of Attribution: Frameworks for Understanding How We Attempt to Make Sense of the Social World (LO 3.7) 1. Theory of Correspondent Inference: Credited to Jones and Davis (1965), this refers to how we use the behavior of another to infer their stable dispositions. In other words, we observe another person’s behavior and decide on the specific traits that they possess and that will remain stable over time. a) We must be careful, as sometimes people may be behaving in a certain way due to external factors and not necessarily their own traits. b) We are most likely to conclude that others’ behavior reflects their stable traits when the behavior (1) Is freely chosen (the person was not forced to engage in the behavior). (2) Yields distinctive or noncommon effects (effects produced by a specific cause that could not be created by any other obvious cause). (3) And is low in social desirability (we learn more about others from behaviors that are out of the ordinary, rather than those that are performed by most people). 2. Kelley’s Theory of Casual Attributions: We are attempting to understand why someone has acted the way that they have or why events have occurred the way that they have. Only when we understand the causes of events and others’ behaviors do we come to understand our social world. a) We begin by asking ourselves: Did the reason for the behavior stem primarily from external causes (some aspect of the social or physical world), from internal causes (the person’s motives, traits, or intentions), or from a combination of the two? Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 38

b) For example, if we did not receive a promotion, it may be due to us not working hard enough on a project (an internal cause), the fact that our boss is discriminatory (an external cause), or because of both factors. c) According to Kelley, we focus on three sources of information to make attributions about internal and external causes: (1) Consensus: The extent to which others react to a given stimulus or event in the same manner as the person under consideration. (2) Consistency: The extent to which the person under consideration reacts to the stimulus or event in the same manner on other occasions. (3) Distinctiveness: The extent to which the person under consideration reacts in the same way to other, different stimuli or events. d) If consensus and distinctiveness are low and consistency is high, an individual’s behavior is usually attributed to internal causes. e) If consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are all high, an individual’s behavior is usually attributed to external causes. f) If consensus is low and consistency and distinctiveness are high, an individual’s behavior is usually attributed to a combination of internal and external causes. 3. Other dimensions of causal attributions (LO 3.8) a) Beyond whether behavior has an internal or an external cause, we are also concerned with two other factors: (1) Are the causal factors stable over time or are they likely to change? (For example, personality traits tend to be stable, while motives may change.) (2) Are the factors controllable? (For example, our temper is under our control, while many physical ailments are not under our control.) b) Research indicates that all three dimensions (internal-external, stableunstable, and controllable-uncontrollable) are taken into consideration when looking for the causes of another person’s behavior. 4. Fate versus personal actions a) Another fascinating question concerning attribution is this: Do we perceive the events in our own lives as stemming from fate or from our own actions. b) Two researchers (Burrus & Roese, 2006) propose that belief in fate is related to two more basic beliefs: religious convictions concerning the existence of God, and belief in complex causality – the idea that may causes influence such events, and that no one cause is essential. Both of these beliefs lead people to believe events are meant to be. 5. Action identification and the attribution process a) When someone performs an action, there are many interpretations for why they preformed the action. b) Action identification refers to level at which these interpretations are offered. (1) Low-level interpretations focus on the action itself. For example, if we see someone place her change in a jar, we may conclude that she did this because she does not wish to lose her change. (2) High-level interpretation focus on long range plans or goals of the person. For example, we may conclude that she placed the change in the jar because she is saving for her education. VII.

Attribution: Some Basic Sources of Error (LO 3.9) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 39

A. The Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error) is our tendency to explain the behavior of others as stemming from dispositional causes, even if clear situational causes are present: 1. We often believe that others act the way that they do because that is the “kind of person” they are. 2. This error is extremely powerful and can occur even when logic and rationality should override it as demonstrated in the classic experiment by Jones and Harris (1967). 3. This error may occur since we tend to focus on the actions of another when observing their behavior. Situational causes of behavior seem to fade away. So dispositional (internal) causes of behavior become more salient to us than situational (external) causes (the person is high in perceptual salience). 4. Some psychologists have suggested that we do indeed notice situational causes, but we do not give them enough weight in our decisions. 5. Yet another explanation suggest we began with an internal attribution for behavior and then adjust for any type of possible situational cause, but often our adjustment is too small. B. The Actor-Observer Effect 1. The actor-observer effect is a tendency to attribute one’s own behavior mainly to situational causes, but attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes. For example, if we fall, it was due to some external condition (e.g., ice on the sidewalk), but if someone else falls, we assume they are clumsy. 2. This occurs because we are well aware of the external factors affecting us, but less aware of the external factors affecting others. C. The Self-Serving Bias: “I’m good; you are lucky” 1. The self-serving bias is a tendency to attribute our positive outcomes to internal causes, but our negative outcomes to external causes. 2. For example, if we do well on a test, we may credit our hard work and intelligence. However, if we perform poorly on a test, we may blame our teacher or the difficulty of the test. 3. One possible explanation for the self-serving bias is a cognitive one; that we expect to succeed, and we tend to attribute expected outcomes to internal causes. 4. Another explanation for the self-serving bias is a motivational one; we seek to protect our self-esteem by taking credit for successes and blaming outside factors for failure. Research offers more support for this explanation versus the cognitive explanation. D. It is important to note that while these errors exist, we can and often do reach accurate conclusions in trying to explain behavior. VIII.

Applications of Attribution Theory: Insights and Interventions (LO 3.10) A. Attribution and Depression 1. A self-defeating pattern of attributions is thought to play a role in depression, the most common psychological disorder. 2. Depressed individuals adopt an attribution style opposite to the self-serving bias. Specifically, they attribute negative outcomes to internal causes (e.g., their lack of ability) and positive outcomes to external causes (e.g., luck). This pattern leaves a person feeling as if they have little or no control over their lives. 3. Some types of therapy that focus on changing the attribution style of depressed people appear to be successful. Therapists help patients take credit for successes and avoid blaming themselves for failures.

IX. Impression Formation and Impression Management: Combining Information about Others Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 40

A. Impression formation refers to the process through which we form an impression of another person. B. First impressions are important; they tend to have strong and long-lasting effects on others’ perceptions. C. The beginnings of research on first impressions: (LO 3.11) 1. Solomon Asch studied how we go about forming quick impressions of others just by looking at them and interacting very little with them. Asch, basing his work on the ideas of Gestalt psychology, suggested that we do not form impressions by simply adding up the traits we observe. Instead, we see how an individual’s traits are related to each other, so we see them as one, integrated person. 2. Asch’s Research on Central and Peripheral Traits: a) Participants read one of two possible lists: (1) (intelligent-skillful-industrious-warm-determined-practical-cautious) (2) (intelligent-skillful-industrious-cold-determined-practical-cautious) b) Participants gave their impressions of a stranger who had these traits. Participants who read “warm” as part of the list rated the stranger more favorably than those who read “cold” as part of the list. c) Since only one term differed (warm versus cold), Asch coined the term central traits to describe those traits that strongly shape the overall impression of a stranger. X. How Quickly Are First Impression Formed – and are They Accurate? A. Until quite recently, one general conclusion from social psychological research on first impressions was this: They are formed quickly but are often inaccurate B. Many new studies now show then even when working with thin slices – small amounts of information about others (like a short video) people’s first impressions are reasonably accurate. C. These impressions are also relatively fast -- formed in seconds. D. Confidence may be an important factor related to accuracy, but this relationship is curvilinear – that is, at low levels of confidence impressions are not very accurate, as confidence goes up so does accuracy but only to a certain point; then accuracy again begins to fall. XI. Implicit Personality Theories: Schemas that Shape First Impressions (3.12) A. Implicit personality theories are beliefs about what traits or characteristics tend to go together. B. These theories, which can be viewed as specific kind of schema, suggest that when individuals posses some traits, they are more likely to possess others, too (e.g., a person who is practical and intelligent is also likely to be ambitious). C. We have implicit beliefs about the characteristics related to birth order: 1. First-borns are thought to be high achievers and be aggressive, ambitious, dominant, and independent. 2. Middle-borns are expected to be caring, friendly, outgoing, and thoughtful. 3. Only children are expected to be independent, self-centered, selfish, and spoiled. 4. Surprisingly, these implicit theories about birth order seem to be self-fulfilling. Firstborns do seem to have higher occupational status and more education. XII.

Impression Management: Tactics for “Looking Good” to others (LO 3.13) A. Impression management is our efforts to produce a favorable first impression on other people. B. Tactics of impression management and their relative success 1. Self-Enhancement (attempts to boost our own image) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 41

a) E.g., wearing glasses to appear intelligent; describing ourselves in very favorable terms to impress a potential date. 2. Other-Enhancement (attempts to make the other person feel good) a) E.g., flattery; agreeing with the other person’s point of view. C. Providing they are used correctly, these tactics of impression management appear to be quite effective. However, if they are overused or used incorrectly, they can actually generate a lot of negative reactions from others. 1. Slime Effect: A termed coined by Vonk (1998) to describe a tendency to form a very negative impression of a person who, in a work setting, plays up to their superiors and then treats their subordinates with disrespect and hostility. D. Why do people engage in impression management 1. One obvious answer to enhance the reaction they receive from others, but research indicates that engaging in impression management may also improve mood.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 3A: Effects of Nonverbal Behavior in Interracial Interactions (LO 3.2 & 3.3) In a classic series of studies, Word, Zanna, and Cooper (1974) examined how nonverbal behaviors influence people’s behavior during interracial interactions. In the first study, white participants interviewed black or white confederates posing as applicants. Compared to the interviews with white applicants, the interviewers made considerably more speech errors, spent less time talking, and were less friendly (i.e., showed less immediacy) when interviewing a black applicant. In the second study, white participants were interviewed by white confederates trained to conduct the typical white interview (e.g., interviewer sat normal distance from applicant, gave normal length interview, and made fewer speech errors) or the typical black interview (e.g., interviewer sat farther away—just 4 inches!, shortened the interview, and made more speech errors). Not surprisingly, white participants given the typical “black” interview performed less adequately, appeared more nervous, and reciprocated less immediacy. These studies eloquently show how nonverbal cues can influence people to respond in ways that confirm a perceiver’s expectations. Word, C.O., Zanna, M.P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.

3B: Can People Be Trained to Detect Deception? (LO 3.5) Are police offers and CIA agents better lie detectors? Are they better able to detect when someone is lying than the average person? The answer surprisingly is no. Ekman and O’Sullivan (1991) had police detectives, U.S. Customs, CIA, and Secret Service Agents judge whether people were truthful or not. Police detectives, Customs, and CIA were no better at detecting deception than ordinary college students. However, Secret Service performed best. The authors concluded that Secret Service agents performed best because they are trained to scan crowds and observe non-verbal behaviors, and these are the behaviors that liars have the most trouble controlling. Ekman, P. & O’Sullivan M. (1991). Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist, 46, 913-920.

3C: Attribution Theory and the Terrorist Attacks of 9-11 (2001) (LO 3.9) After the terrorist attacks occurred at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, many people were left wondering, “Why did this happen?” On the SPSP LISTSERV, over 100 e-mails by

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social psychologists across the world addressed this question. Below are some examples of social psychological theories you can discuss with your students that may shed some light on this tragedy. Fundamental Attribution Error • How can people do these horrible acts without being evil? Many people described the terrorists as evil and psychotic. However, as Zimbardo and others have stated, evil is often committed by sane people under extraordinary social influence. In our rush to make dispositional attributions about terrorists, we overlook the important business of understanding how they see themselves. Actor-Observer Effect • They kill innocent people because they are evil and psychotic. However, we kill innocent people because of the situation we’ve been placed in (e.g., war on terrorism, peace missions). Situational Attributions • What situational attributions do terrorists and murderers make of themselves, and how do they justify their actions against us? They believe that we Americans have defiled their land with our military presence and exploited their natural resources with our economic system. Because we live in a democratic system, we did vote in the leaders who maintain these “insults” to (radical) Islam; the World Trade Center workers did take part in (and economically benefit) from our capitalistic system that, from the terrorists’ perspective, exploits Arabs. Thus, in a perverse sense, they can hold all of us responsible, as perpetrators of insults to Islam, thereby justifying killing us. Need for Control/Just World • Human-made disasters can be more psychologically devastating than natural disasters because we tend to feel that we should be able to control or prevent them. Attempts at regaining control include trying to make sense out of “why” (relentlessly channel-surfing the news reports) and trying to determine how to predict and prevent it from recurring. If only the security personnel at Logan Airport had been more careful in doing their job; if only the passengers had banded together to overthrow terrorists. An interesting phenomenon occurred dealing with blood donation. After the tragedy, the lines were so long they had signs up asking people to please come back in two weeks as they had plenty of volunteers now. It seems the signs did little good, as blood banks quickly depleted. 3D: Spontaneous Trait Transference (or Why We Scorn Kenneth Starr) (LO 3.9) Although spontaneous trait transference is not talked about in the book, it is another type of impression formation error and can used to kick off a discussion of such errors. Skowronski et al. (1998) have discovered that people who allege wrongdoing against someone are usually perceived by others as being dishonest themselves, while those who praise someone else may themselves be regarded as praiseworthy. Skowronski et al. refer to this as spontaneous trait transference—when people are perceived as possessing the very traits they describe in others. This may explain the public disdain for independent counsel Kenneth Starr during his investigation of President Clinton for possible perjury charges. To study this concept, the researchers showed participants videotapes of a person answering questions about themselves or about someone they knew. Some of the person’s responses on the video were designed to elicit a positive or negative trait (e.g., “Today he was walking to the store, and he saw this puppy. So he kicked it out of his way.”). They found that participants consistently attributed the trait to the speaker even when they were specifically told that the individual on the videotape was talking about someone else. This suggests, that trait transference is irrational and largely outside of our conscious awareness. Discuss with your students the obvious caveat—when you gossip, you may become associated with the characteristics you describe, ultimately leading those characteristics to be “transferred” to you. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 43

Skowronski, J.J., Carlston, D.E., Mae, L., & Crawford, M.T. (1998). Spontaneous trait transference: Communicators take on the qualities they describe in others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 837–848.

3E: Attributions Based on One’s Name (LO 3.12) Do we form impressions of people based in part on their names? You might ask the class to imagine a person named Michael, and then to list five traits that he possesses. Next, ask the class to imagine a person named Vladamir and have them list his traits. Do the two lists differ? What about Susan versus Suzee? Follow this up with asking the class whether they think their names imply a certain set of attributes. This may be from implicit personality theories. 3F: Does the Fundamental Attribution Error Protect Our Well-Being? (LO 3.9) In January 2007, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Archives received a donation of a photograph album. The inscription “Auschwitz 21.6.1944” on its first page signaled the uniqueness of the album—there are very few wartime photographs of the Auschwitz concentration camp complex, which included Auschwitz-Birkenau, the largest Nazi killing center. What was different about this photo album was it contained photos of the Nazi guards at play (smiling, joking, sunbathing, etc). The photos were like photos you would find in anybody’s photo album. There has been some controversy over the release of these photos. Some have argued that they should not be released, because they make these guards appear “normal” when they were in fact monsters. However, as Zimbardo and others have stated, evil is often committed by sane people under extraordinary social influence. Does it make us feel safer to think of Nazis as monsters, rather than ordinary people under extraordinary social influence? When we conclude the latter, does the world seem like a more frightening place? Thus, the fundamental attribution error could protect us—making us believe that we ourselves would not commit such evil if we were put in such a situation. 3G: Tactics of Impression Management (LO 3.13) As a class, discuss experiences in which self-enhancement or other-enhancement strategies have failed. For example, ask students if they have interacted with a salesperson at a car dealership. Did he or she overuse other-enhancement strategies? Have they ever experienced the slime effect in their everyday lives?

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A3.1: Nonverbal Communication in Action (see Handout 3-1) (LO 3.2) Encourage your students to consider what types of nonverbal communication each person on the handout may use in their daily lives. Have students recall the possible influence of nonverbal behavior on their thoughts and feelings. A3.2: Our Five Basic Emotions (LO 3.3) Divide students into teams of two, ensuring they have the list of the five basic emotions in front of them. One student should pick, at random, each of the emotions and perform a facial expression based on memories of feeling that emotion. Their partner should attempt to correctly identify the emotion based only on the facial expression. Have each team report how many basic emotions they were able to correctly identify. A3.3: Group Attribution Exercise (LO 3.7) Students often have difficulty grasping the differences among consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. One good exercise (adapted from Eflin & Kite, 1996) involves distributing to each student sets of three cards with consensus, consistency, or distinctiveness information. Then have each student “find” the other—students with the cards relating to the same target (e.g., all the “Jenny’s” or “Barb’s” would get Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 44

together – see below) and try to determine an explanation for their target’s behavior. For example one topic might be: Why did the student come to class late? • card #1: no one else except Jenny came in late to class • card #2: in the past, Jenny has come in late • card #3: Jenny is late to other classes or • card #1: other students besides Barb came in late to class • card #2: in the past, Barb has come in late • card #3: Barb is only late to this class Personal Note: This exercise can kill two birds with one stone: cover attribution theory and your classroom lateness policy. Adapted from Eflin, J.T., & Kite, M.E. (1996). Teaching scientific reasoning through attribution theory. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 87-91.

A3.4: Quiz Game: Fundamental Attribution Error (see Handout 3-2) (LO 3.9) This exercise is a simple, yet highly effective demonstration of the fundamental attribution error. It is adapted from Ross et al.’s (1977) study using the “simulated quiz game” paradigm. Procedure 1. Pair up students who do not know each other well. 2. Say to them, “We are going to play a quiz game in which one of you will be the contestant and the other the questioner.” 3. Randomly assign each pair to be Contestant (C) or Questioner (Q). 4. Tell the Q, “Please pick one area of expertise or interest and make up ten challenging, but not impossible questions, for the C that can be answered in a word or two. For example, ‘What is the capital of New Mexico?’ or ‘Who was president in 1965?’ Avoid impossible questions like ‘What is my mother’s maiden name?’ You can draw from any area of expertise or interest (e.g., TV shows, movies, sports, music, politics, geography, etc.).” 5. Say to everyone, “Please do not talk with each other while composing the questions.” 6. When the questions are done, the Q should ask a question about every 30 seconds. The C should answer them aloud, and the Q should announce whether it was correct and keep a record of whether or not each question was answered correctly. At the end, the Q should tell the C the number of correct responses he or she made (e.g., 4 out of 10). 7. When the students are finished, ask them to complete the question sheet (see Handout 3-2). Results & Discussion • Tally the number of students who give each answer (see below). If the fundamental attribution Error holds, the contestants should rate the questioner as having greater general knowledge than they have (see x’s below). If this happens, clearly, they would be ignoring the effects of the assigned roles of the situation. Questioners, on the other hand, tend to report no overall difference between themselves and the contestant, because they are more aware of the assigned roles (i.e., they were instructed to choose an area they knew much about).

Rating of: 1. Less 2. Slightly less

Tally of responses C (by Q)* Q (by C)* ____ ____ ____ ____

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 45

3. About the same _x__ 4. Slightly more ____ 5. More ____ * Note: Q is rating C, and C is rating Q

____ __x_ ____

Ross, L.D., Amabile, T.M., & Steinmetz, J.L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in socialperception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485-494. Watson, D.L. (1987). The fundamental attribution error. In V.P. Makosky, L.G. Whittemore, & A.M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 135-137). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

A3.5: The Actor/Observer Effect (see Handouts 3-3a and 3-3b) (LO 3.9) To demonstrate the actor-observer effect, ask half the students to fill out each of the handouts. After scoring the responses for each handout, people typically give more trait attributions for their friends and more situational attributions for themselves. A3.6: Specific Self-Serving Bias (see Handout 3-4) (LO 3.9) This exercise should be done immediately after students have received their first quiz or exam scores. Procedure 1. Distribute Handout 3-4, which asks students to explain the score they received. Results & Discussion • Typically, students will attribute success on the exam to internal factors (ability and effort) and failure to external factors (the test and luck).

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 46

A3.7: General Self-Serving Bias (see Handout 3-5) (LO 3.9) Procedure 1. To demonstrate the self-serving bias, ask students to complete the sentences on Handout 3-5. 2. After they finish, ask them to code each statement as a dispositional cause (“I missed class today because I’m lazy.”) or situational cause (“I missed class today because my alarm clock never went off.”) and tally the results in the 2 x 2 table. Results & Discussion • Similar to above, most students should attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors. A3.8: Ultimate Self-Serving Bias (see Handouts 3-6a and 3-6b) (LO 3.9) Friedrich (1996) defines the ultimate self-serving bias as the tendency to see oneself as less self-serving than others. To demonstrate this, after discussing the self-serving bias randomly distribute Handout 3-6a or Handout 3-6b to your students. Typically, students tend to report that although the self-serving bias is common, they exhibit it less frequently than the average person. Friedrich, J. (1996). On seeing oneself as less self-serving than others: The ultimate self-serving bias. Teaching of Psychology, 23, 107-109.

A3.9: The “Warm-Cold” Study (see Handout 3-7a and 3-7b) (LO 3.11) Asch’s (1946) “warm versus cold” exercise nicely illustrates the impact that certain “central” traits have on impressions. Handout 3-7a and Handout 3-7b contain lists of traits about two strangers with identical traits except for “warm” or “cold.” Procedure 1. Make an overhead containing Handouts 3-7a and 3-7b. 2. Divide the class into two groups (e.g., use odd vs. even birthdays). 3. Tell them you will show a list of characteristics that describe a person, and they should form an impression of the person. 4. Present one group with Handout 3-7a one word at a time (while the other group looks away). Then repeat the process with Handout 3-7b for the second group. 5. Read the following list of adjective pairs and instruct the students to pick which word in the pair best fits the person of whom they are forming an impression. generous --- selfish ignorant --- wise happy --- sad good-natured --- irritable Results & Discussion • Typically, you will find that the “warm” group will perceive the person more positively, whereas the “cold” group will endorse more negative traits. To give students hands-on experience in research methods, Symbaluk and Cameron (1998) included a control group who received the same list with warm or cold omitted. Students can perform a simple ANOVA on the three groups to determine if there are group differences. Asch, S.E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258290. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 47

Symbaluk, D.G., & Cameron, J. (1998). The warm-cold study: A classroom demonstration of impression formation. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 287-289.

A3.10: Primacy Effect for First Impressions (see Handouts 3-8a and 3-8b) ( LO 3.11) Another demonstration originally done by Asch (1946) vividly shows the primacy effect when forming first impressions. Handout 3-8a and Handout 3-8b contain lists of traits about two strangers with identical traits except that they are in reverse order. Procedure 1. Make an overhead containing Handouts 3-8a and 3-8b. 2. The instructions are the same as the “warm-cold” study. Results & Discussion • Typically the group shown the positive traits first develops a favorable impression of the stranger, while the group shown the negative traits first develops a more negative impression. Discuss with students how the earlier information influenced how they processed later information. Personal Note: Interestingly for some students, just the first few traits are all that are needed to form an impression (cognitive misers). Asch, S.E. (1946). Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41, 258290.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Applying Attribution Theory (see Handout 3-9) (LO 3.7) This exercise provides scenarios containing consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness information that apply Kelley’s attribution theory to everyday situations. The first scenario should lead to an internal attribution, while the second scenario should produce an external attribution. Self- and Other-Enhancement in Everyday Life (see Handout 3-10) (LO 3.13) Have students imagine themselves in each of the scenarios presented. They should come up with an example of one self-enhancement strategy and one other-enhancement strategy for each scenario.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES A World of Gestures (1991, 28 minutes, UCal). • Provides a cross-cultural perspective illustrating gestures pertaining to beauty, sexual behavior, suicide, aggression, and love.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 48

Communication: The Nonverbal Agenda (1974, 30 minutes, PSU). • Discusses the importance of being able to recognize the nonverbal messages that one receives and sends. Examples include interactions between department heads and a male-female encounter in a bar. Discovering Psychology: Constructing Social Reality (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Explores the factors that contribute to our interpretation of reality. Shows several experiments dealing with the self-fulfilling prophecy. Gender and Communication: Male-Female Difference in Language and Nonverbal Behavior (2001, 42 minutes, UCal). • Explores the impact that gender has on both verbal messages (e.g., speech, language, and vocabulary) as well as nonverbal communication (e.g., touch, proxemics, and paralanguage). Impression Formation and Interpersonal Attraction (1975, 27 minutes, UFC). • Addresses the impact of first impressions (e.g., warm-cold variables) and implicit personality theory. Interpersonal Perception Task (1988, 40 minutes, UCE). • Actively involves viewers in interpreting nonverbal behavior. Personal Space: Exploring Human Proxemics (1999, 28 minutes, UCal). • Using student testimony and field experiments, this video explores cultural differences in such domains as space and touch. Reading People: The Unwritten Language of the Body (1997, 23 minutes, IM). • Examines cultural differences in nonverbal communication such as touching, personal space, and time awareness. The Unknown Generation X (1995, 29 minutes, Allyn & Bacon). • Examines some of the stereotypes and issues that people of Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980) are faced with. Voices (1991, 35 minutes, IM). • Considers how society forms impressions of different cultures. Why We Lie (2002, 50 minutes, FHS). • Investigates why people lie and incorporates demonstrations using polygraphs, facial gesture analysis, and “lying diaries.” Wired Science: Episode 102 (2007, 17 minutes, PBS). • The lie detectors segment of this episode examines FMRI as a way to detect lying. You can stream the video from the following Web site: http://www.pbs.org/kcet/wiredscience/episode

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 49

RELEVANT SOURCES Axtell, R.E. (1998). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the world. New York: Wiley. • Provides great examples of cultural differences in gestures. Forsterling, F. (2001). Attribution: An introduction to theories, research, and applications. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Provides a thorough background of attribution research. Graham, S., Weiner, B., & Zucker, G.S. (1997). An attributional analysis of punishment goals and public reactions to O.J. Simpson. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 331-346. • Using an attributional framework, this study investigates public reactions to O.J. Simpson during the week following his arrest for the murder of his ex-wife. Johnson-Laird, P.N., & Oatley, K. (1992). Basic emotions, rationality, and folk theory. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 201-223. • Provides support for the idea that individuals can translate basic emotions cross-culturally with relative ease. Kudo, E., & Numazaki, M. (2003). Explicit and direct self-serving bias in Japan: Re-examination of self-serving bias for success and failure. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 511-521. • This study provides evidence that individuals in a collectivist society such as Japan can exhibit a selfserving bias when evaluation apprehension is diminished. Swim, J.K., & Sanna, L.J. (1996). He’s skilled, she’s lucky: A meta-analysis of observers’ attributions for women’s and men’s successes and failures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 507-519. • Builds on past qualitative reviews examining the different attributions that observers give for other women’s and men’s successes and failures. Thalbourne, M.A., & Evans, L. (1992). Attitudes and beliefs about, and reactions to, staring and being stared at. Journal of the Society for Psychical Research, 58, 380385. • Links paranormal psychology and staring, finding that participants who believed in the paranormal reported less suspicion when someone is staring at them. Turnley, W.H., & Bolino, M.C. (2001). Achieving desired images while avoiding undesired images: Exploring the role of self-monitoring in impression management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 351-360. • This study provides evidence that high self-monitors enjoy greater success with impression management strategies.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 50

CHAPTER 4 The Self: Answering the Question:“Who Am I?” CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

Self-Presentation: Managing the Self in Different Social Contexts p. 105

Lecture Launchers: 4A, 4B

MC 1-13 FI 1-3 SA 1-2

Slides 3-4

Watch: Shyness

In-Class Activities: A4.1

MC 14-20 FI 4 SA 3-4

Slides 5-8

In-Class Activities: A4.2 Out-of-Class Activities: “The Self across Situations” “Possible Selves”

Slides 9-21

Lecture Launchers: 4C, 4D

MC 21-52 FI 5-8 SA 5-8 ES 1 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: "SelfConcept" MC 53-63 FI 9

Lecture Launchers: 4E, 4F In-Class Activities: A4.3

MC 64-80 FI 10 SA 9 ES 2-4

Slides 28-32

Lecture Launchers: 4G, 4H, 4I In-Class Activities: A4.3

MC 81-91 SA 10 ES 5

Slides 33-36

Learning Objective: 4.1 Self-Knowledge: Determining Who We Are p.110 Learning Objectives: 4.2 Who Am I?: Personal versus Social Identity p. 114 Learning Objectives: 4.3-4.6

Self-Esteem: Attitudes toward Ourselves p. 122

Watch: Self-Concept

Slides 22-27

Learning Objectives: 4.7-4.9 Social Comparison: How We Evaluate Ourselves p. 127 Learning Objectives: 4.10-4.12

The Self as Target of Prejudice p. 131 Learning Objectives: 4.13 & 4.14

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 51

Watch: Optimism and Resilience

KEY TERMS above-average effect (p. 129) autobiographical memory (p. 119) downward social comparison (p. 127) ego depletion (p.121) implicit self-esteem (p. 122) ingratiation (p. 109) intergroup comparisons (p. 114) intragroup comparisons (p. 114) introspection (p. 111) personal-versus-social identity continuum (p. 114) possible selves (p. 120) salience (p. 114)

self-control (p. 120) self-construal (p.116) self-depreciation (p. 109) self-esteem (p. 122) self-evaluation maintenance model (p. 128) self-promotion (p. 110) self-verification perspective (p. 109) social capital (p.108) social comparison theory (p. 127) social identity theory (p. 114) stereotype threat (p. 132) upward social comparison (p. 127)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 4, students should be able to: 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

4.12 4.13 4.14

Understand the four self-presentation tactics we can use to put our best foot forward. Explain the two perspectives on how we acquire self-knowledge. Understand what is meant by the personal-social identity continuum and its implications for intergroup verses intragroup comparisons. Understand the ways in which social identity can be affected by a social situations as well as by the people around us – including a discussion of relevance distinctiveness, and importance. Define and discuss possible selves. Describe perceptions of self-control and ego depletion. Define Self-esteem and describe how it is measured (both explicitly and implicitly) by researchers. Contrast the consequences of low versus high self-esteem. Discuss research related to gender differences in self-esteem. Outline social comparison theory and distinguish between upward and downward social comparisons. Compare and contrast the predictions made by the self-evaluation maintenance model and social identity theory with respect to the consequences of negative or upward social comparisons for the self. Define the above-average effect and relate it to the self-serving bias. Describe the impact of discrimination on views of the self. Define stereotype threat and discuss the research on this topic.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 52

CHAPTER 4 OUTLINE THE SELF: ANSWERING THE QUESTION “WHO AM I?” I.

Self-Presentation: Managing the Self in Different Social Contexts (LO 4.1) A. We are all faced with presenting who we are to a constantly-changing audience. 1. Because we have access to our intention (what we wish to do) we may not always be accurate in judging ourselves. a) For example, a person may intend to be on time, but is always late, thus, this person may see herself as more punctual than others see her. B. Self-Presentation tactics—below are several techniques we can use to put our best foot forward. 1. Self-promotion—includes attempts to ensure that others form impressions of us based on our most favorable self-aspects. a) If we want others to think we are smart, we can emphasis our grades, degrees obtained, etc. 2. Self-verification—the processes by which we lead others to agree with our self-views. a) To highlight the serious student part of your self-concept, you may empathize your good study habits, etc., to your roommate while down playing your fun qualities. b) According to this perspective, presenting your self-concept is like negations. (1) You may be willing to have a negative view of your ability to have fun, as long as your roommate is willing to accept your critical dimension of “serious student.” 3. Ingratiation—making others like you by praising them.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 53

a) Usually pretty effective if not over done. 4. Self-depreciating—implying you are not as good as someone else in order to communicate admiration. II. Social Life in a Connected World: Does Facebook Use Change or Offline Behavior A. In a longitudinal study of teens who initially differed in their level of social skills, during the Facebook phase of the study the shy and socially anxious individuals gained confidence and online friends. Importantly, these teens were able to transfer their new skills to their “real life.” III. Self-Knowledge: Determining Who We Are (LO 4.2) B. Two methods we use to gain self-knowledge are listed below 1. Introspection—to privately think about “who we are” a) Many pop psychology authors tell us that the road to self-knowledge runs through introspection. b) However introspection is misleading because we often do not have access to the reasons for our actions (they are nonconscious). c) We often aren’t very good at predicting how we will feel in the future following a positive or negative event. d) Thus, when we try to introspect about our feelings it often leads to errors, but when we introspect about behaviors that are the result of a conscious decisionmaking process, we are pretty good at it. 2. The self for the other’s standpoint a) People can also attempt to learn about themselves by taking an “observer” perspective on their own past. b) As discussed in Chapter 3, actors and observers differ in their focus of attention. Actors tend to make more situational attributions for their behavior; while observers tend to make more dispositional attributions. c) Thus, if we take an observer’s perspective we will be more likely to characterize our actions in terms of our own traits. IV. Who Am I?: Personal versus Social Identity A. According to Social Identity Theory we perceive ourselves differently at any given moment in time, depending on where we are on the personal-social identity continuum -- the self can be categorized as a unique being (personal) or a member of a certain group (social). (LO 4.3) 1. Momentary salience—what is the accessible and the focus of our attention. 2. Because we do not experience all aspects of our self-concept simultaneously, which aspect of our identity is salient at any given moment will influence how we think ourselves. 3. When our personal identity is salient, we think of ourselves as individuals. a) Thus, we are likely to compare to other individuals. Such comparisons are often intragroup comparisons—comparing ourselves to members of the same group. 4. When our group memberships are salient we think ourselves at the social identity level, which means we emphasize what we share with other group members. a) Thus, descriptions of the self at the social identity level are intergroup comparisons—they involve contrast between groups. (1) If you are female, you may empathize the traits you share with women (warm and caring) and that you perceive as differentiating women from men. B. Who I am depends on the social content (LO 4.4) 1. We have very diverse personal and social identities, some of which can be conflicting. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 54

The context we are in often dictates which aspect of our identity will be salient. 2. What determines which aspect of the self will be most influential at any given moment a) Relevance—on aspect of the self may be more relevant in a situation (e.g., thinking of ourselves as fun when at a party, but hard working when we are at work). b) Distinctiveness—aspects of ourselves that are unusual in a given context often form the bases of self-perception (the lone women in a class of men is likely to think of herself in terms of her gender). c) Importance—we are likely to categorize ourselves in terms of a particular personal trait or group identity to the extent that they are important to us. d) Other people’s use of language can cue us to think of ourselves in personal versus social identity terms. (1) Nouns (e.g., woman, student) are likely to activate social identities (2) Adjectives or verbs (e.g., weak, tall) are likely to elicit personal identities. 3. The aspect of ourselves that is salient can influence our consumer choices as well a) In a study of Chinese Americans, those whose American self-aspect was salient chose cars that were more unique in color, whereas, those who Chinese self-aspect was salient chose more traditional car colors. b) When salient identities at the time of choice and experience are inconsistent, the experience of the object is not enjoyed. C. Who I am depends on other’s treatment 1. A frequent response to perceived rejection by others is to choose to emphasize the aspect of one’s identity that differentiates the self from those rejecting us. To create a selfperception as a “rebel,” one can “take on “a feature that differentiates members of ones group from the mainstream (hippies growing their hair long and being very proud of it). V. The Self Across Time: Past and Future Selves A. Autobiographical memories are memories about events in your own life. B. The past may be used to bolster the view of our present selves. (LO 4.5) 1. By derogating our past selves, we can fell better (like we have really grown) about the aspect of ourselves that we care most about. C. The future may also be used to improve our current selves. (LO 4.5) 1. Possible selves – image of how we might be in the future – either a “dreaded” potential to be avoided or “desired” potential that can be strived for. 2. The image of a possible future self has been found to influence people’s motivation to study harder or give up smoking. D. Self-control: Why it can be difficult to do (LO 4.6) 1. Self-control is our ability to forgo an immediate reword and stick to completing our long-term goals. 2. Some researchers have suggested that the act of controlling ourselves is taxing and makes exerting subsequent control more difficult. 3. Ego Depletion refers to the lowered capacity to exert subsequent self-control following earlier efforts to exert self-control. Performance decrements are typically observed when people’s ego strength has been depleted by prior efforts at self-control. VI. Self-Esteem: Attitudes toward the Self A. Self-esteem is evaluation of ourselves along a positive-negative continuum—our attitude about the self. (LO 4.7) 1. When we achieve important goals, self-esteem goes up. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 55

2. Being ostracized (ignored by others) or failing to achieve goals can lower self-esteem. B. The measurement of self-esteem (LO 4.7) 1. The most common method is a general trait-like self evaluation with ten items (Rosenberg self-esteem scale, 1965). 2. Explicit self-esteem scales are susceptible to social desirability concerns thus, researcher have developed implicit self-esteem measures assessing self-feelings of which we are not consciously aware. a) Responses on these two types of measures of self-esteem—implicit and explicit—are often not correlated, which is consistent with the assumption that these two types of measures are capturing different processes. b) Furthermore, just as explicit self-esteem can change with events such as a failure so too can implicit self-esteem. C. Is high self-esteem always beneficial? (LO 4.8) 1. Many psychologists agree that low self-esteem can be damaging to an individual (e.g., leading to alcohol abuse, depression, and violence). 2. Other research, however, has linked high self-esteem to aggression. a) The logic behind this idea states that when pride is threatened, we may act out to reclaim the superiority over others that often accompanies high selfesteem. D. Do Women and Men Differ in Their Level of Self-Esteem? (LO 4.9) 1. Research shows a slight, but consistent, trend for differences in self-esteem among men and women. 2. Women have lower self-esteem when they reside in countries where women have little social power. 3. In countries like the United States, women’s self-esteem suffers when they are confined to occupations where discrimination is common. VII.

Social Comparison: How We Evaluate the Self A. One source of evaluations about the self is through social comparisons (simply comparing ourselves to others). (LO 4.10) 1. Downward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a worse state than us, thereby raising our self-esteem (e.g., finding someone with a worse test grade than ours). 2. Upward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to someone who is in a better state than us, thereby decreasing self-esteem (e.g., finding someone who is a better athlete that we are). 3. Social comparison theory suggests that we compare ourselves to others because for many domains there is no objective yard stick. B. Social comparison theory spawned two perspectives on the consequences of negative or upward social comparisons for the self (LO 4.11). 1. When we categorize at the individual level, the self-evaluation maintenance model proposes that we dissociate ourselves from people who perform better than we do, while we stay close to those who perform inferior relative to us. 2. When we categorize at the group level, social identity theory proposes that we will want to stay close to in-group members who perform well and dissociate ourselves from ingroup members who perform poorly. C. Since we often show a self-serving bias in explaining positive and negative outcomes in our lives, researchers have often seen an above-average effect, where participants tend to rate themselves above average on any social traits that are positive (e.g., intelligence). (LO 4.12)

VIII.

The Self as Target of Prejudice (LO 4.13) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 56

A. Emotional consequences: How well-being can suffer 1. Emotional responses to a negative outcome depend on the attribution made for it. a) When outcomes are attributed to prejudice, if that prejudice is seen as pervasive, then well-being will be harmed more than if it is seen as isolated or rare. B. Behavioral Consequences: Stereotype Threat (LO 4.14) 1. Stereotype threat is a belief that one may be judged based on a negative stereotype of their group. In addition, one may fear that their own performance could reinforce a stereotype about their group. 2. When people value their ability in a certain domain (e.g., math) but it is one in which their group is stereotyped as performing poorly (e.g., women), stereotype threat may occur. a) If stereotype threat occurs, a person’s performance in the stereotyped domain may suffer. b) Stereotype threat effects are difficult to control, and they can be induced very easily. Simply requiring people to indicate their group membership before taking a test in a domain in which they are vulnerable is enough to undermine performance. 3. Ways to avoid stereotype threat: a) Distance themselves from the task or domain. b) Distance themselves form the group as a whole. c) Distance the self from only the negative part of the stereotype about one’s group. d) The first two of these strategies can be problematic. 4. Anxiety appears to be the mechanism by which stereotype threat effects occur. However self-report measures of anxiety often fail to reveal its importance, but nonverbal measures have illustrated its important role.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 4A: Self-Presentation (LO 4.1) Ask your students to consider in what situations there is a strong motivation to self-present (e.g., job interviews, first day at college, dating) and in what situations there is less motivation to self-present (e.g., spending time with family, in a crowd). What self-presentational strategies are most effective? 4B: Self-Verification (LO 4.1) According to self-verification theory, people search for validation about their self-concepts and prefer interacting with people who see them as they see themselves. Self-verification helps to verify we have accurate self-insight, as well as ensure smooth social interactions. Ironically, Swann (1992) found that people are motivated to maintain their self-views even when they are negative. In one study, participants with a negative self-concept preferred interacting with a person who previously rated them unfavorably over a person who rated them favorably. As one person with a negative self-concept stated, “the positive evaluation sounds good, but the negative evaluator seems to know more about me.” In a follow-up study, participants with low self-concepts preferred the favorable evaluator when given little time to self-reflect. However, when given more time, they changed their original choice. Swann also found that in committed relationships, people gravitate toward self-verifying partners. Furthermore, people reported higher marital commitment when their spouse confirmed their self-views regardless of whether it was positive or negative. Discuss how this theory explains how we construct our social reality and may explain why people stay in abusive relationships. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 57

Swann, W.B. (1992). Seeking “truth,” finding despair: Some unhappy consequences of a negative self-concept. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 15-18.

4C: Gender Differences in Rumination (LO 4.9) Researchers have long documented depression rates to increase at a faster rate in adolescent girls than adolescent boys. Researchers have also established that rumination (i.e., repetitive focus on negative emotions) is more common in adult women than men (when distressed) and appears to contribute to gender differences in adult depression (cf. Nolen-Hoeksema and her colleagues). Specifically, results indicated that girls worried more than boys about such issues as appearance, friends, personal problems, romantic relationships, problems with family, and being liked by other children. The only issue that boys reported being more concerned about than girls was sports. Discuss with your students what may cause young women to ruminate more than their male counterparts. Butler, L.D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1994). Gender differences in responses to depressed mood in a college sample. Sex Roles, 30, 331-346. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J.S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424-443.

4D: Gender and Body Image (LO 4.9) According to a recent meta-analysis (Feingold & Mazzella, 1998) compiled over the past 50 years, prior to 1970, little evidence existed that women were less pleased with their bodies than men. After 1970, however, the researchers found dramatic and progressive increases in the number of women who report being dissatisfied with their bodies in all ages, 12 years and older. Interestingly, this review also found that people actually tend to see women as better looking, on average, than they do men, indicating that women’s lower self-images were not merely a reflection of an underlying difference between the sexes. Discuss with your students why women are becoming increasingly unhappy with their bodies. A biological (evolutionary) model would argue that women should be more dissatisfied with their appearance than men because biologically it is in their best interest to be physically attractive to secure a mating partner (note, however, a biological hypothesis would not explain why the gender gap appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon). A sociocultural model, on the other hand, would explain the widening gap by the fact that society judges women more on appearance and men more on task performance. Feingold, A., & Mazzella, R. (1998). Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychological Science, 9(3), 190-195.

4E: Social Comparison (LO 4.10) There are many features of the self that one can evaluate quickly and easily by comparing one’s standing on the characteristic to some objective criterion (e.g., height, weight, and eye color). On the other hand, many facets of the self cannot be measured by any objective standard and instead must be evaluated by comparison of oneself with other people. Festinger (1954) developed his classic social comparison theory to explain the circumstance under which we seek out other people as a means of evaluating ourselves. Two major reasons people use social comparison are: 1. Self-evaluation—To get an accurate evaluation of our own ability in some area, we generally choose to compare ourselves to people whose abilities are similar to our own (e.g., high school baseball players don’t try to evaluate themselves by comparison to major leaguers or to Little Leaguers. Rather they compare themselves to someone who plays at the same level they do). 2. Self-enhancement—When a person needs to improve his or her self-esteem, it is likely he or she they will choose a comparison person who is worse off (e.g., people in hospitals who feel Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 58

sorry for themselves may search for someone who is worse off and thereby feel better about their own circumstances). Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140. Wood, J.V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 231-248.

4F: Self-Esteem (LO 4.12) An interesting question to examine is the degree to which positive self-esteem involves overestimating the positive aspects of our self. People who claim to have unrealistic positive aspects generally will score higher on self-esteem scales. Likewise, those who admit to negative aspects will score lower. A study by Roth, Snyder, and Pace (1986) suggests that one way we enhance self-esteem is to overestimate positive aspects of our selves. When subjects were asked to respond to items that were positive, but too good to be true for most people (e.g., “I am always courteous, even to disagreeable people”), a surprising number of people endorsed them. Furthermore, the people who were most likely to endorse the unrealistic positive items were also likely to score high on a test of self-esteem. Ask your students if positive self-esteem is partially based upon an unrealistic view of oneself. Roth, D.L., Snyder, C.R., & Pace, L.M. (1986). Dimensions of favorable self-presentation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 867-874.

4G: Self-Objectification and Poor Mental Performance (LO 4.13) American culture and media socializes women to become obsessive over their physical appearance. Fredrickson et al. (1998) hypothesized that this objectification of women often produces body shame, which may in turn, consume attentional resources (as manifested in diminished mental performance). To test their theory, the researchers manipulated self-objectification by having male and female participants don swimsuits or sweaters while completing measures of objectification and shame, and a math test. Each participant tried on the swimsuit or sweater and completed the surveys and tests alone in a changing room. They found that self-objectification (wearing a bathing suit) diminished math performance for women only. Men by comparison, often dismissed the situation as “silly” and could easily turn their attention to the math test. Thus, women’s preoccupation with their appearance, particularly shame and disgust about their body shape and size, may drain their mental energy and disrupt their academic performance. Discuss with your students how American culture socializes women, and more importantly, how to counteract cultural and media messages that can spur women to obsess over their appearance, a tendency that can ultimately affect their mental performance. Some examples include promoting young girls’ involvement in sports, music, and other activities that emphasize ability rather than appearance. Fredrickson, B.L., et al. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269-284.

4H: Do Positive Stereotypes Enhance or Inhibit Standardized Test Performance? (LO 4.14) Recently, researchers have found that negative stereotypes can hinder the academic performance of members of stigmatized groups, such as women (Spencer et al. 1999) and African-Americans (Steele, 1997). But what impact do positive stereotypes have on test performance? Shih et al. (1999) hypothesized that identifying with positive stereotypes, such as “Asians are talented in math and science,” could actually boost academic performance. They found that Asian-American women performed better on a mathematics test when their Asian-American identity was emphasized (“Do you speak more than one language?”), but worse when their gender identity was emphasized (“Do you live in Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 59

co-ed housing?”), compared to the control group who had neither identity emphasized. The rationale is that common cultural stereotypes hold that Asians are better in math compared to other ethnic groups, and that women are worse in math compared to men. In contrast, Cheryan and Bodenhausen (2000) found that when the Asian stereotypes were made more salient (e.g., “Overall, my race is considered good by others”) than the far more subtle manipulation used by Shih et al. (1999), Asian women performed lower on a math test compared to both a control condition or when gender was made salient. Ask your students if positive stereotypes such as “Blacks are good at basketball” or “Asians are good at math” may limit (due to fear of confirming stereotype) rather than accentuate one’s behavior. For example, Fiske (1993) discusses how stereotypes demand that the target conform to the stereotype or somehow disappoint the holder of the stereotype. Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of “model minority” status. Psychological Science, 11, 399-402. Fiske, S.T. (1993). Controlling other people. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628. Shih, M., Pittinsky, T., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10, 80-83. Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M., & Quinn, D.M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-6. Steele, C.M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. The American Psychologist, 52, 613-639.

4I: Can Women Experience Stereotype Threat in the Presence of Men? (LO 4.14) Does the presence of males create a threatening intellectual environment for females placed in the minority? According to tokenism theory, token status causes self-consciousness and increases the pressure to represent one’s salient group favorably. Thus, performance should decrease regardless of domain (e.g., math and verbal performance). Stereotype threat theory, on the other hand, predicts that performance will decrease only in the stereotyped domain (i.e., math for females). To test these competing theories, Inzlicht and Ben-Zeev (2000) had female undergraduates take a math and a verbal GRE test, while manipulating the gender composition of the group. Consistent with stereotype threat theory, women in a minority condition (i.e., 1 female and 2 males), scored lower on the math GRE test compared to women in same-sex conditions. A follow-up study found that for women, even the presence of one male minority led to lower math GRE scores compared to women in same-sex conditions. For men, however, gender composition had no effect on their math GRE scores. Ask your students to consider how gender composition may activate negative stereotypes. Ask them to consider whether same-sex math classrooms might bolster attitudes, confidence, and performance? Inzlicht, M., & Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11, 365-370.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A4.1: Determining Self-Concept (LO 4.2) This activity (adapted from Olson, 1990) can be used to address several concepts (e.g., self-concept, selfpresentation, self-fulfilling prophecy, or stereotypes). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 60

Procedure 1. To begin, separate the class into groups of 3 or 4. 2. Randomly assign one student from each group to wear a headband made from construction paper with a label written on it.1 Make sure the student does not see the label. 3. Ask the remaining group members to interact with the headband-wearer in a way that is consistent with the label. 4. After a few minutes, ask those wearing the headbands if they could figure out their headband label. Results & Discussion You can ask the students to discuss any of the following: • How do others’ judgments help to develop our self-concepts? • How much is our behavior is a function of others’ expectations? • What prevailing stereotypes did they use in the interaction? 1

Possible headband labels include:

Boss Schizophrenic Blonde Retarded Drug addict

Feminist Athlete Irish Black White

Arab Psychiatrist Elderly person Gang member Geek

A4.2: Aspects of Self-Identity (see Handout 4-1) (LO 4.3) There are many aspects of one’s identity. For example, personal identity is the part of identity derived by your personal attributes and traits, public identity is derived from how others perceive you, and social identity is derived from your group memberships. Procedure 1. Ask the class to complete Handout 4-1. Results & Discussion • Typically the majority of students from individualistic cultures score higher on personal identity, whereas students from more collectivistic cultures may score higher on social identity. Discuss how culture can influence one’s self-identity. A4.3: Demonstrating the Above-Average Effect (see Handout 4-2) (LO 4.12) Have the class complete Handout 4-2. You should find that most of the class rates themselves as above average on the traits listed. Discuss why this is and how it helps to maintain self-esteem.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS The Self across Situations (see Handout 4-3) (LO 4.4) This out-of-class assignment provides the students with the opportunity to monitor their behavior from situation to situation. It can be used to discuss behavioral consistency, and it can also be used in conjunction with Snyder’s self-monitoring scale (see Handout 4-3) to determine if the scale is predictive of their degree of behavioral consistency. Possible Selves (see Handout 4-4) (LO 4.5) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 61

Have students consider the different aspects of the self presented in the handout. Encourage them to honestly think about their actual self and their ideal self. Have them outline for themselves specific steps to get to their desired self.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Are We Social Beings (1998, 30 minutes, IM). • Examines the relationship between personality and situational views of the self. Discovering Psychology: The Self (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Examines how society shapes our self-concept and how we manage our self-presentation to others. Discovering Psychology: Sex and Gender (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Explores how the environment affects gender roles and how gender stereotypes in ads affect behavior. Killing Us Softly: Advertising’s Image of Women (1979, 30 minutes, Cambridge Documentary Films). • In a lecture format, displaying large still pictures from print-media advertising, Jean Kilbourne explores how ads distort, stereotype, and dehumanize women and manipulate people to buy their products. Killing Us Softly III: Advertising’s Image of Women (1999, 30 minutes, MEF). • In an updated film of Killing Us Softly, Jean Kilbourne examines whether the image of women in advertising has changed over the last 20 years. Self-Esteem and How We Learn (1992, 30 minutes, IM). • Explores the relationship between positive self-esteem and academic success. Sex with the Unreal Woman (1993, 17 minutes, ABC). • A group of male students discuss how pornography shaped their beliefs about women and sex. Female students also offer their reactions to woman portrayed in pornography. Shyness: Reasons and Remedies (30 minutes, IM). • This video investigates the causes of shyness and how it affects our personal and social well-being. The Human Body: Appearance, Shape, and Self-Image (1998, 37 minutes, UCal). • Thought-provoking video dealing with body image, self-perception, and self-expression. Voices (1991, 35 minutes, IM). • Examines the role prejudice plays in the development of the self-concept in diverse cultures.

RELEVANT SOURCES Baumeister, R.F. (Ed.). (1999). The self in social psychology. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • This reader presents a collection of the most influential articles dealing with the self. Brown, J. (1998). The self. New York: McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 62

•

Provides comprehensive overview of research on the self, including self-regulation, self-presentation, and self-esteem.

Buss, A.H. (2001). Psychological dimensions of the self. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. • Uses multiple approaches (cultural, social, developmental, psychoanalytical, and evolutionary) to better understand the elements of the self. Carr, D. (2004). “My daughter has a career; I just raised babies”: The psychological consequences of women’s intergenerational social comparisons. Social Psychology Quarterly, 67, 132-154. • Studies the differences in self-esteem among women raised in the 1950s versus the 1970s. Cross, S., & Markus, H. (1991). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34, 230-255. • Examines possible selves and life satisfaction, as well as feared selves. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday. • Using theatrical performance as a framework, Goffman explores impression management techniques. Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M.B. (Eds.). (2001). Individual self, relational self, and collective self. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • This edited volume examines the interrelationship of the individual self, the relational self, and the collective self.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 63

CHAPTER 5 Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

MC 1-28 FI 1-3 ES 1

Slides 3-14

Listen: Mere exposure effect

Lecture Launchers: 5E In-Class Activities: A5.3 Out-of-Class Activities: “Attitude Expression and the Situation”

MC 29-43 FI 4-5 SA 1-3 ES 2-3

Slides 15-18

Learning Objectives: 5.4-5.5 How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior p. 155

Lecture Launchers: 5F

MC 44-53 FI 6 SA 4-5

Slides 19-22

Learning Objectives: 5.6 The Fine Art of Persuasion: How Attitudes Are Changed p. 158 Social Life in a Connected World: Electronic Word-ofMouth Marketing and Persuasion

In-Class Activities: A5.4, A5.5, A5.6 Out-of-Class Activities: “Media Exposure to Attitude Objects”

MC 54-73 FI 7-8 ES 4 MPL Feature Essay “Conformity Factors”

Slides 23-30

Learning Objectives: 5.7-5.8 Resisting Persuasion Attempts p. 165

Lecture Launchers: 5G

MC 74-87 FI 9-10 SA 6-7

Slides 31-39

Lecture Launchers: 5H In-Class Activities: A5.7, A5.8

MC 88-96 FI11-12 SA 8-10 ES 5

Slides 40-47

BRIEF OUTLINE Attitude Formation: How Attitudes Develop p. 144 Learning Objectives: 5.1-5.3 When and Why Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? p. 149 Emotions and Social Perception: When What the Ad Promises Matches How We Feel

Learning Objectives: 5.9-5.10 Cognitive Dissonance: What It Is and How We Manage It? p. 169 Learning Objectives: 5.11-5.13

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES Lecture Launchers: 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D In-Class Activities: A5.1, A5.2, A5.3

Explore: Conformity Factors Listen: Elaboration likelihood Model

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 64

KEY TERMS attitude-to-behavior process model (p. 157) attitude (p. 140 ) central route (p. 161) classical conditioning (p. 144) cognitive dissonance (p. 169) conditioned stimulus (p. 144) ego-depletion (p. 168) elaboration-likelihood model (p. 161) explicit attitudes (p. 168) fear appeals (p.160) forewarning (p. 166) habit (p. 158 ) heuristic processing (p. 161) hypocrisy (p. 172) implicit attitudes (p. 141 ) implementation plan (p.156) instrumental conditioning (p. 146) less-leads-to-more effect (p. 170)

mere exposure (p. 145) observational learning (p. 148) peripheral route (p. 161) persuasion (p. 158) pluralistic ignorance (p. 150) reactance (p. 165) reference groups (p.148) selective avoidance (p. 166) self-regulation (p. 168) social comparison (p. 148) social learning (p. 148) social networks (p. 146) subliminal conditioning (p. 145) systematic processing (p. 161) theory of planned behavior (p. 156) theory of reasoned action (p. 156) unconditioned stimulus (p. 144 )

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 5, students should be able to: 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13

Describe what attitudes are and why they are of interest to social psychologists. Outline the ways in which we may acquire attitudes through learning (i.e., classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, mere exposure, observational learning). Discuss the role of social comparison in attitude acquisition. Outline the role of the context in the link between attitudes and behavior. Describe the aspects of attitudes themselves and how they may influence behavior. Summarize how the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior and the attitude-to-behavior process model try to understand the attitude-behavior link. State the key factors that social psychologists have historically believed lead to successful persuasion. Contrast systematic and heuristic processing in terms of how they relate to persuasion. Describe why and how we may resist persuasion by discussing reactance, forewarning, and selective avoidance. Explain how ego depletion can make us more vulnerable to persuasion. Consider when we experience cognitive dissonance, how we can reduce it, and whether it is unpleasant for most individuals. Understand the less-leads-to-more effect by paying particular attention to the famous Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study. Explain how hypocrisy can be used in a manner that produces beneficial effects.

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CHAPTER 5 OUTLINE ATTITUDES: EVALUATING AND RESPONDING TO THE SOCIAL WORLD I.

Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World (LO 5.1) A. Attitudes are evaluations of various aspects of the social world. 1. Some attitudes are quite stable and resistant to change, while others may be unstable and show considerable variability depending on the situation. 2. Attitudes are evaluations of any aspect of the social world; attitudes help us understand people’s responses to new stimuli. 3. Attitudes are of interest to social psychologists because they predict behavior. a) You approach things you have positive attitude toward. B. Explicit attitudes are consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report. C. Implicit attitudes are unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses. 1. Many “color-blind,” or self-perceived egalitarian Americans, will report positive explicit attitudes toward African-Americans. However, they may also display negative involuntary evaluative reactions—implicit attitudes—because it is almost impossible to grow up in the United States without acquiring such negative racial associations. 2. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a method for assessing implicit attitudes by measuring one’s associations with various social objects more or less readily with positive or negative descriptive words. a) A criticism of the IAT is that it really assesses commonly known connections between social groups and various adjectives, even though the respondent might not actually endorse the validity of those connections. b) Recent research has revealed that the IAT is susceptible to deliberate faking (Fiedler, Messner, & Bluemke, 2006). D. Because attitudes influence behavior, knowing something about them can help us to predict people’s overt actions in a wide range of contexts.

II. Attitude Formation: How Attitudes Develop (LO 5.2) A. Social learning is the process through which we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other persons. B. Classical Conditioning: Learning Based on Association 1. Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus. In a sense, one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation or occurrence of the other. a) Unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that evokes a positive or negative response without substantial learning. b) Conditioned stimulus is the stimulus that comes to stand for or signal a prior unconditioned stimulus. (1) For example, a child may see a parent react to a member of a minority group with a frown. Initially, members of a minority group are neutral for the child. However, after repeated pairings of the frown and the minority group, the child may acquire a negative attitude toward members of that minority group. 2. Subliminal conditioning is classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals’ threshold of conscious awareness. C. Mere exposure explains that by having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes toward an object can become more positive. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 66

1. The illusion of truth effect – the mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes. D. Instrumental Conditioning: Rewards for the “Right” Views 1. Instrumental conditioning is a basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes, or which permit avoidance of negative outcomes, are strengthened. a) If a child expresses a view that is similar to their parents, they will be rewarded, even if they do not fully understand the attitude (e.g., favoring a particular political party). b) Attitudes that are followed by positive outcomes tend to be strengthened and are likely to be repeated, whereas attitudes that are followed by negative outcomes are weakened, so their likelihood of being expressed again is reduced. c) When we enter into to new social networks – sets of individual with whom we interact on a regular basis, our previously held attitudes may change in order to be rewarded for holding the novel attitudes of the new social network. E. Observational Learning: Learning by Exposure to Others 1. Observational learning is a basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others. a) For example, children may have a positive attitude toward smoking if they see their parents smoking. This holds true even if parents verbally warn their children away from smoking. 2. Social comparison is the process through which we compare ourselves to others in order to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct. (LO 5.3) 3. We are more likely to compare ourselves to reference groups—groups of people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value. a) Research findings indicate that hearing others who we see as similar to ourselves state negative views about a group can lead us to adopt similar attitudes—without ever meeting any members of that group (Maio, Esses, & Bell, 1994; Terry, Hogg & Duck, 1999). Attitudes are being shaped by our own desire to be similar to people we like. III. When and Why Do Attitudes Influence Behavior? A. Social contextual factors can limit the extent to which attitudes alone determine behavior. (LO 5.4). 1. Depending on the degree to which the action is public, and there are potential social consequences, attitudes will differentially predict behavior. a) You may say you like your friend’s tattoo, even if you think it is horrible, to avoid hurting her feelings. b) The certain we are of our attitudes the morel likely they are to predict behavior. 2. Constraints on revealing our private attitudes can occur even when we are with other people with whom we highly identify. a) Pluralistic ignorance is when we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold, and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than ourselves. b) Sometimes college students hold negative attitudes toward heavy drinking, but do not want to express them because the mistakenly believe that most college students have more positive attitudes toward drinking. B. Vested interests 1. Vested interests are particularly likely affect judgment sand behavior in the immediate context, whereas abstract values do so when behavior is in the distant future. C. Attitude Certainty: Importance of Clarity and Correctness (LO 5.5) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 67

1. Attitude correctness is feeling one’s attitude is the valid or the proper one to hold. a) When a person learns that others share one’s attitudes, it acts as justification for that attitude and thereby increases certainty. 2. Attitude clarity is being clear about what one’s attitude is. a) The more often you are asked to report on your attitude, the more it will facilitate clarity and thereby certainty. 3. Attitude clarity and correctness can be independently manipulated and each independently contributes to resistance to persuasion. D. Role of Personal Experience (LO 5.5) 1. Evidence indicates that attitudes formed on the basis of direct experience with the object about which we hold a particular attitude can exert stronger effects on behavior than ones formed indirectly. 2. Attitudes based on personal relevance are more likely to be elaborated on in terms of supporting arguments, and this makes them resistant to change. E. Existing evidence suggests that attitudes really do affect behavior. The strength of this link is strongly determined by situational constraints, attitude extremity, clarity, correctness, and personal experience. IV. How Do Attitudes Guide Behavior? A. Attitudes Arrived at through Reasoned Thought (LO 5.6) 1. Theory of reasoned action is a theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior. 2. Theory of planned behavior is an extension of the theory of reasoned action, suggesting that in addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior. a) Recent research has made it clear that the intention-behavior relationship is even stronger when people have formed a plan for how and when they will translate their intentions into behavior. (1) Implementation plan is a plan for how to implement our intentions to carry out some action. (2) This plan is determined by three factors: (a) Attitudes toward the behavior—people’s positive or negative evaluations of performing the behavior (whether they think it will yield positive or negative consequences). (b) Subjective norms—people’s perceptions of whether others will approve or disapprove of this behavior. (c) Perceived behavioral control—people’s appraisals of their ability to perform the behavior. b) Reasoned action and planned behavior have been applied to predicting behavior in many settings, with considerable success. B. Attitudes and Spontaneous Behavioral Reactions (LO 5.6) 1. Attitude-to-behavior process model is a model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes that attitudes can influence behavior in thoughtful and nonthoughtful ways. a) Attitudes affect our behavior through at least two mechanisms, and these operate under somewhat contrasting conditions. (1) When we have time to engage in careful, reasoned thought, we can weigh all the alternatives and decide how we will act.

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 68

(2) Under hectic conditions of everyday life, we often don’t have time for this kind of deliberate weighing of alternatives, and often people’s responses appear to be much faster than such deliberate thought processes can account for and our attitudes seem to spontaneously shape our perceptions of various events—often with very little conscious cognitive processing—and therefore shapes our immediate behavioral reactions. b) Habit is repeatedly performing a specific behavior so that responses become relative automatic whenever that situation is encountered. V. The Fine Art of Persuasion: How Attitudes Are Changed A. Persuasion is an effort to change others’ attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. B. Persuasion: Communicators, Messages, and Audiences (LO 5.7) 1. Communicators a) Communicators who are credible—who seem to know what they are talking about or who are expert with respect to the topics or issues they are presenting— are more persuasive. (1) Members of our own group are typically seen as more credible and therefore are likely to influence us. (2) Communicators are seen as most credible when they are perceived as arguing against their self-interests. b) Communicators who are attractive in some way (e.g., physically) are more persuasive than communicators who are not attractive. This is one reason why advertisements often include attractive models. c) We are more likely to be persuaded by a communicator we like than one we dislike. 2. Messages a) Messages that do not appear to be designed to change our attitudes are often more successful than those that seem to be designed to achieve this goal. (1) Simply knowing that a sales pitch is coming your way undermines its persuasiveness. b) Fear appeals are an attempt to change people’s behaviors by use of a message that is fear-inducing. (1) Research found that mild fear-inducing messages result in the greatest behavior change (Janis and Feshbach, 1953). (2) When the message is so fear arousing that people genuinely feel threatened, they are likely to react defensively and argue against the treat, or else dismiss its applicability to themselves. (3) There is some evidence that inducing more moderate levels of fear works best—but it needs to be paired with specific methods of behavioral change that will allow the negative consequences to be avoided. (a) If people do not know how to change or do not believe that they can succeed in doing so, then fear will do little except induce avoidance and defensive responses. C. The Cognitive Processes Underlying Persuasion (LO 5.8) 1. We can process persuasive messages in two distinct ways: a) Systemic vs. heuristic processing:

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 69

(1) Systematic processing is the processing of information in a persuasive message that involves careful consideration of message content and ideas. (a) Central route (to persuasion) is an attitude change resulting from systemic processing of information presented in persuasive messages. (b) Systemic processing requires effort, and it absorbs much of our information processing capacity. (2) Heuristic processing is the processing of information in a persuasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts. (a) Peripheral route (to persuasion) is an attitude change that occurs in response to peripheral persuasion cues—often based on information concerning the expertise or status of would-be persuaders. (b) Heuristic processing allows us to react to persuasive messages in an automatic manner. It occurs in response to cues in the message or situation that evoke various mental shortcuts. 2. Elaboration-likelihood model and the heuristic–systemic model are theories suggesting that persuasion can occur in either of two distinct ways (systematic or heuristic), differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration they require. a) We engage in the most effortful and systematic processing when our motivation and capacity to process information relating to the persuasive message is high. This type of processing occurs if we: (1) Have a lot of knowledge about the topic, (2) Have a lot of time to engage in careful thought, or (3) The issue is sufficiently important to us and we believe it is essential to form an accurate view. (a) When relevance is high, individuals process persuasive messages more systematically and argument strength is important. b) We engage in the type of processing that requires less effort when: (1) We lack the ability or capacity to process more carefully (we must make up our minds very quickly or we have little knowledge about the issue). (2) When our motivation to perform such cognitive work is low (the issue is unimportant to us or has little potential effect on us). (a) When relevance is low, individuals tend to process messages by means of cognitive shortcuts, and argument strength has little impact on them. VI. Resisting Persuasion Attempts (LO 5.9) A. Reactance: Protecting Our Personal Freedom 1. Reactance is a negative reaction to threats to one’s personal freedom. Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce an attitude change opposite to what was intended. a) For example, overly pushy salesmen may produce reactance, such that you are less likely to buy what they are selling. B. Forewarning: Prior Knowledge of Persuasive Intent 1. Forewarning is the advanced knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion. Forewarning often increases resistance to the persuasion that follows. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 70

C.

D.

E.

F.

VII.

a) Forewarning provides us with more opportunity to formulate counterarguments that can lessen the message’s impact. b) Forewarning also provides us with more time in which to recall relevant facts and information that may prove useful in refuting the persuasive message. c) Research has revealed that forewarning does not prevent persuasion when people are distracted. Selective Avoidance of Persuasion Attempts 1. Selective avoidance is a tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes. Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion. a) For example, people change the channel when the television program they are watching is interrupted by commercials. b) It is important to note that when we come across messages that support our attitudes, we have a tendency to direct our full attention to that message. 2. Selective exposure is a tendency to ignore information that contradicts our attitudes, while actively attending to information consistent with them. a) Such selectivity in what we make the focus of our attention helps ensure that many of our attitudes remain largely intact for long periods of time. Actively Defending our Attitudes: Counterarguing Against the Competition 1. Ignoring or screening out information incongruent with our current views is certainly one way of resisting persuasion. 2. Evidence also suggests that we also actively counterargue against views that are contrary to our own. By doing so, it makes the opposing views more memorable than they would be otherwise, but it reduces their impact on our attitudes. 3. In a sense, we provide our own strong defense against efforts to change our attitudes. 4. Exposure to arguments opposed to our attitudes can serve to strengthen the views we already hold, making us more resistant to subsequent efforts to change them. Individual Differences in Resistance to Persuasion 1. People differ in their vulnerability to persuasion. a) Some people may be resistant because they are motivated to engage in counterarguing. b) Other people are resistant to persuasion because they attempt to bolster their own beliefs when they encounter counterattitudinal messages. Ego Depletion Can Undermine Resistance (LO 5.10) 1. Self-regulation is the limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions. a) To the extent that people have a limited capacity to self-regulate (i.e., to engage their willpower in controlling their own thinking), prior expenditure of these limited resources could leave us vulnerable to persuasion. 2. Ego-depletion is when our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of prior expenditures of limited resources. a) Research implies that we are more vulnerable to persuasion when our selfregulatory resources have been depleted. b) Additionally those who successfully resist a persuasive message have subsequently less self-control.

Cognitive Dissonance: What It Is and How Do We Manage It? A. Cognitive dissonance is an internal state which results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior. (LO 5.11) 1. When we cannot justify our attitude-inconsistent behavior, we may end up changing our own attitudes.

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2. Cognitive dissonance can sometimes lead us to change our own attitudes—to shift them so that they are consistent with our overt behavior, even in the absence of any strong external pressure to do so. B. Dissonance and Attitude Change: The Effects of Induced Compliance 1. If given insufficient justification for your behavior, there is a greater need to reduce your dissonance. 2. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that it will be easier to change individuals’ attitudes by offering them just barely enough to get them to engage in the attitudediscrepant behavior. (LO 5.12) a) Less-leads-to-more effect is the fact that offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counterattitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance, and so more attitude change, than offering them larger rewards. (1) Strong forms of coercion will undermine dissonance. (2) Small rewards lead to greater attitude change only when people believe that they were personally responsible for both the chosen course of action and any negative effects it produced. (a) For instance, when ordered by an authority to do a particular behavior we may not feel either responsible for our actions or dissonance when it is salient the action we performed is inconsistent without personal attitudes. C. Alternative strategies for resolving dissonance 1. There are three direct methods of dissonance reduction: a) Change either our attitudes or alter our behavior so that they are more consistent with each other. b) We can reduce cognitive dissonance by acquiring new information (justifications) that supports our behavior. c) Decide that the inconsistency actually doesn’t matter; in other words, we can engage in trivialization—concluding that the attitudes or behaviors in question are not important so any inconsistency between them is of no importance. 2. Indirect methods of dissonance reduction: the basic discrepancy between attitude and behavior are left intact, but the unpleasant or negative feelings generated by dissonance are still reduced. a) Adoption of indirect tactics to reduce dissonance is most likely when the attitude-behavior discrepancy involves important attitudes or self-beliefs (so trivialization isn’t feasible). (1) Under these conditions, individuals experiencing dissonance may not focus so much on reducing the gap between their attitudes and behavior, but instead on other methods that will allow them to feel good about themselves despite the gap. b) Self-affirmation—restoring positive self-evaluations that are threatened by dissonance. (1) This can be accomplished by focusing on positive self-attributes— good things about oneself. D. When Dissonance Is a Tool for Beneficial Changes in Behavior 1. Hypocrisy is publicly advocating some attitudes or behavior and then acting in a way that is inconsistent with these attitudes or behavior. (LO 5.13) a) Such feelings might be sufficiently intense that only actions that reduce dissonance directly—inducing behavioral change—may be effective. b) Studies suggest that using dissonance to make our own hypocrisy can indeed be a powerful tool for changing our behavior in desirable ways.

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(1) For maximum effectiveness, such procedures must involve several elements; the persons in question must: (a) Publicly advocate the desired behaviors, (b) Be induced to think about their own behavioral failures in the past, and (c) Be given access to direct means for reducing their dissonance. (2) When these conditions are met, dissonance can bring about beneficial changes in behavior.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 5A: Construct an Attitude Questionnaire (LO 5.1) A time-consuming, but potentially valuable, exercise is to have the class construct an attitude questionnaire. During one class period, have the students generate a list of items relevant to a particular topic (e.g., tuition hikes, campus drinking, affirmative action). Next, select the best 10-20 items and have the students ascertain their friends’ attitudes on these items. Determine which items best discriminate between people who are above or below average on the measured attitude. 5B: Attitude Development (LO 5.2) Have the students write down their attitudes on a relevant topic (e.g., abortion, gun control), and then have them list the people and experiences that contributed to the development of this attitude. After the students have made their lists, introduce the factors that social psychologists have concluded to be important in attitude formation. Do the students have examples of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, modeling, and direct experience that they can relate to the class discussion? 5C: Attitudes toward School (LO 5.2) Adolescents often develop negative attitudes toward school. Ask your students to consider how classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and observational learning may help to explain how these attitudes developed. How could they be used to change attitudes? 5D: Forming Our Attitudes (LO 5.2) Ask your students to write down three attitudes that they hold. Have them try to pinpoint how that attitude was formed. Was it the result of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, or observational learning? Encourage them to be specific, keeping in mind the different ways attitudes are formed. 5E: Public versus Private Attitudes (LO 5.4) One reason our attitudes are not good predictors of our behavior is that public and private attitudes are often divergent, especially when performing a potentially embarrassing behavior. For example, some Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 73

people find it embarrassing to buy contraceptives or adult magazines. In one study, Lewittes and Simmons (1975) found that students buying adult magazines purchased more additional items, such as other magazines or candy, and more often asked for a bag for their purchases. Along the same lines, a Dallas cable television franchise conducted a survey to find out what kinds of services people wanted and didn’t want. Adult programming was rated very low in the survey, but 60 percent of the subscribers signed up for the adult channel. When asked to make public statements for the survey, most disapproved of the sex and nudity of the adult channel. However, when they could privately sign up for it, most did so. Lewittes, D.J., & Simmons, W.L. (1975). Impression management of sexually motivated behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 96, 39-44.

5F: Behavior Determines Attitudes (LO 5.6) The concept of behaviors preceding attitudes is foreign to many students. To help them you can use the following illustrations: • •

role playing—when someone is put in a new role they often take on attitudes to fit that role (e.g., Zimbardo’s prison-guard study, actors playing evil roles). public conformity—displaying behaviors publicly often leads to internalizing the attitudes (e.g., pledging allegiance to flagpatriotic attitudes, signing a no-drinking contract with the high school prior to the promanti-drinking attitudes and norms).

5G: Inoculation and Anti-Smoking Campaigns (LO 5.9) According to inoculation theory, exposing people to weak attacks on their attitudes may help them to resist powerful attacks by helping them to develop counterattacks. Thus, somewhat paradoxically, a good way to strengthen an existing attitude is to mildly challenge the attitude. Using this social influence approach, Peterson et al. (2000) conducted a $15 million longitudinal study over a 15-year period designed to persuade children not to smoke. The program involved over 8,000 schoolchildren and 640 teachers in 40 school districts in Washington State. Part of the anti-smoking training included classes designed to give children the skills to ignore social pressure to smoke, to teach them about the danger of smoking, and to provide a motivation to remain smoke-free throughout life (i.e., inoculation). Unfortunately, after 15 years, the program did not work! More than a fourth of the former schoolchildren in the study are now regular smokers, about the same rate as that among those who did not receive the special classes. Discuss why inoculation was not successful, and more importantly, what techniques may work better to curb smoking. The researchers suggested that techniques such as (a) denying youth access to tobacco by raising taxes and controlling sales, and (b) countering tobacco company advertising with a heavy, youthoriented media blitz may be more successful. Peterson, A.V., et al. (2000). Hutchinson smoking prevention project: Long-term randomized trial in schoolbased tobacco use prevention—results on smoking. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 92, 19791991.

5H: Commitment to an Action: An Alternative to Dissonance Theory (LO 5.11) As an alternative to dissonance theory, Kiesler (1971) has proposed that the reason we change our attitudes in the direction of counterattitudinal behaviors is that we become committed when we perform an action. Whereas dissonance theory is concerned only with counterattitudinal behaviors that arouse dissonance, Kiesler has proposed that acting in a manner consistent with what we believe can also have Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 74

important consequences for our attitudes. According to Kiesler, the factors that determine one’s degree of commitment are: • • • • • •

The explicitness of the behavior. Publicly expressing an opinion is a stronger commitment than expressing your views to a stranger. The importance of the behavior. Expressing an opinion to someone important is a stronger commitment than expressing your views to a stranger. The degree of irrevocability. Expressing an opinion in a written statement is a stronger commitment than expressing your views orally. Number of actions. Expressing an opinion over and over again is a stronger commitment than expressing it only once. Degree of volition. Expressing an opinion of your own free will is a stronger commitment than expressing it because someone makes you do it. Effort. Going to a lot of trouble to express an opinion is a stronger commitment than expressing it easily.

Kiesler, C. (1971). The psychology of commitment: Experiments linking behavior to the self. New York: Academic Press.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A5.1: Classical Conditioning of Attitudes (see Handouts 5-1a, 5-1b, 5-1c) (LO 5.2) Psychological research has shown that when target words are paired with negative or positive terms, people perceive the target words as negative or positive because of classical conditioning. For example, Staats and Staats (1958) found that when the target words were ethnic labels—such as “Dutch” or “Swedish”—the result was more negative or positive feelings toward those groups. Although it was presumed that this conditioning effect occurred without awareness of the CS-US pairings, Olson and Fazio (2001) recently provided more solid evidence that attitudes can develop implicitly via classical conditioning. Procedure 1. To demonstrate how attitudes can form through classical conditioning, present Handout 5-1a to half the class and Handout 5-1b to the other half. Be sure to present each word pair line-by-line for about three to four seconds. Note: The handouts consist of a list of five nonsense words (presented four times each). In particular, one nonsense word (“bxmzc”) is either paired with positive words, such as “baby” (see Handout 51a) or negative words such as “slime” (see Handout 5-1b). 2. After presenting Handout 5-1a to half of the class, ask the students to evaluate the nonsense words on a good-bad dimension (see Handout 5-1c). Now repeat the process with the other half of the class. Results & Discussion • Students who see the nonsense word “bxmzc” paired with positive words typically rate the nonsense word more positively, whereas those who saw “bxmzc” paired with negative words rate the nonsense word more negatively. • After presenting the results, you may want to discuss how classical conditioning without awareness can be applied to many real-world issues (e.g., to design more effective marketing, health-promotion, and prejudice-reduction campaigns; see Olson & Fazio, 2001).

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Personal Note (G. Schreer): Typically I find the effect slightly stronger for the negative group. That is, the negative group tends to rate the target nonsense words more negatively (M ranges from 2.7 to 3) than the positive group rates them more pleasant (M ranges from 4.3 to 4.5) In addition, the positive group usually does not rate any of the other nonsense words higher compared to the negative group. Olson, M.A., & Fazio, R.H. (2001). Implicit attitude formation through classical conditioning. Psychological Science, 12, 413-417. Staats, A.W., & Staats, C.K. (1958). Attitudes established by classical conditioning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 15, 37-40.

A5.2: Mere Exposure Effect (LO 5.2) Make a list of buildings on your campus. Have the students rate these buildings on two different dimensions: liability and familiarity (i.e., how often they’ve been there). Each of these ratings can be done on a five-point scale. Gather up the ratings and determine their degree of correlation. Is there any support for the mere exposure effect? Do students report liking those buildings with which they are most familiar? A5.3: Consumer Behavior Exercises (LO 5.3, 5.6-5.7) Lawson (1995) presents many active-learning exercises that can be used to enhance student learning of consumer behavior. For each of the exercises, Lawson recommends that students should work in small groups or pairs before sharing their responses with the class. A few exercises relevant to social psychology are described below. Communicator Credibility and Attractiveness • Ask students to bring in three ads: one showing a credible source, not credible source, and attractive source. Have them identify which factors influenced perceived credibility (e.g., expertise, trustworthiness, arguing against one’s self-interest). Ask them if the attractive source was effective. Reference Groups • Ask students to list personal examples of inspirational (e.g., athletes, successful people) and avoidance groups (e.g., preppies, baby-boomers) and to consider how these groups influenced their consumption of products. Social Norms • Ask students to describe instances in which they violated consumer behavior norms (e.g., wear formal clothes to restaurants). Word-of-Mouth Communication • Ask students to monitor products or services they bought or avoided recently because of what they heard from others (e.g., movie, shampoo, jeans, choice of college). Lawson, T.J. (1995). Active-learning exercises for consumer behavior courses. Teaching of Psychology, 22(3), 200-202.

A5.4: Trustworthiness of Occupations (see Handout 5-2) (LO 5.7) Have your students rate the trustworthiness of members of a variety of occupations on a scale of 1 to 4 (1 = most, 4 = least). Then ask them to explain the basis of their judgments. What characteristics do they associate with trustworthiness? What is the reason for some occupations being rated low in trustworthiness?

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Ryckman, R.M., & Sherman, M.F. (1974). Locus of control and attitudes of workers and college students toward members of selected occupations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 4, 351-364.

A5.5: Using the ELM to Analyze Advertisements (LO 5.8) Have the students bring in magazines and ask them to look at the ads to determine which ads are predominantly using the central route (e.g., computers) and which rely more on the peripheral route (cigarette, alcohol). Some students will probably notice that some ads use a combination (e.g., a cute baby to grab your attention, and then product information and features). In addition to magazine ads, political flyers (mailers) can also offer excellent insight into the two routes to persuasion (e.g., unflattering pictures of the opposing candidate, a checklist of each candidate’s record, etc.).

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A5.6: Power of the Peripheral Route (LO 5.8) Petty & Cacioppo (1986) theorized there are two different routes to persuasion. When using the central route, persuasion is caused by thoughtful deliberation of the message, whereas with the peripheral route, persuasion is caused by superficial (heuristic) cues. Students intuitively understand how the central route is persuasive, but often the power of the peripheral route seems less obvious because it suggests that messages with weak (or no) arguments can still be persuasive. Ask the students to pretend they are on a jury dealing with highly complex and confusing medical testimony (something the jurors in the O.J. Simpson trial can probably relate to). Often jurors may yield to peripheral cues that can lead to mindless (peripheral) processing. Ask them to consider what peripheral cues may be highly persuasive. For example: peripheral cue • sheer amount of evidence • • • • •

expertise of witness attractiveness of defendant similarity of defendant number of arguments lots of graphs/statistics

mindless (rule of thumb) processing “that’s a ton of stuff—even if I don’t understand most of it” “experts are always right” “she’s too attractive to have committed crime” “he looks like me and I would never do that” “the more arguments the better” “statistics don’t lie”

Petty, R.E., & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.

A5.7: Cognitive Dissonance (LO 5.11) To illustrate cognitive dissonance, Osberg (1993) suggests presenting the following scenario based on Festinger’s research: Imagine that you are a participant in a psychological study. Upon entering the laboratory, the experimenter positions you in front of a wall with rows of wooden knobs. You are told to start with the first knob at the top and turn it ¼ turn. Then do the same with all the other knobs until you reach the bottom. When you get to the bottom, repeat the entire process. After you finish this excruciatingly boring task, the experimenter tells you he needs your help because his assistant is absent today. He asks you if you could tell the next subject that the task you just did was fun and interesting. After being paid $1 or $20 for doing this, you carry out the request. Finally, you are asked to privately rate how much you enjoyed the knob-turning task.

Ask your students to consider under what condition subjects would find the boring task more enjoyable. Many will assume the $20 group, but of course, the insufficient justification for lying led to the most attitude change. Adapted from Osberg, T. (1993). Psychology is not just common sense: An introductory psychology demonstration. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 110-111.

A5.8: Experiencing Cognitive Dissonance (see Handout 5-3a and 5-3b) (LO 5.11) The following demonstration nicely illustrates the experience of cognitive dissonance. Procedure 1. To demonstrate cognitive dissonance, pass out Handout 5-3a adapted from Carkenford and Bullington (1993), which asks students to indicate their attitudes regarding a list of behaviors. 2. After completing the handout, ask them to complete Handout 5-3b that asks them to indicate whether or not they engage in the desired behavior. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 78

Results & Discussion • After they complete it, ask them to think about any inconsistencies they might feel. Ask them to operationalize the feeling of dissonance. Discuss why we often feel a need to reduce the inconsistency and restore a balance between attitudes and behavior. Carkenford, D., & Bullington, J. (1993). Bringing cognitive dissonance to the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 41-43.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Attitude Expression and the Situation (see Handout 5-4) (LO 5.4) Have students imagine themselves in the scenarios listed. Encourage them to discuss how their attitudes may be more or less likely to be expressed and why. Media Exposure to Attitude Objects (see Handout 5-5) (LO 5.7) Have students record, on their own, a memorable commercial on television, radio, or in print for each of the products/services listed. Then compile the list and see how many overlaps there are in a media-saturated society.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES The Ad and the Ego (1996, 57 minutes, RES). • Uses a documentary to vividly demonstrate the influence of advertising. The Ad and the Id: Sex, Death, and Subliminal Advertising (1992, 28 minutes, UCal). • This documentary shows how advertisers use powerful subliminal images to influence and motivate consumers to buy their projects. Advertising and the End of the World (1997, 40 minutes, MEF). • Sut Jhally, the author of Dreamworlds I and II, uses examples of commercial imagery to demonstrate the powerful impact of advertising. Attitudes About Attitudes (1975, 27 minutes, UFC). • Explores the relationship between attitudes and behavior, the components of attitudes, and cognitive dissonance. Faces of the Enemy (1987, 58 minutes, IM). • Graphic portrayal of propaganda, dehumanization, and mass persuasion. Social Animal (1963, 29 minutes, Western Illinois University). • Describes cognitive dissonance using Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) forced compliance paradigm. Stanford Prison Experiment (1970, 50 minutes, WGBH). • Classic footage of Zimbardo’s prison-guard simulation vividly shows how behavior can change attitudes.

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When You Buy: How Ads Persuade (1988, 33 minutes, LS). • Uses actual ads to illustrate persuasive techniques such as emotional appeals, involvement, association, and fear appraisals.

RELEVANT SOURCES Aiken, L. (2002). Attitudes and related psychosocial constructs. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. • Provides a research-oriented emphasis of attitudes in various applied settings (e.g., education, politics, and the workplace). Albarracin, D., Johnson, B. T., & Zanna, M. P. (Eds.). (2005). The Handbook of Attitudes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. • This handbook presents, synthesizes, and integrates the existing knowledge of methods, theories, and data in attitudes. Bohner, G., & Wänke, M. (2008). Attitudes and Attitude Change (2nd ed.). New York: Psychology Press. • Provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of attitudes, including attitude formation and change, measurement, and prediction of behavior from attitudes. DeBono, K.G. (1987). Investigating the social-adjustive and value-expressive functions of attitudes: Implications for persuasion processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 279-287. • Investigates persuasion and the link between attitudes and low versus high self-monitors. Levine, R. (2006). The Power of Persuasion: How We're Bought and Sold. New York: Wiley. • Provides a survey of the methods of persuasion we encounter in various situations (from television to telemarketing). Perloff, R. M. (2010). The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century (4th ed.). New York: Routledge. • Provides an overview of the persuasion literature using many applications to real-world situations. Petty, R.E., Wegener, D.T., & Fabrigar, L.R. (1997). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 609-647. • Reviews the empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992-1995) on attitudes and persuasion.

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CHAPTER 6 The Causes, Effects, and Cures of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE DETAILED OUTLINE How Members of Different Groups Perceive Inequality

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

The Nature and Origins of Stereotyping p. 183 Social Life in a Connected World: Representations of Female and Male figures in Video Games

Learning Objectives: 6.1-6.9 Prejudice: Feelings toward Social Groups p. 195 Emotions and Social Perception: When are People Willing to Die and Kill for Their Group

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MC 4-9

Slides 5-6

Lecture Launchers: 6A, 6B, 6C, 6D In-Class Activities: A6.1, A6.2, A6.3, A6.4, A6.5, A6.6, A6.7, A6.8 Out-of-Class Activities: “Gender in the Workplace”

MC 10-44 FI 1-3 SA 1-3 ES 1

Slides 7-23

Lecture Launchers: 6E In-Class Activities: A6.9

MC 45-75 FI 4-7 SA 4-10 ES 2-4

Slides 24-38

Lecture Launchers: 6G, 6F

MC 76-90 FI 8-10 ES 5

Slides 39-46

Learning Objectives: 6.10-6.13 Discrimination: Prejudice in Action p. 204 Learning Objectives: 6.15 Why Prejudice Is Not Inevitable: Techniques for Countering Its Effects p. 207 Learning Objectives: 6.14 &6.16

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MYPSYCHLAB

Watch: Girls will be girls and boys will be boys

KEY TERMS bona fide pipeline (p. 205) collective guilt (p. 205) common in-group identity model (p. 208) contact hypothesis (p. 208) discrimination (p. 179) essence (p. 195) gender stereotypes (p. 183) glass ceiling (p. 184) glass cliff effect (p. 185) implicit associations (p. 197) incidental feelings (p. 197) minimal groups (p. 196) modern racism (p. 204) moral disengagement (p. 206) objective scales (p. 190) prejudice (p. 179)

realistic conflict theory (p. 199) recategorization (p. 208) risk averse (p. 180) shifting standards (p. 190) singlism (p. 191) social identity theory (p. 201) social learning view of prejudice (p. 207) stereotypes (p. 183) subjective scales (p. 190) subtype (p. 194) superordinate goals (p. 200) threat (p. 197) tokenism (p. 189) zero-sum outcomes (p. 199)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 6, students should be able to: 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16

Contrast the key difference between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Discuss how gender stereotypes and differential respect often provide the foundation for the cognitive bases of sexism. Understand how gender stereotypes contribute to subtle forms of discrimination in the workplace and explain what is meant by a “glass ceiling” and a “glass escalator.” Consider why tokenism exists and its implications. Understand how stereotyping may still be present even when members of different groups are evaluated the same by discussing the idea of shifting standards, including the definitions of subjective and objective scales. Understand that we can be victims of stereotyping and not even recognize it—include the definition of singlism. Explain how schemas provide the basic foundations for stereotypes and how stereotypes influence our information processing. Explain how subtypes can be used to resist stereotype change. State the two basic reasons for why prejudice persists. Understand the role specific emotions play in prejudice—including a discussion of incidental feelings. Explain how realistic conflict theory helps to understand the origins of prejudice. Discuss the general methods and findings of the famous “Robber’s Cave” study and why it is relevant to the study of prejudice. Understand the nature and effects of social categorization and, in doing so, highlight the relevance of social identity theory. Discuss how the social learning view of prejudice affects how a person develops attitudes about other racial or ethnic groups. Understand what subtle prejudice is and how it is measured. Consider how contact, recategorizations, cognitive interventions, collective guilt, and social influence can all be used to reduce prejudice.

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CHAPTER 6 OUTLINE THE CAUSES, EFFECTS, AND CURES OF STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE, AND DISCRIMINATION I.

How Members of Different Groups Perceive Inequality A. All forms of differential treatment based on group membership are not perceived and responded to in the same way. Some forms are perceived as legitimate, while others people actively strive to eliminate in themselves and others. 1. Whites often view prejudice as less of problem compared to blacks. B. People are risk averse—they weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains. As a result, people respond more negatively to changes that are framed as potential losses than positively to changes that are framed as potential gains. 1. When equality is seen as a potential loss for whites, they should respond negatively to attempts to increase equality. 2. Blacks on the other hand should see increase equality as a potential gain. 3. However, if a “possible loss” evokes more intense emotion than “a possible gain” does, then increased equality should be more negative for whites than the same increased quality is positive for blacks. 4. When equality is framed as a loss for whites, they perceive that more progress has already occurred than do blacks and show less support for affirmative action.

II. The Nature and Origins of Stereotyping A. The difference between the terms stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination (LO 6.1) 1. Stereotypes are beliefs about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are believed to share. Stereotypes are cognitive frameworks that influence the processing of social information. 2. Prejudice is the negative attitude toward the members of a specific social group. 3. Discrimination is the differential (usually negative) behavior directed toward members of different social groups. B. Stereotyping: Beliefs about Social Groups 1. Can be positive or negative. 2. Can be accurate or inaccurate. 3. Can be agreed with or rejected by group members. C. Gender stereotypes concern the traits possessed by females and males, and that distinguish the two genders from each other. (LO 6.2) 1. Women are seen as kind, nurturing, and considerate (positive) as well as dependent, weak, and overly emotional (negative). Thus, women are “warm” (nice) but they are not competent. 2. Men are seen as decisive, assertive, and accomplished (positive) and aggressive, insensitive, and arrogant (negative). These traits are thought to show that men are a higher status group than women. 3. Because of the strong emphasis on warmth in the stereotype for women, people tend to feel somewhat more positively about women on the whole compared to men. Known as the “women are wonderful effect.” 4. Women’s traits tend to make them seem appropriate for “support roles,” which is reflected in the actual occupational roles of women in the United States today (clerical, nursing, or service occupations) that bring less status and monetary compensation than comparably skilled male-dominated occupations.

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D. Stereotypes and the glass ceiling (LO 6.3) 1. Glass ceiling is a barrier based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents qualified females from advancing to top-level positions. a) Because the stereotypic attributes of a “typical manager” overlap considerably with the “typical man” and share few attributes with the “typical woman” this leads to a perceived lack of fit of women for positions of leadership—contributing to the glass ceiling. b) There is however, some evidence that perceived lack of fit between women and leadership has been decreasing in the last 10 years. c) Even when women do break through the glass ceiling, they experience less favorable outcomes in their careers because of their gender than do men. d) When women serve as leaders, they tend to receive lower evaluations from subordinates than males, even when they act similarly. E. Gender stereotypes and the glass cliff 1. The glass cliff effect refers to choosing women for leadership positions that are risky, precarious, or when the outcome is more likely to result in failure. 2. What this effect implies is that when men’s stereotypic leadership attributes appear not to be working, then and only then are women with their presumed stereotypic communal attributes seen as suitable for leadership. F. Consequences of token women in high places (LO 6.4) 1. The term tokenism has many meanings: a) Tokenism can refer to hiring based on group membership. (1) Token hires (or affirmative action hires) are liked less by their coworkers and viewed as less competent. b) Tokenism can also concern a numerical infrequent presence of members of a particular category. (1) If some limited numbers of women are in positions of leadership, then it makes prejudice seem like less of a problem and can be a highly effective strategy for deterring collective protests from disadvantaged groups. (2) It can lead members of disadvantages groups to accept that they “can move up” from there disadvantage. c) Tokenism can also refer to instances where individuals perform trivial positive actions for members of out-groups that are later used as an excuse for refusing more meaningful beneficial actions for members of these groups. (1) For perpetrators of tokenism, prior positive actions serve as a credential that indicates their “non-prejudiced” identity, which in turn frees them to later discriminate. G. Response to those who speak out about discrimination 1. Speaking about discrimination can bring about improved future conditions. However, complaining can also be construed as attempting to escape personal responsibility, and this one reason why observers might be suspicious of it. a) Research indicates that even when we think that another person’s negative outcome is not that person’s fault (and is due to discrimination) , we have a negative impression when that individual does not accept responsibility for the outcome and instead attributes it (accurately) to discrimination. III. Can We Conclude That Stereotyping Is Absent When Members of Different Groups Are Rated the Same? (LO 6.5) A. Peopled can uses different standards, but the same words to describe objects.

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1. For example, I may say I have a large cat and a large car, but that does not mean my cat and car are the same size. 2. Shifting standards is when people use one group as the standard, but shift to another group as the comparison standard when judging members of a different group. a) For example, take a 10-year-old basketball player who I might refer to as “good,” but that “good” does not mean the same thing as when I say my favorite NBA player is “good.” b) Research by Biernat and colleagues work on shifting standards indicates that, although the same evaluation ratings can be given to members of different groups, stereotypes may have, nevertheless, influenced those ratings. That is, a woman may have to perform at a much higher level to receive the same good rating that men receive in a stereotypically male domain (pretty good leader for a woman). c) Further, those identical evaluation ratings given to members of different groups will not necessarily translate into the same behavioral expectations for the persons rated. d) These shifting standards are most likely to occur when rating scales are subjective. (1) Subjective scales are response scales that are open to interpretation and lack an externally grounded referent, including scales labeled from good to bad or weak to strong. They are said to be subjective because they can take on different meanings depending on the group membership of the person being evaluated. e) When rating scales are objective shifting standards is less likely to happen (1) Objective scales are those with measurement units that are tied to external reality, so that they mean the same thing regardless of category membership (e.g., dollars earned, feet and inches, chosen or rejected). IV. Can We Be Victims of Stereotyping and Not Even Recognize It: The Case of Single People (LO 6.6) A. It appears that we can be discriminated against when we don’t recognize the discrimination. 1. Most people are not aware of a form of discrimination known as singlism—the negative stereotyping and discrimination directed toward people who are single—even if this type of discrimination effects them. a) DePaulo and Morris (2006) research found that 50 percent of the time, married people were described as kind, giving, and caring, but those attributes were applied to single people only 2 percent of the time. b) The difference in how married and single people are stereotyped is even greater when the targets are described as over 40 years old compared to when they are said to be 25 years of age. c) There are also a variety of legal privileges that come with married status: employer-subsidized health benefits for spouses, discounts on auto insurance, club memberships, and travel—as well as tax and social security benefits. d) When asked directly if singles might be stigmatized, only 30 percent of singles say that would be the case. In contrast, almost all members of other stigmatized groups, including those based on race, weight, and sexual orientation agree they could be discriminated against. e) When singles are asked if they are members of any groups that might be targets of discrimination, only 4 percent spontaneously mention “single” as such a category.

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f) People (including singles) are much more likely to see discrimination based on their marital status as legitimate when compared to other types of discrimination based on things like race or gender. V. Why Do People Form and Use Stereotypes? A. Stereotypes often function as schemas—cognitive framework developed through experience that affects the processing of new social information. (LO 6.7) 1. Thus, one reason people hold stereotypes is that doing so can conserve the cognitive effort that would be required to perceive the person as an individual. B. Stereotypes: How They Operate (LO 6.7) 1. Information relevant to an activated stereotype is often processed more quickly, and remembered better, than information unrelated to it. 2. When we do encounter members of group who do not fit the stereotype of that group we still may not change our stereotype. (LO 6.8) a) We often subtype such persons. b) A subtype is a subset of a group that is not consistent with the stereotype of the group as a whole. (1) For example, business women are a common subtype of women, because business women are aggressive and they do not fit the stereotype of women. (2) In a sense, subtypes are exceptions that prove the rule and thus, we do not change our stereotypes. C. Do Stereotypes Ever Change? (LO 6.9) 1. Many theorists have suggested that stereotyping will be stable as long as the nature of the intergroup relationship that exists between those groups is stable. a) Because we construct stereotypes that reflect how we see members of different groups actually behaving, stereotype change should only occur when the relations between the groups change. 2. Because we generally hold stereotypes that are favorable to our own group in comparison to another group, unless social conditions shift so that we no longer see ingroup favoritism as acceptable, unfavorable stereotypes of groups we are not members of can be expected to persist. VI. Prejudice: Feelings Toward Social Groups A. Prejudice reflects a negative response to another person based solely on that person’s membership in a particular group. B. Whether prejudice will be expressed on overt discrimination or not will depend on the perceived norms or acceptability of doing so. 1. Research has illustrated that individuals who score higher on measures of prejudice toward a particular group do tend to process information about that group differently than individuals that score lower on measures of prejudice. a) For example, information relating to the targets of the prejudice is often given more attention, or is processed more carefully, than information not relating to them (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen, 2003). C. People high in prejudice believe that groups have underling essences: typically some biologically-based feature that is used to distinguish one group and another; frequently can serve as justification for the differential treatment of those groups. 1. For example, the “one drop of blood rule” for racial classification means that if one’s great-grandparent was African American, that would be enough to categorize a person as a member of that racial group.

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D. Some theorists have argued that prejudice is more than just generic negative feelings toward a group, but rather is comprised of distinct emotions such as fear or anger (Smith, 1993). (LO 6.10) 1. Depending on what emotion underlies prejudice toward a particular group, the discriminatory action that might be expected could be different. a) When people’s prejudice primarily reflects anger, they may attempt to harm the out-group directly. b) Prejudice based on pity or guilt might lead to avoidance of the out-group because of the distress their plight can evoke. 2. Knowing which specific emotion the prejudice is based on is important in attempting to reduce that prejudice (Miller, Smith & Mackie, 2004). 3. Incidental feelings are those feelings induced separately or before the target is encountered—so they are irrelevant to the group being judged, but can still affect judgments of the target. a) Research suggests that even incidental feelings of anger—those caused by factors other than the out-group per se—can generate automatic prejudice toward members of groups to which we do not belong. E. Implicit associations are links between group membership and trait associations or evaluations that the perceiver may be unaware of. They can be activated automatically upon activation of the group membership of a target. 1. Such implicit attitudes can influence overt behavior, even when the persons involved are largely unaware of their prejudiced views. 2. People may not be aware implicit stereotyping and prejudice is occurring, although our judgments and decisions about other people and how we interact with them can be influenced. a) Consider the work by (Correll, Urland & Ito, 2006), which demonstrated among other things that whites (while playing a video game) were more likely to shoot unarmed black targets than unarmed white targets. And this effect was larger for those participants who had a higher level of implicit prejudice. VII.

The Origins of Prejudice: Contrasting Perspectives A. Several important perspectives have been developed to answerer the question: “Where does prejudice come from?” 1. Threat is seen as a basis for prejudice. If one fears that the interests of their group will be damaged or that there is a threat to their self-esteem, we may see prejudice. a) Threats to self-esteem: When an event threatens people’s perceptions of their group’s value, they may retaliate by derogating the source of the threat. (1) Research suggests that holding prejudiced views of an out-group allows group members to bolster their own group’s image, particularly when it has been threatened (Branscombe & Wann, 1994). 2. Competition between groups for limited resources (e.g., jobs) has been identified as a source of prejudice. (LO 6.11) a) Realistic conflict theory is the view that prejudice stems from direct competition between various social groups over scarce and valued resources. b) What starts out as simple competitions can gradually escalate into full scale prejudice. c) Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study demonstrated how competition can turn aggressive. (LO 6.12) (1) Young boys at a summer camp divided into two groups. (2) Once competition was introduced, there were various forms of aggression.

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(3) Only when a superordinate goal was introduced could the conflicts

be resolved. This is a goal that can only be accomplished if groups work together. B. Role of Social Categorization: The Us-Vs.-Them Effect (LO 6.13) 1. Tajfel (1982) argued that a history of conflict, personal animosity or group competition were not needed in order to create discrimination, people merely need to be categorized into different groups. 2. Social identity theory is concerned with the consequences of perceiving the self as a member of a social group and identifying with it. a) Social identity theory suggests that groups want to feel positive about the group they belong to because these feelings are important to our self-esteem. b) People ensure these positive feelings by expressing favoritism toward their own group and a corresponding bias against out-groups. VIII.

Discrimination: Prejudice In Action (LO 6.15) A. Because of laws in our society, the most obvious forms of discrimination in the United States, such as restricting members of various groups to certain seats on buses, have decreased. B. Subtle forms of discrimination 1. Modern racism is more subtle beliefs than blatant feelings of superiority. It consists primarily of thinking minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve and a denial that discrimination affects their outcomes. a) This involves the belief that minorities receive more benefits than is deserved and not accepting that discrimination impacts upon them. b) People may mask their prejudice views in public, but may share them in the presence of others who hold the same views. C. Measuring subtle forms of prejudice—because people may not want to admit these feelings (social desirability) or these feelings may be unconscious, various methods have been developed to measure “subtle” forms of prejudice. 1. Bona fide pipeline is a technique that uses priming to measure implicit racial attitudes. D. How prejudiced people maintain an “unprejudiced self-image 1. Many American believe they are not racist although much subtle and automatic prejudice does exist how can this be? a) Research suggests that it is through social comparison with extreme images of bigots that many people who are prejudiced can perceive themselves as not matching that prototype. E. When we confront what our group has done to another group 1. Collective guilt – the emotion that can be experienced when we are confronted with the harmful actions done by our in-group against an out-group . It is most likely to be experienced when the harmful actions are seen as illegitimate a) Since guilt is a negative self-focused emotion there are several ways to avoid feeling it: (1) “blame the victims” – they deserved it (2) Derogate or dehumanized the victims if they are less than human, I cannot feel guilty (3) Our actions had a moral purpose (4) Moral disengagement – no longer seeing sanctioning as necessary for perpetrating harm that has been legitimized

IX. Why Prejudice Is Not Inevitable: Techniques for Countering Its Effects A. On Learning Not to Hate (LO 6.14) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 88

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

1. Social learning view (of prejudice) is the view prejudice is acquired through direct and vicarious experiences in much the same manner as other attitudes. 2. According to social learning view, children acquire negative attitudes toward various social groups because they hear such views expressed by significant others, and because they are directly rewarded (with love, praise, and approval) for adopting these views. a) The degree to which parents’ racial attitudes and their children’s are related may depend on the extent to which those children identify with their parents. Children who care about making their parents proud of them show the greatest parental influence. 3. People continue to be socialized in terms of ethnic attitudes well beyond childhood. The Potential Benefits of Contact (LO 6.16) 1. Contact hypothesis is the view that increased contact between members of various social groups can be effective in reducing prejudice between them. 2. Increased contact between persons from different groups can lead to a growing recognition of similarities between them—which can change the categorizations that people employ. Recategorization: Changing the boundaries (LO 6.16) 1. Recategorization is a shift in boundaries between an individual’s in-group (“us”) and some out-group (“them”). As a result of such recategorization, persons formerly viewed as out-group members may now be viewed as belonging to the in-group, and consequently are viewed more positively. 2. While “us and them” categorical distinctions can produce prejudice, when “them” becomes “us,” prejudice should be eliminated. 3. Common in-group identity model is a theory suggesting that to the extent individuals in different groups view themselves as members of a single social entity, intergroup bias will be reduced. a) Sherif’s Robber’s Cave study demonstrated when individuals belonging to initially distinct groups work together toward shared or superordinate goals, they come to perceive themselves as a single social entity. Then, feelings of hostility toward the former out-group—toward “them” —seem to fade away. 4. When recategorization can be induced successfully, it has proven to be a useful technique for reducing prejudice toward those who were previously categorized as outgroup members. The Benefits if Guilt for Prejudice Reduction (LO 6.16) 1. Collective guilt is the emotion that can be experienced when people are confronted with the harmful actions done by their in-group against an out-group. It is most likely to be experienced when the harmful actions are seen as illegitimate. a) Research suggests that feeling collective guilt can reduce racism (Powell, Branscombe, & Schmitt, 2005). “Just Saying No” to Stereotypes (LO 6.16) 1. It may be possible to train people so that the automatic activation of stereotypes is reduced and they can therefore behave according to their egalitarian principles. Social Influence as a Means of Reducing Prejudice (LO 6.16) 1. Our prejudices are often predicted by what beliefs we think other members of our own group hold. 2. Providing individuals with evidence suggesting that members of their group hold less prejudiced views than them can reduce prejudices.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS 6A: Are Some Gender Stereotypes Accurate? (LO 6.2) Whereas most psychology researchers work to dispel common gender stereotypes, David Geary (1996, 1998) argues that many stereotypes are accurate. After reviewing more than 1,200 studies by psychologists, biologists, and anthropologists, Geary concluded that gender stereotypes—such as the belief that men never help out around the house and women gossip—are generally true. Geary believes these stereotypical behaviors are strongly influenced by nature and rooted in evolutionary sexual strategies essential for attracting mates and reproduction. For example, the data shows that men from around the world compete for social dominance and cultural success, and that men who achieve cultural success have more mating opportunities and, consequently, more children. Because males are competing for success, they spend more time away from home and are less involved with raising the children (and helping around the house). Women, on the other hand, compete for males that have cultural success, so to increase their odds, they gossip and spread rumors to shun potential competitors. Ask your students to consider the validity and legitimacy of these claims. Do they agree that many gender stereotypes are accurate? You may ask your students to read the many responses from the journal, Behavioral and Brain Sciences (see below) that address Geary’s highly controversial findings. Geary, D.C. (1996). Sexual selection and sex differences in mathematical abilities. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 229-247. (See same edition for a listing of responses.) Geary, D.C. (1998). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

6B: Do Women Unwittingly Uphold Wage Gap between the Sexes? (LO 6.3) Numerous studies have reported that women allot themselves lower starting salaries than comparable men. In fact in one study, Brett and Stroh (1997) found that even female Fortune 500 managers were earning considerably less after two years than their male counterparts. To put this wage gap in perspective, a woman whose starting salary is $1,000 less than a comparable male will lose $85,000 over 40 years! (That is, assuming both receive yearly standard of living increases.) Although the numbers are staggering, recent studies suggest women are partly to blame. For example, Desmarais and Curtis (1997) found that undergraduate men still paid themselves significantly more than undergraduate women for a laboratory task—$3.99 compared to $2.74. The women also paid themselves less regardless of their previous income. Why might women devalue their pay worth? Some reasons include: when perceiving inequity, women justify their low status by accepting lower wages; women get information regarding salaries (norms, expectations) from other women. Discuss with the class how women can bridge the wage gap. It has been suggested that women can improve inequity through such strategies as finding out how much men make in comparable positions and by learning more active negotiation techniques. Brett, J.M., & Stroh, L.K. (1997). Jumping ship: Who benefits from an external labor market career strategy? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 331-341. Desmarais, S. & Curtis, J. (1997). Gender and perceived pay entitlement: Testing for effects of experience with income. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 141-150.

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6C: Misperceptions of Affirmative Action (LO 6.4) Many colleges are considering abandoning affirmative action programs in higher education. Ask your students how they define affirmative action and whether it should be eliminated. The common misperception is that affirmative action is almost exclusively a quota-based policy giving positions to less qualified minorities. In actuality, according to Pratkanis and Turner (1996), affirmative action policies exist as a proactive means of achieving equal opportunity, and little evidence supports the perception that affirmative-action recipients are less qualified. A review of the literature shows that affirmative action has been moderately successful in increasing the representation of women and minorities in many organizations. However, the affirmative action recipient is often stigmatized, which in turn, may raise self-doubts about one’s ability and undermine one’s confidence. Based on their research, Pratkanis and Turner offer several principles for making affirmative action more effective and removing the preferential selection stigma. They are: 1. Focus on moving attention away from the recipient and towards removing social barriers that perpetuate prejudice. 2. Establish clear, explicit criteria for selection and promotion decisions.1 3. Emphasize the recipient’s contributions to the organization and his or her specific competencies. 4. Reinforce the fact that affirmative action is not preferential selection (quotas). 5. Establish the conditions of equal status contact with a superordinate goal in the organization. 1

For example, Heilman et al. (1998) found that negative reactions to sex-based preferential selection were alleviated when the policy made clear that merit considerations were central to the decisionmaking process. In the absence of information about policy type, participants and observers assumed merit played little role in the process.

Heilman, M.E., Battle, W.S., Keller, C.E., & Lee, R.A. (1998). Type of affirmative action policy: A determinant of reactions to sex-based preferential selection? Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 190-205. Pratkanis, A.R., & Turner, M.E. (1996). The proactive removal of discriminatory barriers: Affirmative action as effective help. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 111-132.

6D: Expressions with Double Meanings (LO 6.5) Do certain words and expressions have dangerous, double meanings? For example, “qualified minority” may imply that most minority academics are not qualified and that therefore one must search hard for the few qualified ones. The word “minority” may also be offensive, because it lumps all the diverse U.S. ethnic groups together into one category. Using “natural ability” as an explanation of why members of certain groups are disproportionately represented among the most successful in a certain field can also be seen as less than flattering (e.g., blacks are natural athletes). It implies that these successful people did not have to work hard to succeed. Referring to women or members of certain ethnic groups as “hired through our affirmative action program” may imply that these individuals were less qualified than others who were candidates for the same job. Ironically, the spirit of affirmative action is, “All other things being equal, consider ethnic identification or gender when deciding whom to hire.” 6E: Realistic Conflict Theory and the KKK (LO 6.11) In recent years, the KKK has been increasing in numbers, and some chapters have increase by 63 percent in the last year. One of the strategies that have been used to recruit new members seems to be drawn directly from Realistic Conflict Theory. More specially, the idea that Mexican are taking jobs away from Whites. Members of the KKK have reported that they are finding this strategies more effective than what

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was done in the past (hate messages about Jews and blacks). Play the following news clip from CNN in which a KKK leader talks about this strategy. http://www.cnn.com/video/#/video/us/2007/02/07/feyerick.klan.resurgence.cnn?iref=videosearch 6F: When Do Children First Show Prejudice? (LO 6.14) According to the developmental literature examining intergroup attitudes, children as young as 3 years old exhibit racial prejudice (e.g., white children attributed more positive qualities to white dolls, and more negative qualities to black dolls). In a recent review, however, Cameron et al. (2001) argue that much of the developmental research has confounded ingroup bias with outgroup negativity. That is, children may evaluate their own group positively, without evaluating the outgroup negatively. In a review of the literature, Cameron et al. (2001) found that children showed ingroup bias, but outgroup ratings remained constant (thus, both the ingroup and outgroup were viewed positively, only the ingroup more so). They conclude that young children lack the cognitive capacity to display outgroup hostility (i.e., prejudice). Ironically, this “ability” is not revealed until about age 7. This topic can be used to talk about how ingroup favoritism may be a built in feature of humans and that social learning may be require to move toward more blatant hostility. Cameron, J.A., Alvarez, J.M., Ruble, D.N., & Fuligni, A.J. (2001). Children’s lay theories about ingroups and outgroups: Reconceptualizing research on prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 118128.

6G: Are Certain Majors More Racially Tolerant? (LO 6.16) This information can used to spark discussion about how social influence can be used to reduce prejudice. Analyzing data from over 5000 students from a Texas university, van Laar et al. (1999) found that certain majors (such as nursing and sociology) lead to more racial tolerance among students than did other majors (such as accounting or economics). As one might expect, students who had a high level of racial tolerance earned higher grades, but interestingly, students whose racial attitudes differed from others within their major got lower grades. Results also showed that differences in racial attitudes decrease as students spend more time in their major. To explain how some students within a certain major come to possess the same racial ideology, the researchers discuss four factors: • • • •

Self-selection: Students pick majors with people who share their racial attitudes. Institutional selection: University departments set the tone for racial attitudes, and they create criteria such as grades and prerequisite classes, that either support students in or hinder them from choosing a particular major. Institutional socialization: Students inherently learn which racial attitudes are appropriate by spending time with professors, teaching assistants, and peers. Differential attrition: Students whose racial attitudes differ voluntarily or involuntarily withdraw from the major.

van Laar, C., Sidanius, J., Rabinowitz, J.L. & Sinclair, S. (1999). The three Rs of academic achievement: Reading, ‘riting, and racism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 139-151.

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IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A6.1: Pervasiveness of Stereotypes (see Handout 6-1) This activity does not correspond to a specific learning objective, but it is a good opener for this chapter to get people used to talking about what is potentially a sensitive subject. Although most students would consider themselves non-prejudiced, this exercise allows them to acknowledge that even educated, open-minded people such as themselves possess common stereotypes. Procedure 1. Ask the students to complete Handout 6-1. Results & Discussion • Discuss with them how the automatic nature of stereotypes may subtly and unknowingly influence their overt behavior. Note: To increase the pertinence of the exercise, it may be best to include regional stereotypes. Engle, T.L., & Snellgrove, L. (1981). Stereotypes. In L.T. Benjamin, Jr. and K.D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol 1). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

A6.2: Traits and Stereotypes (see Handout 6-2) (LO 6.1) As suggested in the book, it would be easy to come up with traits associated with all types of people. Time students to see how long it takes to come up with characteristics of the people listed in the handout. Tell students that when you assign traits to a group you are stating the stereotype of that group. Contrast this with the definition of prejudice and discrimination. A6.3: Power of Labels (LO 6.2) This labeling exercise enables students to explore the power that stereotypes have on both the perceiver and the target of the stereotype. The only material needed is adhesive labels indicating different trait descriptors such as math whiz, immature, violent, lazy, cheap, uneducated, slow, overemotional, dishonest, forgetful, helpless, macho, and effeminate. Procedure 1. Before class starts, arrange chairs in a circle to facilitate interaction. 2. Distribute adhesive labels by attaching them randomly to students’ foreheads so they are not visible to the wearer. 3. Instruct students to converse with others in groups of two to three on the topic of “future goals.” Tell them when interacting they should treat others according to their label (e.g., keep reminding for the “forgetful” person or talk down to an “uneducated” person). Results & Discussion • When the task is over, discuss with the class what observations and/or experiences (e.g., how they were treated, how they treated others) and reactions they had to the exercise (e.g., discomfort over stereotyping others, frustration over being stereotyped). Did they attempt to disprove the label or act in a manner to confirm other’s expectations? Were both the positive and negative stereotypes limiting in any way? Did similarly-labeled people naturally cluster together? What can they do to reject the stereotypes? Note: It may be best to have the students refrain from removing labels until after discussion.

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Adapted from Goldstein, S.B. (1997). The power of stereotypes: A labeling exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 24(4), 256-258.

A6.4: Are Women Invisible as Leaders? (LO 6.3) How do women fare as leaders? The following exercise can be used to address this question. Procedure 1. To examine this question, divide your class into groups of four or five students. Make sure that the number of females in each group is proportional to their number in the class. 2. Appoint males as leaders for half of the groups and females as leaders for the other half of the groups. 3. As a first order of business, have each member complete a “map” of the first name and seating position of each person so that group members’ names can be learned. 4. Then give each group a social psychology topic to discuss for about 15 minutes. Tell everyone that they must gain recognition from the leader before they speak, and instruct the leaders to make a brief comment about each speaker’s contribution. Results & Discussion • After discussions, have each member vote for the “member who made the greatest contribution to the discussion.” The literature has shown that leaders typically get the most votes, especially when they are male. In some cases, you may even find that female leaders do no better than rankand-file members. Butler, D., & Geis, F.L. (1990). Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 48-59.

A6.5: Gender-Specific Leadership (see Handout 6-3) (LO 6.3) This exercise (adapted from Hebl, 1995) demonstrates how people are more apt to identify men and women leaders under certain conditions. Hebl found that men were more often selected as leaders on task-oriented competitive tasks, while women were selected as group leaders equally as often on social cooperative tasks. Procedure 1. Divide students (who do not know each other) into groups of four comprised of an equal number of males and females and tell them they will be playing a game. 2. Distribute written instructions describing the task (either competitive or cooperative) to each member of the group (see Handout 6-3) and give them a minute to read their instructions and select a group leader. 3. Inform the students that the true purpose of this exercise is to examine leader selection processes. Results & Discussion • Tally the gender of the leader selected [for the next class, perform a chi-square analysis on gender by task type (task-oriented vs. social)]. • Discuss what process each group used to nominate the leader (e.g., self versus other nomination; physical characteristics). Discuss why women are often not perceived as leaders. Discuss how the findings imply that employers need to better recognize how their unconscious stereotypes of women may influence how they treat women. Adapted from Hebl, M.R. (1995). Gender bias in leader selection. Teaching of Psychology, 22(3), 186-188.

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A6.6: Stereotypes and Occupations (see Handout 6-4) (LO 6.3) Have students determine whether each occupation listed is considered traditionally male or traditionally female. Have them debate which ones are more likely to eventually become gender-neutral. They may also consider one or more of the occupations to already be gender-neutral. A6.7: Stereotypes as Schemas and Information Processing (LO 6.7) To demonstrate how gender schemas influence social processing, read the following: A father and his son are out driving. They are involved in an accident. The father is killed, and the son is in critical condition. The son is rushed to the hospital and prepared for the operation. The doctor comes in, sees the patient, and exclaims, “I can’t operate, it’s my son!” How could this be? Those unfamiliar with this exercise will have a hard time coming up with the answer—the doctor is his mother. Apparently, many people still equate males (and not females) with doctors. A6.8: Have Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes Changed? (see Handout 6-5 and Handout 6-6) (LO 6.9) To demonstrate whether stereotypes have changed over time, have the students complete Handout 6-5. Procedure 1. Ask the students to pick the two adjectives that best describe each group, regardless of whether they believe the stereotype to be true. Each adjective can be used to describe more than one group. Note: As a variant of this procedure, you could ask the students to “pick the adjectives you personally believe characterizes each of the groups” (see Devine & Elliot, 1995). Results & Discussion • After they complete the survey, compare their results with those found by Katz and Braly (1933) and Gilbert (1951) (see Handout 6-6). Discuss with your students whether stereotypes have changed and if so, what may account for these changes? In a recent study, Devine and Elliot (1995) found that although the black stereotype has changed over the years (from superstitious, lazy, happy-go-lucky, ignorant, and musical to athletic, rhythmic, low in intelligence, lazy, poor, loud, and criminal), the black stereotype is still largely negative. However, when students were asked to indicate their personal beliefs (see Footnote 1 above), the black stereotype has become more positive. • Discuss why the content of these stereotypes are changing. Is it because these groups’ position is society is changing? Anonymous. (1988). Stereotyping. In L.T. Benjamin, Jr. and K.D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Devine, P.G., & Elliot, A.J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1139-1150. Gilbert, G.M. (1951). Stereotype persistence and change among college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 245-254. Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.

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A6.9: Anger Prejudice and Michael Richards (LO 6.10) Recently the actor Michael Richards (Kramer from “Seinfeld”) unleashed a tirade against perceived hecklers at a comedy club that was filled with racist comments. You can play a clip of this racial tirade for your class if you wish by going to the following link (however there is language in the clip that some may find offensive). http://www.tmz.com/2006/11/20/kramers-racist-tirade-caught-on-tape/ Have discussion with the class about the how emotions, such as anger, can automatically activate prejudice. Could it be that Richards’ anger activated stereotypes about blacks, and this is the first thing his “zeroed in on” to respond back to the hecklers?

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Gender in the Workplace (LO 6.3) Have students write an essay on their experiences as an employee, paying special attention to events that may have been influenced by their gender. In addition, have them contrast working for a female versus a male boss. This can again be related to their gender.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES A Class Divided (1984, 57 minutes, PBS). • In an update of the classic film, Eye of the Storm, students who took part in the original experiment discuss how it affected their lives. Also, a similar experiment is done on prison employees, and participants discuss their reactions. Assault on Gay America (2000, 60 minutes, IM). • Explores how homophobic attitudes have contributed to the rise in violence against gays. Beyond the Glass Ceiling (1992, 45 minutes, CNN/Turner). • Examines how many corporate women are “trapped beneath the glass ceiling” and offers some solutions to break down the barriers. Can You See the Color Gray? (1997, 54 minutes, UCal). • Examines how people of varying ethnicities deal with racism, and how children develop racial attitudes. Confederacy Theory (2002, 56 minutes, UCal). • Provides an even-handed examination of the debate over the Confederate flag in South Carolina. Eye of the Storm (1971, 25 minutes, ABC). • Classic film in which a third grade teacher, Ms. Elliott, divides class by eye color to demonstrate the effects of discrimination. Gay Agenda (1992, 20 minutes, The Report). • Developed by “The Report,” a conservative group dedicated to exposing the powerful, well-funded homosexual lobby. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 96

Hate Crimes (1996, 22 minutes, IM). • Examines how stereotypes and discrimination help to fuel hate crimes. Killing Us Softly: Advertising’s Image of Women (1979, 30 minutes, Cambridge Documentary Films). • In a lecture format, displaying large still pictures from print-media advertising, Jean Kilbourne explores how ads distort, stereotype, and dehumanize women and manipulate people to buy their products. Killing Us Softly III: Advertising’s Image of Women (1999, 30 minutes, MEF). • In an updated film of Killing Us Softly, Jean Kilbourne examines whether the image of women in advertising has changed over the last 20 years. People Like Us (2001, 120 minutes, PBS). • Examines issues of classism in America Prejudice (1989, 30 minutes, IM). • Explores the causes of stereotypes and prejudice and considers ways to reduce prejudice and discrimination. The Psychology of Affirmative Action (1998, 30 minutes, IM). • Claude Steele investigates the relationship of affirmative action policies to self-esteem and academic performance. Racism 101 (1988, 60 minutes, PBS). • Frontline explores the disturbing increase in racial incidents and violence on America's college campuses. Racism in America (1989, 26 minutes, FHS). • Explores the resurgence of bigotry and racially-motivated acts of violence against minorities and looks at how one community responded to the problem. Sex, Power, and the Workplace (1992, 60 minutes, Community Television of Southern California). • Discusses two forms of sexual harassment (hostile working environment and quid pro quo) using real-world cases. Sexism in Language: Thief of Honor, Shaper of Lies (1995, 29 minutes, UCal). • Explores sexism in both the syntax and semantics of language and also shows how the bias is often unintentional or unrecognized. Sexual Stereotypes in the Media (1991, 37 minutes, FHS). • Examines the pervasiveness of gender stereotypes in the media. Tale of “O” (1993, 18 minutes, Harvard Business School/Goodmeasure). • An animated update of the classical parable about what happens to any new or different kind of person in a group. True Colors (1993, 16 minutes, ABC). • Vividly displays examples of modern racism in today’s society.

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RELEVANT SOURCES Anderson, K. J. (2010). Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice. New York: Cambridge University Press. • Provides an overview of subtle forms of prejudice Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P., & Rudman, L. A. (Eds.). (2005). On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years After Allport. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. • On the Nature of Prejudice commemorates the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of Gordon Allport's classic work on prejudice and discrimination by examining the current state of knowledge in the field. Duckitt, J. (1992). Psychology and prejudice: A historical analysis and integrative framework. American Psychologist, 47, 1182-1193. • Traces the history of prejudice in America, and gives suggestions for how psychologists might integrate historical themes into the study of prejudice. Goodman, J.S., Fields, D.L., & Blum, T.C. (2003). Cracks in the glass ceiling: In what kinds of organizations do women make it to the top? Group and Organization Management, 28, 475-501. • Examines the variables related to women occupying top positions in various companies. Graham, S., & Lowery, B. (2004). Priming unconscious racial stereotypes about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 483-504. • Demonstrates the effects of stereotypes based on race and judgments of police and probation officers. Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L.K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 14641480. • Provides validity for an implicit association test (IAT) that measures differential association of two target concepts with an attribute (e.g., black + pleasant versus white + pleasant). Hilton, J.L., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 237-271. • Presents a review of stereotype formation and maintenance emphasizing the cognitive and motivational aspects. Nelson, T.D. (2006). The psychology of prejudice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. • Provides an in-depth look at the current research on stereotyping and prejudice. Rosenthal, R. (1994). Interpersonal expectancy effects: A 30-year perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3, 176-179. • Examines data on the self-fulfilling prophecy over a 30-year period.

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CHAPTER 7 Interpersonal Attraction, Close Relationships, and Love CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

Internal Sources of Attraction: The Role of Needs and Emotions p. 216 Emotions and Social Perception: Feelings as a Basis for Liking

Lecture Launchers: 7A

MC 1-18 FI 1 SA 1 ES 1-2

Slides 2-5

Lecture Launchers: 7B, 7C, 7M In-Class Activities: A7.1, A7.2, A7.3, A7.4, A7.5 Out-of-Class Activities: “Friendship Map” Lecture Launchers: 7B, 7D, 7E, 7F In-Class Activities: A7.3, A7.6, A7.7

MC 19-53 FI 2-6 SA 2-4 ES 3

Slides 6-12

Explore: In Your Face

MC 54-78 FI 7-8 SA 5-6 ES 4 MPL Feature Essay SIMULATE: “Actors and Observers” MC 79

Slides 13-19

Stimulate: Birds of a Feather

Slides 20-21

Explore: Attachment Style Watch: Friends Attachment in Infants

Lecture Launchers: 7K, 7L

MC 80-86 FI 9 SA 7-9

Slides 22-32

Lecture Launchers: 7I, 7J, 7K In-Class Activities: A7.10, A7.11 Out-of-Class Activities: “SWF Seeking…”

MC 87-90 FI 10 FI 10

Slides 33-46

Learning Objectives: 7.1-7.2 External Sources of Attraction: The Effects of Proximity and Physical Beauty p. 221 Learning Objectives: 7.3-7.4

Factors Based on Social Interaction: Similarity and Mutual Liking p. 238 Learning Objectives: 7.5-7.7

Close Relationships: Foundations of Social Life p. 235 Learning Objectives: 7.8-7.10

Romantic Relationships and the (Partially Solved) Mystery of Love p. 240 Social Life in a Connected World: Breaking up is Hard to do, but Help is Available Learning Objectives: 7.12-7.13 Selecting romantic Partners: Do Women and Men Differ in What They Seek p. 246 Learning Objectives: 7.11&7.14

Lecture Launchers: 7G In-Class Activities: A7.8

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Explore: Studying Mate Selection: The Dating Game Watch: Sex and Mating Behavior

KEY TERMS attachment style (p.236) attitude similarity (p.230) balance theory (p.232) close friendship (p.238) companionate love (p.242) consummate love (p.243) decision/commitment (p.243) dismissing attachment style (p.237) fearful-avoidant attachment style (p.237) interpersonal trust (p.236) intimacy (p.243) love (p.241) need for affiliation (p.217) passion (p.243)

passionate love (p.241) physical attractiveness (p.221) preoccupied attachment style (p.237) proportion of similarity (p.230) proximity (p.221) repeated exposure (p. 222) repulsion hypothesis (p.231) secure attachment style (p.237) similarity-dissimilarity effect (p.230) social comparison theory (p.232) triangular model of love (p.243) unrequited love (p.242) the matching hypothesis (p. 231)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 7, students should be able to: 7.1. Describe the need for affiliation including how it is influenced by personal as well as situational factors. 7.2. State the two most important characteristics of affect and note how emotions can influence attraction. 7.3. Understand how proximity and repeated exposure can influence attraction (for better and sometimes worse). 7.4. Consider how and why people evaluate others on the basis of physical attractiveness. 7.5. Understand the role that similarity plays in attraction. 7.6. Explain the repulsion hypothesis and how it is viewed by most contemporary social psychologists. 7.7. Highlight the key predictions of balance theory. 7.8. Detail and contrast the four types of attachment. 7.9. Outline some of the major characteristics of parent-child and sibling relationships. 7.10. Consider the nature of close friendships and highlight gender differences in close friendships. 7.11. Explain the differences between men and women in what they look for in a mate according to evolutionary theory. 7.12. Clarify how passionate love differs from unrequited and companionate love. 7.13. Contrast the elements of Hendrick and Hendrick’s (1986) love styles with that of Sternberg’s (1986) triangular model of love. 7.14. Discuss the costs of secret relationships.

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CHAPTER 7 OUTLINE INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION, CLOSE RELATIONAHIPS, AND LOVE I.

Internal Determinants of Attraction: the Role of Needs and Emotions A. We have an affiliation need, meaning we wish to reach out and form bonds with other people. We actively select those people with whom we would and would not like to form a bond. (LO 7.1) 1. The importance of affiliation for human existence a) Some have suggested that our need to affiliate is one of our most basic psychological needs. b) Even our ancestors benefited from affiliating, as cooperation was important for survival. Affiliation needs, it is argued, remained part of our genetic makeup. 2. Individual differences in the need to affiliate a) There are individual differences in need for affiliation (our motivation to seek out and maintain relationships). Need for affiliation, then, is a relatively stable trait of an individual. b) People seek out optimal social interaction. Some individuals prefer more time alone, while others prefer more time socializing. c) When our affiliation needs are not satisfied, it can have many negative consequences. When we are left out of a situation, we experience negative emotions as well as a decrease in cognitive functioning (Baumeister, Twenge, & Nuss, 2002). 3. Are there people who don’t need other people? a) Recent research indicates even people who claim they have little need for emotional attachments to others (dismissing avoidant attachment style) still display a need for affiliation. 4. Situational influences on the need to affiliate – in addition to individual differences in affiliation needs, external events can elicit temporary states of increasing the need to affiliate. a) An increase in affiliation needs is seen when one’s mortality is brought to mind. (1) For example, natural disasters bring people together. (2) Affiliating allows us to engage in social comparison, where we can get a clear sense of the appropriateness of our emotional reactions. B. Affect and Attraction: Feelings as a Basis for Liking (LO 7.2) 1. The direct effect of emotions on attraction a) The presence of positive affect leads to positive evaluations of other people (liking), while negative affect leads to negative evaluation (disliking). b) Affect can influence attraction directly (i.e., when someone compliments us, we feel good, whereas we feel bad when someone insults us). 2. The associated effect of emotions on attraction a) Associated attraction occurs when another person is simply present at the time that one’s emotional state is aroused by something or someone else’s. (1) We feel increased attraction if we are in a good mood (e.g., we just received a good test grade) or we feel decreased attraction if we are in a bad mood (e.g., we just received a bad test grade). (2) This phenomenon is explained with classical conditioning. We are pairing a neutral stimulus with either a positive or a negative stimulus. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 101

C. The affect-attraction relationship and social influence 1. The fact that interpersonal evaluations are strongly influenced both directly and indirectly by emotional states is often utilized in attempts to influence our behavior. 2. Advertisers and political parties constantly try to manipulate affect to get us to buy their products or vote for their candidate. a) Salespeople try to compliment us or make us feel good about them/the product they are selling. b) Political candidates choose words for themselves that will elicit positive affect and words for their opponent that will elicit negative affect. c) These approaches are effective when the audience is homogeneous and unaware of the attempts to manipulate affect. II. External Determinants of Attraction: Proximity and Others’ Observable Characteristics A. The power of proximity: Unplanned contacts (LO 7.3) 1. Much of our interpersonal actions depend on our surroundings. 2. The physical closeness (proximity) of two people in terms of residences or where they sit in a classroom or office influences attraction. The closer two people are physically, the more likely they will experience frequent contact, which leads to positive feelings and mutual attraction. This can lead to friendships and even romantic relationships. B. Why does proximity matter? Repeated exposure is the key (LO 7.3) 1. Proximity leads to attraction due to repeated exposure. Zajonc (1968) defined repeated exposure as frequent contact with a stimulus that leads to “increasingly positive evaluations” of the stimulus. a) The repeated exposure effect has also been used to point out that exposure to a stimulus is often all that is required to lead to positive feelings about that stimulus. (1) For example, if we think of our favorite song, we may remember the first time we heard it. As we hear it over and over again, we like it more and more. 2. In terms of evolution, we may be cautious when encountering a new stimulus, but as we encounter it repeatedly with no harmful effects, we feel safe and like the stimuli even more. 3. It is important to note that if we have an intensely negative initial reaction to a stimulus, repeated exposure can actually increase our dislike of that stimulus. C. Observable characteristics of others: liking--or disliking--what we see (LO 7.4) 1. Physical Attractiveness is defined as the mixture of attributes that are evaluated as “beautiful” and “handsome” on the positive end of the spectrum and unattractive at the negative end. a) Research has consistently shown that we tend to respond positively to attractive people and negatively to unattractive people (Collins & Zebrowitz, 1995). 2. For decades, research has confirmed the finding that “what is beautiful is good” (Dion, Berscheid, & Hatfield, 1972), meaning more attractive people are also assumed to have other positive qualities, such as intelligence and good social skills. a) This was long thought to occur because people hold a very positive stereotype of attractive people. b) Recently an alternative explanation has been proposed consisting of 3 steps (1) First, we desire to form relationships with attractive people. (2) Second, this strong desire leads us to perceive them as interpersonally responsive. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 102

(3) As a result of our own desire, we perceive them as interpersonally responsive in return – as kinder, more outgoing etc. c) Despite widespread acceptance of what is beautiful is good, these beliefs appear to be incorrect. 3. What, exactly, constitutes “attractiveness”? a) Judgments of one’s own attractiveness may not match the judgments of others very well, but there is surprisingly good agreement when two people are asked to rate a third person. b) Women who are rated as highly attractive may either be termed “cute” with childlike features, or “mature” with features such as more prominent cheekbones. c) Additionally, when many faces are averaged together via software, the face produced is often thought of as quite attractive. d) Situations can influence ratings of attractiveness. In a bar as the night progresses and people begin to pair off and the number of available partners decreases, the resulting scarcity leads to more positive evaluations of those who remain. It appears that “beer goggles” may have nothing to do with beer and more to do with scarcity. 4. Red really is indeed sexy—and attractive a) When male participants saw photos of female strangers shown against a red background, they assigned higher ratings of attractiveness to the stranger than when the same people were shown against a white background. For women, background did not make a difference. 5. Other aspects of appearance and behavior that influence attraction a) Body type also influences how we respond. Specifically, overweight people are stereotyped as lazy, while very slender people are stereotyped as intelligent. b) Firm handshakes are associated with positive characteristics. c) Even our names influence interpersonal perceptions. (1) Old-fashioned names (e.g. Mildred) are associated with undesirable characteristics. III. Factors Based on Interacting with Others: Similarity and Mutual Liking A. Similarity: Birds of a feather actually do flock together 1. The idea that similarity leads to attraction is a widely accepted belief and has been supported by decades of research. 2. While the media and movies may lean towards “opposites attract,” similarity almost always seems to “win out” in the end when examining the basis for relationships. B. Similarity-Dissimilarity: A consistent predictor of attraction (LO 7.5) 1. The similarity-dissimilarity effect indicates that people consistently respond positively to others who they perceive as similar to them and negatively to those who they perceive as dissimilar. 2. Attitude similarity refers to the degree to which two people share the same attitudes about any number of subjects. This can be expanded to include the idea that similarity in values, beliefs, and interests impacts upon attraction as well. 3. It is important to note that not only do we like similar individuals better, we tend to rate them higher on various attributes, including morality and intelligence. 4. The text states that “attraction is determined by the proportion of similarity.” The larger the proportion of parallel attitudes, the greater the attraction. This remains a strong effect, even if people are sharing attitudes about relatively insignificant topics. 5. The repulsion hypothesis offered by Rosenbaum (1986) stated that increases in attraction are not the result of similar attitudes; rather attraction is decreased when dissimilar attitudes are present. While research has refuted this idea, it has been shown Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 103

C.

D.

E.

F.

that unlike attitudes have negative effects that are somewhat stronger than the positive effects of like attitudes. (LO 7.6) Do people seek similarity in physical attractiveness? The matching hypothesis revisited. 1. The matching hypothesis – the idea that although we would prefer to obtain extremely attractive romantic partners, we generally focus on obtaining ones whose physical beauty is about the same as our own. Explaining the effect of similarity-dissimilarity on attraction 1. Heider (1958) and Newcomb (1961) both proposed balance theory, meaning that similarity and liking leads to balance, which is a pleasant internal state. If two people like each other, but have dissimilar views (imbalance), changes will occur to restore balance. If two people do not like each other, it is presumably the result of nonbalance, which is an unpleasant internal state. (LO 7.7) 2. According to social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), we compare ourselves to others to be sure our attitudes and behaviors are appropriate. So, when we discover someone else shares our views, we feel validated and are left with positive feelings. If we encounter dissimilar attitudes, it suggests that our views and behaviors may be inappropriate, leading to negative affect. Reciprocal liking or disliking: Liking those who like us 1. Reciprocal liking and disliking is a step in between initial attraction and the establishment of a relationship. We like people who evaluate us positively and we dislike those who evaluate us negatively. Although signals may be misinterpreted, we generally like those who like us in return and dislike those who do not dislike us in return. What do we desire in others? Designing ideal interaction partners 1. There are several traits (trustworthiness, cooperativeness, agreeableness and extraversion) that we value in everyone no matter what kind of relationship we have with them 2. We value other traits differentially—that is, to a greater or lesser degree—depending on the kind of relationship we have with the other person.

IV. Close Relationships: Foundations of Social Life A. Relationships with family members: Our first—and most lasting –close relationships 1. We typically experience our first bond with a parent. How we interact with parents can have an impact on our later interactions with others. a) The first interactions between an infant and his/her caregiver are usually very positive. There is reciprocity, as the caregiver uses “baby talk” and the infant responds with different noises and expressions. These behaviors are reinforcing for both people. 2. The lasting importance of parent-child interaction: Their role in attachment style a) The “quality of the interaction” between babies and their caregivers impacts upon the child as they move through adolescence and adulthood. Parent-child interaction patterns often guide interactions in later relationships (friendships and romantic relationships). b) Attachment style refers to how secure one feels in their relationships. Infants are thought to adopt two basic attitudes: (1) Self-Esteem: Our attitudes toward ourselves along a positivenegative dimension. Depending on the interactions with a caregiver, a child develops a sense that they are cherished and loved or a sense that they have no value. (2) Interpersonal Trust: Our attitudes about others; whether or not they are reliable and dependable. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 104

c) Research indicates that we develop our sense of self-esteem and interpersonal trust very early in life (even before we begin to use spoken language). d) Depending on our level of self-esteem and interpersonal trust, we may develop one of four possible attachment styles: (LO 7.8) (1) Secure attachment style involves high self-esteem and high interpersonal trust. This style is the most desirable and leads to very positive outcomes, including enduring and rewarding relationships throughout life. (2) Fearful-avoidant attachment style involves low self-esteem and low interpersonal trust. This is the “least adaptive” style in that relationships are either avoided or are unhappy. (3) Preoccupied attachment style involves low self-esteem and high interpersonal trust. This style leads to a very strong motive to establish relationships coupled with a fear of rejection. (4) Dismissing attachment style involves high self-esteem and low interpersonal trust. This is a conflicted style in that an individual feels deserving of a good relationship, but is suspicious of possible partners. 3. The role of other family members (LO 7.9) a) Much recent research has emphasized the importance of interactions with family members other than the mother, who is usually the primary caregiver. Fathers and grandparents can play a crucial role in a child’s life, especially if the child’s mother is not trustworthy. Children can learn a variety of skills in their different relationships, such as how to handle a disagreement. 4. Relationships between and among siblings (LO 7.9) a) Roughly eighty percent of people grow up with at least one sibling present in their lives. b) Sibling relationships form the basis for later interactions with peers. Youngsters learn to share, which will benefit them in their later relationships. c) Sibling relationships usually involve a combination of fondness and rivalry. Even though parental favoritism is often a topic of contention among siblings, parents rarely report favoring one child over another. And most adult siblings enjoy a good relationship. B. Friendships: Relationships beyond the family (LO 7.10) 1. Starting in childhood, we see the origins of friendships. We are often friends with children who are close in proximity to us and/or who share the same interests as us. 2. Close friendships a) A close friendship is defined as a relationship where two individuals spend a lot of time together and provide emotional support for one another. b) We can feel safe in revealing our true personality to friends, and we are less likely to lie to a friend. 3. Gender and friendships a) In research, women report having more close friends than men (Fredrickson, 1995). In addition, b) Fehr (2004) reported that women value intimacy more than men. 4. Is similarity the basis for friendship a) It appears that perceived similarity between people is a better good predictor of friendship than is actual similarity. V. Romantic Relationships and The (Partially Solved) Mystery of Love A. Love: Its Basic Nature (LO 7.12 & 7.13) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 105

1. Love involves a mixture of emotions, thoughts, and behaviors that play an important role in our relationships. a) Research with both children and college students demonstrated that love involves both positive events (when the relationship first begins) and negative events (when the relationship ends). Love also includes sharing and sacrifice. 2. Passionate love is a powerful, but oftentimes unrealistic response to another individual. a) Passionate love typically begins quickly and tends to consume the person. b) While this may be thought of as “true love,” people outside the relationship tend to perceive it as “infatuation.” c) When a person is in love, sexual attraction is part of the relationship (Meyers & Berscheid, 1997). d) Loving someone and having them love us is of course positive, but a fear that something can occur to bring the relationship to an end is a negative side of passionate love. e) Hatfield and Walster (1981) proposed three necessary conditions for passionate love to occur: (1) Learning about love from our childhood through movies, songs, and fairy tales about love. (2) Finding an appropriate love object, usually meaning an attractive, unattached person. (3) Physiological arousal must be present and interpreted as love (this is rooted in Schachter’s (1964) theory of emotion). f) Unrequited love involves falling in love with someone who does not love us in return. 3. The origins of love can be traced back to our ancestors. It was adaptive to seek out a mate, reproduce, and work together to care for children. “Bonding was important to the success of the species.” So we may come into the world with a genetic predisposition to seek out a partner we love and to reproduce. 4. Several kinds of love. Though passionate love is a common occurrence, it is too intense and too overwhelming to be maintained as a permanent emotional state. There are other kinds of love: a) Companionate love is a critical component of a long-lasting relationship. This refers to love that is based on reciprocal attraction, common interests, respect, and caring about another’s well-being. b) Sternberg’s (1986) triangular model of love proposes that a love relationship contains three parts: (1) Intimacy: the closeness and strength of the tie between the partners. (2) Passion: the physical/sexual attraction between the partners. (3) Decision/commitment: the cognitive processes involved in deciding if the partners are in love and are committed to nurturing the relationship. (a) Consummate love occurs when all three components (intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment) are included in the relationship. This is what couples should strive for as a model, but it is difficult to reach. c) Research has indicated that physical attractiveness is an important aspect in maintaining all three parts of love (Sangrador & Yela, 2000). B. Jealousy: An internal threat to relationships—romantic and otherwise 1. Feelings of jealousy—concerns that a romantic partner or other person about whom we care deeply might transfer their affection or loyalty to another—are deeply distressing. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 106

2. Jealousy is a major factor in a large proportion of homicides. 3. Growing evidence now points to the conclusion that jealousy is largely the result of threats to one’s self-esteem. VI. Selecting romantic Partners: Do Women and Men Differ in What They Seek? (LO 7.11) A. The role of physical attractiveness 1. Women’s physical appeal and youth play a stronger role in men’s preferences for them than men’s physical appeal and youth play in women’s choices of romantic partners B. Possible future selves and mate preferences. 1. For both men and women, when people expect to be a provider, they rate homemaker skills in their potential mate as more important than provider-related skills. When they expect to be a home-maker, they rated provider skills in a potential mate as more important. 2. In addition, regales of role some gender effect persist, men still prefer younger mates, and women are still more concerned with provider skills than are men. a) Why do these gender effects persist? According to an evolutionary perspective, the reason is that females have a limited age span during which reproduction is possible, men are usually able to reproduce into old age. Thus men were more concerned with age than were women. b) As compelling as this evolutionary explanation is, it is not universally accepted. C. Is the “mating game” a competitive one—or can it involve cooperation too? 1. Female friends might help each other avoid people they are not interested in. 2. In contrast, male friends might help each other to gain access to desirable females. D. Secret romances: enticing , but dangerous (LO 7.14) 1. It is clear that secret romances are enticing, but they often come with significant costs in terms of health and commitment to the relationship.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 7A: High versus Low Need for Affiliation (LO 7.1) This chapter mentions that there are individual differences in the need for affiliation. Have your students think of two individuals in their lives, one who needs to be around people all the time and one who prefers to be alone most of the time. Have them contrast these two people in terms of their personalities, attitudes, and behaviors. 7B: Factors Influencing Friendships (LO 7.3, 7.4, & 7.5) Ask your students to think of their best friend and to think back to how they became friends. Then ask them to describe generally what it is that causes them to choose others as friends. Do they mention proximity, conditioned emotional responses, similarity, physical attractiveness, reciprocal evaluations, and so on? 7C: Proximity and Liking (LO 7.3) Have students write an essay reflecting on their acquaintances in college. How many relationships have resulted from a mutual friend? Mutual interests? Sitting next to each other in a class? Living close to each other? 7D: Similarity-Attraction and Computer-Generated Speech (LO 7.5) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 107

Does the similarity-attraction principle hold for computer-generated speech? Nass and Lee (2001) asked subjects to listen to extroverted and introverted synthetic voices, pitching books on a website. In support of the similarity-attraction principle, people (a) preferred the computerized voice and (b) were more likely to buy the book if the synthesized voice’s personality matched their own. Nass and Lee (2001) suggest that to maximize liking and trust, web designers should create a personality that is consistent with the user and the content being presented. Nass, C., & Lee, K.M. (2001). Does computer-synthesized speech manifest personality? Experimental tests of recognition, similarity-attraction, and consistency-attraction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 171-181.

7E: Opposites Attract in the Movies (LO 7.5) Have your students, as a group, generate a list of movies in which the main characters form a relationship even though they are very different from each other. Have them think deeply if there are actually any similarities that tie the two characters together. 7F: Can Scent of a Person Influence Mate Selection? (LO 7.5) When choosing a partner, whether their smell is genetically similar to our own is probably not a major determinant. Recently, however, researchers have begun investigating whether major histocompatibility complex (MHC)—a source of unique individual odors that influence individual recognition, mating preferences, nesting behavior, and selective block of pregnancy in animals—might play a role in human mate preferences. Women were asked to sniff boxes containing T-shirts (unbeknownst to them) that a man had worn for two days. The women were then asked which box they would choose "if they had to smell it all the time." The researchers found that women could detect differences of MHC among male odor donors with different MHC genotypes, and they preferred the odor of men who were genetically similar to themselves—though not too similar. Notably, the mechanism for a woman’s ability to discriminate and choose odors is based on MHC inherited from her father, but not her mother. These findings fit with the idea that extremes of both inbreeding and outbreeding are best avoided. Marrying a close relative risks having a child who inherits bad versions of the same gene, one from each parent, and outbreeding, although healthy in moderation, may be disruptive when extreme. Of course, in humans, differences in wealth and education tend to play a large role in many people’s choice of partner and may drown out the unconscious signals of MHC gene matching. Jacob, S., McClintock, M.K., Zelana, B., & Ober, C. (2002, February). Paternally inherited HLA alleles are associated with women’s choice of male odor. Nature Genetics, 30, 175-179.

7G: Rejection Sensitivity in Romantic Relationships (LO 7.8) Rejection sensitivity is the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection by significant others. According to Downey et al. (2000), rejection sensitivity may make people more vulnerable toward maladaptive styles of coping within intimate relationships. These researchers found that rejection-sensitive men with high investment in their relationship were more likely to display violence to their partners’ negative or ambiguous behavior. Rejection-sensitive men with low involvement, however, were more likely to prevent anticipated rejection by reducing their investment in the intimate relationship. Looking at rejection-sensitivity in women, Ayduk et al. (2001) found that compared to low rejection-sensitive women, women high in rejection-sensitivity became more depressed following a partner-initiated breakup, but not when they experienced a self-initiated or mutually initiated breakup. These results suggest that depression in high rejection-sensitive women is due to the failure to prevent rejection in an intimate relationship. Ayduk, O., Downey, G., & Kim, M. (2001). Rejection sensitivity and depressive symptoms in women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 868-877. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 108

Downey, G., Feldman, S., & Ayduk, O. Rejection sensitivity and male violence in romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 7, 45-61.

7H: Physiology of Loneliness Loneliness, a complex set of feelings and reactions to unfulfilled social needs, is a major risk for psychological disturbances. Recently, Cacioppo et al. (2000) have found that loneliness may also have powerful effects on one’s physiology. In a study involving over 2,000 undergraduate students, individuals who were chronically lonely had higher levels of daily mean salivary cortisol levels, suggesting they may experience higher levels of physiological stress. Cacioppo, J.T., et al. (2000). Lonely traits and concomitant physiological process: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 35, 143-154.

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7I: “Top-Ten” Qualities in a Romantic Partner (LO 7.11) Ask your students to rank the top 10 factors that they consider are most important in the development of a romantic relationship. Have them discuss any gender differences in the top-ten lists. Gilmour (1988) found American men and women produced entirely different lists. The rankings are as follows: Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Women successful leadership good job skills earning potential sense of humor intellectual attractive commonsensical athletic logical

Men attractive good in bed affectionate good social skills good homemaker stylish sensitive tasteful moral artistic

Gilmour, R. (1988). Desirable and negative qualities. In P. Marsh (Ed.), Eye to eye. Topsfield, MA: Salem House Publishers.

7J: Using Deception to Attract a Partner (LO 7.11) Many studies find that women want men who are willing to commit and men want young, beautiful women. Given the prevalence of this stereotype, it makes sense that men and women may have evolved a tendency to play up certain qualities to attract a mate. Ask your students what strategies men (e.g., feigning commitment, exaggerating earning power) and women (e.g., beauty enhancements) use to deceive potential partners. 7K: Origins of Ideas about Love (LO 7.11-7.13) Ask your students to come up with their own definition of love. Have them think about where their definition of love originated. What were the first stories or movies they remember that talked about love? You may want to point out gender differences as your students share their definitions and stories. 7L: Six Styles of Love (LO 7.13) Hendrick and Hendrick (1993) asked students who were currently dating (n = 35) or married (n = 6) to write a personal account of a romantic relationship. The following are excerpts depicting the six major styles of loving (percentages of students who expressed each theme are in parentheses). Storge: Friendship Love (66%). • “We were very close friends—virtually inseparable—but we were not dating. … I’m not sure where our friendship turned into love.” Eros: Passionate Love (34%). • “When we first met, we ended up dancing and talking all night. It was sort of ‘love at first sight’.” Pragma: Logical Love (17%). • “When I met him, I began to realize he was everything I wanted in a man. He matched everything I had on my ‘list’, plus things I hadn’t realized were important.”

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Ludus: Game-Playing Love (2%). • “I find myself being attracted to other girls. I don’t want to hurt her, but I feel so tied down and prevented from being the social, flirtatious person that I really am.” Mania: Possessive Love (2%). • “During the time we were together, I would do practically anything to be with her. …But eventually my jealousy and insecurity made our relationship impossible.” Agape: Selfless Love (2%). • “We are both unselfish and giving with each other, and we make sure to look out for one another’s needs…. It is as if our souls were connected.” Hendrick, S.S., & Hendrick, C. (1993). Lovers as friends. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 459-466.

7M: The Romeo and Juliet Effect: Parental Interference (LO 7.3) How do parents figure into a romantic relationship? The “Romeo and Juliet effect” (Driscoll et al., 1972) suggests that interference by parents may actually drive lovers closer together. Ask students to indicate their direct and indirect experience with parental interference in romantic relationships. Determine whether there is a pattern fitting the Romeo and Juliet effect. Have your students speculate why parental interference may intensify the relationship (e.g., misattribution of arousal, reactance, etc.). Driscoll, R., Davis, K.E., & Lipetz, M.E. (1972). Parental interference and romantic love: The Romeo and Juliet effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 1-10.

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IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A7.1: Proximity and Liking (see Handout 7-1) (LO 7.3) To demonstrate the impact of proximity on friendship, ask your students to do the following exercise: Procedure 1. Ask the students to list their closest friends since childhood and then have them take note of the percentage of times proximity played a role (e.g., friends who lived nearby, shared classes such as homeroom, sat nearby—often alphabetically). Results & Discussion • By show of hands, you can easily determine whether proximity influenced liking. A7.2: Repeated Exposure (see Handout 7-2) (LO 7.3) Ask students to respond to the questions on the handout, indicating whether their first exposure to each item resulted in initial liking or disliking. Encourage them to link their responses back to their readings (for example, did they always not like their least favorite song, right from their first encounter with it?). A7.3: Determinants of Attraction (see Handout 7-3) (LO 7.3, 7.4 & 7.5) To look at several factors simultaneously that may influence liking, try the following exercise: Procedure 1. To demonstrate the potential determinants of attraction, ask your students to write down the names of three close friends. 2. Then, for each friend, ask the students to estimate the degree of similarity and proximity they share with their friends, and to estimate their friends’ and their own level of physical attractiveness. Results & Discussion • Discuss with your students which factors consistently predict friendship patterns. A7.4: Names and Stereotypes (see Handout 7-4) (LO7.4) In the text, a table with sample male and female names is listed along with different attributions. Have students read the traits provided on the handout and come up with a name that may “go with” that trait. Encourage students to provide their first, quick response. In your discussion, you can particularly focus on names that more than one student has generated. A7.5: “Halo” Effect (see Handout 7-5) (LO 7.4) According to the “halo” effect, people show a tendency to attribute more desirable traits to physically attractive people than to unattractive people. To illustrate the halo effect, you can do the following exercise: Procedure 1. Find a picture or photograph of an attractive person and an unattractive person of the same sex. Present the photos as slides or as overheads and ask your students to rate each slide. Results & Discussion • After they finish, collect the rating sheets and calculate a mean for each item for both slides. The results should show a tendency for students to attribute more desirable traits to the physically attractive slide. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 112

•

Discuss what other things people associate with attractiveness (e.g., health, intelligence, and social skills), and why we often make inferences based solely on a person’s physical appearance. As an example, you can discuss how Castallow et al. (1990) found that students asked to read a summary of a harassment trial were twice as likely to find a male defendant guilty if he was unattractive and the female plaintiff was attractive, than vice-versa.

Castallow, W.A. et al. (1990). Effects of physical attractiveness of the plaintiff and defendant in sexual harassment judgments. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 547-562.

A7.6: Adjective Checklist Testing Similarity-Attraction (see Handout 7-6) (LO 7.5) This exercise is designed to test the hypothesis that similarity and attraction are related. It provides very reliable data and generally serves as an interesting introduction to the chapter. Procedure 1. Students are instructed to go through the list of adjectives three times. First, they should go through the list and check those adjectives that describe themselves. Second, they should think of a close friend and check the adjectives that apply. Finally, they should check the adjectives that apply to a person they know, but with whom they could never be friends. Results & Discussion • After the students have completed the checklist, have them count the number of traits in common between themselves and a friend (note: A trait in common occurs whenever a trait is checked for both self and friend, or whenever a trait is unchecked for both). Likewise, have them count the number of traits in common between themselves and a nonfriend. The students will inevitably find they have more in common with their friends than with nonfriends. A7.7: Matching Phenomenon (LO 7.5) Research on mate selection has clearly shown that people are often matched on attractiveness, education, and personality traits. The process of matching could result from (a) equalization strategies—people actively seeking out others who resemble them or (b) maximization strategies—people seeking out the most attractive partners that are available (and by the process of elimination, from more attractive people pairing off together, are left with others that resemble them). To illustrate the matching phenomenon, you can do the following exercise adapted from Ellis & Kelley (1999). Procedure 1. Randomly distribute index cards (face down, so the person cannot see what’s written on it) with either numbers on them (with higher numbers indicating a higher social value) or adjectives (ranging from strongly positive: e.g., smart, social, and spirited to strongly negative: e.g., cowardly, cruel, and crude). 2. Instruct each person to hold the card against their forehead so others can clearly see the information. 3. Tell the class their task is to pair off with another student (ignoring gender). To make an offer, extend your hand to the other person. If you are rejected, continue looking until a partner is found. Results & Discussion • After all pairs are formed, have each student guess out loud what their personal information was, and then discuss which process they used (equalization or maximization) when picking their partner.

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•

This exercise can provide a nice springboard for issues related to mate selection, social exchange, and social perception. For example, you could ask the class if people have a “social value,” and if they do, does a realistic self-perception facilitate the matching process?

Adapted from Ellis, B.J., & Kelley, H.H. (1999). The pairing game: A classroom demonstration of the matching phenomenon. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 118-121.

A7.8: Rating the Sibling Relationship over Time (see Handout 7-7) (LO 7.9) Ask your students if they have at least one sibling. The majority of them will undoubtedly raise their hands. Have them respond to the questions on the handout keeping in mind the sibling that is closest in age to them. An only child can respond to the questions keeping their closest, longest-lasting friendship in mind. Students will probably see a difference in the amount of time spent in joint activities with their sibling across the different stages of life. A7.9: Loneliness (see Handout 7-8) This exercise (adapted from Weiss, 1986) asks students to compare the feelings of emotional isolation with social isolation. Procedure 1. Ask the students to complete Handout 7-8. Results & Discussion • What differences do they find in the two types of isolation? You can relate loneliness to shyness and introversion as well as have students come up with ways to reduce feelings of loneliness. Weiss, A.R. (1986). Teaching counseling and psychotherapy skills without access to a clinical population: The short interview method. Teaching of Psychology; 13, 145-147.

A7.10: Romantic Partner Preferences (see Handout 7-9) (LO 7.11) To determine preferences in choosing a partner, ask the students to complete the following exercise: Procedure 1. Ask your class to complete Handout 7-9 on mate preferences. Results & Discussion • Buss (1990) found that across 37 cultures, “good looks” and “chastity” were rated higher by males than females, whereas “good financial prospect” and “ambition and industriousness” were rated higher by females than males. Both sexes, however, ranked “mutual attraction,” “dependable character,” and “emotional stability” as most important, and “chastity,” and “similar religious” and “similar political backgrounds” as least important. Buss, D.M. et al. (1990). International preferences in selecting mates: A study of 37 cultures. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 21, 5-47.

A7.11: Sexual vs. Emotional Jealousy (see Handout 7-10) (LO 7.11) Researchers (cf. Buss et al., 1996; Buunk et al., 1996) have found that women (across many cultures) are more upset by imagining an emotional infidelity (i.e., your partner falling in love with another person), whereas men are more disturbed by imagining sexual infidelity (i.e., your partner is having sex with another person). From an evolutionary standpoint, men should become most jealous from thoughts of sexual affairs because it reduces the likelihood of passing on their genes to subsequent generations. In Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 114

contrast, women should be particularly averse to their partners becoming emotionally attached to another woman because it might mean fewer resources for themselves and their children (Buss, 1994). Procedure 1. Ask your students to complete Handout 7-10 anonymously. Results & Discussion • Collect the survey, and report the percentages between men and women at the next class. • Ask your students to consider how evolution may explain these findings. Ask your students how this might explain why male polygamy and female monogamy are common across many cultures. Buss, D. (1994). The evolution of desire. New York: Basic Books. Buss, D.M., Larsen, R.J., & Westen, D. (1996). Sex differences in jealousy: Not gone, not forgotten, and not explained by alternative hypotheses. Psychological Science, 7(6), 373-375. Buunk, B.P., et al. (1996). Sex differences in jealousy in evolutionary and cultural perspective: Tests from the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States. Psychological Science, 7(6), 359-363.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Friendship Map (LO 7.3) An exercise that students can carry out in their everyday environment is to construct a friendship map of their dormitory floor. The map should be a summary of who are friends with whom. Ask your students whether proximity has an impact on the development of their friendships? SWF Seeking… (LO 7.11) Hayes (1995) coded over 5,000 personal ads and found that men are looking for attractive, younger women, while women are seeking financially stable older men. These findings can be explained socially (e.g., men are more concerned with physical attractiveness, whereas women want a partner who is a good financial prospect) or in evolutionary terms (e.g., younger women have a reproductive advantage, while older males are more likely to provide shelter and security). Ask your students to examine the personal ads to look for trends in age preferences, attraction, and other desirable qualities by gender and sexual orientation. Hayes, A.F. (1995). Age preferences for same- and opposite-sex partners. Journal of Social Psychology, 135, 125-133.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES The Familiar Face of Love (1989, 47 minutes, IM). • John Money examines the process of falling in love and choosing a mate. Friendship (1989, 30 minutes, PSU). • Examines determinants of attraction such as proximity, similarity, commitment, and mutual selfdisclosure.

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Gender and Relationships (1990, 30 minutes, IM). • Examines the factors that relate to attraction, love, and gender differences in sexual attitudes. Sexual Attraction (1997, 48 minutes, IM). • Examines human sexual attraction from psychological, biological, and anthropological perspectives. Chemistry of Love (1997, 60 minutes, IM). • Examines the role hormones and brain chemistry play in romantic love and sexual attraction. Divorce: For Better or Worse (1976, 51 minutes, PSU). • Focuses on actual case histories of divorced and separated couples and on the emotional and financial toll that divorce exacts. Human Sexuality (It’s Personal) (2000, 28 minutes, IM). • Explores the development of sexual behavior and how AIDS and STDs have altered patterns of sexual behavior. Love and Sex (1985, 52 minutes, FHS). • Phil Donahue takes viewers on an odyssey investigating love, monogamy, heterosexuality, and homosexuality. Love Tapes (1980, 30 minutes, PSU). • Interviews a varied sample of people talking candidly about their experiences with love and relationships. Morning After (1983, 17 minutes, FL). • Shows the vulnerability of a seemingly cool, sophisticated man during the breakup of a long-term relationship.

RELEVANT SOURCES Baumeister, R.F. (Ed.) (2001). Social psychology and human sexuality: Essential readings. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Presents a collection of contemporary articles dealing with social aspects of human sexuality such as gender and sexual behavior, homosexuality, and infidelity. Berscheid, E. (1994). Interpersonal relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 79-129. • Discusses the growing area of relationship cognition and the progress made in research on love, social support, jealousy, and dissolution of relationships. Bradbury, T. N., & Karney, B. R. (2010). Intimate Relationships. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. • Provides an overview of the area of intimate relationships. Brown, S.L., & Lewis, B.P. (2004). Relational dominance and mate-selection criteria: Evidence that males attend to female dominance. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 406-415. • Presents a study examining whether males preferred a subordinate partner in a long-term relationship.

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Carbery, J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Friendship and need fulfillment during three phases of young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 393-409. • Explores changes that occur interpersonally during adolescence and young adulthood. Clarke, V., & Finlay, S.J. (2004). For better or worse? Lesbian and gay marriage. Feminism and Psychology, 14, 17-23. • Summarizes the current debate over gay marriages, with a focus on the varying rules and regulations across different countries. Cupach, W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (Eds.). (2010). The Dark Side of Close Relationships II. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. • Explores the negative or dysfunctional outcomes that can occur in relationships. Doskoch, P. (1997, Jul/Aug). Thirty years of sex, love, and psychology. Psychology Today, 30, pp. 33-35. • Examines excerpts from some of the most memorable articles over the past 30 years dealing with love and sex. Dryer, C., & Horowitz, L.M. (1997). When do opposites attract? Interpersonal complementarity versus similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 592-603. • Reports two studies exploring the effects of similarity and complementarity on satisfaction in relationships. Heaven, P.C.L., DaSilva, T., Carey, C., & Holen, J. (2004). Loving styles: Relationships with personality and attachment styles. European Journal of Personality, 18, 103-113. • Examines different personality traits (e.g., neuroticism) and their association with different love styles. Hendrick, C., & Hendrick, S.S. (2001). Close relationships: A sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. • Provides panoramic view of close relationship research with highlights on classic, current, and applied research. Kirchler, E. et al. (2001). Conflict and decision making in close relationships. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Focuses on the strategies couples use when making joint decisions on issues such as love, money, work, leisure, and children. Kniffin, K.M., Wilson, D.S. (2004). The effect of nonphysical traits on the perception of physical attractiveness: Three naturalistic studies. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 88-101. • Explores gender differences regarding the influence of nonphysical qualities on evaluations of physical attractiveness. Leone, C., & Hall, I. (2003). Self-monitoring, marital dissatisfaction, and relationship dissolution: Individual differences in orientations to marriage and divorce. Self and Identity, 2, 189-202. • Provides evidence that high versus low self-monitors will have different rates of marital dissatisfaction and marital termination. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 117

Sigelman, C.K., Thomas, D.B., Sigelman, L., & Ribich, F.D. (1986). Gender, physical attractiveness, and electability: An experimental investigation of voter biases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 229-248. • Discusses the phenomenon of attractiveness working against women and for men in political races. Reis, H, T., & Rusbult, C. E. (Eds.) (2004). Close relationships: Key readings in social psychology. New York: Psychology Press. • This collection includes both classic and contemporary approaches to some of the most important and influential issues in the study of relationships. Vangelisti, A. L., & Perlman D. (Eds.) (2006). The Cambridge Handbook of Personal Relationships. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. • Provides an authoritative overview of personal relationships.

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CHAPTER 8 Social Influence: Changing Others’ Behavior CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

Conformity: Group Influence in Action p. 255

Lecture Launchers: 8A, 8B In-Class Activities: A8.1, A8.2, A8.3, A8.4, A8.5 Out-of-Class Activities: “Measuring Social Influence” “Norm Violation Exercise” Lecture Launchers: 8C, 8D, 8E, 8F In-Class Activities: A8.6, A8.7

MC 1-47 FI 1-5 SA 1-7 ES 1-2

Slides 4-21

Watch: Social Influence Public Service Ad Mistakes

MC 48-78 FI 6-7 SA 8 ES 3-4 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: “Car Salesman Example”

Slides 22-28

Watch: Car Salesman Example

Lecture Launchers: 8G

MC 79-82 FI 8-9 SA 9

Slides 29-30

Watch: Why Are Young Girls Dressing So Sexily?

Lecture Launchers: 8H, 8I, 8J In-Class Activities: A8.8, A8.9, A8.10, A8.11

MC 83-90 FI 10 SA 10

Slides 31-35

Watch: Milgram Obedience Study

Emotions and Social Perception: Emotional Contagion Learning Objectives: 8.1-8.9

Compliance: To Ask— Sometimes—Is To Receive p. 273 Social Life in a Connected World: The use of Social Influence Tactics by Scammers on the Web –Internet Daters Beware Learning Objective: 8.10 Symbolic Social Influence: How We Are Influenced by Others Even When They Are Not There p. 279

Listen: Door-in-the-Face Technique

Learning Objective: 8.11

Obedience to Authority: Would You Harm an Innocent Stranger If Ordered to Do So? p. 281 Learning Objectives: 8.12-8.13

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KEY TERMS autokinetic phenomenon (p. 259) cohesiveness (p. 260) compliance (p. 255) conformity (p. 254) deadline technique (p. 277) descriptive norms (p. 261) door-in-the-face technique (p. 276) foot-in-the-door technique (p. 275) informational social influence (p. 262) injunctive norms (p. 261)

introspection illusion (p. 257) low-ball procedure (p. 275) normative focus theory (p. 261) normative social influence (p. 262) obedience (p. 255) playing hard to get (p. 277) social influence (p. 254) social norms (p. 255) symbolic social influence (p. 255) “that’s-not-all” technique (p. 276)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 8, students should be able to: 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12

8.13

Explain the differences between conformity, compliance, obedience, and symbolic social influence. Explain what a “social norm” is and how it functions. Outline the methods, goals, and general findings from Asch’s famous studies of conformity. Understand what Sherif’s studies on the autokinetic effect tell us about how and why norms develop. Consider how cohesiveness and group size affect conformity. Contrast descriptive and injunctive norms and, in doing so, state the relevance of normative focus theory. Identify the differences between normative and informational social influence. Discuss the various reasons why we sometimes do not or cannot conform. Consider when and how the minority can influence the majority. List the six basic principles of compliance and the seven tactics for gaining compliance that are grounded in these principles. Explain what is meant by symbolic social influence. Provide a detailed overview of the initial Milgram obedience study, including its methods, results, and ethical concerns. Also, provide a few examples of subsequent obedience studies conducted by Milgram and their results. Describe the social psychological basis for destructive obedience and how individuals can resist its effects.

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CHAPTER 8 OUTLINE SOCIAL INFLUENCE: CHANGING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR I. On a daily basis, we try to influence the behavior or beliefs of others, just as others constantly try to influence us. Social influence refers to the efforts by people to change the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of other people (LO 8.1). A. The aspects of social influence include: 1. Conformity (pressure to act in line with social norms) 2. Compliance (making a direct request of another person) 3. Symbolic social influence (where our behavior can be influenced by another person who is not even with us at the time) 4. Obedience (where people are basically ordered to perform a certain behavior) II. Conformity: Group Influence in Action A. Conformity involves pressure to “fit it” or to adhere to certain unwritten rules regarding behavior. (LO 8.2) 1. The rules that tell us how we are expected to act in different situations are known as social norms. a) Social norms can be explicit (e.g., handicapped parking signs) or implicit (e.g., showing up “fashionably late” to a party). Whichever type of social norm is in use, it is a powerful influence and most people adhere to them (e.g., standing for a country’s national anthem). 2. Although it may seem that conformity violates our freedom, we need to conform in many situations to maintain social order. B. How much do we conform? More than we think 1. We are influenced by social norms much more than we think, Pronin, Berger and Molouki (2007) referred to this phenomenon as the introspection illusion – Our belief that social influences plays a smaller role in shaping our won action than it does in shaping the actions of others. C. Asch’s research on conformity: Social pressure—the irresistible force? (LO 8.3) 1. Asch’s research, conducted in the 1950s, involved participants viewing a “standard line.” They then viewed three “comparison lines” of different lengths. Their task was to state which of the comparison lines was the same as the standard line. The answer seemed quite obvious, but Asch had confederates choose the wrong answer (the confederates always answered before the actual participant). In a large number of cases, the participant went along with/conformed to the others in the group, even though they stated a wrong answer. Seventy-six percent gave the wrong answer at least once. 2. It is important to note that not all participants followed the group, but a large number did indeed give in to the pressure to conform. 3. In later studies, when just one of the confederates disagreed with the others, or chose a different answer, conformity diminished. Other studies involved the participants writing their response (as opposed to saying them out loud). In this case, conformity decreased dramatically. a) This points to the difference between public conformity (agreeing with others around us; doing what they do) and private acceptance (truly feeling or thinking the way other people do). We may engage in public conformity, but may not actually change our personal opinions (Maas & Clark, 1984). D. Sherif’s research on the autokinetic phenomenon: How norms emerge (LO 8.4) Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 121

1. Muzafer Sherif (1937) used the autokinetic phenomenon (the fact that when placed in a completely dark room and exposed to a single, solitary point of light, most people perceive the light as moving) to examine two important questions. a) How do norms develop in social groups b) How strong is the influence of social norms on behavior once those norms emerge 2. Sherif’s findings indicate that we have a strong desire to be correct and to behave in an appropriate way. Social norms develop and are maintained to help us attain these goals. E. Factors affecting conformity: Variables that determine the extent to which we “Go Along” 1. Cohesiveness and conformity: Being influenced by those we like. (LO 8.5) a) Cohesiveness is the extent to which we are attracted to a particular social group and want to belong to it. b) When cohesiveness is high (i.e., when we like and respect people and feel closely tied to them) the pressure to conform is magnified. c) When cohesiveness is low, we feel little pressure to conform (because we do not want to be like those people that we do not like or respect). 2. Conformity and group size: Why more is better with respect to social pressure. (LO 8.5) a) Many early researchers discovered that conformity rises as there are more members of a group, but after about three people, it either levels off or is reduced. b) However, more recent research indicates that with eight or more people, conformity increases. c) In sum, it seems as though the bigger the group, the more pressure to conform. 3. Descriptive and injunctive social norms: How norms affect behavior. (LO 8.6) a) Descriptive norms are those that describe what people do under different circumstances. b) Injunctive norms are those that tell us what is “approved or disapproved behavior” under different circumstances. (1) These injunctive norms can be quite powerful, but they are sometimes ignored. (2) Normative focus theory proposes that norms will have an influence on our behavior only if they are personally relevant. F. The social foundations of conformity: Why we often choose to “go along” (LO 8.7) 1. Conformity stems from our need to be liked and accepted as well as our need to have a precise understanding of our social world (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Insko, 1985). a) In order to get others to like us, we want to appear similar to them. We conform to social norms because we can be confident that others will like us as a result. (1) Normative social influence refers to social influences stemming from our need to be liked and accepted by others. We make changes in our behavior to conform to others’ expectations. b) Informational social influence refers to a type of social influence rooted in our need to have correct perceptions of the social world. (1) Example: when we are trying to decide on a political issue, we look to others. We let their opinions and behaviors guide what is acceptable. We use other people as a rich information source about many features of the social world. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 122

(2) Informational social influence comes into play, of course, in situations where we are feeling uncertain. In cases where we have more confidence in our own opinions and behaviors, the influence is much less powerful. G. The downside of conformity: When pressures to go along produce harmful effects 1. Our tendency to conform can sometimes result in harmful effects a) Gender norms are norms that indicate how women and men are expected to behave. (1) Conforming to such norms can produce negative effects such as the case with the famous Stanford prison study where students were assigned to play the role of prisoners or guards. The purpose of the study was to determine whether participants would come to behave like real guards and real prisoners—would they conform to the norms established for their respective roles. (a) The prisoners were rebellious at first, but then become passive and depressed. (b) Guards grew increasing brutal and sadistic (c) Key point of the study – it is the situations in which people find themselves – not their personal traits that largely determine behavior. H. Why, sometimes, we choose not to go along: the effects of power, basic motives, and the desire for uniqueness (LO 8.8) 1. Although many people give in to the pressure of norms, there are still those who “do their own thing.” Valuing individuality and control over our own lives helps us to resist the pressure to conform. a) People who possess power or are merely primed to think about it are less likely to conform. b) People have a motive to be unique – the need for uniqueness – and when this is threatened they are less likely to conform. I. Do women and men differ in the tendency to conform 1. Just like men women are more likely to conform when they are uncertain about how to behave or about the correctness of their judgments. a) Earlier studies on conformity used materials more familiar to men, and this is why they may have concluded that women were more likely to conform. b) Women are generally not more susceptible to conformity pressures than men. J. Minority Influence: Does the Majority Always rule (LO 8.9) 1. In some cases, a minority opinion can overtake the majority and be accepted. 2. The people in the minority group must have consistency in their opposition to the majority as well as display that they can be flexible in their opinions. In addition, if the opinion of the minority mirrors contemporary social trends, they are more likely to have an impact on the majority. III. Compliance: To Ask—Sometimes—Is To Receive (LO 8.10) A. Compliance: the underlying principles 1. Compliance is defined as asking people directly to go along with a request. 2. Cialdini (1994) identified six underlying principles of compliance: a) Friendship/Liking: we are more likely to comply if a friend or someone we like makes a request as opposed to a stranger or someone we do not like. b) Commitment/Consistency: if we have made a commitment to a position or action, we tend to comply with requests for actions that are consistent with the position or action as opposed to requests that are inconsistent. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 123

B.

C.

D.

E.

c) Scarcity: we tend to comply with a request if it involves outcomes or objects that are relatively scarce. d) Reciprocity: we are more likely to comply if the request comes from someone who has done a favor for us in the past. e) Social Validation: we are more likely to comply if we believe that similar others are behaving in the same way. f) Authority: we are more likely to comply if the request comes from an authority figure (it can be someone with real authority or someone who “appears” to have authority). Tactics based on friendship or liking: Ingratiation 1. Ingratiation involves first getting another person to like us, thereby increasing the odds that they will comply with our requests. a) Many of the tactics described in Chapter 3 are relevant here, including flattery and doing favors for the person we want to comply with us. b) Incidental similarity has been studied by Burger and colleagues (2004). This refers to the idea that if we draw attention to a small similarity between ourselves and a target person (e.g., that we have the same birthday), this increases liking and, in turn, increases the likelihood of compliance. Tactics based on commitment or consistency: The foot-in-the-door and the lowball 1. The foot-in-the-door technique is a procedure for increasing compliance in which we begin with a small request and, once this request is agreed to, we move on to a larger request (the one we had been looking to have granted all along). This is based on consistency; we tend to grant the larger request because it is consistent with our granting of the smaller request earlier. 2. The lowball procedure involves getting others to comply by changing a deal after the person has accepted it. Because the target person has already made a commitment, it is difficult to walk away even though there have been changes made. Tactics based on reciprocity: The door-in-the face and the “that’s not all” approach 1. The door-in-the-face technique is a compliance strategy involving making a large, outrageous request first and, once it is refused, move to a smaller request (the one that we had been looking to have granted all along). This apparent “concession” puts subtle pressure on the other side to compromise too. 2. The that’s-not-all technique is a compliance strategy in which a requester adds additional bonuses to “sweeten the deal” before the target person has accepted the deal. a) This tactic works through reciprocity. Persons on the receiving end of this approach view the “extra” thrown in by the other side as an added concession, and so feel obligated to make a concession themselves. Tactics based on scarcity: Playing hard to get and fast-approaching-deadline technique 1. It is a general rule of life that things that are scarce, rare, or difficult to obtain are viewed as being more valuable than those that are plentiful or easy to obtain. Thus, we are often willing to expend more effort or go to greater expense to obtain these items. 2. Playing hard to get is a procedure that gets people to comply with requests by pointing out that an object is difficult to obtain (e.g., a job candidate is more likely to get a job if they indicate that they are entertaining other offers). 3. The deadline technique involves inducing compliance by suggesting that targets have a finite amount of time to take advantage of a special deal (e.g., indicating that prices on an item will increase once a sale is over).

IV. Symbolic Social Influence: How We are Influenced by Others Even When They Are Not (LO 8.11)

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A. Symbolic social influence is a type of social influence where mental representations of others are influencing our behavior. In other words, another person need not be present (and deliberately trying to change our behavior) for them to have an impact on us. B. How we think important others would react to our behavior can influence us. For example, we may drive cautiously because we hear a parent’s voice in our minds telling us to do so. C. Our relationships with important others, our goals for our relationships, and the goals others want for us can all exert a powerful effect on our behavior. V. Obedience to Authority: Would You Harm an Innocent Stranger If Ordered to Do So A. When responding to obedience, another type of social influence, we behave a certain way because another person has directly told us to do so (e.g., a parent). B. Obedience in the Laboratory 1. Milgram’s Obedience Studies: (LO 8.12) a) Milgram’s interest in obedience stemmed from attempting to make sense of how the Nazis would obey orders to murder many people at once. b) In his research laboratory, Milgram set up the following experiment: (1) An actual participant was the “teacher” and a confederate was the “learner.” (2) The teacher was instructed to deliver increasingly painful electric shocks when the learner made a mistake. (3) Of course the learner never received any real shocks, but the participant did not know that at the time. (4) When the learner began to protest as the teacher went higher and higher on the shock scale, many participants wished to stop, but were urged to continue by the researcher. (5) Findings indicated that 65% of participants obeyed and delivered the highest-possible level of shock to the learner, even when they supposedly fainted and therefore were no longer responding. c) Milgram’s work seemed to indicate that even though they may protest, ordinary individuals are willing to inflict harm on a stranger simply because an authority figure has told them to do so. C. Destructive obedience: Why it occurs (LO 8.13) 1. The type of obedience seen in Milgram’s studies may have occurred because the person in authority is assumed to take the responsibility for the consequences of one’s actions. 2. There are also outward indicators of someone’s authority, thereby reminding people of the norm to “obey the person in charge.” In Milgram’s studies, the experimenter was wearing a white lab coat. 3. Similar to the foot-in-the-door technique, the authority figure in Milgram’s study gradually increased the commands that were given to the participant, which may have contributed to the results. 4. The fast pace of the laboratory experiment may have also led to the type of obedience seen in Milgram’s studies. D. Destructive obedience: resisting its effects (LO 8.13) 1. If one is reminded that they, not the authority figure, will be held responsible for their actions, they are much less likely to obey. 2. One also needs to be reminded that once they reach a certain point, blind obedience is no longer appropriate. The use of disobedient models can help, because these individuals refuse to give in to the authority figure’s demands to obey. 3. If one begins to question the motives of the authority figure, they may be better able to resist obedience. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 125

4. In addition, knowing the findings of obedience research in social psychology can help people resist the harmful effects of unquestioned obedience.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 8A: Conformity in College (LO 8.2) Have your students reflect on their experience with adhering to social norms. What are the current norms for college students? Is the pressure to conform implicit or explicit? Would they define peer pressure the same now as when they were in high school? 8B: Facing a Unanimous Majority (LO 8.8) Asch’s (1951) studies clearly illustrate the impact that an ally can have on resisting conformity. Facing a unanimous majority alone can be a daunting experience, especially a hostile majority. For example, take the case of Shannon Faulkner, the first woman admitted into the all-male military academy, The Citadel. After quitting The Citadel, she was quoted as saying, “Even if just one female had been there with me, there would have been someone to share it [stress] with….” “People don’t know how much hell I’ve been through.” (1995, August 28). Newsweek. p. 40.

8C: Three Basic Appeals Used in Advertising (LO 8.10) Makosky (1985) suggests asking students to bring in magazines so they can identify the three basic appeals used in advertising. The first of these appeals is “the appeal to or creation of needs.” It is based on four of the needs in Maslow’s hierarchy. Examples include: • • • •

“Snickers: get a hungerectomy” (physiological needs) “Carbonite computer backup: safe, simple, always on” (safety and security needs) “Axe touch body spray: she’ll want your touch ” (belongingness and love needs) “Fuji Flim: You don’t have to be a pro to take pictures like one.” (self-esteem and status needs)

The second group is “social and prestige suggestion” appeals—buy it because all kinds of people do. Examples include: • •

the “Pepsi generation” Michael Jordan for Wheaties, various famous athletes for light beer

The third, and most subtle, kind of appeal is “loaded words and images.” Examples include: • • • •

ads with attractive, athletic people touting snacks like Snickers candy bars the use of buzzwords such as “green” for beauty products or foods “light” in order to make all kinds of foods seem dietetic the BMW emblem, which suggests wealth and status

When discussing the ads, other questions for groups to consider are: What kinds of ads appeal to men and what kinds to women? What kinds of ads may actually backfire? What kinds of ads are most effective for what kinds of products? What kinds of ads are most effective for which age groups? What is the true meaning of the ad? For example, “Buy a BMW so people will think you are rich, sporty, and sexy” or “Eat Wheaties so you can be more like Michael Jordan.” Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 126

Makosky, V P. (1985). Identifying major techniques of persuasion. Teaching of Psychology,12, 42-43.

8D: Messages Behind Today’s Cults (LO 8.10) To discourage stereotyping cult members as gullible losers looking for eternal salvation, Zimbardo (1997) offers the following observations based on his years of research on cults: • • • • •

No one ever joins a “cult.” People initially join groups that fulfill their needs. Groups become more cult-like when they begin using deceptive and dangerous tactics on their members. Cults offer people values that may be missing in society. Thus, in some cases, society may be failing its citizens. Many people today live in a transitional state—thus a cult offers a false sense of stability. Anyone is vulnerable to engage in immoral, destructive behavior if the situation overrides their individual dispositions. Cults do not use exotic forms of mind control; rather they use common compliance strategies with greater intensity and persistence.

Zimbardo, P.G. (1997, May). What messages are behind today’s cults? APA Monitor, 29, p. 14.

8E: Everyday Examples of Compliance Strategies (LO 8.10) Ask your students to generate a list of compliance strategies they have experienced in their everyday lives. For example, has anyone tried to buy a car and once they have a deal with the salesperson, the manager changes it? Has anyone given in to “one-day sales” for fear that prices would skyrocket the day after the sale? 8F: How Banning Items Can Have the Opposite Effect (LO 8.10) When I (D. Miller) was younger I received a telephone call from one of my friends. He told me that he just heard on the news that Wal-Mart was removing a particular album from its stores because of explicit lyrics. He also told me that he went to our local record store to buy the above mentioned album before this store also removed it from their shelves, even though he had never heard of the album or the particular artist. Discuss with your class how banning albums or video games can actually make them more attractive to children because of scarcity and reactance. 8G: Can People Influence us When They are Not Even Present? (LO 8.11) Throughout this chapter, we have been talking about how others can influence us to behave in certain ways, but can these people influence us when they are not even present. Surprisingly the answer seems to be yes! For example, how often have you decided to say home and study instead of going out with friends because you thought that was what your parents would like you to do. Thus, your parents didn’t even have to be there to tell you to study to influence your behavior, just thinking about what they would like you to do influenced your behavior. This type of social influence is known as symbolic social influence. 8G: Can People Be Trained to Become Torturers? (LO 8.13) Numerous studies in social psychology have shown how everyday people can commit unthinkable acts caused by the step-by-step power of the situation. Many of the same mechanisms manipulated in laboratory studies have been shown to underlie the origins of human torture and slaughter (Staub, 1989). In one study, Gibson and Haritos-Fatouros (1986) investigated the procedures used to train Greek military police to become willing torturers. They discuss such foot-in-the-door techniques as: basic training • physically brutal initiation rites Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 127

•

swear allegiance to symbol of authority

reducing sensitivity to torture • recruits had to endure torture and scream chants about violence and killing systematic desensitization and social modeling • recruits gradually exposed to prisoners (bring food)watch veterans torture and get rewardedparticipate in group beatingseventually perform solo beatings Gibson, J.T., & Haritos-Fatouros, M. (1986). The education of a torturer. Psychology Today, 20, 50-58. Staub, E. (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

8H: Personality and Obedience (LO 8.13) Are certain people more likely to obey an authority figure? Researchers (e.g., Adorno, 1950) found that people high on authoritarianism—tendency to adopt a submissive attitude toward authorities and an intolerance for weakness—were more likely to show obedience. A quick measure of authoritarianism consists of the following items: 1. 2. 3. 4.

What young people need most of all is strict discipline by their parents. Most people who don’t get ahead just don’t have enough willpower. A few strong leaders could make this country better than all the laws. People sometimes say that an insult to your honor should not be forgotten.

Christie, R. (1992). Authoritarianism and related constructs. In J. Robinson, P. Shaver, & L. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press (pp. 501-572).

8I: How Psychology Can Help Explain the Iraqi Prisoner Abuse (LO 8.13) Americans were shocked by the photos of U.S. soldiers abusing Iraqi prisoners, and many wanted to know why “seemingly normal” people could have behaved so sadistically. Have your students talk about what the Stanford prison and Milgram experiments tell us about what happened in Iraq. How do these experiments help to explain what was seen in the photos out of the Abu Ghraib prison?

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IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A8.1: Conforming to Voice Amplitude (LO 8.2) This exercise can demonstrate the often subtle nature of conformity. Procedure Note: Tape the session without students’ knowledge by placing a tape recorder where you can see it, but the students cannot. 1. Begin a lecture talking in an unusually low voice approaching a whisper. 2. While the tape is running, elicit questions and comments from class members. 3. As the lecture continues, slowly begin to raise your voice until it goes well above its normal level, again asking for questions and comments. Results & Discussion • Before playing back the tape, ask the students if they are, at this point, aware of conforming to subtle pressure applied by you. • Pick out a few students you have on the tape and ask each if he or she felt any pressure to conform to your voice amplitude. If they deny it, play the tape back for her or him. A8.2: Norm Formation Using a Time Estimation Task (LO 8.4) To demonstrate how norms are formed, Montgomery and Enzie (1971) suggest doing a quick test of time estimation. Have your students do the following: Procedure 1. Ask them to remove their watches and refrain from looking at the clock and from counting to themselves. 2. For the first trial tell them, “I am going to give you a time interval and I want you to write down how long you think it was on a piece of paper” (use a 45-second interval). 3. For the second trial, use the same 45-second interval, but this time ask your students to give their responses publicly, one by one, and write them down in a column on the board. 4. Collect the papers from the first trial and write down the estimates in another column on the board. Results & Discussion • Typically, you find much lower variation in the public condition. You can discuss such issues as normative and informational social influence, as well as potential variations to this exercise (e.g., friends vs. strangers, high vs. low status, etc.). Montgomery, R.L., & Enzie, R. F. (1971). Social influence and the estimation of time. Psychonomic Science, 22, 77-78.

A8.3: Symbols for the Study of Aesthetics (see Handout 8-1) (LO 8.2-8.4) Before getting into the conformity material, tell your students that you would like to replicate an experiment on “aesthetics.” Procedure 1. Tell them you are interested in comparing results of an aesthetics study from this class with the results from previous classes. 2. Prior to distributing Handout 8-1, pick one symbol for each row (e.g., 1-C, 2-A, etc.). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 129

3. After distributing the handout, tell the students that for each row, previous students tend to find one symbol more interesting than the others. Tell them which symbol (randomly chosen by you) was rated highest for each row. 4. Then ask the students to pick the symbol they think is the most interesting and intriguing for each row. Then ask the students to exchange sheets and score each other’s sheets. 5. Beginning with row 1, call out the “previous students’ favorite” and tell them to circle the number for each row that matches the previous students’ favorites. Results & Discussion • After collecting the sheets, explain that actually the symbols were picked at random. Report to the class the percentage of students who “agreed” with the “phantom” student responses at least six out of ten times. • Similar to Asch, you may find that at least 30 percent of students will have “gone along” in a majority of the ten cases. Explain to them how the previous students may have been exerting subtle pressure on them to make the same choices they supposedly made. A8.4: How Do We Treat Nonconformists? (see Handout 8-2a and 8-2b) (LO 8.2-8.4) To determine how nonconformists are treated, Schachter (1951) asked a small group of subjects to determine the fate of Johnny Rocco, a juvenile delinquent. One of the subjects was confederate (a young Bibb Latané) who was instructed by Schachter to pick a deviant, unpopular response and refuse to give in to group pressure. Needless to say, Bibb’s nonconformity led the group to dislike him the most. To replicate this finding, Goethals (1998) suggests having your class work on a similar scenario. The step-by-step procedure is as follows: Procedure The Set-up (do this the class before you do this exercise) 1. At the end of class as students are leaving, wait until there are a handful of students remaining (these will be your confederates). Ideally you want one confederate in each group (5 people per group). 2. Briefly explain to them the scenario (i.e., Reggie is a juvenile delinquent who has gotten into trouble with the law—you must determine the severity of his punishment) (see Handout 8-2a). 3. To ensure the confederates pick an unpopular response, tell them to choose the most severe punishment (#7; see Handout 8-2b). 4. Tell them they will be discussing the level of punishment in small groups, and that no matter how much pressure they feel to conform, they should stick with their initial, extreme response. (To help them, I suggest arming them with arguments such as: society needs to be protected, punishment is needed to unlearn the crimes, and Reggie took advantage of the system.) The Big Day 5. Instruct your students to get into small groups of five (make sure each confederate is in a different group). 6. Distribute Handout 8-2a and Handout 8-2b to each student and have them read the scenario individually. Then ask them to discuss as a group what punishment Reggie should receive. Tell them their goal is to try to reach consensus as a group. 7. After the groups deliberate for 10-15 minutes, go around to each group and ask if they have reached consensus (of course none of them will, and many will say “well we would if it wasn’t for this one person”). While doing this, assign each member a number from 1 to 5 always making sure the confederate receives the #5. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 130

8. Tell each student to individually rank each member of the group from highest to lowest on “who you would most likely want to serve on a jury with.” 9. When everyone is finished ranking, ask them “how many of you ranked #5 lowest?” Results & Discussion • Typically I (G. Schreer) find that over 80% rank #5 the lowest. After telling the class that I planted a nonconformist in each group (much to their surprise), an insightful discussion ensues on how we treat those who dissent from the majority. Below, one nonconformist sums up the feelings of many: “I became quite uncomfortable when peers that I respect, became a bit disgusted by my stubborn answer. I completely agreed with every idea that the group brought to the table, yet I had to pretend that I did not care. I refused to conform, and the process was unexpectedly discomforting. I felt extremely nervous and just wanted everyone else to know that I was not a cruel, heartless person. When the class discussed the results, it was a relief to finally give my true feelings, and the ‘thick air’ began to dissipate.” Adapted from Goethals, G.R. (1998, January). Presentation at the 20th National Annual Institute on the Teaching of Psychology, St. Petersburg, FL. Schachter, S. (1951). Deviation, rejection, and communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 190-207.

A8.5: Resisting Conformity (LO 8.8) One way to resist conformity is to increase the need for individuation or personal freedom. Bernstein suggests you can show this by telling your students, “I can easily demonstrate how predictable and compliant people are. Everybody raise your pens and when I say drop them, drop them in unison.” Usually the majority of the students will resist conforming. A8.6: Foot-in-the-Door Technique (2 separate classes needed) (LO 8.10) This exercise can illustrate the foot-in-the-door technique. Procedure 1. Control Group: Ask students to write their phone numbers on the cards and place them in a receptacle by the door as they leave. Then ask if they are willing to “donate two out-of-class hours of their time to a colleague’s research project.” 2. FITD Group: In another class, ask your students to stay beyond class time for a few minutes to help you with your research. After class, simply write a phone number on the board and indicate a time to call that is convenient to you or your assistant. Make sure that this process only takes a couple of minutes. To those who call, ask whether they are willing to “donate two out-of-class hours of their time to a colleague’s research project.” Results & Discussion • Compare the number of cards you collected with the number of affirmative answers from both groups. Theoretically, the number of students who volunteer to participate in the twohour out-of-class “research” should be greater for the FITD group because they were exposed to the multiple requests.

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A8.7: Using Compliance Techniques for Flu Shots (LO 8.10) Despite the fact that many companies absorb the $8-10 cost per flu shot, the majority of employees still refuse to get them (USA Today, Oct 9, 1997). After discussing the different compliance techniques with your students, ask them to get into small groups and develop a strategy for getting more employees to “roll up their sleeves.” Students in my classes have come up with great examples utilizing foot-in-thedoor, door-in-the-face, contrast effect, cognitive dissonance, ingratiation, systematic processing, and reactance. A8.8: Blind Obedience (LO 8.12) At the start of class, arbitrarily start reseating students to new locations. Giving no reason, order some students to sit in the front row and others to sit in the back, the aisles or in the center portion. Then reshuffle them again, until someone asks “Why?” Discuss what was going through their minds as they were arbitrarily pushed and pulled about and, more importantly, why they complied (e.g., to save themselves or you from embarrassment). An interesting twist on this exercise might occur if someone other than the instructor (e.g., a colleague) conducts this “rearrangement” of the class. How far will students comply or obey when a “stranger” gives them orders? Ask students to consider under what circumstances are obedience and resistance to obedience more likely to occur. A8.9: Milgram’s Obedience Study (see Handout 8-3) (LO 8.12) To introduce the study of obedience, read the following scenario used in Milgram’s studies: Procedure 1. Read the following scenario: Imagine you and another participant arrive at a laboratory for an experiment called “The Effects of Punishment on Learning.” After being greeted by an experimenter, he randomly assigns you to be the “teacher” and the other participant to be the “learner.” The learner is led to another room and hooked up to a machine that will give the learner a shock for each mistake that they make. Your job as teacher is to read a list of word pairs to the learner, and the learner’s job is to remember these pairs. After reading the list of word pairs, you will go back though the list and read the first word of the pair followed by several word options. The learner will attempt to come up with the right answer. If the learner gives the right answer, go on to the next word pair. If the learner gives the wrong answer, you must press a lever on the shock generator. With each mistake the learner makes, you are to move to the next lever. 2. After reading the scenario, distribute Handout 8-3 that asks students to predict at what point they would refuse to continue shocking the learner, and at what point the average college student would disobey. Results & Discussion • Typically, most students will pick low levels of shock (slight to moderate), and many will assume their peers would go higher. • To help students appreciate the powerful situational determinants used in this study, discuss such factors as proximity of authority figure, use of prompts, and gradual increments of the shock generator. Following this discussion, many students will admit they would probably have gone further (however, of course, very few would admit shocking to 450 volts as 65% did in Milgram’s study). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 132

A8.10: Estimates of Level of Obedience (see Handout 8-4) (LO 8.12) As an alternative to the exercise above, do the following exercise: Procedure 1. Show the students one segment from the film Obedience (1965) focusing on one subject in the standard experiment, but do not reveal Milgram’s overall findings. 2. Distribute Handout 8-4, which asks the students to estimate how many out of 100 would obey and whether they personally would obey. Define “obey” as “go all the way to the last switch” (450 volts). Also ask students to indicate whether they had previously heard of or read about Milgram’s work. Results & Discussion • Separate the responses into those who have heard of Milgram’s research and those who have not. For both groups, determine students’ estimates of how many people out of 100 will obey. • You will almost certainly find that students think that fewer than 65 percent of others would obey and that an even smaller proportion of them would obey themselves, regardless of the group. Students with prior information will probably come closer to estimating correctly the proportion of others who would obey, but such knowledge should not affect their estimates of their own behavior very much. A8.11: What Were Milgram’s Subjects Thinking? (see Handout 8-5) (LO 8.12) Students are often fascinated by the findings reported by Milgram (1963), but many fail to appreciate the subtle situational factors that may influence the thoughts of the subjects. Before showing Handout 8-5, ask your students to consider what thoughts were going through the participants’ minds as they progressed through the study. Handout 8-5 provides a useful overhead to discuss some of the possible cognitions elicited by the different situational factors.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Measuring Social Influence (LO 8.2) To demonstrate the power of social influence, Lutsky (1993) suggests having your students develop their own experiment to test on other students. To begin, have the class develop two forms of a survey addressing the same issue (e.g., “How much should you be expected to pay for books each year?”). On half of the surveys, leave 20 blank lines below the question (control group); on the other half, fill in eight lines with bogus numbers (either very high or very low) and phony signatures. Lutsky found that subjects exposed to the eight bogus signatures gave estimates much closer to the phony mean compared to the control group. Lutsky, N. (1993). A scheme and variations for studies of social influence in an experimental social psychology laboratory. Teaching of Psychology, 20, 105-107.

Norm Violation Exercise (LO 8.2 & 8.8) Social psychologists such as Asch and Milgram have repeatedly demonstrated that much of our behavior is influenced by powerful norms, yet many students will deny their vulnerability to these social forces. Instead, they might say they would resist group pressure and not conform or obey. Milgram suggested that one way to feel the potency of social norms was to deliberately violate them. Over the years, he asked his students to violate a norm by singing out loud on a crowded bus or simply Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 133

ask people on a crowded bus or subway to give up their seats without an explanation. Needless to say, many of his students recoiled en masse! For this assignment, ask the students to violate an implicit norm and then analyze both their own and other people’s reactions. The following instructions may be helpful: Step 1: First you need to identify an implicit social norm. Some examples are: • Appearance (wear pink slippers; blue dot on nose) • Interpersonal Behavior (stand too close or far; avoid eye contact) • Social Etiquette (violate elevator norms; eat with mouth open) Note: Be sure to do the behavior several times in different places to note any interesting patterns (e.g., people’s reactions may differ as a function of sex, age, location). Step 2: Incorporate the following points in the paper: • What implicit norm did you violate? • Describe how you violated it. • Analyze your thoughts and feelings while you violated the norm. • Did you gain any insight into your own or others’ behavior? What about the power of the situation? Key social psychological principles to include in your analysis: norms, roleplaying, conformity/nonconformity, normative social influence, cognitive dissonance, and self-monitoring.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Basic Instincts: The Science of Evil (2007, 60 minutes, ABC). • Primetime Re-Creates the Famous Milgram obedience experiment to understand how ordinary people can perform unthinkable acts. Communication: Negotiation and Persuasion (1989, 30 minutes, PSU). • Illustrates many techniques (e.g., nonverbal communication such as facial expression and touch) used to influence others. Conformity and Independence (1975, 23 minutes, PSU). • Presents classic research by Sherif, Asch, Milgram, and Moscovici. Conformity, Obedience, and Dissent (1990, 30 minutes, IM). • Explores classic research on why people conform (Asch), obey (Milgram), and dissent from the majority (Moscovici). Cults: Saying No under Pressure (1991, 29 minutes, IM). • Explores the techniques used by cults to gain compliance and obedience.

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Discovering Psychology: The Power of the Situation (1990, 30 minutes, ANN/CPB). • Presents classic research on social influence by Lewin, Asch, Milgram, Zimbardo, and Langer. Heaven’s Gate Cult: The Thin Line between Faith and Reason (1997, 20 minutes, FHS). • Prominent cult researchers discuss the similarities and differences between cults and organized religion. Invisible Persuaders: The Battle for Your Mind (1994, 22 minutes, LS). • Discusses subtle persuasion techniques such as the scarcity principle, mere exposure, and how packaging affects buying. Obedience (1965, 45 minutes, PSU). • Documents Milgram’s classic obedience study using original footage of subjects and interviews. Quiet Rage: The Stanford Prison Experiment (1990, 50 minutes, Impact). • Shows archival footage of Zimbardo’s landmark study on the power of social situations as well as new footage of Zimbardo escorting current students through a mock prison. The Wave (1984, 46 minutes, DM). • To demonstrate the power of social influence to a skeptical class, a teacher recreates the atmosphere of Nazi Germany by instilling ideas of power, discipline, and superiority in his obeying students.

RELEVANT SOURCES Baron, R.S., Vandello. J.A., & Brunsman, B. (1996). The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 915-927. • Examines how incentives for accuracy (task importance) affect the social influence of inaccurate confederates in a modified Asch situation. Blass, T. (1996). Attribution of responsibility and trust in the Milgram obedience experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1529-1535. • Uses portions of the film Obedience (Milgram, 1965) to explore the naïve social perceiver’s attributions about obedience to authority. Blass, T. (2004). The man who shocked the world: The life and legacy of Stanley Milgram. New York: Basic Books. • Biography of Stanley Milgram. Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Influence: Science and Practice (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. • Written in a narrative style, Cialdini combines evidence from experimental work with the techniques and strategies he gathered while working undercover in sales positions to uncover which factors cause a person to say “yes” to another's request. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 135

Coultas, J.C. (2004). When in Rome… An evolutionary perspective on conformity. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7, 317-331. • Explores the effects of group size on conformity through two experiments. Forgas, J.P., & Williams, K.D. (Eds.). (2001). Social influence: Direct and indirect processes. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Provides a comprehensive background on social influence processes, including both explicit and implicit strategies. Millar, M.G. (2002). The effectiveness of the door-in-the-face compliance strategy on friends and strangers. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 295-304. • Compares participants’ self-presentation concerns when a friend versus a stranger made a request of the participant. Miller, A.G., Collins, B.E., & Brief, D.E. (1995). Perspectives on obedience to authority: The legacy of the Milgram Experiments. Journal of Social issues, 51, 1-20. • Discusses the impact that Milgram’s research had on contemporary research and thought in social psychology. Patch, M.E., Hoang, V.R., & Stahelski, A.J. (1997). The use of metacommunication in compliance: Doorin-the-face and single-request strategies. The Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 88-94. • Proposes that compliance techniques can be enhanced when the target is asked to metacommunicate about the request.

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CHAPTER 9 Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

MYPSYCHLAB

Why People Help: Motives for Prosocial Behavior p. 291

Lecture Launchers: 9A, 9B, 9C In-Class Activities: A9.1 Out-of-Class Activities: “Develop a Simple Helping Situation”*

MC 1-19 FI 1-2 SA 1 ES 1

Slides 4-10

Explore: Why Do People Help

Lecture Launchers: 9D, 9E, 9F, 9G

MC 20-35 FI 3-5 SA 2 MPL Feature Essay EXPLORE: “Decision Model of Helping” MC 36-74 FI 6-10 SA 3-8 ES 2-4

Slides 11-17

Explore: Decision Model of Helping

MC 75-90 SA 9-10

Slides 25-31

Learning Objectives: 9.1

Responding to an Emergency: Will Bystanders Help? p. 296 Learning Objectives: 9.2-9.3

Factors that Increase or Decrease the Tendency to Help p. 301 Learning Objectives: 9.4-9.6

The Effects of Being Helped: Why Perceived Motives Really Matter p. 314

Lecture Launchers: 9I In-Class Activities: A9.2, A9.3, A9.4 Lecture Launchers: 9H

Slides 18-24

Learning Objectives: 9.7 Final Thoughts: Are Prosocial Behavior and Aggression Opposites? p. 316 Learning Objectives: 9.8

*THIS ACTIVITY CAN BE ASSIGNED FOR ANY OF THE SECTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER

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KEY TERMS diffusion of responsibility (p. 297) empathic joy hypothesis (p. 293) empathy (p. 291) empathy-altruism hypothesis (p. 291) kin selection theory (p. 295)

negative-state relief model (p. 293) pluralistic ignorance (p. 299) prosocial behavior (p. 290) social exclusion (p. 310)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 9, students should be able to: 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8

State, define, and contrast the six key models or hypotheses of why we engage in prosocial behavior. Analyze how the murder of Kitty Genovese led to a greater understanding of when and why a person may (or may not) choose to help in an emergency. Outline Latane and Darley’s (1971) five essential steps to a prosocial response in an emergency and note at what point help may be given. Discuss situational factors that can either enhance or inhibit helping. Discuss the nature of empathy, how it develops, and why people may be more likely to help members of their own group. Outline how social exclusion, darkness, and economic value may influence helping behavior. Note the general reactions of those who receive help in terms of how it feels to receive such assistance. Explain how aggression and prosocial behavior are not opposites

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CHAPTER 9 OUTLINE PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: HELPING OTHERS I.

Why People Help: Motives for Prosocial Behavior (LO 9.1) A. This chapter addresses the question of why people in need of help are sometimes assisted by others, and sometimes they are not. 1. Helping another person involves both sacrifice and satisfaction gained from knowing we have helped. This blend of sacrifice and satisfaction remains, regardless of whether the situation is easy and safe (e.g., offering a ride home to someone) or dangerous (e.g., saving someone from a house fire). 2. Prosocial behavior describes any helpful action that will benefit another person. The helping person may not necessarily receive any actual benefits for their help, and it may even pose a risk to them if they do help. B. Empathy-altruism: It feels good to help others 1. One explanation for prosocial behavior involves empathy—the capacity to be able to experience others’ emotional states, feeling sympathetic toward them, and taking their perspective 2. The empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests that at least some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need. a) Empathy consists of three distinct components (1) Emotional empathy – sharing the feelings and emotions of others. (2) Empathic accuracy – perceiving others thoughts and feelings. accurately (3) Empathic concern – feelings of concern for another’s well-being. C. Is empathy declining? And if so why? 1. Students at the present time report lower levels of empathy than students in previous decades (Konrath, O’Brien, & Hsing, 2011) a) There is speculation as to why: maybe it is increased exposure to violence, more emphasis in winning and self-esteem, or maybe less face-to-face interaction because of social networking sites. D. Negative-state relief: Sometimes, helping reduces unpleasant feelings 1. The negative-state relief model suggests that prosocial behavior occurs because helping reduces our own negative, unpleasant emotions. E. Empathic joy: Helping as an accomplishment 1. The empathic joy hypothesis suggests that prosocial acts are motivated by our need for accomplishment, and helping another person is an accomplishment that is rewarding. We need to know that our actions had a beneficial effect on the person in need. F. Why nice people sometimes finish first: competitive altruism 1. The competitive altruism hypothesis suggests that one important reason why people help others is that doing so boosts their own status and reputation and in this way ultimately brings them large benefits, ones that more than offset the costs of engaging in prosocial actions G. Kin selection theory: helping ourselves by helping people who share our genes 1. Research has demonstrated that the greater the genetic similarity, the more likely one organism will assist another when they need help. 2. Inclusive fitness (kin selection) refers to the idea that natural selection applies to behaviors that help others with whom we share genetic material. H. Defensive helping: Helping outgroups to reduce their threat to ones ingroup Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 139

1. Defensive helping – help given to members of out-groups to reduce the threat they pose to the status or distinctiveness of one’s ingroup. a) These acts of help are performed not primarily to help the recipients, but rather to “put them down” in subtle ways and so reduce the threat to the ingroup. II. Responding to an Emergency: Will Bystanders Help? A. Helping in Emergencies: Apathy—or Action? (LO 9.2) 1. When an emergency arises, a number of potential responses may occur, ranging from complete strangers risking their lives to help others, to bystanders completely ignoring the situation. 2. A commonly cited example of apathy was the murder of Kitty Genovese in the 1960’s. She was brutally attacked outside her apartment building. There were many witnesses, but no one came to her aid. a) Darley and Latane (1968) suggested the reason for the lack of help in the Kitty Genovese murder was diffusion of responsibility. This means that how much responsibility falls on each person depends on how many bystanders are present in the situation. If one is alone when an emergency arises, he/she is 100% responsible. If there are one hundred bystanders, however, each person assumes only 1% of the responsibility. So, the more bystanders there are, the less each person feels inclined to help. b) The bystander effect refers to the consistent finding that the probability of prosocial behavior is affected by the number of other people present in the situation. As the amount of bystanders goes up, the likelihood that any one individual will help goes down. In addition, for those who do provide help, there is an increase in how much time passes before help is provided. B. Understanding the bystander effect: Five crucial steps in deciding to help or not (LO 9.3) 1. An individual must first notice that a potential emergency is taking place. If we are busy, asleep, or distracted, we may be less likely to become aware of an unusual situation. Prosocial responses are less likely to occur when we are preoccupied with our own personal problems. 2. Secondly, the event must be correctly interpreted as an emergency. On a daily basis, different events grab our attention, and many of the times it turns out not to be an emergency. Most of the time, we are correct in assuming that there is a logical explanation for an unusual event. However, when an emergency is really happening, this tendency for caution decreases the chances of prosocial behavior. When we are unsure of what is occurring, we tend to take a “wait and see” approach (we need more information before deciding what to do). The witnesses to the Kitty Genovese murder, for example, may have misinterpreted the situation as an argument between a couple. This leads to the idea that not only may diffusion of responsibility occur, but we are also not inclined to help because it would be embarrassing to react to a non-emergency situation as if it were an emergency. a) Pluralistic ignorance refers to our tendency to use social comparison to figure out what to do in a given situation, even though typically, no one is completely sure as to what is happening. More often than not, bystanders do nothing, as they use the behavior of the people around them as justification for failing to act (e.g., “No one else was concerned, so I was not concerned”). b) Studies performed by Latane and Darley (1968) showed that strangers will often not report smoke filling a room if the others in the room are not concerned. c) It is important to note that when we are among friends or acquaintances, the inhibiting effect is reduced (presumably because we are less concerned about being embarrassed if we overreact to a situation). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 140

3. In order to provide help, a bystander must then assume the responsibility for giving the help. a) In many situations, who should help is clear (e.g., a doctor responds to a medical emergency). If who should take responsibility is not clear, then bystanders in any kind of leadership role assume the responsibility (e.g., teachers helping children). 4. The fourth step in deciding whether or not to help is having the right skills to be able to provide help. a) For example, unless we know a lot about cars, we cannot help someone whose car has broken down, other than calling a repair truck. 5. The final step in the helping process is making the decision to help. a) If we do not help at this point, it may be due to fear of possible negative outcomes for ourselves. III. Factors that Increase or Decrease the Tendency to Help A. Situational (external) factors influence helping: Similarity and responsibility (LO 9.4) 1. Helping people we like a) We help people we like than people to whom we have less positive feelings. b) The more similar we are to a person in need, the more likely it is that we will provide help. (1) Similarity seems to influence the emotional component of empathy (empathic concern), but not the cognitive component (empathic accuracy). 2. Helping those who are not responsible for their problem a) In most cases, we are more likely to help someone if we decide that a victim is not responsible for their plight. (1) For example, we may be more likely to help someone who appears to be a mugging victim than someone who appears to have passed out from drinking. B. Exposure to prosocial models increases prosocial behavior a) Someone who becomes a positive model for helping behavior increases the likelihood that we will also help. b) We are more likely to make charitable donations if we observe someone else making a contribution (Macauley, 1970). C. Playing prosocial video games 1. Playing prosocial video games (games in which the characters help one another) increases helping and does so by increasing prosocial thoughts in the player. D. Gratitude: How it increases further helping 1. Thanking those who help increases future helping and it does so by increasing the self-worth of those who have helped. E. Empathy: An important foundation for helping (LO 9.5) 1. Of the internal factors that influence helping, one of the most important is the tendency to experience empathy, which is both an emotional and cognitive response to someone else’s emotional distress. a) Batson, Early, and Salvarani (1997) outlined three types of perspective taking: (1) Imagining how another person is viewing an incident and how he/she must consequently feel. This perspective leads to empathy and, ultimately, altruistic actions.

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(2) Imagining how we would feel if we were in the same circumstances. This perspective also leads to empathy, but the motivation here is selfinterest, which can oftentimes impede altruism. (3) Imagining how a fictional character may feel when they are being threatened or have experienced a tragic event. 2. Empathy and helping across group boundaries a) Research indicates that we are more likely to experience feelings of empathy for those who are similar to us (our in-groups) than those who are dissimilar (outgroups). b) These results are consistent to predictions made by evolutionary theory of helping, such as kin selection. 3. How does empathy develop a) Researchers have found evidence that biology can account for the distress and sympathy components of empathy, but not for the cognitive component. Others have suggested that our experiences shape the degree to which we may feel empathy. (1) Secure attachment styles have been related to empathy. (2) Observational learning of empathy from parents can be very influential on children. (3) Women have higher levels of empathy than men (Trobst, Collins, & Embree, 1994). F. Factors that reduce helping: Social exclusion, darkness, and putting an economic value on our time and effort (LO 9.6) 1. Social exclusion is when individuals feel that they have been excluded from some social group. 2. Research by Twenge, Baumeister, Dewall, Ciarocco, and Bartels (2007) suggests that because being excluded is a painful experience, people who experience are too busy dealing with their own pain to be concerned with the pain of others (empathy). Thus, because of these lower levels of empathy socially excluded people are less likely to help. 3. Darkness: Feelings of anonymity reduce the tendency to help others a) Research findings indicate that darkness (or anything else that encourages feelings of anonymity) can reduce the occurrence of prosocial behavior. 4. Putting an economic value on our time reduces prosocial behavior a) When people thing about the economic value of their time, they may be less likely to volunteer it to help others. IV. The Effects of Being Helped: Why Perceived Motives Really Matter (LO 9.7) A. While it may seem obvious that we would be pleased to receive help if we need it, we are not always happy about being on the receiving end of prosocial behavior. B. Receiving help can lower self-esteem. This is especially true when the person receiving help is lower in status than the person helping For example, helping someone with a physical disability may lead to resentment because the person helping does not have the disability. C. When helping stems from autonomous (i.e. internal) motives, it generates more positive reactions in both the helper and the recipient than when it stems from controlled (i.e., external) motives. V. Final Thoughts: Are Prosocial Behavior and Aggression Opposites (LO 9.8) A. Aggression and prosocial behavior may share the same motives, sometimes people behave aggressively towards others (punish them) not to harm them, but to help better them. B. Aggressive and prosocial behaviors themselves may also be one in the same. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 142

C. The consequences of aggression and prosocial behavior may also be the same.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 9A: Carnegie Hero Fund (LO 9.1) In 1904, industrialist Andrew Carnegie founded the Carnegie Hero Fund with an endowment of $5 million. The purpose of the fund is to reward heroes who risk their own lives in efforts to save the lives of others. Since its inception, more than 63,000 people have been nominated for heroism awards, but only 7,313 (about 11%) have been chosen to receive them. Interestingly, more than 1,500 Carnegie heroes (21%) have died performing their rescues (usually by drowning and fires). Discuss the issue of heroism with the class. Ask the students to define heroism and list the criteria they would use to grant Carnegie awards. Is their list consistent with the text’s definition of prosocial behavior? 9B: Selfless Altruism? (LO 9.1) Generate a debate among students by asking if there is any such thing as selfless altruism (i.e., untainted by self-centered need fulfillment) or is there always some selfish motive for helping (e.g., distress reduction, self-esteem enhancement, etc.)? 9C: What Motivated Helping Behavior? (LO 9.1) Divide students into five teams, each arguing in favor of one of the five models proposed for why we help others (empathy-altruism, negative-state relief, empathic joy, and genetic determinism). 9D: Humorous Example of Bystander Apathy (see Handout 9-1) (LO 9.2 &9.3) Before discussing the serious consequences associated with bystander apathy, you may want to start the class with this humorous (possibly legitimate) story circulating around the Internet. 9E: Urban versus Rural Help (LO 9.2 & 9.3) Who is more likely to help others in need, an urban dweller or a person who lives in a small town? Where is a person more likely to be helped, in the city or in the country? Much of the social psychological research indicates that small-town residents are more likely to help than city dwellers (Amato, 1983). The kinds of help studied have varied considerably, including such actions as helping people who called a wrong phone number, giving back over-payments to customers, mailing lost letters, helping to pick up dropped envelopes, and correcting inaccurate directions. Have the students discuss their experiences and impressions of helping behavior in rural and urban locations. Amato, P.R. (1983). Helping behavior in urban and rural environments: Field studies based on a taxonomic organization of helping episodes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 571-586. Levine, R.V., Martinez, T.S., Brase, G., & Sorenson, K. (1991). Helping in 36 U.S. Cities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 69-82.

9F: Do “Good Samaritan” Laws Work? (LO 9.2 & 9.3) Ask your class to consider whether states should legislate helping. Discuss the pros (e.g., reduces diffusion of responsibility, more likely to act when situation is ambiguous) and cons (e.g., potential danger and fear of being sued if a mistake is made).

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9G: The Steps to Helping (LO 9.3) Have students volunteer to share stories of when they faced an emergency. Do they remember proceeding through the five steps outlined in the text? Have them especially try to remember how many other people were present and what special training or skills they may have brought to the situation. 9H: Feeling Down after being Helped (LO 9.7) Ask your students to reflect on the last time they were helped and the last time they provided help to someone else. Did their self esteem seem to suffer after receiving help? Who was the source of the help? How did the person they helped seem to feel after the assistance? 9I: Does “Mandatory Volunteerism” Work? (LO 9.4) As state and local governments reduce or eliminate public programs and services, the need for volunteers has dramatically increased. In response, a number of colleges and secondary schools have mandated community service requirements for graduation. Most of these “mandatory volunteerism” programs have two goals: (1) to directly assist the community with those in need, and (2) to promote the social and civic development of students. Although community service requirements have their obvious benefits, does it translate at all to long-term prosocial tendencies? A recent study by Stukas et al. (1999) suggests the answer may be no, especially for students who initially felt they were not willing or not ready to volunteer. They found that students who initially felt they would be unlikely to freely volunteer had significantly lower intentions to do so in the future after being required to serve than after being given a choice. Thus, for students not ready to volunteer, a somewhat “controlling” community service requirement can actually have negative effects on their intentions to volunteer in the future. To avoid the negative effects of mandatory volunteer programs on students’ motivation, Stukas et al. suggest that institutions design their programs to contain an element of free choice for students. For example, community volunteer programs that allow students to choose the type of activity that best matches their personal interests may prove most beneficial to long-term helping behavior. Stukas, A.A., Snyder, M., & Clary, E.G. (1999). The effects of “mandatory volunteerism” on intentions to work. Psychological Science, 10, 59-64.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A9.1: Is It Altruistic Behavior? (see Handout 9-2) (LO 9.1) This exercise gives students the opportunity to consider which behaviors are altruistic and why. The ensuing discussion should help students to develop a better idea of the meaning of altruism and to appreciate the difficulty of determining the underlying motivation for helping behavior. A9.2: The Self-Report Altruism Scale (see Handout 9-3) (LO 9.4) Rushton et al. (1986) developed The Self-Report Altruism Scale to measure the frequency of certain helping behaviors such as making change for another, donating blood, and holding the door open for someone. Rushton et al. found that altruism increased with age and women had higher scores than men. After the students complete the questionnaire, determine if the same gender and age pattern emerges. Have the students discuss why helping is often dependent on the situation. Rushton, J.P., Fulker, D.W., Neale, M.C., Nias, D.K., & Eysenck, H.J. (1986). Altruism and aggression: The heritability of individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1192-1198. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 144

A9.3: Are People Who Help Happier? (see Handout 9-4) (LO 9.4) To determine whether people who help are happier, distribute Handout 9-4. Procedure 1. Ask your students to write down the initials of 10 people they know personally and then rate each dichotomously on whether they are happy (H)/unhappy (UH), and selfish (S)/unselfish (US). 2. Finally, ask them to calculate the frequencies for each pairing and then write them in the respective cell of the 2 x 2 table. Results & Discussion • When everyone is finished, ask each student to read off the numbers in their cells and tally them on the same 2 x 2 matrix on the board. Typically, you will find that most of the happy people are in the unselfish cell. Ask the class to consider why selfishness and happiness are rarely perceived as going together. A9.4: Reflecting on the Origins of Empathy (see Handout 9-5) (LO 9.5) Have students respond to the items on the scale to start a discussion of where their empathic feelings and potential prosocial behavior may have originated (e.g., with their parents, peers, or favorite television shows).

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Develop a Simple Helping Situation (LO 9.1-9.8) Give your students the opportunity to create a simple helping experiment. Note: Be sure to have them run all proposals by you before they are allowed to execute them. The following are some manipulations they could try: • • • • •

volunteer to collect money for some real organization (with the permission of the organization, of course) and manipulate dress (formal vs. casual), race, or tone of voice (warm or cold) ask for directions while well-dressed or dressed like a “street person” panhandle using race or appearance as a variable observe gender differences in opening doors, carrying packages, etc. drop books or pencils and see whether help is dependent on group size

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Brother’s Keeper (1996, 15 minutes, NBC). • John Darley discusses the role of bystander apathy in the recent tragedy of a young woman who was savagely beaten. The Courage to Care (1986, 30 minutes, PBS). • Examines individuals in Nazi Germany who helped to protect Jews from the Nazis (with commentary by Elie Wiesel). Helping and Prosocial Behavior (1989, 30 minutes, IM). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 145

•

Uses dramatizations to discuss the motives behind helping behavior.

Not in Our Town (1993, 60 minutes, CWG). • Shows how a town in Billings, Montana, came together to help fight against prejudice and hatred. Silent Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Murder (1999, 50 minutes, IM). • Examines the role diffusion of responsibility played in the infamous case where 38 neighbors failed to help a woman being murdered. When Will People Help? (1976, 25 minutes, HBJ). • Presents reenactments of research on bystander apathy, including the smoke-filled room study and the seizure study.

RELEVANT SOURCES Baron, R.A. (1997).The sweet smell of ... helping: Effects of pleasant ambient fragrance on prosocial behavior in shopping malls. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 498-503. • Provides evidence that fragrance-induced increments in helping are mediated by increments in positive affect. Bierhoff, H.W., & Rohmann, E. (2004). Altruistic personality in the context of the empathy-altruism hypothesis. European Journal of Personality, 18, 351-365. • Provides support for the empathy-altruism hypothesis in explaining prosocial behavior. Clark, M.S. (Ed.). (1991). Prosocial behavior. Review of personality and social psychology. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication. • Reviews the research on prosocial behavior by some of the major contributors to the area, including Batson, Snyder, Nadler, Salovey, Gaertner, Dovidio, Piliavin, and Darley. Ito, J. (2004). The effect of prosocial self-perception on prosocial behavior? Value and efficacy. Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 162-171. • Evaluates the relationship between children’s prosocial self-perception and their motivation for prosocial actions. McGrath, M.P., Zook, J.M., & Weber-Roehl, L. (2003). Socializing prosocial behavior in children: The roles of parents and peers. Advances in Psychology Research, 20, 53-59. • Provides support for the notion that a parent’s responsiveness as well as exposure to same-age peers is associated with prosocial behavior among children. McGuire, A.M. (1994). Helping behaviors in the natural environment: Dimensions and correlates of helping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 45-56. • Examines correlates of helping in real-world situations. Schroeder, D.A., Penner, L.A., Dovidio, J.F., & Piliavin, J.A. (1995). The psychology of helping and altruism. New York: McGraw-Hill. • Provides an integrative review of the helping literature.

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Stuermer, S., Snyder, M., Kropp, A., & Siem, B. (2006). Empathy-motivated helping: The moderating role of group membership. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 943-956. • Elaborates on the text’s discussion of group membership and helping. van Baaren, R.B., Holland, R.W., Kawakami, K., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Mimicry and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 15, 71-74. • Elaborates on the text’s discussion of mimicry leading to an increase in prosocial behavior.

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CHAPTER 10 Aggression: Its Nature, Causes, and Control CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Perspectives on Aggression: In Search of the Roots of Violence p. 323

Lecture Launchers: 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D In-Class Activities: A10.1, A10.2

MC 1-16 FI 1 SA 1-2 ES 1

Slides 3-10

Lecture Launchers: 10E, 10F, 10G, 10H In-Class Activities: A10.3, A10.4, A10.5

MC 17-62 FI 2-8 SA 3-9 ES 2 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: “Archival Footage of the Bandura Study” MC 63-81 FI 9 SA 10

Slides 11-34

MC 82-90 FI 10 ES 3-4

Slides 43-45

MYPSYCHLAB

Learning Objectives: 10.1-10.3 Causes of Human Aggression: Social, Cultural, Personal, Situational p. 327 Emotions and Social Perception: Does Arousal Play a Role Learning Objectives: 10.4-10.10

Bullying: Singling Out Others for Repeated Abuse p. 348 Social Life in a Connected World: Cyberbullying

Out-of-Class Activities: “Bullying”

Watch: Archival Footage of Bandura Study

Slides 35-42

Learning Objectives: 10.11 The Prevention and Control of Aggression: Some Useful Techniques p. 351

In-Class Activities: A10.6

Watch: Television Violence

Learning Objectives: 10.12-10.14

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Watch: Work Place Bullies

KEY TERMS aggression (p. 322) bullying (p. 348) catharsis hypothesis (p. 353) cultures of honor (p. 337) cyberbullying (p. 350) drive theories (of aggression) (p. 324) excitation transfer theory (p.330) frustration-aggression hypothesis (p. 328) general aggression model (p. 325)

hostile aggression (p.341) instrumental aggression (p. 341) provocation (p. 328) punishment (p. 351) self-affirmation (p. 355) TASS model (p. 340) teasing (p.329) type A behavior pattern (p. 341) type B behavior pattern (p. 341)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 10, students should be able to: 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14

Contrast the views of Freud, Lorenz, and evolutionary perspectives in terms of how aggression develops. State the purpose of drive theories of aggression and note the most well-known of these theories. Describe the modern approached to the study of aggression including social learning approach and the general aggression model. Discuss why the original frustration-aggression hypothesis is NOT considered to be accurate by most contemporary social psychologists. Outline the major points of excitation transfer theory. Discuss the links between violence and the media. Define “cultures of honor” and discuss the issue of sexual jealousy. Identify individual difference or personal causes of aggression by discussing (among others) the TASS model, Type A behavior pattern, and narcissistic personality. Identify the nature of gender differences in aggression. Discuss how temperature and alcohol may influence aggression. Contrast the characteristics of bullies, victims, and bully/victims, and note the ways by which bullying behavior can be reduced. Consider whether punishment can be an effective deterrent to violence. Evaluate the veracity of the catharsis hypothesis. Identify the various techniques (both cognitive and non-cognitive interventions) that can be used in order to reduce aggression.

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CHAPTER 10 OUTLINE AGGRESSION: ITS NATURE, CAUSES, AND CONTROL I.

Perspectives on Aggression: In search of the roots of violence A. Aggression is defined as actions with the goal of harming another who would want to avoid such treatment. Whether aggressive behavior is intentional or unintentional, and whether we act with or without conscious thought, highlights the complex nature of aggression. 1. Aggression can involve one person harming another or, in modern times, use of technology to harm people (i.e. sexting). 2. There are a number of theories on aggression, as well as a number of causes, including social, cultural, and situational factors. B. The role of biological factors: Are we programmed to aggress? (LO 10.1) 1. Violence may originate in inherited, pre-programmed tendencies. a) Freud proposed the idea of thanatos which is a death wish that all people possess. This “instinct” is first aimed at destroying ourselves, but is quickly directed outwardly toward other people. b) Lorenz suggested the idea of a fighting instinct, which is an inherited tendency to aggress, since only the strongest males will survive, mate, and pass their genes along to future generations. 2. Social psychologists originally rejected the idea of a biological explanation for aggression (for example, they pointed out the huge individual differences in aggression). However, currently most will agree that genetic factors may play some role in aggressiveness. a) For example, successful aggression sometimes confers status on those who perform it, and this, in turn, increases their attractiveness to at least some potential mates. C. Drive Theories: The motive to harm others (LO 10.2) 1. Drive theories (of aggression) propose that aggression stems from external conditions that arouse the motive to harm or injure others; the most famous of these is the frustration-aggression hypothesis. a) In the 1930s, Dollard and colleagues proposed the frustration-aggression hypothesis, which stated that frustration is quite a powerful influence on aggression. The idea is that frustration arouses a drive that causes us to want to harm the object of our frustration. Although this hypothesis has not been given a lot of support (e.g., frustration is only one of many possible causes of aggressive behavior), many people, especially outside social psychology, still view it as valid. D. Modern theories of aggression: The social learning perspective and general aggression model (LO 10.3) 1. The social learning perspective holds that aggressiveness originates in experience and/or the observation of other people. a) Through our experience in our culture we learn: (1) The numerous ways in which we can harm others (2) Who is an “appropriate” target for aggressive behavior (3) What behaviors justify revenge (4) Under what circumstances aggressiveness is acceptable 2. The general aggression model (GAM) proposes that aggressiveness is produced by a number of “input variables” that impact upon arousal, emotions, and our cognitive processes. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 150

a) Input variables are factors that are related to the situation (e.g., seeing someone act aggressively, hot temperatures) and to the people involved (e.g., personality traits such as irritability, sensing hostile intentions on the part of another person). b) As indicated by the general aggression model, the situational and individual difference variables can cause aggression by influencing three processes: (1) Arousal: Excitement/arousal may be increased. (2) Affective states: Hostile feelings may be aroused. (3) Cognitions: Hostile/aggressive thoughts may be brought to mind. c) The resulting behavior will depend on the person’s interpretation of the situation and “restraining factors,” such as the presence of authority figures. A person’s anger may be restrained if they carefully think about the situation, or they may act out impulsively (and aggressively). II. Causes of Human Aggression: Social, Cultural, Personal, and Situational A. Social determinates of aggression: frustration, provocation and heightened arousal 1. Frustration (LO 10.4) a) It is important to remember that frustration does not always lead to aggression. b) When frustrated, people may respond with aggressive tendencies, but they may also respond with despair or they may actively seek to rise above the causes of their frustration. c) It is also important to remember that not all aggression originates with frustration (e.g., participants in a violent sport are not acting aggressively out of frustration). d) In sum, frustration is only one of many possible precursors to aggression. e) Folger and Baron (1996) reported that one case in which frustration can lead to aggression is when there is an unjustified outcome (e.g., being passed over for a raise or a promotion). 2. Provocation a) One of the strongest determinants of aggressive behavior is provocation, which is a behavior on the part of another person (e.g., a physical attack) that triggers aggression. Usually, the behavior is seen as originating from malicious objectives. b) Harris (1993) reported that condescension, or arrogance from others, is a powerful form of provocation. c) Another form of provocation to which many people respond with annoyance is teasing—provoking statements that call attention to an individual’s flaws and imperfections, but can be at the same time somewhat playful in nature. (1) Research findings indicate that the more individuals attribute teasing to hostile motives the more likely they are to respond aggressively (Campos, Keltner, Beck, Gonzaga, & John, 2007). (2) Individualist cultures seem to respond more negatively to teasing as compared to collectivist cultures (Campos, Keltner, Beck, Gonzaga, & John, 2007). 3. Heightened arousal (LO 10.5) a) Experiencing heightened arousal can also contribute to aggressive feelings. b) Excitation transfer theory attempts to explain this phenomenon. The theory, proposed by Zillmann (1983, 1988), suggests that arousal stemming from one situation can remain and strengthens an emotional reaction in another situation.

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(1) For example, after a near-miss car accident, we may have some “residual” arousal left over, so that we may become angrier than we ordinarily would if we encounter another mildly irritating situation. (2) This is likely to occur when we are unaware of the residual arousal. This can also occur if we are aware of the arousal, but attribute it to the current, and not the original, situation. B. Social causes of aggression: social exclusion and exposure to media violence (LO 10.6) 1. Media violence, which has been studied by a considerable amount of researchers, refers to portrayals of violence in the media. A summary of research findings in this area (Anderson et al., 2004) indicate: a) Research exposure to violent television, movies, videogames, and music indicates that such materials significantly increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior by people exposed to them b) Such effects are both short term and long term in nature c) The magnitude of these effects are large—at least as large as the various medical effects considered to be important by physicians (e.g. the effect of aspirin on heart attacks) 2. Bandura’s Bobo doll Studies: Early evidence for the effects of televised violence a) In these famous studies, children saw a “television program” in which an adult model either attacked an inflated plastic doll, or sat quietly. When given a chance to play with the same toys, children imitated the action of the aggressive model. These findings suggested that exposure to violence in the media may lead to similar actions by viewers. 3. Video game violence a) A recent meta-analysis concluded that playing violent video games increases aggressive cognitions, aggressive affect, and aggressive behavior, and reduces empathy and prosocial behavior. b) People who paly violent video games do not do so because of their violent content. Rather, they paly these games because they enjoy the feelings of mastery and competence they provide. 4. The effects of media violence: Why do they occur? a) Bushman and Anderson (2002) propose that repeated exposure to media violence creates a hostile aggression bias, in which we anticipate that other people will act aggressively. This then causes us to be more aggressive ourselves. b) Media violence serves to strengthen our attitudes, beliefs, and expectations regarding aggression. When these knowledge structures related to aggression are activated, we think and act aggressively because we have learned to do so. 5. The effects of media violence: Neuroscience evidence for the impact of desensitization a) One factor that may also contribute to the effect of media violence on aggression is desensitization to violence (1) As a result of exposure to large amounts of violent content in television programs, etc., individuals become less sensitive to violence and its consequences (Anderson, Carnagey et al , 2003). (2) Bartholow and other (2006) found support for these hypotheses, by examining the brain waves of people exposed to violent images. C. Cultural factors in aggression: “Cultures of honor” and sexual jealousy (LO 10.7) 1. Aggression can originate from cultural factors, or the norms of a particular culture that suggest aggression is an appropriate response in some situations. In some cultures, if a person’s honor is insulted, then norms indicate that aggression is the proper response. This is known as the cultures of honor. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 152

2. It has been suggested that these cultures of honor developed in areas where wealth was seen in assets that could easily be stolen (Cohen & Nisbett, 1994, 1997). When an individual was threatened with theft, they displayed that they would not allow that or any other insult to their honor. Therefore, widely-used norms developed that overlooked violence in response to an insult to one’s honor. 3. In cultures of honor, female’s infidelity and/or premarital sex are typically seen as a serious threat to a man’s or a family’s honor. So, sexual jealousy appears to be a strong determinant of aggression in many cultures of honor. Seeking revenge on an unfaithful wife, for example, is widely accepted in many of these cultures. 4. Precarious manhood: The male gender role and overt aggression a) If “manhood” does confer increased status and other benefits, then threats to it might lead to aggressive actions designed to protect or restore manhood. D. Personality gender and aggression (LO 10.8) 1. There are considerable individual differences in the tendency for aggression. Some people hardly ever become angry, while others lose their tempers relatively quickly. 2. The TASS model: Traits as sensitivities to various situations a) The TASS model suggests that many aspects of personality function in threshold-like manner: only when situational factors are strong enough to trigger them do they influence behavior. b) When applied to aggression, the TASS model makes the following prediction: for people high in trait aggressiveness, even weak provocations will simulate an aggressive reaction; for people low in this trait, much stronger levels of provocation are required to trigger aggression. 3. The type A behavior pattern: Why the A in type A could stand for aggression a) The Type A behavior pattern describes someone who is highly competitive, hostile, and always in a rush. b) The Type B behavior pattern describes someone who is exactly the opposite (not competitive, not hostile, and not always in a rush). c) Much research has shown that someone who is a “Type A” is likely to be more aggressive than a “Type B” (e.g., Gladue & Taylor, 1993). d) A Type A person is more likely to display hostile aggression, which is a type of aggression where the main goal is to cause harm to another person. Type A’s are more likely to abuse their spouses or their children. e) Type A’s are not more likely to display instrumental aggression, where the main goal is not to cause harm, but to reach another type of goal, such as control of a prized resource. 4. Narcissism, ego threat, and aggression: On the dangers of wanting to be superior a) Narcissism is excessive self-love or holding an over-inflated view of one’s own virtues or accomplishments. b) When narcissists’ inflated egos are threatened, they react especially aggressively. c) They also believe that they are more likely to be the victim of a transgression, and therefore may be more aggressive. d) This topic is important to study because many schools in the US focus on building self-esteem among their students, if these tactics are carried too far the result may be to produce a generation of narcissistic individuals. 5. Gender differences in aggression: Do they exist? (LO 10.9) a) In terms of gender differences, males are more likely to be aggressive than females in general (when there is no provocation). However, when provoked, especially intensely, the gender difference tends to fade away.

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b) Males are more likely to employ direct aggression, which are actions designed especially for the target (e.g., physical attacks). Females are more likely to utilize indirect aggression, which are actions that permit aggressors to hide their identity from the victim (e.g., spreading rumors). The victim of indirect aggression may not even know that they have been a target. E. Situational determinates of aggression: the effects of heat and alcohol (LO 10.10) 1. In the heat of anger: Temperature and aggression a) Overall, research on the link between temperature and aggression demonstrates that extreme heat can lead to irritability and, hence, increased aggressiveness, but only up to a certain point. b) Once individuals are too uncomfortable from heat, they are often too fatigued to give in to aggressive tendencies. They become more concerned with reducing their own discomfort. 2. Alcohol and aggression: Truly a dangerous mix a) There is also a link between alcohol consumption and aggressive behavior. b) Alcohol may produce increased aggression because a person’s cognitive functions are impaired. c) Specifically, it is more difficult to judge the intentions behind others’ behavior as well as assess the outcomes of one’s own behavior. III. Bullying: Singling out others for repeated abuse (LO 10.11) A. Bullying is a form of behavior in which aggression is primarily “one way.” 1. Although bullying is typically studied as a problem of childhood and adolescence, bullying in the workplace and prisons can also occur (Ireland & Archer, 2002). B. Why do people engage in bullying? 1. Olweus (1999) suggest two possible motives for bullying: a) A motivation to have power over another person. b) A motivation to be a member of a group that is seen as “tough.” c) Research by Roland (2002) showed that boys and girls are likely to bully for the above reasons, but for girls, there is an additional motivation…countering the negative effects of depression. C. The characteristics of bullies and victims 1. Research suggests that some people are always the bully, some people are always the victim, but others can be the bully in some contexts and the victim in other contexts. 2. Bullies tend to believe that others act the way they do intentionally or because of lasting characteristics. 3. Victims tend to perceive others as acting as they do at least in part because they are responding to external conditions. 4. Bullies are more likely to ascribe to the hostile attribution bias. Bullies (and “bullyvictims”) often have low self-esteem and believe the best reaction in a bullying situation is aggression. D. Reducing the occurrence of bullying: Some positive steps 1. Since bullying can have devastating consequences (e.g., a victim may commit suicide to escape the bullying), the following steps have been suggested for reducing it: a) Bullying needs to be seen as the problem of all people surrounding the situation (e.g., parents, teachers, work supervisors, prison guards). b) Those in leadership positions must stand united against its occurrence. c) Possible victims must be aware of the support system available to them. d) Those in the situation should take advantage of outside help. 2. Those programs that have been instituted and follow these steps have shown encouraging outcomes. E. Cyberbullying Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 154

1. Cyberbullying – bullying (repeated assaults against specific targets persons) occurring in chat rooms and other Internet locations. IV. The Prevention and Control of Aggression: Some Useful Techniques A. Punishment: Just desserts or deterrence (LO 10.12) 1. It is important to note that aggression is not automatically bound to happen. Since it arises from a complex interaction of personality, the situation, and cognition, it can be diminished and even prevented. 2. Punishments are procedures in which aversive consequences are delivered to individuals when they engage in specific actions. 3. Punishing someone who acts aggressively rests on two assumptions: a) If a particular act of aggression is seen as inappropriate in society, the aggressor deserves punishment to make up for the damage they have caused. Under this assumption, how much punishment people receive should match the extent of the damage they inflicted. The punishment should also take into account any extenuating circumstances (e.g., self-defense). b) Punishment should discourage the aggressor and others from engaging in aggressive behavior in the future. 4. Carlsmith, Darley, and Robinson (2002) demonstrated that in general, people view the first assumption (deserving punishment) as more important than the second assumption (deterring future aggressive acts). 5. Punishing aggressive behavior has another benefit…it takes dangerous people away from potential future victims (by placing them in jail). Statistics have shown that once someone engages in a violent act, “they are likely to do so again.” 6. Punishment does work, but only when it meets the following requirements: a) It must follow the aggressive act as soon as possible. b) It must be definite that it will occur. c) It must be aversive. d) It must be seen by the recipient as justified. (1) Since in many countries, these requirements are not met (e.g., criminals wait months to go on trial), the threat of punishment often does not work in preventing violence. B. Self-regulation: Internal mechanisms for controlling aggression (LO 10.14) 1. From an evolutionary perspective, aggression can be viewed as an adaptive behavior. However, lashing out at others in response to every provocation is definitely not adaptive. 2. It is clear that we possess effective internal mechanisms for restraining anger and overt aggression 3. Unfortunately, such self-regulation often requires lots of cognitive effort. 4. One reason why this internal system of restraint sometimes fails is that we simply don’t have the resources required. C. Catharsis: Does “blowing off steam” Really Help? (LO 10.13) 1. Besides punishment, another way to deal with aggression is proposed by the catharsis hypothesis. This proposes that if we are angry, but we release that anger in a socially acceptable way (e.g., working out at the gym), then we will reduce the likelihood that we will engage in more hurtful types of aggression. 2. However, there is little support for this hypothesis. While arousal may be temporarily reduced by “getting it out of our system,” aggressive tendencies appear not to be significantly reduced with catharsis.

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10A: Road Rage (LO 10.1-10.5) Road rage, an extreme form of aggressive driving, has made the nation’s highways and roads dangerous for drivers. In fact, recent surveys by the American Automobile Association indicate that many people regard aggressive driving as more of a threat on the roads than drunk driving. The most common manifestation of road rage is aggressive tailgating, followed by headlight flashing, “obscene gestures,” blocking other vehicles, and forcing another motorist off the road. Drivers have been assaulted with weapons ranging from canes to golf clubs to other vehicles, including buses, bulldozers, forklifts, and military tanks (Adler, 1997). Psychologist Arnold Nerenberg, a self-proclaimed “Road Rage Therapist,” has identified several stimuli that provoke road rage (Free, 1997). They are: • • • • • •

feeling endangered by someone else’s driving (being cut off) resentment at being forced to slow down anger at another driver who takes his own road rage out on you swelling congestion on the highways long commutes to work anonymity among drivers

Discuss with your students what other situational factors may contribute to road rage. For example, tinted windows, dark sunglasses, arousal resulting from congestive and competitive driving, and the presence of alcohol may all contribute to a potentially dangerous combination. Ask the students to consider some of the ways city planners, the police, and the community can work to reduce road rage and create friendlier driving behavior. Adler, J. (1997, June 2). ‘Road rage’: We’re driven to destruction: Americans are losing it behind the wheel. Newsweek, 129, p. 70. Free, C. (1997, Sept. 1). Make their day: Fury at the wheel turns frustrated drivers into outlay Dirty Harry’s with a rage for revenge. (Interview with Road-rage expert Arnold Nerenberg). People Weekly, 48, 59-60.

10B: What Explains the Increase in School Shooting by Teenage Boys? (LO 10.1-10.5) Predicting violent behavior and “dangerousness to others” is far from an exact science. Substance abuse, abusive parents, and violent media have all been implicated with real-world violence. Recently, however, with the rash of recent high school shootings in small towns such as Jonesboro, Arkansas; Pearl, Mississippi; Edinboro, Pennsylvania; Peducah, Kentucky; and Littleton, Colorado, many researchers are searching for answers. Of course, there is never just one cause for something as complex as school shootings. However, I have compiled a list of both social and psychological explanations currently offered by scholars and laypersons alike. These potential theories include:

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social causes • obsession with violent media (video—“Doom”; music—“Rammstein”; hateful websites) • accessibility to weapons (shotguns, bombs, grenades) • poor parenting (abusive, neglecting, or irresponsible) • social outcasts (“Goth” culture—black clothing, nihilism, “Trenchcoat Mafia”) • substance abuse; abuse of animals • males unable to express emotions + low tolerance for frustration • inflated (unjustified) self-esteem—supersensitive to criticism (see #6 below) biological causes • high testosterone increases dominance-seeking behavior • low serotonin increases responsivity to aversive stimuli • damage to prefrontal cortex leads to less developed sense of right or wrong • damage to cingulate gyrus causes the brain to fixate on one thought (e.g., anger over not fitting in) After discussing these theories with your students, ask them to consider how biological and social causes may interact to create a biological predisposition toward displaying violence (cf. Rogers et al., 1999). Rogers, A., Winget, P., & Hayden, T. (1999, May 3). Why the young kill. Newsweek, pp. 32-35.

10C: Ways Parents Teach Aggression to Their Children (LO 10.3) Discuss the multitude of ways that parents teach aggression to their children. Besides what is implied by the text, consider subtle methods such as permitting aggressive acts (and thus tacitly approving of aggression). Also, consider the subtle ways parents communicate that aggression is appropriate for male children, but not for female children. 10D: The Weapon’s Priming Effect Revisited (LO 10.3) Researchers have long hypothesized that merely seeing a gun, or even a picture of a gun, can increase how aggressively a person behaves towards others. What has not been known, however, is how this “weapons effect” operates. To investigate the potential underlying mechanism, Anderson et al. (1998) asked participants to view a series of primed words or pictures of weapon (shotgun) or nonweapon (rabbit) stimuli. Each stimuli was immediately followed by an aggressive (assault) or nonaggressive (bloom) target word that the participants were asked to read out loud as quickly as possible. As predicted, people named aggressive words faster (9–11 minutes) after exposure to the weapon-primes only (for both words and pictures). Thus, this research demonstrated that simply identifying weapons increased the accessibility of aggressive thoughts. Are there individual differences in susceptibility to the weapon’s priming effect? According to Bartholow (2002), the effect may depend on an individual’s knowledge about guns. In a recent study, individuals with prior gun experience (hunters) were found to have knowledge structures that contain different information about guns than individuals with no direct gun experience (nonhunters). Because these knowledge structures differ, pictures of hunting guns were more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among nonhunters, whereas pictures of assault guns were more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among hunters. The results also showed that differences in aggressive behavior following gun primes corresponded to these differences in aggressive thought accessibility. Thus, this research shows that the perceived meaning of an aggressive cue can depend on prior gun experience.

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Discuss with your students how the concept of priming explains these findings—presence of a weapon increases the aggressive behavior by making aggressive thoughts more accessible. Discuss potential scenarios where accessibility to aggressive thoughts may prime people to perceive an ambiguous situation aggressively (e.g., father shoots daughter after she hid in closet to scare him). Anderson, C.A., Benjamin, A.J., Jr., & Bartholow, B.D. (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science, 9, 308-314. Bartholow, B.D. (2002). Individual differences in knowledge structures and the priming of aggressive thoughts and aggressive behavior. Poster presented at EPA.

10E: Economic Frustration and Hate Crimes (LO 10.4) Most social psychology textbooks cite research claiming that during historical economic recessions (typically based on falling cotton prices) lynchings of Blacks increased in the South between 1882 and 1930 (Hovland & Sears, 1940). Intuitively, this “scapegoat” theory makes sense; however, a recent study by Green and Glaser (1998) fails to find support for the connection between recent economic fluctuations and American hate crimes directed against minorities. In their study, the authors analyzed the incidence of hate crime (violence, harassment, and intimidation spurred by the victims’ race, ethnicity, religion, or sexual orientation) between 1987 and 1995 in New York City. They found no evidence of a link between hate crimes and the region’s monthly unemployment rates during that period. Rather than economic downturns, they attribute hate crimes to neighborhood influxes of ethnically diverse people and the absence of prominent political actors affixing economic blame on target groups. Green, D.P., Glaser, J., & Rich, A. (1998). From lynching to gay bashing: The elusive connection between economic conditions and hate crime. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 82-92.

10F: Is Video Game Violence Really a Bigger Problem than Second Hand Smoke? (LO 10.6) Meta-analyses reveal that violent video-game-effect sizes are larger than the effect of second-hand tobacco smoke on lung cancer, the effect of lead exposure to I.Q. scores in children, and calcium intake on bone mass. Furthermore, the fact that so many youths are exposed to such high levels of video game violence further increases the societal costs of this risk factor (Rosenthal, 1986). Have your class talk about why video game violence isn’t thought of as that big of a deal, when the previous examples usually are. Rosenthal, R. (1986). Media violence, antisocial behavior, and the social consequences of small effects. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 141-154.

10G: Inflated (Unjustified) Self-Esteem and Violence (LO 10.8) Recently, researchers have linked inflated self-esteem to hostility and aggression. The hypothesis is: People with unjustified self-esteem are supersensitive to criticism because deep down they suspect feelings of superiority are not legitimate, so they lash out if their grandiosity is challenged or threatened. In one study, Bushman & Baumeister (1998) asked 540 undergraduates, who were assessed for wellfounded self-esteem or unjustified self-esteem (narcissistic), to write an essay. After receiving bogus feedback (praise or insult), the participants were given a chance to retaliate (via noise levels) against the person giving feedback. As predicted, the participants with unjustified self-esteem who were insulted gave levels of noise three times higher than people with well-founded self-esteem. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened,

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inflated self-esteem as a potential cause. Thus, when the real world fails to deliver the feedback the person craves (e.g., rejected by girlfriend, embarrassed in gym class) the person may explode in rage. Begley, S. (1998, July 13), You’re OK, I’m terrific: Self-esteem backfires. Newsweek, p. 69. Bushman, B.J., & Baumeister, R.F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219-229.

10H: Will Global Warming Increase Violent Crime? (LO 10.10) Social psychologists have demonstrated a link between temperature and crime (cf. Anderson & Anderson, 1986). For example, researchers studying aggression in the laboratory have found simply being in a hot room makes people feel angrier than being in a comfortable room, and hot temperatures, when coupled with provocation, can increase a person’s willingness to hurt another person. Examining real-world data in the United States from 1950 to 1995, Groom (1997) found that hotter years produced higher violent crime rates even when the data were controlled for the poverty rate and population age shifts. In addition, Groom found a strong relationship between number of hot days during the summer and increased violence during the same range. As for global warming, researchers speculate that for every 1 degree Fahrenheit increase in average temperature, the U.S. murder and assault rate per 100,000 people should increase about 3.68. This figure translates into roughly 10,000 more murders and assaults per year in the United States for every 1 degree increase in average temperature! (Note: Some meteorologists are predicting the world may be 6 degrees warmer by the year 2100). Anderson, C.A., & Anderson, K.B. (1996). Violent crime rate studies in philosophical context: A destructive testing approach to heat and southern culture of violence effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 740-756. Groom, R.W. (1997). Hot years and serious and deadly assault: Empirical tests of the heat hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1213-1223.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A10.1: What is Aggression? (see Handout 10-1) To determine what constitutes an aggressive act, have the class do the following exercise: Procedure 1. Distribute Handout 10-1 asking students to indicate which statements describe aggression. 2. For each statement get a show of hands as to how many students thought the statement illustrated aggression. Write on the board only those statements that at least 80 percent saw as aggression or that 20 percent or fewer saw as aggression. Results & Discussion • Discuss issues such as does aggression involve: “harm to living versus nonliving things?” (items 9 and 23); “accident versus intention?” (8, 11); “actual damage versus no physical damage?” (10, 13, 18); “self-defense?” (3, 13); “duty or job responsibility?” (3, 4, 19, 20, 22); “instinctual behavior?” (1, 2, 25); “survival?” (1, 6, 16); “acts involving animals other than humans?” (7, 16, Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 159

17, 18); “covert acts?” (11, 14); “inaction?” (12, 15); “self-injury?” (24); and “killing for sport?” (17, 25). Benjamin, L.T. (1985). Defining aggression: An exercise for classroom discussion. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 40-42.

A10.2: Violent Fantasies (see Handout 10-2) (LO 10.1-10.5) Handout 10-2 asks your students to write about a recent violent fantasy. After they complete the handout, connect their examples to theories discussed in the text such as frustration-aggression, social learning theory, and evolution. A10.3: Glamorizing Violence on TV (LO 10.6) TV programs continue to glamorize shootings, fistfights, and other violent acts. The recent data (cf. Donnerstein et al., 1995, Federman, 1998) continue to show patterns that help teach violence to children, such as: • •

“Good” characters or heroes commit nearly 40% of violent acts. Over 30% of the programs feature bad characters who are not punished; in fact the physical aggression is often condoned. • More than 70% of aggressors show no remorse for their violence. • About 50% of TV violence involves no physical injury or suffering. • Warnings such as “parental discretion advised” actually made children more interested in watching the program. Have your students work in small groups and ask them to develop a list of recommendations (supported by research) for the television industry to consider. Some that have been suggested include: • Reduce the number of violent portrayals in children’s cartoons. • Show the short-term and long-term negative consequences of violence. • Show more alternatives to the use of violence to solve problems. • Entertainment programs with substantial violent content should be scheduled later in the evening. Donnerstein E., Slaby R., & Eron L. (1995). The mass media and youth aggression. In Eron L, Gentry J, Schlegel P. (Eds.). Reason to hope: A psychological perspective on violence and youth. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Federman J. (1998). National television violence study III. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

A10.4: Violence in the Media…Then and Now (see Handout 10-3) (LO 10.6) Ask your students to respond to the questions on the handout. As a class, you can compare how many similar answers there are to such questions as the most violent movie now versus when they were children. You may also want to focus on gender differences in the student’s answers. A10.5: Hostility Questionnaire (see Handout 10-4) (LO 10.8) The entire constellation of Type A behavior was once thought to put Type A people at risk for health problems. Recently, however, Type A behavior in and of itself is not believed to be the factor that puts its possessors at risk. Rather, the problem is a single trait that is part of the constellation of Type A traits: hostility. Williams (1993) has developed a measure of hostility that may predict health problems.

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Procedure 1. Have students complete the Handout 10-4 anonymously. Results & Discussion • Those who answer two out of three questions with “often” or “always” may consider themselves at risk. • To provide students with some ways to deal effectively with hostility, Williams and Williams (1993) suggest the following strategies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Monitor your cynical thoughts by recognizing them. Confess your hostility and seek support for change. Stop cynical thoughts. Reason with yourself. Avoid overstimulation. Care for a pet. Put yourself in the other guy’s shoes. Laugh at yourself. Practice relaxing/meditating. Try trusting others. Force yourself to listen more. Substitute assertiveness for aggression. Pretend today is your last day. Practice forgiveness.

Williams, R.B., & Williams, V. (1993). Anger kills. New York: Harper Collins.

A10.6: Catharsis and Aggression (LO 10.13) Divide your class in half and have them debate whether they agree with research findings that catharsis does little to decrease aggression. Have students particularly focus on actions they take to help themselves feel less angry (e.g., Do they work out? Do they call a friend?).

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Bullying (LO 10.11) Ask your students to write an essay on their experiences with bullying. Since this may be painful for some, you may want to ask them to submit this work without their names. Have them contrast an experience where they may have been the bully with an experience where they may have been the victim.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Aggression (1989, 30 minutes, PSU). • Examines how aggression is learned and looks at ways to control aggression. Anatomy of a Riot (1992, 47 minutes, ABC). • Ted Koppel investigates why the L.A. riots occurred following the Rodney King verdict. Dreamworlds 2: Desire, Sex, Power in Rock Videos (1995, 57 minutes, MEF). • Analyzes the portrayal of women in music videos and how it relates to gender sex roles, rape myths, and violence against women. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 161

Human Aggression (1976, 22 minutes, HRM). • Explores real life aggression using theories on frustration-aggression, social learning, and group influence. Killing Screens: Media and the Culture of Violence (1994, 40 minutes, IM). • Explores the psychological, social, and developmental effects of media violence. Patently Offensive: Porn under Siege (1990, 58 minutes, FL). • Examines pornography in its social and historical context and also looks at issues regarding freedom of expression. Rage to Revenge: The Science of Violence (2002, 52 minutes, FHS). • Examines what goes on in the human body when a person becomes aggressive using a mind/body perspective. TV Violence and You (1997, 30 minutes, FHS). • George Gerbner analyzes the impact of both blatant violence (e.g., sports, news, cartoons) and subtle violent imagery (e.g., goading) on viewers. Why Riots Happen (2002, 50 minutes, FHS). • Using dramatic real-world footage, this video offers insight into the mindset of violent crowds.

RELEVANT SOURCES Anderson, C.A., Gentile, D.A., & Buckley, K.E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press. • The book discusses classic and contemporary research on the effects of video game violence on children’s aggression. Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., & Eubanks, J. (2003). Exposure to violent media: The effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 960-971. • Expands upon the discussion in the textbook about the link between violent lyrics and aggression. Anderson, K.B., Cooper, H., & Okamura, L. (1997). Individual differences and attitudes toward rape: A meta-analytic review. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(3), 295-315. • Uses a meta-analysis of 72 studies to investigate what factors predict rape acceptance. Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291-322. • Reviews studies examining gender differences in direct versus indirect aggression. Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw-Hill. • Focuses on the situational conditions and psychological processes within the individual that play a role in aggression.

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Crooks, C. (2003). Media violence and its effect on aggression: Assessing the scientific evidence. Canadian Psychology, 44, 179-180. • Reviews the work of Jonathon L. Freedman, which focuses on the impact of media violence on children. Giancola, P.R. (2004). Executive functioning and alcohol-related aggression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 541-555. • Examines the relationship between aggression (as defined by electric shock delivery) and the consumption of alcohol. Klinesmith, J., Kasser, T., & McAndrew, F.T. (2006). Guns, testosterone, and aggression: An experimental test of a mediational hypothesis. Psychological Science, 11(7), 568-571. • Proposes that handling a gun increases levels of testosterone and that these increases in testosterone are responsible for increases in aggression. Krahe, B. (2001). The social psychology of aggression. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Presents a balanced account of both theoretical and applied issues dealing with aggression on both an individual and a societal level. Lore, R.K., & Schultz, L.A. (1993). Control of human aggression. American Psychologist, 48, 16-25. • Proposes that both humans and other animals have aggression-inhibitory mechanisms that are equally as potent as any tendency to aggress. Stone, R. (1992, October 9). HHS “violence initiative” caught in a crossfire. Science, 258, 212-213. • Addresses the issue of “rounding up” people with “aggressive” genes. Taubes, G. (1992, October 9). Violence epidemiologists test the hazards of gun ownership. Science, 258, 213-215. • Examines the impact of guns and concludes that “the trigger pulls the finger,” rather than “the finger pulls the trigger.”

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CHAPTER 11 Groups and Individuals: The Consequences of Belonging CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Groups: When We Join… and When We Leave p. 362

In-Class Activities: A11.1 Out-of-Class Activities: “Impressions of How Groups Function”* Lecture Launchers: 11A

MC 1-20 FI 1-2 SA 1-2 ES 1

Slides 4-15

MC 21-37 FI 3 ES 2

Slides 16-21

Lecture Launchers: 11B In-Class Activities: A11.2

MC 38-49 FI 4-5 SA 3 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: “Cooperative Learning Students” MC 50-66 SA 4-6

Slides 22-27

MC 67-79 FI 6-7 SA 7-9

Slides 33-36

Lecture Launchers: 11F

MC 80-86 FI 8 ES 3

Slides 37-38

Lecture Launchers: 11G In-Class Activities: A11.6, A11.7

MC 87-90 FI 9-10 SA 10 ES 4

Slides 39-45

Learning Objectives: 11.1-11.2

The Benefits –and Costs—of Joining p369

MYPSYCHLAB

Learning Objective 11.3 Effects of the Presence of Others: From Task Performance to Behavior in Crowds p. 373 Learning Objective: 11.4

Social Loafing: Letting Others Do the Work p.376

Learning Objectives: 11.5-11.6 Coordination in Groups: Cooperation or Conflict? p. 379

Lecture Launchers: 11C, 11D, 11E In-Class Activities: A11.3, A11.4 In-Class Activities: A11.5

Watch: Cooperative Learning Students Slides 28-32

Learning Objectives: 11.7-11.9

Perceived Fairness in Groups: Its Nature and Effects p. 384 Learning Objectives: 11.10 Decision Making by Groups: How It Occurs and the Pitfalls It Faces p. 387 Learning Objectives: 11.11-11.13 The Role of Leadership in Group Settings p. 391

Stimulate: Social Facilitation

Lecture Launcher: 11H

Learning Objective 11.14 *THIS ACTIVITY CAN BE ASSIGNED FOR ANY OF THE SECTIONS IN THIS CHAPTER Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 164

KEY TERMS additive tasks (p. 376) asynchronous forms of communication (p. 379) bargaining (negotiation) (p. 383) brainstorming (p. 390) cohesiveness (p. 368) collectivism (p. 367) common-bound groups (p. 362) common-identity groups (p. 362) conflict (p. 379) cooperation (p. 379) decision making (p. 387) deindividuation (p. 377) distraction-conflict theory (p. 375) distributive justice (fairness) (p. 385) entiativity (p. 363) evaluation apprehension (p. 375) feeling rules (p.366) glass cliff (p.393) group (p. 362)

group polarization (p. 388) groupthink (p. 389) hooliganism (p. 377) ideology (p. 371) individualism (p. 367) meta stereotypes (p.386) negative interdependence (p.380) norms (p. 366) politicized collective identity (p. 370) procedural justice (p. 385) roles (p. 364) schism (p. 372) social dilemmas (p. 381) social embeddedness (p.379) social loafing (p. 377) status (p. 364) superordinate goals (p. 384) transactional justice (p. 385)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 11, students should be able to: 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14

Define what is meant by a “group” and the role that entiativity plays in studying groups. Identify how roles, status, norms, and cohesiveness allow a group to function. Outline the benefits and costs associated with joining a group. Define what is meant by “social facilitation” and provide a detailed overview of how this topic has been studied throughout social psychology’s history. Explain why social loafing occurs and ways to reduce it. Define and give reasons why deindividuation occurs. Contrast the terms “cooperation” and “conflict.” Explain the dynamics of a social dilemma. Identify the basic nature and causes of conflict as well as ways to reduce it. Explain the importance of perceived fairness in groups and, in doing so, identify and describe the three main categories of justice. Discuss the nature and consequences of group polarization. Discuss the nature, underlying causes, and consequences of groupthink. Define brainstorming, and discuss whether or not brainstorming leads to more creative ideas. Discuss how being typical or non-traditional can effect leadership

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CHAPTER 11 OUTLINE GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS: THE CONSEQUENCES OF BELONGING I.

Groups: When We Join …And When We Leave A. A group is defined as a collection of people who are bonded together into one unit. (LO 11.1) 1. This basic bond can differ in different types of groups: a) In common-bond groups, which tend to involve face-to-face interaction among members, the individuals in the group are bonded to each other. b) In common-identity groups the members are linked via the category as a whole rather than each other because face-to-face interaction may not occur. 2. Entitativity refers to the extent to which a group is seen as being a “coherent entity” (Campbell, 1958). a) A group can be a set of people who are at the same place at the same time, but have little else in common, but groups that are coherent include our families or circle of friends. b) Groups that are high in entitativity display certain characteristics: (1) The members interact with each other frequently. (2) The group is seen as important to the members. (3) Members of the group share the same goals and outcomes. (4) There is similarity in significant ways. c) Groups that are high in all of these characteristics are likely to be seen by their members as coherent (and that members choose to belong to the group). d) Highly entiativity groups are more likely to be stereotyped than are groups low in entiativity (Yzerbyt, Corneille, & Estrada, 2001). B. Groups: Key components (LO 11.2) 1. Status, one’s position or rank in a group, can be used to influence the behavior of group members. In other words, those who follow the rules of the people in power will be rewarded. a) Those with high status enjoy many advantages. From an evolutionary perspective, those with high status have increased access to resources that promote reproductive success and survival. b) Height seems to be a factor in status. For example, taller males tend to lead companies. c) Once status within a group is obtained, people with high status actually behave differently (i.e. more idiosyncratic and variable) than those who are lower in status. 2. Members of a group often play different roles, which refers to the behaviors that people with a specific position within the group are expected to carry out. a) Some roles are assigned (e.g., an officer within a group) and some gradually develop over time (e.g., the one person who holds everyone’s contact information). b) People tend to internalize their group roles (i.e., make them part of their selfconcept). c) Roles are a powerful influence on people’s behavior. This was demonstrated in the famous prison study performed by Zimbardo and colleagues (1973). In this study, participants were randomly assigned to play the role of “prison guard” or “prisoner.” The impact of assuming these roles was so dramatic that the study

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had to be stopped early. The “prisoners” were becoming despondent and the “guards” were becoming harsh and cruel. (1) A 2006 follow-up to the Stanford prison study did not produce the same results, the “guards” behavior did not change largely because they did not identify with their role. Thus an internalization process whereby we come to identify with, and see ourselves in terms of a role and identity must take place before our behavior will reflect the role. 3. Norms, or rules that dictate how group members should and should not act, are also powerful features of a group. a) Feeling rules – expectations or norms about the appropriate emotions to display or express. (1) For example customer services agents are expected to remain pleasant no matter how rude customers are. b) An important norm that varies considerably across cultures but can also apply differentially to groups within a culture is collectivism versus individualism (1) Collectivism – groups in which the norm is to maintain harmony among group members, even if doing so might entail some personal costs (2) Individualism – In such groups the norm is to value standing out from the group and being different form others; individual variability is to be expected and disagreement among members is tolerated. (3) A series of studies by Hornsey, Jetten, McAuliffe, and Hogg (2006) demonstrated that among those who highly identified with their group, a dissenter in the group was liked when the norm was individualist, but that same dissenter was disliked when the norm was collectivist. 4. Cohesiveness, the forces that make group members stay in a group, is obviously another important factor in a group’s influence on behavior. a) A number of factors are related to cohesiveness (1) Cohesive groups have a sense of solidarity (2) See themselves as homogenous (3) Supportive of in-group members (4) Cooperative with in-group members (5) Oriented toward achieving group goals (6) Perform better II. The Benefits—and Costs—of Joining (LO 11.3) A. The Benefits of joining: What groups do for us 1. We obviously have a strong desire to be a part of a group and to stick with that group even when the group experiences trouble (e.g., a group of sports fans is still loyal to their team after a terrible season). 2. There are a few reasons why we stay with the group: a) We acquire self-knowledge as part of a group. We learn who we are and who we would like to become. Being a member of a group becomes part of our identity, so it is not surprising that we do not easily leave groups behind. b) Certain groups help us reach specific goals. For example, if our goal is to improve our athletic ability, we may join a sports team. c) Groups help to enhance our status and, hence, our self-esteem. For example, if we are accepted into a prestigious school, both our status and self-esteem are raised. (1) Self-enhancement refers to a goal where our public image and feelings of superiority are raised. People seeking self-enhancement will Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 167

place great importance on a group’s status and will strongly identify with them. d) Joining a group can help bring about social change (e.g., a group dedicated to women’s rights). (1) A politicized collective identity is recognizing shared grievances and engaging in a power struggle on behalf of one’s devalued group. 3. The costs of getting accepted into a group (LO 11.3) a) When we have put forth considerable effort to achieve membership in a group we may need to change our attitudes toward that group in a positive direction to justify our effortful behaviors. As a result, after going through an initiation to be admitted to a group and then learning that the group is unattractive after all, our commitment toward that group should actually increase. 4. The cost of membership: Why groups sometimes splinter (LO 11.3) a) Some costs of group membership include: (1) Restrictions on our personal freedom. (2) Groups place demands on individuals’ time and resources. (3) Occasionally the group embraces a policy or position that an individual member disapproves. (4) To the extent that people do identify themselves and others a part of the same category (“we-ness”), they may choose to withdraw from group that they no longer see as meeting the definition of the we-ness they initially adopted. (a) This type of splintering is particularly likely when differences in ideology – the philosophical and political values of a group – among different factions of the group become so disparate that some members cannot see themselves as part of the same group. (b) A schism is the splintering of a group into distinct factions following an ideological rift among members. III. Effects of the Presence of Others: From Task Performance to Behavior in Crowds A. The mere presence of others can impact upon our behavior, even if we, and the other people, are not part of a formal group. B. We know that we act differently when we are by ourselves versus when we are in the presence of someone else (even a stranger). We tend to change and monitor our behavior more when others are around. C. Social Facilitation: Performance in the presence of others (LO 11.4) 1. Social facilitation refers to the effects of the presence of others on our performance of different tasks. Some research done in the early part of the twentieth century showed that the presence of others enhanced performance, while other research showed that the presence of others decreased our performance. 2. Zajonc suggested the reason for these contradictory findings was that the presence of others increases our arousal and our tendency to perform dominant responses. When the dominant response is correct, performance increases; when the dominant response is incorrect, performance decreases. This led to the drive theory of social facilitation, which proposed that simply the presence of other people is in fact arousing, which increases the likelihood of a dominant response. a) Performance is improved when we are skilled at a task (the dominant responses, then, are correct). Performance diminishes when we are not skilled at a task (the dominant responses, then, are incorrect).

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3. Other research has also found that when we know and care about being evaluated, social facilitation can occur. a) We may have evaluation apprehension, which is concern about being judged by others. This can raise arousal levels and play a role in social facilitation. 4. Distraction-conflict theory suggests that social facilitation originates in the conflict arising from simultaneously focusing attention on an audience and the task at hand. a) Research supports the idea that “narrowed attentional focus” can produce this conflict for both animals and humans. IV. Social Loafing Letting Others Do the Work (LO 11.5) 1. When people work together to accomplish a goal, the level of effort each person puts in will vary. Some people will help a lot, others will help a little, while still others will feign effort. 2. Additive tasks are tasks in which each member of a group combines their efforts into a “single group output.” 3. Social loafing refers to declines in motivation and effort when a person works as part of a group as opposed to working alone (Karau & Williams, 1993). Often as group size increases, the amount of effort put in by each individual decreases. 4. There are several techniques for decreasing social loafing: a) Ability to identify each group member’s exact level of effort. b) Increase member’s commitment to successfully completing the task at hand. c) Increase the inherent value of the task. d) Have members see their own contributions as unique. B. The effects of being in a crowd (LO 11.6) 1. Hooliganism – negative stereotype about how people behave in crowds at sporting events, especially applied to incidents involving England’s soccer fans. 2. Deindividuation refers to a state in which we feel reduced self-awareness because we are an anonymous member of a sizeable group. We may “lose our individuality” and engage in uninhibited behavior that we would not see if we were alone or in a small group (like hooliganism). a) In early research on deindividuation, Zimbardo (1970) suggested that being unidentifiable in a crowd helps us to feel less responsible for our behavior. b) More recent research suggests that when we are in a crowd, we adhere to the norms of that group, and not other norms that govern our everyday behavior. (For example, the norms of a sports crowd may be to heckle the opposing team, so we abandon the norms of being polite toward other people.) c) Deindividuation does not always lead to negative behavior if the norms in the crowd are positive, then positive behaviors are likely to increase. V. Coordination in Groups: Cooperation or Conflict A. Cooperation: working with others to achieve shared goals (LO 11.7) 1. Cooperation is behavior in which group members work together to reach a shared goal. 2. Cooperation allows a group to reach a goal that an individual may not be able to reach alone. 3. It is safe to say that cooperation among group members is not guaranteed. a) Sometimes there will be conflict, a process whereby people believe that others will take actions that are contradictory to their own interests. b) Cooperation is not guaranteed because some goals cannot be shared by others (e.g., candidates vying for one open position within a company). In these cases,

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B.

C.

D.

E.

conflict may arise swiftly, as each person tries to maximize their own outcomes (Tjosvold, 1993). Working with others via computer-mediated communication 1. Part of what makes for good cooperation is social embeddedness, which is a sense of knowing the reputation of the other parties involved, often by knowing someone else who knows them. a) Social embeddedness is often low in web based communication. 2. Asynchronous forms of communication – unlike face-to-face communication where there is no delay, asynchronous forms such as e-mail and other forms of text messaging give people a period of times during which they can think about their response before responding. Cooperation: Working with others to achieve shared goals 1. Sometimes people in groups do not cooperate; one reason is negative interdependence – a situation where if one person obtains a desired outcome, others cannot obtain it. Social Dilemmas: Where cooperation could occur but often doesn’t (LO 11.8) 1. Social dilemmas are situations where individuals may increase their own gains with certain behaviors, but if enough other people do the same, then the outcomes for all people are diminished (Komorita & Parks, 1994). Here there are mixed motives, which means there is a motive for cooperation so that no one experiences negative outcomes, but also a motive to defect, which is doing what is best for us. a) When two suspected criminals are caught, and one confesses (“turns states’ evidence”) and the other sticks to their story, the one who confesses has not cooperated, but has probably helped him or herself receive a lighter sentence. 2. Having sanctions for noncooperation can change the extent to which people trust others and thereby lowering the extent to which they engage in cooperation. Responding to and resolving conflicts: Some useful techniques (LO 11.9) 1. A growing body of evidence suggests that social factors play a strong role in initiating conflicts. Below is common social factors: a) Faulty attributions are mistakes we make when trying to ascertain the causes of another person’s behavior. If we attribute negative outcomes to another person, even if they do not hold conflicting interests, we may see the beginning of conflict. 2. Bargaining: The universal process: (LO 11.9) a) The most common strategy for resolving conflicts is Bargaining (negotiation), which is the process whereby opposing groups exchange a number of offers and counteroffers until the conflict is resolved. (1) There are many tactics that bargainers can use to reduce the aspirations of their opponents (a) Extreme initial offer (b) The big lie (c) Convincing the other side that you can go elsewhere and get a better deal. b) Superordinate goals, which are goals that both parties involved in a conflict seek and that bind their interests together, as opposed to tearing them apart. If both sides see that they could share one common, overriding goal, conflict decreases as cooperation increases.

VI. Perceived Fairness in Groups: Its Nature and Effects

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A. Many people have experienced perceived unfairness, where we get less than we feel we deserve. Our reaction to this thought is very negative, and we are often very proactive in taking steps to restore fairness. B. Basic rules for judging fairness: Distributive, procedural, and transactional justice. (LO 11.10) 1. Distributive justice (fairness) is a rule stating that rewards should be given out based on how much each group member has contributed. a) If people receive more rewards than seem justified by their contributions, we will perceive this as unfair. 2. Procedural justice is our judgments regarding the fairness of the procedures used to distribute rewards to group members. We base our judgments on a number of factors: a) The consistency of the procedures b) The opportunity for corrections if there is an error in the procedure c) The extent to which the decision makers avoid being influenced by their own self-interest 3. Transactional justice is the extent to which we are given clear reasons as to why rewards were distributed in the manner that they were and the courtesy used in relaying such decisions. VII.

Decision making by Groups: How it Occurs and the Pitfalls it Faces A. Decision-making involves considering and integrating available information to decide on one of many possible courses of action. 1. It is commonly believed that groups can reach a better decision than an individual, since a group combines the expertise of different members. B. The decision-making process: How groups attain consensus 1. The decision quality of groups: Less or more extreme a) Group polarization refers to the tendency of members of a group to move toward a more extreme position than their original position simply as a result of the group’s discussion. (LO 11.11) (1) Two major factors contribute to group polarization: (a) If we all want to be above average, in which opinions are concerned, this implies holding views that are better than other group members. So, in a group of liberals, better would mean more liberal. (b) A second factor involves the fact that during group discussion, most arguments favor the group’s initial preference. As a result of hearing such arguments, persuasion occurs. C. The downside of group decision making (LO 11.12) 1. Groupthink refers to a tendency among a very cohesive group to believe that their decision must be right, that all members of the group must strongly support the decision, and that information that contradicts the decision should be ignored (Janis, 1972, 1982). Once groupthink is in place, groups are unwilling and unable to change their decision, even in the face of evidence that the decision was a bad one. 2. In addition to cohesiveness, we see groupthink because of emergent group norms, or norms indicating that the group is incapable of an error, so there need not be any more discussion of the topic of interest, just strong support for the group’s decision. 3. Outside criticism can also strengthen a group’s resolve, as they band together to defend themselves against “outside attacks.” D. The failure to share information unique to each member 1. Oftentimes members of a group fail to share unique information; therefore many decisions are the result of only the limited shared information (Gigione & Hastie, 1993). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 171

This may prevent a better decision from being made if an individual is holding back valuable information. E. Brainstorming: Idea generation in groups (LO 11.13) 1. In brainstorming—a process whereby people meet as a group to generate new ideas 2. People have generally assumed that brainstorming will result in more creative output than working as an individual, but brainstorming does not on the whole result in more creative ideas being generated than if the same folks worked alone. VIII.

The Role of Leadership in Group Settings (LO 11.14) A. Being a leader involves exerting influence –changing the behavior and thoughts of other members of the group. 1. It is difficult to identify the personality traits that separate leaders from followers. 2. Women and minorities are more likely to gain leadership positions in a time of crisis. When the group is doing poorly. a) This type of leadership position has been referred to as the glass cliff – When women and minorities are seen as better leaders because of their ability to manage crises. They are more likely to be selected as leader when the situation contains more risk. 3. Having a leader that is seen as prototypical of the group (rather than different from group members) predicts both member satisfaction and perceived leader effectiveness.

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LECTURE LAUNCHERS 11A: What Effect Does Winning and Losing Have on Fans? (LO 11.3) Researchers have found that some sports fans identify so closely with their favorite team that game outcomes can bolster or damage their self-esteem and even affect their testosterone levels. For example, Cialdini et al. (1976) found that college students were more likely to wear clothes with their school’s logo after their team won. This “basking in reflected” glory helps to enhance their self- and public-image. In another study, Hirt et al. (1992) found that highly identified fans were more optimistic about their chances of dating an attractive stranger after their team’s victory than they were after their team’s defeat. As for what factors appear to influence identification with a sport’s team, Wann et al. (1996) found that the success of the team, proximity of the team, the players, and affiliation factors were most important. New research indicates that testosterone levels in male fans rise markedly after a win and drop just as sharply after a loss (Dabbs). This suggests that male fans may be experiencing the sense of competition vicariously through their physiology. Discuss with your students what impact total allegiance to a team can have. This strong sense of belonging could explain hooliganism (often soccer), and why some fans remain faithful to perennial losing teams (like the Chicago Cubs). Cialdini, R.B., et al. (1976) Basking in reflected glory: Three field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406-415. Hirt E.R., et al. (1992). Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans’ self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 724-738. Wann, D.L., Tucker, K.B., & Schrader, M.P. (1996). An exploratory examination of the factors influencing the origination, continuation, and cessation of identification with sports teams. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82, 995-1001.

11B: Can a Hostile Audience Increase Performance? (LO 11.4) Intuition would suggest that people perform better in front of a cheering, supportive crowd than a hostile, unsupportive crowd. Recently, however, Butler and Baumeister (1998) found people may actually perform better at difficult tasks when faced with an audience of hostile strangers as opposed to their parents, spouses, or the hometown fans. For example, in one study, 40 participants had to take a math test while either a friend or stranger watched. Those who performed before a friend reported feeling less stress, but made more errors and took longer to carry out the task than those being observed by a stranger. In another experiment, the researchers assigned 93 participants to play a computer game and told them to strive for a certain score. For some, the score was easily attainable, while for others it was more difficult. Participants who performed while being watched by a supportive observer (win money if player succeeds) were more likely to miss the score than those being watched by an adversarial (win money if player fails) or neutral observer. The researchers surmise that performers who face an adversarial audience may try new strategies or take lucrative risks when carrying out a difficult task because they feel they have less to lose: The audience already dislikes them. People facing a group of supporters, on the other hand, may “choke” under the pressure of trying to meet their audience’s expectations.

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Butler, J., & Baumeister, R. (1998). The trouble with friendly faces: Skilled performance with a supportive audience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1213–1230.

11C: Social Loafing by the Beatles (LO 11.5) Jackson and Padgett (1982) provide evidence of social loafing in songs written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney of the Beatles. They reported that songs co-written by Lennon and McCartney were lower in quality than the songs written by either of them alone. Jackson and Padgett concluded that there is evidence of a social loafing effect, but only for those songs written after 1967. Jackson, J.M., & Padgett, V.R. (1982). With a little help from my friend: Social loafing and the LennonMcCartney songs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 672-677.

11D: Effects of Social Ostracism on Gender (LO 11.5) Social ostracism is defined as being ignored by others who are in one’s presence. Williams and Sommer (1997) hypothesized that because people strive to be accepted in groups, social ostracism would lead to compensation (rather than social loafing) on a group task. To make subjects feel ostracized, they had two same-sexed confederates bounce a ball with one naïve subject and then, after one minute, the confederates were told to ignore the subject and only bounce the ball to each other. Williams and Sommer found that an interesting gender interaction emerged. Males were more likely to loaf in their same-sexed groups after being ostracized, whereas females were more likely to compensate (i.e., try harder) in their groups. The authors suggest that men and women may have different coping mechanisms when dealing with threat. Women are more likely to attribute ostracism to poor character, so they compensate to increase their sense of belonging. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to deny the ostracism occurred (as well as their negative emotions about being ignored), so they save face by loafing. Williams, K.D., & Sommer, K.L. (1997). Social ostracism by coworkers: Does rejection lead to loafing or compensation? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 693-706.

11E: Home Court Advantage (LO 11.6) Students who are athletes or sports fans are well aware of the home court advantage in competitive sports (cf. Courneya & Carron, 1992). In one study, Greer (1983) tested the performance of basketball players at Illinois and Kansas State to determine the impact of noisy fan demonstrations on performance. Greer found that although turnovers and scoring favored the home team regardless of crowd noise, noisy crowds did increase the number of fouls called against the visiting team. These findings appear to be consistent with the belief that collective protest by sports crowds is an effective type of social support that can contribute significantly to the home advantage. Perhaps some of your students could try to replicate this finding. Courneya, K.S., & Carron, A.V. (1992). The home advantage in sport competitions: A literature review. Journal of Sport and Exercise Physiology, 14, 13-27. Greer, D.L. (1983). Spectator booing and the home advantage: A study of social influence in the basketball arena. Social Psychology Quarterly, 46(3), 252-261.

11F: Perceptions of Fairness (LO 11.10) The text outlines perceived unfairness in terms of the workplace and marriages. Have your students reflect on other areas where perceived unfairness may come into play (e.g., in sibling relationships).

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11G: Group Projects (LO 11.1-11.13) It is likely that most, if not all, of your students have worked on a group project as part of a class. Have them recall their experiences in the context of material learned in this chapter. Did people seem to engage in “restricted sharing of information”? Once any decisions were made, were there any dissenters? How were they dealt with by the group? 11H: Who Makes Good Leaders (LO 11.14) Have the class list the personality traits that they believe good leaders possess. Then talk about the limited support for personality theories of leadership. This will lead back to a fundamental idea in social psychology that maybe leaders arise from situational forces (the power of the situation).

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A11.1: Dynamics of One’s Group (see Handout 11-1) (LO 11.1 – 11.13) Ask your students to imagine one group that they are part of and that is important to them. Keeping this group in mind, have them answer the questions on the handout. A11.2: Social Facilitation (see Handout 11-2) (LO 11.4) To demonstrate how the presence of others influences performance, do the following exercise: Procedure 1. Pass out envelopes to four student volunteers containing simple and complex math problems (see Handout 11-2). 2. The handout contains four tasks: #1- simple problem done in front of class #2- simple problem done alone #3- complex problem done in front of class #4- complex problem done alone

correct answer 24 60 39 28

3. To counterbalance the order, use a Latin Square for ordering the tasks for each student volunteer: • • • •

student 1’s order is 1, 2, 3, 4 student 2’s order is 2, 4, 1, 3 student 3’s order is 4, 3, 2, 1 student 4’s order is 3, 1, 4, 2

3. Give each student a stopwatch and then have each complete the problems in the order given in the envelope. Note: You should wait for each student to finish the first problem before moving to second problem, etc.

Results & Discussion •

After completing the four problems, collect the handouts and write their times on the board under the following four tasks: simple/group

simple/alone

complex/group complex/alone

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•

Social facilitation theory predicts that average times should be faster for #1 than #2, and #4 should be faster than #3. Ask the students to describe what affect the audience had on their performance.

Note: As an alternative, Jay Wilder (Wingate University) suggests doing a simple recreation of Triplett’s classic study where children reeled fishing line alone or in groups. One student is given a pencil with a ten-foot length of string tied to it and a washer tied to other end to weigh it down. The student is instructed to twist the pencil in order to wind the string around the pencil until the washer is “reeled” in. While timing the student, have them do the task outside the classroom and then in front of the class. Wilder, J. PSYCHTEACHER Listserv (Oct. 12, 2001).

A11.3: Social Loafing (see Handout 11-3) (LO 11.5) To demonstrate social loafing, try the following task: Procedure 1. Assign your students to work in pairs, groups of four, and groups of eight (if class is large enough). 2. Ask your students to work on a specific assignment or task 3. When they are finished ask them to complete Handout 11-3 which asks them to evaluate their own effort and the effort of their group members. Results & Discussion • Typically you will find loafing increases with group size. Discuss with the class how lack of identifiability and expecting less effort from others contributes to this group phenomenon. A11.4: Deindividuation Exercise (LO 11.6) According to deindividuation theory, seemingly normal, well-adjusted people are capable of displaying deviant, antisocial behavior if the situation is right (e.g., anonymous, highly aroused, high group cohesiveness). Procedure 1. To illustrate the concept, ask your students to respond anonymously to the following question: If you could be totally invisible for 24 hours and were completely assured that you would not be detected or held responsible for your actions, what would you do? Results & Discussion • Collect their responses and read a few interesting ones aloud. Common themes often emerge such as criminal behaviors (rob a bank), sexual acts, and spying. Usually you will find that antisocial behaviors outnumber prosocial behaviors. Dodd, D. (1985). Robbers in the classroom: A deindividuation exercise. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 8991.

A11.5: The Prisoner’s Dilemma (LO 11.8) When discussing social dilemmas, it is often fun to have students participate in a prisoner’s Dilemma game. The following website allows you and students to play a prisoner’s dilemma game: http://www.iterated-prisoners-dilemma.net/ Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 176

Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 177

A11.6: Group Polarization (see Handout 11-4) (LO 11.11) This activity can be used to demonstrate group polarization—the tendency for individuals to move to more extreme attitudes after group discussion. Procedure 1. First, students should respond to the three scenarios from the Choice Dilemmas Questionnaire on their own, and then discuss the dilemmas in groups. To standardize the exercise, read the following instructions to the class: On the questionnaire I’ve given to you, you will find descriptions of situations that might occur in everyday life. In each situation a person is faced with a choice between two courses of action. The person can continue his or her present course of action, or the person can embark on a new, more adventurous course. Your task is to decide how certain you would want to be before you would advise the person to try the new course of action. For each situation, your task is to indicate the minimum probability of success that you would demand before recommending that the person attempt the new course of action. Note that you are not asked to indicate what the chances of success would actually be. Rather, you are asked to indicate the smallest chance of success that you would accept and still advise the person to go ahead and try the new course of action. For example, if you say one in ten, you are telling the person to try the new course of action even if the chances are slim. On the other hand, if you say nine in ten, you are telling the person to try the new course of action only if it appears to be a sure thing. Read each situation carefully before giving your judgment. Try to place yourself in the position of the person in each situation and then indicate the smallest chance of success that you would accept and still advise the person to try the new course of action. 2. After everyone in the class has finished responding, the students should divide up into discussion groups of four or five persons. Instruct the groups to spend three minutes discussing each of the three scenarios. 3. After each three-minute discussion, ask each group member again to write down on his or her questionnaire the minimum probability of success that he or she would demand, considering the points made by the group. Results & Discussion • After the groups have completed all three scenarios, ask each group to prepare a summary of their data. For each situation, have them obtain a pre-discussion and a post-discussion sum. They should add together the responses of each group member so that it can be determined whether their group changed in a “risky” direction (i.e., the post-discussion sum < the pre-discussion sum), changed in a cautious direction (i.e., the post-discussion sum > pre-discussion sum), or stayed the same. • Typically groups will show a risky shift on the Peter and Henry dilemmas, and show a cautious shift on the Betty dilemma. A11.7: Group Polarization Using Real-World Events (LO 11.11) As an alternative to using the hypothetical situations given above, you may want to study group polarization using real-world events. For example, based on the assumption that the impeachment of President Nixon is a riskier course of action than either censure or resignation, Lewin and Kane (1975) found that individuals’ decisions became more extreme after group discussion. Along these same lines, Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 178

you could ask your students to make decisions (both individually and in groups) about on-going current events that have not yet been determined—for example, political indiscretions (e.g., Clinton-Lewinsky case; Condit-Levy case), high-profile criminal cases (death penalty vs. life imprisonment), or contract negotiations of top athletes. One example I’ve used (G. Schreer) involves having students play the role of jurors in which they have to decide awards in high-profile liability cases (e.g., McDonald’s case where a woman received a multimillion settlement after suffering third degree burns from spilling scalding hot coffee on her lap). Typically, the settlements are often much larger following discussion. Lewin, M.A., & Kane, M. (1975). Impeachment of Nixon and the risky shift. International Journal of Group Tensions, 5, 171-176.

OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Impressions of How Groups Function (LO 11.1 – 11.13) Ask the students to report on their experience in extracurricular activity groups. The students might comment on such things as the emergence of leadership in the group, polarization effects, social loafing, and social facilitation. Also, you might encourage the students to attend a meeting of a group of which they are not currently members so that they can observe the group’s functioning. By observing a group of which they are not a member, students may be better able to gain insight into the group. Encourage the students to write down their impressions of the group and to share them with the other class members.

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Anatomy of a Group (1983, 30 minutes, NECHE). • Examines group communication, group norms, and group structure. Crowd Behavior: Controlling Carnival Crowds? (1997, 50 minutes, IM). • Explores the roots of collective action and when the crowd begins to “act as one.” Experimental Studies in Social Climates of Groups (1953, 30 minutes, PSU). • Documents the classic study by Lewin in which a hidden camera observes the reactions of boys operating under autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire principles. Group Decision Making and Leadership (1989, 30 minutes, PSU). • Explores under what conditions a leader is most effective. Group Dynamics: Why Good People Make Bad Decisions (1994, 17 minutes, LS). • High school students working on a group project discover the dynamics of group processes such as groupthink, social roles, and interpersonal expectations. Group Influence (2001, 30 minutes, IM). • Examines how groups can influence people’s behavior (e.g., deindividuation and groupthink). Groups and Group Dynamics (1991, 30 minutes, IM). • Examines how groups function and interact.

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Groupthink (1990, 22 minutes, CRM). • Applies the symptoms of Janis’s “groupthink” to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Leadership: Style or Circumstance? (1974, 30 minutes, CRM). • Applies Fiedler’s relation-oriented and task-oriented leadership styles to the presidents of several successful businesses. Mob Psychology and Crowd Control (1993, 55 minutes, FHS). • Examines the causes of the soccer riots in England in the context of deindividuation. The Tragedy of the Commons (1971, 25 minutes, Kent State). • Examines the impact of social traps where short-term gains for individuals result in long-term collective ruin.

RELEVANT SOURCES Ahlfinger, N.R., & Esser, J.K. (2001). Testing the groupthink model: Effects of promotional leadership and conformity predisposition. Social Behavior and Personality, 29, 31-41. • Studies the effects of leaders’ group makeup on the many aspects of groupthink. Forsyth, D. R. (2009). Group Dynamics (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. • Comprehensive text on group dynamics in many diverse settings. Hinsz, V.B., & Nickell, G.S. (2004). Positive reactions to working in groups in a study of group and individual goal decision making. Group Dynamics, 8, 253-264. • Present the results of research examining commitment and attitudes toward goals in groups versus individual performance. Levine, J. M., & Moreland, R. L. (Eds.). (2006). Small Groups: Key Readings. New York: Psychology Press. • This reader provides background on five fundamental aspects of groups: group composition, group structure, group conflict, group performance, and group ecology. Lewin, K. (1997). Resolving social conflicts & Field Theory in social science. Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association. • This comprehensive volume of Lewin’s work contains selected papers on group dynamics and field theory. Malloy, T.E., & Janowski, C.L. (1993). Perceptions and metaperceptions of leadership: Components, accuracy, and dispositional correlates. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 700-708. • Examines the many correlates of effective leadership and the impact of gender stereotypes on perceptions of leadership. Moscovici, S., Mucchi-Faina, A., & Maass, A. (Eds.). (1994). Minority influence. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers. • Examines the power of minority influence on thinking and social change. Pfeiffer, J.W. (1989). The encyclopedia of group activities. San Diego: Pfeiffer and Co. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 180

•

Contains over 100 activities designed to demonstrate a wide range of group processes.

Smith, B.N., Kerr, N.A., Markus, M.J., & Stasson, M.F. (2001). Individual differences in social loafing: Need for cognition as a motivator in collective performance. Group Dynamics, 5, 150-158. • Examines the possible effects of need for cognition on the occurrence of social loafing. Stephan, W.G. (2001). Improving intergroup relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. • Provides a comprehensive review and compilation of techniques for improving intergroup relations. Thomas, S.L., Skitka, L.J., Christen, S., & Jurgena, M. (2002). Social facilitation and impression formation. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24, 67-70. • Provides support for the notion that mere presence can have an impact on the impressions that participants form regarding an experimenter.

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CHAPTER 12 Social Psychology: A Guide to Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE BRIEF OUTLINE

INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCES

TEST BANK

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Some Basic Causes of Social Adversity—and Coping with Them p. 389

Lecture Launchers: 12A, 12B, 12C

MC 1-24 FI 1-5 SA 1-6 ES 1-2 MPL Feature Essay WATCH: “Eyewitness Testimony” MC 25-34 FI 6-7 SA 7-8 ES 3

Slides 3-14

Learning Objectives: 12.1-12.3

The Social Side of Personal Health p. 409 Learning Objectives: 12.4-12.6

Making the Legal System More Open, Fair, and Effective: The Social Side of The Law p. 416

Lecture Launchers: 12d 12G, 12F, 12H In-Class Activities: A12.2 Out-of-Class Activities: “Stress Log” Lecture Launchers: 12I 12J, 12K, 12L, 12M In-Class Activities: A12.1

Learning Objectives: 12.7 & 12.8

Out-of-Class Activities: “Social psychology, law and the movies”

Personal Happiness: What It is and How to Attain It p. 420

Lecture Launchers: 12N

Learning Objectives: 12.9 & 12.10

In-Class Activities: A12.3

MC 35-90 FI 8-10 SA 9-10 ES 4

Slides 15-21

Slides 22-34

MYPSYCHLAB

Explore: Coping strategies and their effects Watch: Men and stress Women and stress Explore: An exercise in point of view and memory Watch: Eye Witness Testimony

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KEY TERMS communal approach or perspective (p. 407) job satisfaction (p. 424) lineup (p. 417) loneliness (p. 399)

optimal level of well-being theory (p. 426) personal happiness (p. 420) social support (p. 414) stress (p. 413)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LO) After studying Chapter 12, students should be able to: 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10

Consider why loneliness develops, its consequences, and ways to overcome it. Discuss the importance and role of similarity, assumed similarity, individual differences in a happy marriage. Discuss how a communal approach and positive illusions factor into a stable relationship Identify the genetic environmental and social roots of obesity. Provide an overview of the physical and psychological consequences of stress. Outline social support as coping mechanism for stress. Outline the effects that police lineups may have on the general impact of a trial before it begins. Identify the influence of prejudice and stereotypes on the legal system and ways the impact of prejudice can be reduced. Identify how wealth is related to happiness. Identify ways to improve happiness.

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CHAPTER 12 OUTLINE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: A Guide to Dealing with Adversity and Achieving a Happy Life I.

Some Basic Causes of Social Adversity and Coping with Them A. Loneliness: life with close relationships (LO 12.1) 1. Loneliness is an unpleasant condition resulting from a desire for close relationships, but an inability to establish them. 2. This is different from an individual who simply wants privacy and is not concerned with establishing friendships (these individuals do not feel lonely). 3. The consequences of being lonely a) Not only does loneliness lead to negative feelings such as pessimism and depression, it can interfere with sleep and health. 4. Why are some people lonely? a) McGuire and Clifford (2000) provided evidence that genetics can partly explain loneliness. b) Loneliness also originates in attachment styles that involve low interpersonal trust (i.e., dismissing and fearful-avoidant). c) Lack of social skills may also be a precursor of loneliness. Children who do not develop good social skills may avoid or act aggressively toward others. This can lead to rejection and ultimately loneliness. d) Unless there is help provided, interpersonal difficulties will “follow” the child into adolescence and adulthood. 5. Reducing loneliness a) Both cognitive therapy and social skills training can help diminish loneliness. (1) Cognitive therapy focuses on changing negative thought patterns (2) Social skills training allows individuals to work on their social skills through role-playing. B. The shattering—and building—of relationships 1. What makes relationships—including long-term relationships such as marriage— happy? (LO 12.2) a) The majority of people get married, even though at least fifty percent of marriages still end in divorce. Frank and Branstatter (2002) point out that fear of losing one’s partner is not as effective a strategy for maintaining a relationship as focusing on the rewards of the relationship as it continues over time. 2. Successful marriages are based on similarity in attitudes, values, and beliefs. Similarity between spouses appears to remain stable over time. a) Assumed similarity is also a key factor in a successful marriage. This refers to the degree to which couples believe they are similar in their attitudes, values, and beliefs. Real and assumed similarity contributes to satisfaction with one’s marriage. 3. Dispositional factors. a) Narcissism refers to a personality traits characterized by superiority feelings, absence of empathy, and a need for admiration. (1) Campbell and Foster (2002) reported that narcissists are less likely to be committed to a relationship. (2) In addition, if both people in the relationship exhibit narcissism, they are much less likely to be happy (Campbell, 1999). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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b) Attachment style can also affect a marriage, in that securely attached individuals enjoy greater marital satisfaction. 4. Can we predict whether love—and relationships—will last? The role of implicit processes a) Recent findings indicate that implicit feelings about one’s partner—feelings people can’t easily put into words, and of which they may not be aware—are a better predictor of the future of their relationship than their conscious or explicit reports about the strength of the relationship (Rogge, Lee, & Reis, 2010) 5. Why Relationships Fail—and how to make them stronger a) While the majority of people entering into marriage believe they will succeed, the reality is that more than fifty percent of marriages today will end in divorce. However, most people expect there marriages to succeed despite the fact that most marriages fail. 6. Problems between partners a) Problems often arise when we begin to see that our partner has many negative as well as positive attributes (we may tend to see only the positive ones when we are dating). As Silars and colleagues (1994) suggested, we realize that the actual similarity is less than the assumed similarity. Others have suggested that as time goes on, minor faults can become increasingly annoying (Felmlee, 1995). b) In a marriage disagreements and conflicts are essentially inevitable, what becomes crucial is how those conflicts are handled. 7. Perceiving love—or at least approval—as contingent on success a) Perceiving that love is contingent on external success in careers, jobs or school and be detrimental to marriages. b) For people low in self-esteem, personal failures on the job or at school spill over into their relationships causing them to feel less accepted and more rejected by their partners. 8. Building stronger relationships: Making them last—and happy a) Research by Turan and Vicary (2010) indicates that, in fact, the better individuals are at recognizing what action are relationship building and which ones are not, the more satisfied they are in their personal relationships. 9. Being positive—or being constructive a) In the past it was widely believed (on the basis of research findings), that to build a strong relationship, couples should always express positive feelings and thoughts. Recent evidence, however, indicates that a more balanced approach that permits the couple to address important problems may actually be better. 10. Giving only what you receive—or giving what your partner needs (LO 12.3) a) Communal approach – In the context of long-term relationships, a principle suggesting that each partner should try to meet the other’s needs, and not seek to balance the benefits that each receives from the relationship. b) Recent findings (Clark, Lemay, Graham, Pataki, & Finkel, 2010) indicate that the greater the extent to which a communal approach is replaced by an exchange one in which the benefits provided by the two partners should be equal or balanced, the lower the satisfaction with the relationship. c) Growing evidence indicates that to the extent couples maintain positive illusions about their partners, perceiving them as better than they actually are, their relationships may be strengthened. In a sense, then, positive illusions about one’s partner are one of the foundations of lasting, and mutually satisfying relationships. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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II. The Social Side of Personal Health A. Obesity: Why its roots are social and well as biological 1. In the U.S. more than 66% of all adults are obese – they weigh far more than the ideal for their height and body frame. 2. A number of factors have contributed to people being overweight: (LO 12.4) a) Genetics: those of our ancestors who were able to store excess fat would fare better during times of famine and thus survive. b) Environmental: Food portions: the amount we eat has steadily increased over the years. c) Social: Decreases in exercise – fear of assault, for example, has prevented many city dwellers from walking great distances. Advertisements – different media campaigns for high-fat foods increase our desire to snack. Decrease in family meals – many people eat throughout the day since a sit-down dinner with one’s family is much rarer in our current fast-paced society. 3. Anti-fat attitudes a) Numerous studies have indicated that negative attitudes toward the overweight exist. b) These anti-fat attitudes may derive, at least in part, from the widespread belief that people who are obese are responsible for their excess weight (Crandall et. Al., 2001). B. Stress: Social tactics for reducing its harmful effects 1. Stress is a response to outcomes that disturb our physical and psychological functioning and well-being. Some stress is inevitable for most people, and it can have negative consequences on our physical and psychological health (as well as many other behaviors, such as task completion and decision making). 2. Major sources of stress and their effects on personal health (LO 12.5) a) Sources of stress include major life events, such as a death in our family, and the frequently experienced minor hassles of everyday life such as financial trouble. b) The more daily hassles we experience, the poorer our psychological wellbeing. In the 1980s, Lazarus and his colleagues developed a Hassles Scale which lists out many daily stressors (e.g., too many responsibilities). Each item is assigned a score, and the higher one’s total score, the greater the impact on psychological well-being. 3. How does stress affect health a) Stress disturbs our “internal chemistry” and interferes with our immunity. (1) Our immune system recognizes and destroys threats to our health, such as viruses. Enduring stress can upset this system. (2) There can be a reduction in lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that fight disease. (3) There can be an increase in cortisol, a hormone that can suppress the immune system (Kemeny, 2003). b) There are direct effects of stress on our immune system as well as indirect effects regarding our lifestyles (e.g., we may smoke and drink more to deal with stress). 4. Social tactics for coping with stress: The benefits of social support (LO 12.6) a) Since stress is often unavoidable, finding appropriate ways to cope with it effectively can provide us with many long-term benefits. b) One way to deal with stress is to seek social support – dealing with stress by leaning on the resources provided by other people. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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(1) Being with friends or family members and receiving advice and comfort from them can help us cope with stress. (2) Having a pet has also been shown to reduce stress because they provide nonjudgmental social support (similar to unconditional love). (3) Not having a reliable social support network can increase one’s risk of death from illness, an accident, or suicide. (4) A recent study by Brown and her colleagues (2003) demonstrated that providing social support also seems to benefit our health. III. Making the Legal System More Open, Fair, and Effective: The Social Side of the Law A. Social Influence and the legal System 1. Although we strive for a “justice is blind” approach, meaning everyone is treated fairly no matter what age, gender, or other characteristics define them, social psychologists know this is very difficult to achieve. We are influenced by what we see, our stereotypes, and biases. Other people involved in legal proceedings (e.g., lawyers) also try to actively introduce bias. Social psychologists try to understand the steps in the legal system so that justice is more bias-free and fair. 2. Lineups: How subtle social pressure sometimes leads to disastrous errors. (LO 12.7) a) Lineup—a procedure in which witnesses to a crime are shown several people, one or more who may be suspects in a case and asked to identify any that they recognize as the person who committed the crime. b) In sequential lineups, the suspects are presented one at a time; in simultaneous lineups, all the suspects are shown at once. (1) Results of many studies indicate that sequential lineups reduce the likelihood that witness will identify someone who did not commit the crime (Steblay, Dysart, Fulero, & Lindsay, 2001). (2) Witnesses are more likely to incorrectly identify suspects if the instructor for the line-up is biased and suggests that the real criminal is in the line-up. B. The influence of prejudice and stereotypes on the legal system (LO 12.8) 1. A defendant’s race, gender, and appearance can affect outcomes in trials. a) For example, African American defendants are more likely to be convicted of murder and to be given the death penalty. b) Physical attractiveness, being female, and being wealthy are all linked with a decreased likelihood of a guilty verdict. c) Women defendants tend to be treated more leniently by juries and courts. However, if the crime is assault, females are actually more likely to be found guilt. This may occur because assault is considered to be counter stereotypic for women. 2. Characteristics of juries a) In terms of juries, women are more likely than men to convict someone of sexual assault and child abuse (Schutte & Hosch, 1997). b) Harris and Weiss (1995) reported that male jurors in rape cases are more likely to believe the sexual intercourse was consensual. 3. Can the effects of prejudice on legal proceedings be reduced (LO 12.8) a) It appears that the public nature of jury deliberations can reduce the impact of jurors’ stereotypes of defendants. b) Bothwell et al. (2006) found that when participants reported their opinions about a mock trial in private, they were largely influenced by their stereotypes of the defendant. However, after jury deliberations and a public verdict, these differences due to stereotypes largely disappeared. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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IV. Personal Happiness: What It Is and How to Attain It A. How happy are people generally? 1. Personal happiness – refers to subjective well-being which involves global life satisfaction, satisfaction with specific life domains frequent positive feelings, and relatively few negative feelings. 2. Surprisingly, despite hugely varied living conditions around the world most people (80%) – no matter where they live, their standard of living, gender, age, and health – report that they are quite happy. B. Factors that influence happiness 1. Good social relations with other people—close friends, family, romantic partners— appear to be an important ingredient for being happy. 2. Having goals and the ability to reach these goals are also an important determinate of happiness. C. Wealth: An important ingredient in personal happiness (LO 12.9) 1. If you can’t meet your basic needs (e.g. food, shelter etc.) then lack of money is likely to make you unhappy. At higher income levels, however, income is not strongly correlated with happiness. 2. Wealth is not linked to important factors in happiness such as being treated with respect and having friend s and family one can count on in an emergency. 3. Finally it is not your absolute wealth that is important rather your wealth relative to other people you compare yourself to that seems to predict happiness. 4. Although wealth may provide us with many of the things we want, it may also reduce our ability to savor life’s pleasures (e.g. enjoy a simple piece of chocolate). D. Is happiness having what you want, or wanting what you have? 1. Both having what you want and wanting what you have play a role in happiness a) Sadly many people seem to lose the latter capacity when they attain wealth. They continue to believe that if they obtain just one more thing (e.g. that new car etc.) they will finally attain happiness. E. The benefits of happiness 1. Individuals high in subjective well-being are more likely to experience better work outcomes, including increased productivity higher quality of work, higher income, more rapid promotions, and greater job satisfaction. 2. Happier people are also more resistant to cold and flu viruses and better able to deal with pain, have improved recovery from surgery and actually live longer. F. Can we increase personal happiness (LO 12.10)? 1. There is good evidence that happiness is in part determined by genetic factors—that is, it is stable over time, twins seem to have similar levels of happiness, etc. 2. Although genetic factors do play an important role in happiness, growing evidence points to the more optimistic conclusion that it can be changed. 3. Here are some steps you can take to increase your personal happiness a) Start and upward spiral – start experiencing some positive emotions. b) Build close personal relationships. c) Build personal skills that contribute to being happy – being friendly outgoing, and emotionally stable. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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d) Stop doing counterproductive things – abusing drugs, worrying about everything.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS 12A: Physiology of Loneliness (LO 12.1) Loneliness, a complex set of feelings and reactions to unfulfilled social needs, is a major risk for psychological disturbances. Recently, Cacioppo et al. (2000) have found that loneliness may also have powerful effects on one’s physiology. In a study involving over 2,000 undergraduate students, individuals who were chronically lonely had higher levels of daily mean salivary cortisol levels, suggesting they may experience higher levels of physiological stress. Cacioppo, J.T., et al. (2000). Lonely traits and concomitant physiological process: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 35, 143-154. 12B: Rejection Sensitivity in Romantic Relationships (LO 12.2) Rejection sensitivity is the disposition to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection by significant others. According to Downey et al. (2000), rejection sensitivity may make people more vulnerable toward maladaptive styles of coping within intimate relationships. These researchers found that rejection-sensitive men with high investment in their relationship were more likely to display violence to their partners’ negative or ambiguous behavior. Rejection-sensitive men with low involvement, however, were more likely to prevent anticipated rejection by reducing their investment in the intimate relationship. Looking at rejection-sensitivity in women, Ayduk et al. (2001) found that compared to low rejection-sensitive women, women high in rejection-sensitivity became more depressed following a partner-initiated breakup, but not when they experienced a self-initiated or mutually initiated breakup. These results suggest that depression in high rejection-sensitive women is due to the failure to prevent rejection in an intimate relationship. Ayduk, O., Downey, G., & Kim, M. (2001). Rejection sensitivity and depressive symptoms in women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 868-877. Downey, G., Feldman, S., & Ayduk, O. Rejection sensitivity and male violence in romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 7, 45-61. 12C: Coping with Marital Breakdown (LO 12.3) About half of all first marriages fail, as do 60 percent of all second marriages. Adult children of divorce are nearly 60 percent more likely to have problems in their own marriages than adults whose parents remained married. Mediation and conflict resolution have proven effective at minimizing the turmoil of divorce—both for couples and their children. Many states now require divorcing couples to enter some form of mediation or educational program before proceeding through litigation. Ask your students to consider what mediation strategies may be most effective. 12D: Optimism and Health (LO 12.6) Scheier and Carver (1993) found that optimism is strongly related to subjective well-being during times of stress. For example, college freshman high on optimism felt less distress over the first three months of school then those with low optimism scores. Optimism has also been shown to be inversely related to postpartum depression in females and complications following heart surgery in males. Carver and Scheier believe the effects of optimism stem, in part, from the ability of optimists to take direct action to solve their problems and to accept the reality of the stressors they encounter through life. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Scheier, M., & Carver, C. (1993). On the power of positive thinking: The benefits of being optimistic. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 26-30.

12E: Everyday Racism Can Adversely Affect Health of African Americans (LO 12.5) Researchers have found that the effects of racial discrimination can adversely affect the health of African Americans (Jackson et al., 1996). For example, Johnson et al. (1995) found that nearly twice as many blacks reported having “fair” or “poor” health as whites. Their data indicate that the physical health problems result more from everyday discrimination such as discourteous treatment and being insulted, rather than major discrimination experiences such as unfair hiring, firing, or promotion practices, and police brutality. This implies that day-to-day hassles and irritations have a more negative impact than major stressful life experiences. Assuming racial discrimination and subsequent health consequences are partly created and maintained by the economic, legal, and political systems, ask your students what can be done to improve the health of discriminated minorities. Jackson, J.S., Brown, T.N., Williams, D.R., Torres, M., Sellers, S.L., & Brown, K. (1996). Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: A thirteen year national panel study. Ethnic Discourse, 6(1-2), 132-147. Johnson, K.W., et al. (1995). Macrosocial and environmental influences on minority health. Health Psychology, 14, 601-612.

12F: Dangers of Inadequate Social Support (LO 12.6) How important is a strong social support system for well-being? Leserman et al. (1999) found that HIVinfected gay men suffering significant stress with minimal social support to deal with it developed AIDS more quickly. In fact, highly stressful situations such as a death in the family, the loss of a job, or the breakup of a relationship doubled the risk of AIDS in men with inadequate social support. Leserman, J., et al. (1999). Progression to AIDS: The effects of stress, depressive symptoms, and social support. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 397-406.

12G: College-Related Stress (LO 12.6) Some degree of stress is a fact of life for everyone. The first step in dealing with stress is to identify the source. Have students talk about what aspects of college life “stress them out” the most. You may even want to tally these sources on the board. Knowing that others have the same kinds of problems helps students feel less odd and unusual. Often that knowledge alone lowers anxiety—a first step toward dealing successfully with stress. Next, have students suggest how they deal with the various sources of stress, or the stress itself. When the problems are personal, it is surprising how the simplest solutions fail to occur to even the brightest of people. An example of an easy solution—“When my roommate bugs me, I leave the room for a couple of hours. It works every time.” You may even want to have the students vote on which coping methods work best for a given source of stress. 12H: Work-Related Stress (LO 12.6) What are the causes of work-related stress and illness? With all the changes in the workplace today, what impact will these changes have on employee health and well being? Researchers worldwide have recently begun an international, interdisciplinary symposium to tackle these difficult questions.

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Ask your students to come up with other potential job stressors and discuss with them some of the possible techniques to reduce the problem. Include discussion of social support as a possible solution. Some of the primary, universal stressors discussed at the symposium include: • • • • •

increasingly lengthy workdays with demanding workloads little control over working conditions heightened job instability growth of temporary jobs sexual harassment in the workplace

Sleek, S. (1999, Feb). Concern for job stresses goes global. APA Monitor, 30.

12I: Should Findings from Psychology Be Admissible in Courtrooms? (LO 12.7) Psychologists have often been called on to serve as expert witnesses in criminal trials. Psychologists have used research on deindividuation, repressed memory, and rape-trauma syndrome to defend their position. Recently, this practice has come under sharp criticism by the legal community. Ask your students if psychology is too weak a science to be admissible in the courtroom. What should be done to ensure the research findings are scientifically valid? For an extremely pessimistic view on this issue—see Hagen’s (1997) Whores of the court: The fraud of psychiatric testimony and the rape of criminal justice (Regan Books). 12J: Eyewitness Misidentification (LO 12.7) Numerous studies have revealed that eyewitness misidentifications represent the most common causes of wrongful convictions (cf. research by Gary Wells, Roy Malpass). Yet, until recently, the law enforcement community paid little attention to those findings. In one study, for example, a committee of APA’s Div. 41 (American Psychology and Law Society) reviewed 40 convictions that were later overturned and found that 36 of those cases involved eyewitnesses’ identifying the wrong person as the perpetrator. In response to these findings, psychologists in conjunction with prosecutors, police, and defense attorneys plan to design a set of guidelines for administering lineups and mug-shot spreads—the prime methods that police use to help witnesses identify a perpetrator—in order to help police avoid procedures that can inadvertently lead to false identifications. Several recommendations for reducing misidentifications in line-ups and photo-spreads include: • • • •

The officer working with the witness should not know which person is the suspect (see Wells & Bradfield, 1998; #2 below). The eyewitness should understand that the person being sought for the crime might or might not be in the lineup or photo spread. The suspect should not physically stand out from the other people. The witness should be absolutely certain that he or she has identified the right person.

Sleek, S. (1999, Feb). Many ‘eyewitnesses’ identify wrong person. APA Monitor, 30.

12K: Eyewitness Identification and Feedback (LO 12.7) Eyewitnesses identifying suspects are highly influenced by the feedback they get from the crime investigators. In one study, Wells and Bradfield (1998) asked students to view a grainy security video of a robbery and try to identify the suspect from a photo-spread (none of which was the actual suspect). Following the identification, the subjects were given confirming feedback (“Good, you identified the actual suspect”), disconfirming feedback (“Actually, the suspect is number __”), or no feedback. They found students given the confirming feedback were more confident in their choice, reported a more vivid Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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recollection of the suspect, and identified the suspect quicker than the no feedback or disconfirming conditions. Wells, G.L., & Bradfield, A.L. (1998). “Good, you identified the suspect”: Feedback to eyewitnesses distorts their reports of the witnessing experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 360-376.

12L: The Death Penalty (LO 12.8) The death penalty is supported by a majority of Americans but remains controversial. For example, Nobel Prize winning organization Amnesty International is conducting an international campaign to abolish the death penalty. Below are arguments for and against the death penalty. Those against the death penalty argue that: • does not deter murder (often a crime of passion that is not preceded by any thoughts of future consequences). • is more costly than keeping murderers in prison for life. • is discriminatory against minorities (the U.S. Supreme Court has acknowledged that people who kill whites are significantly more likely to get the death penalty). Those for the death penalty argue that: • only legally sanctioned execution will ensure murderers do not end up on the streets again. • consideration of victims and their families dictates that murderers should be executed (i.e., family anguish ends only with execution). • the deterrence value of execution has not been properly tested (few convicted murderers on death row are ever executed). Ask the students where they stand on the issue. Then raise the critical question: What can social psychologists do to help resolve these issues? For example, can it be shown in the lab that all-white juries are more likely to convict a black person accused of murder, especially if the victim is white? Can studies be designed to show that penalties for resorting to violence deter the use of violence? For example, during an aggression experiment in which subjects can shock someone who has offended them, will a relatively severe penalty for using shock deter them from aggressing? Carlson, K.A., & Russo, J.E. (2001). Biased interpretation of evidence by mock jurors. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 91-103.

12M: Effects of Playing the “Race Card” in the Courtroom (LO 12.8) Based on high-profile trials involving black and white participants (e.g., O.J. Simpson, Rodney King), many people believe that racially charged cases will provoke jurors to make biased decisions favoring their in-group. Sommers and Ellsworth (2001), recently found, however, that white jurors actually demonstrate prejudice more often when race is not a salient issue. In their study, white participants were given written accounts of an interracial assault between basketball team members. Half of the summaries featured a white defendant and a black victim; the other half featured a black defendant and a white victim. To manipulate the salience of race, half the summaries included language about the defendant's cultural isolation and subjection to racial remarks and unfair criticism by his teammates. When race was a key issue, the defendants were convicted at similar rates. When race was not at the forefront, however, 90 percent of the white jurors chose to convict the black defendant compared with a 70 percent conviction rate for the white defendant. The results suggest a subtle and problematic inclination towards racism among white jurors that could potentially distort the judicial process. Perhaps increasing the diversity of juror members could attenuate this racial bias because people may be less likely to act on prejudicial beliefs when in racially-mixed groups. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2001). White juror bias: An investigation of prejudice against Black defendants in the American courtroom. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 7, 201-229.

12N: What Makes You Happy (LO 12.9) Have students in the class list “What Makes them happy.” Categorize the list into material things, personal relationships, etc. Then use this list to start a discussion of the factors related to happiness. See how many people listed goals and relationships (important factors in happiness) rather than material items like cars, etc.

IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES AND DEMONSTRATIONS A12.1: Staged Assault (see Handout 12-1) (LO 12.7) Saul Kassin (1998) suggests a great way to introduce eyewitness testimony is to stage an assault in the classroom. The step-by-step procedures are as follows: Procedure 1. Stage an “assault” with a confederate (10–15 seconds). For example, Kassin has the culprit come into the classroom, grab the instructor’s briefcase, scuffle with the instructor, and then using his left hand, squirt the instructor with a brightly colored water pistol. 2. Ask the students to fill out a form describing the assault (see Handout 12-1). Specifically instruct them to: “Please fill the form out in full detail—from the color of the sneakers he was wearing to the color of his hair.” (Note: This latter instruction is given to plant false information—therefore make sure assailant does not wear sneakers.) Results & Discussion • As for results, Kassin typically finds that students often overestimate the duration of events and his right handedness. In addition, some students will incorporate the planted false information (i.e., sneakers) into their descriptions as well as recall other false details. Finally, students will typically report wide variability in age, height, and weight. Kassin, S. (1998, April). Personal communication (G. Schreer).

A12.2: Social Readjustment Scale (see Handout 12-2) (LO 12.5) What are the life events that generate the most stress? As it turns out, most such events involve close relationships, an observation that may be news to many students. To help them examine which events cause the most stress, ask them to complete the Social Readjustment Scale. The actual rankings are presented below. (Note: the handout is actually ranked from highest to lowest.) A12.3: Subjective Happiness Scale (see Handout 12-3) (LO 12.9 & 12.10) Have students fill out the Subjective Happiness Scale in order for them to see how happiness is measured in social psychological research. Use this activity to start a debate about what is happiness and can measures such as this truly capture it.

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OUT-OF-CLASS ASSIGNMENTS Social Psychology, Law, and the Movies (LO 12.7-12.8) Have your students watch a movie which illustrates the effect of psychological variables in the area of law. For example, the movie My Cousin Vinny illustrates problems associated with false confessions as well as the limitations of eyewitness testimony. What evidence do they recall to support the themes in the chapter (e.g., did the witness misidentify a suspect?). A list of movies and the concepts they illustrate can be found in the following book: Bergman, P., & Asimow, M. (1996). Reel justice: The courtroom goes to the movies. New York: Andrews McMeel.

Stress Log (LO 12.5 & 12.6) For this assignment, have students keep a log of stressful events that they experienced for at least three days. Be sure to have students hand in their log with this assignment. In addition, have students address the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Were most of your stressful events chronic or acute? How did you cope with these events? How successful were your coping efforts? What role, if any, did social support play in your coping with stress?

VIDEO AND FILM RESOURCES Adversity Divorce: For Better or Worse (1976, 51 minutes, PSU). • Focuses on actual case histories of divorced and separated couples and on the emotional and financial toll that divorce exacts. Morning After (1983, 17 minutes, FL). • Shows the vulnerability of a seemingly cool, sophisticated man during the breakup of a long-term relationship.

Health Heart Attack: Prevention (1997, 28 minutes, Iowa Films). • Presents a case study of the personality traits and lifestyle factors that make a person a prime candidate for coronary heart disease. Health and Lifestyles: Positive Approaches to Well-Being (1998, 28 minutes, Iowa Films). • Designed to motivate viewers to take responsibility for their own health by making informed healthrelated decisions. Stress, Health, and Coping (2001, 30 minutes, IM). • Explores the relationship between psychology and physical health. The Stress Mess (1981, 25 minutes, BAR). Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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•

Discusses stress management techniques through active role-playing exercises.

Stress Reduction: Strategies That Work (1999, 30 minutes, IM). • Presents information on alleviating the stress that is associated with certain personalities.

Law Criminal Justice (1986, 58 minutes, IM). • Examines the criminal justice system by focusing on all those involved (i.e., prosecutors, defense attorneys, defendants, etc.) in three criminal cases. The Death Penalty (1991, 26 minutes, FHS). • Provides new evidence suggesting that death sentences are imposed arbitrarily and are not a deterrent from murder. From the Mouths of Babes (1993, 16 minutes, ABC). • Powerfully illustrates how misleading questions can lead children to construct false memories. Inside the Jury Room (1986, 58 minutes, University of Minnesota). • Gives the viewer an insider’s view of what goes on during jury deliberations. Twelve Angry Men (1957, 95 minutes, United Artists- check video stores). • Provides a powerful look at the social psychological dynamics of jury deliberation and the power of minority influence.

Happiness What is happiness (2006, 30 minutes BBC). • Provides a look at current research in the science of happiness. Part1 of 6 part series. Think yourself happy (2006, 30 minutes BBC). • Provides a look at the connection between thoughts and happiness. Part 2 of 6 part series.

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RELEVANT SOURCES Adversity Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (1995) The longitudinal course of marital quality and stability: A review of theory, methods, and research. Psychological Bulletin, 118(1), 3-34. • The methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies—representing over 45,000 marriages—are summarized and evaluated. Kirchler, E. et al. (2000). Conflict and decision making in close relationships. Florence, KY: Psychology Press. • Focuses on the strategies couples use when making joint decisions on issues such as love, money, work, leisure, and children. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Bane, C., Glaser, R., & Malarkey, W. B. (2003) Love, marriage, and divorce: Newlyweds' stress hormones foreshadow relationship changes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 176-188. • Neuroendocrine function, assessed in 90 couples during their first year of marriage (Time 1), was related to marital dissolution and satisfaction 10 years later.

Health Skinner, M.A., Zautra, A.J., & Reich, J.W. (2004). Financial stress predictors and the emotional and physical health of chronic pain patients. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 695-713. • Studies weekly changes in stress levels, brought about specifically by economic strain, among patients with arthritis. Taylor, S.E., Repetti, R.L., & Seeman, T. (1997). Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 411-447. • Explores the multiple pathways by which social environments adversely affect health. Wardle, J., & Steptoe, A. (2003). Socioeconomic differences in attitudes and beliefs about healthy lifestyles. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 440-443. • Investigates the relationship between socioeconomic status and a number of health behaviors and attitudes, including perceived life expectancy.

Law Colman, A.M. (1991). Crowd psychology in South African murder trials. American Psychologist, 46, 1071-1079. • Documents the use of group processes such as deindividuation as a valid defense in murder trials in South Africa. Fahsing, I.A., Ask, K., & Granhag, P.A. (2004). The man behind the mask: Accuracy and predictors of eyewitness offender descriptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 722-729. • Performs as archival analysis of testimony by eyewitnesses to armed bank robberies. Kassin, S.M., Goldstein, C.C., & Savitsky, K. (2003). Behavioral confirmation in the interrogation room: On the dangers of presuming guilt. Law and Human Behavior, 27, 187-203. • Reports the results of research on the behavioral strategies that are often used when a suspect is presumed to be guilty or innocent. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Wise, R.A., & Safer, M.A. (2004). What US judges know and believe about eyewitness testimony. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 427-443. • Highlights the idea that judges sometimes lack critical knowledge regarding the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

Happiness Gilbert, D. T. (2006) Stumbling on Happiness. New York: Knopf (Random House). • Describes current research on the topic of happiness. Killingsworth, M. A. & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind, Science, 330, p.392-399. • Uses smart phone technology to assess the correlation of moment-to-moment thoughts and happiness.

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HANDOUT MASTERS

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Handout 1-1 A1.1: Top Reasons to Be a Social Psychologist

TOP REASONS TO BE A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST

“Everyone else is doing it.”— Solomon Asch • conformity; normative influence “The experimenter told me to.”— Stanley Milgram • obedience to authority “It’s better than those other groups.”— Henri Tajfel • ingroup-outgroup, minimal group paradigm “I just like it, I don’t know why.”— Robert Zajonc • effects of mere exposure; feeling and thinking “It’s so much work, it must be worthwhile.”— Leon Festinger cognitive dissonance, insufficient justification

•

Handout 1-2a A1.5: Common Sense Ideas and Scientific Study

Social psychologists have found in their research that separation intensifies romantic attraction. In other words, there seems to be wisdom in the old saying, “Absence makes the heart grow fonder.” In a sentence or two, why do you suppose this is true?

Does this finding seem surprising to you? ___yes ___no

Handout 1-2b Social psychologists have found in their research that separation weakens romantic attraction. In other words, there seems to be wisdom in the old saying, “Out of sight, out of mind.” In a sentence or two, why do you suppose this is true?

Does this finding seem surprising to you? ___yes ___no

Handout 1-3a A1.6: 20-20 Hindsight This survey deals with questions relating to the Super Bowl.

1. Which team do you think will win the Super Bowl? 1. _____________ 2. _____________

2. How confident are you of this decision? 1 not at all

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 very much

pre

Handout 1-3b This survey deals with questions relating to the Super Bowl.

1. Which team did you think would win the Super Bowl? 1. _____________ 2. _____________

2. How confident were you of this decision? 1 not at all

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 very much

post

Handout 1-4 Ethics in Research 1.

Experimenters, walking singly or in pairs, ask politely for either 10 cents or 20 cents from passersby, sometimes offering an explanation for why they need the money (Latane, 1970).

2.

The experimenter comes to a home, says that he has misplaced the address of a friend who lives nearby, and asks to use the phone. If the party admits him, he pretends to make the call (Milgram, 1970).

3.

Automobiles parked on streets look as if they were abandoned. (License plates are removed and hoods are raised.) Experimenters hide in nearby buildings and film people who have any contact with the cars (Zimbardo, 1969).

4.

Letters, stamped and addressed to fictitious organizations at the same post office box number, are dropped at various locations, as if they were lost on the way to being mailed. Some are placed under automobile windshield wipers with a penciled note saying “found near car” (Milgram, 1969).

5.

A person walking with a cane pretends to collapse in a subway car. “Stage blood” trickles from his mouth. If someone approaches the bogus victim, he allows the party to help him to his feet. If no one approaches before the train slows to a stop, another experimenter, posing as a passenger, pretends to help and both leave the train (Piliavin & Piliavin, 1972).

6.

Housewives are phoned. The caller names a fictitious consumer’s group that he claims to represent and interviews them about the soap products they use for a report in a “public service publication,” which is also fictitious. Several days later, the experimenter calls again and asks if the housewives would allow five or six men into their homes to enumerate and classify their household products for a report in their publication. If the party agrees, the caller says he is just collecting names of willing people at present and that she will be contacted if it is decided to use her in the survey. No one is contacted again (Freedman & Fraser, 1966).

Adapted from Wilson, D.W., & Donnerstein, E. (1976). Legal and ethical aspects of nonreactive social psychological research: An excursion into the public mind. American Psychologist, 31, 765-773.

Handout 1-5 A1.8: Recreating Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996)

Utilizing Research on Automatic Stereotype Activation to Engage Students with Methodological Issues in Social Psychology Jennifer J. Tickle St. Mary’s College of Maryland, St. Mary’s City, MD Abstract Methodological concepts are often considered “dry” and “uninteresting” by students, but are critical to understanding psychological science. This in-class demonstration utilizes primary source research on automatic stereotype activation to enliven an introduction to methodological concepts in social psychology, or to refresh memory for methodological concerns learned elsewhere in the curriculum. The demonstration involves a mini-reenactment of research followed by a guided discussion that integrates and applies methodological concepts, including confounds, operationalization of variables, experimenter bias, research ethics, statistical results, and the value of conceptual replication. An assignment that allows students to further apply these concepts is also presented. Introduction to the Research Study Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) conducted a creative and easy-to-replicate study that examined whether the activation of a stereotype could influence people’s behavior. For those not familiar with study 2 in this set of studies, the researchers used a scrambled sentence task to prime either the elderly stereotype or neutral words. They then surreptitiously measured the length of time that it took people to walk down the hallway after the study. This study, in short, revealed that activation of the elderly stereotype caused participants in the elderly prime condition to walk more slowly (in line with the content of the stereotype) than participants in the neutral condition. Classroom Use This demonstration can be used in: • Advanced social psychology laboratory courses to refresh methodological concepts. • Introductory research methods or experimental design courses to introduce methodology topics to be discussed in the course.

• Introductory social psychology courses to demonstrate the effects of activation of traits or stereotypes on behavior. The demonstration itself takes 15-20 minutes. The general discussion takes 30-45 minutes. The supplemental discussion of the Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) article takes 30 minutes. Materials Needed • A student confederate and 2 student participants • A stopwatch and an index card • Demonstration study materials: a scrambled sentence task (one neutral version and one elderly prime version), 2 copies of the consent form, 2 copies of a mood questionnaire (Likert scales for tired, energetic, etc.) • A location, approximately 10-15 seconds walking distance away from the classroom, where student participants can complete the experimental tasks and an observer can hide nearby unseen (e.g., two adjacent research laboratory rooms side by side down the hall from the classroom) • Copies of both scrambled sentence tasks for all students • Copies of Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) for all students Basic Method 1. Before class, recruit a student to be a confederate in the study. Show the confederate the location near the space where the student participant will complete the study tasks and where the confederate will “hide” while the participants complete the task. The confederate’s role is to time, using a stopwatch, the length of time it takes each of the participants to walk from the room where she completes the tasks back to the classroom. Be sure that the confederate knows exactly when to begin timing and when to stop timing so that the measurement is consistent. The times are recorded on an index card and brought back to class. The confederate will leave the classroom approximately 15 seconds after the instructor

Handout 1-5 continued A1.8: Recreating Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) leaves the classroom to escort the first student participant to the task location. The confederate will remain hidden until after the second participant completes the task and re-enters the classroom. Then, the confederate will return to class with the index card and data. The confederate should be instructed not to reveal her role until instructed. 2. The demonstration: a. Two volunteers are requested. One volunteer will be asked to leave the classroom and wait outside. b. The first volunteer will be asked to come to the front of the classroom to be a participant in a study of language proficiency. The participant will be greeted, formally, by the experimenter/instructor and given a generic consent form to read and sign. The participant is then told that the study examines language proficiency and that the research task involves unscrambling words to make complete sentences. The task is fully described, the participant is asked if she has any questions, and then the participant is guided to the room down the hall to complete the scrambled sentence task in quiet. The first participant receives the elderly prime version of the scrambled sentence task. When the student returns, the scrambled sentence task is collected, and she is asked to complete a short mood questionnaire. When that is complete, the student is thanked for her participation and is told she will be debriefed shortly. c. The second participant who has been waiting in the hallway is asked to re-enter the classroom. Rather than formally greeting the second participant, the experimenter/instructor modifies the instructions so that a “speed” instruction is given. This can be done in a variety of ways, but one suggestion is to pretend that the demonstration is taking longer than expected and to ask the student, before you leave the classroom to escort them to the second room, to try to complete the task as quickly as possible so that the class can move on. Another more extreme suggestion (depending on how obvious you want the lack of experimental control to be) is to pretend to be a fellow student experimenter that “knows” the participant, thank him/her for introducing you to Joe/Mary at the party last night, indicate that you are in a hurry to leave the lab because you are meeting Joe/Mary for coffee and you want to change clothes first, and ask them to hurry. The participant is escorted to the location to complete the neutral version of the scrambled sentence task, returns to the classroom and completes the mood questions, and is thanked for his/her participation. The confederate

should return to the classroom momentarily, ending the demonstration. d. While the participants complete the scrambled sentence tasks, the students in class can be given a general description of the neutral scrambled sentence task (not revealing that there are two versions of it) and can be shown the items on the mood questionnaire. Follow-Up Discussion The goal of the post-demonstration discussion is to have students critically examine the research demonstration and to refresh or introduce methodological topics and terms. The discussion might proceed by posing the following questions to the students: 1. Before students receive additional information about the experiment, what do they think the goal and hypothesis of this experiment might have been? What was the independent variable? The dependent variable? Usually students will think the type of instruction was the independent variable and mood was the dependent variable. Explore as many hypotheses as they can generate. 2. Introduce that the type of instruction was not intended to be manipulated. Is this a potential problem for the experiment? Discuss types of error, the importance of experimental control, and the benefits of experimental scripts and standardization. 3. Give students copies of the two versions of the scrambled sentence task and explain that the manipulation of the independent variable is actually contained in that task. What was manipulated in the task? They will begin to notice that some words are different. Is there a theme present in the words? What could the manipulation be doing? Describe the conceptual variable and its operationalization. 4. Revisit what the hypothesis might be given this new knowledge of the independent variable. Students will still refer to the measure of mood as the dependent variable. 5. Tell students that the mood questions were not actually the dependent variable. Ask the confederate to describe her role in the study and ask the students again to revise their hypothesis given the new dependent variable. Move students toward the hypothesis that the elderly prime should have an effect on behavior by decreasing walking speed compared to the neutral task. Discuss the

Handout 1-5 continued A1.8: Recreating Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) value of different types of dependent measures (e.g., behavioral, self-report). 6. Have the confederate provide the data (the two walking times for the two participants). Regardless of whether the hypothesis is supported (which it almost always is), ask students what can be concluded from the data. Is the hypothesis supported? Points to discuss include the inadequacy of sample size and the need for statistical analysis (in this case, a t-test). A main point to make is that the prime manipulation is confounded by the type of instruction given, therefore an unequivocal causal conclusion cannot be made regarding the effectiveness of the prime. Additional discussion of the role of random assignment and blind experimenters (and confederates) is also valuable. 7. Have students brainstorm alternative ways to operationalize the independent and dependent variables in the study, and then explore alternative ways that the research question could be studied using other stereotypes and behaviors. 8. Provide students with a copy of the original Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) article and ask them to read the method section for Study 2. Discuss the differences between the demonstration and the actual study. Discuss the level of detail contained in the Method section and how the study could be easily replicated based on the information provided. Examine the results and Figure 2, and discuss the value of the replication. Also discuss that studies may include additional measures (like the mood measure) to help rule out alternative explanations for the results. 9. Walk students through the method and results of Studies 1 and 3, discussing the value of conceptual replication and different ways of operationalizing the independent and dependent variables. 10. Discuss the ethics of this research, including the use of deception and cover stories, informed consent, and the “faux” debriefing and real debriefing procedures. 11. As a follow-up to the in-class demonstration, instructors can also use a paper assignment intended to have students extend the Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) study in some way. Students can choose to design a conceptual replication, to design a study that addresses an alternative explanation for one of the three studies, or to design a study that addresses one of the issues raised in the article’s

discussion. Students write a short introduction to their research study, and then write a thorough method section, modeling that of Bargh and colleagues, to describe their study. Students then write a “Reflection” section to specifically address design decisions they made with regard to impact, control, random assignment, and ethics. Assessment and Evaluation To assess the effectiveness of the activity in refreshing methodological terms and understanding the topics discussed, students in an advanced social psychology laboratory course (N = 10) were asked to define or provide examples of 8 research methods terms (e.g., independent variable, random assignment, confound, conceptual replication) and to indicate levels of confidence in their understanding of each of the terms. Students defined or provided correct examples for significantly more of the items at the post-test (M = 6.4, SD = 1.6) than at the pretest (M = 4.5, SD = 1.6), t (9) = 3.77, p < .01. Students were also more confident in their responses on the post-test (M = 6.1, SD = 1.0) than on the pretest (M = 4.6, SD = 1.1), t (9) = 9.87, p