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)NTHEDISTINGUISHED&RENCHBIOCHEMIST *ACQUES-ONOD PUBLISHEDALITTLE BOOKENTITLED#HANCEAND.ECESSITY!LONGWITHHISCOLLEAGUES!NDR¿,WOFF AND &RAN»OIS *ACOB -ONOD HAD BEEN AWARDED THE .OBEL 0RIZE IN FOR GROUNDBREAKING WORK ON THE MECHANISMS OF GENETIC REPLICATION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS4HEBOOKAMOUNTEDTOAFORTHRIGHTDECLARATIONOFHISSCIENTIlCCREDO ANDOFTHEPOTENTIALOFTHEMOLECULARBIOLOGYHEHADHELPEDESTABLISHTOUNRAVEL ONCEANDFORALL THESECRETSOFLIFEANDITSEVOLUTION-ONODSPHILOSOPHYIS UNCOMPROMISINGLYMECHANISTICEVERYLIVINGCREATURE SOFARASHEISCONCERNED IS A CHEMICAL MACHINE WHOSE STRUCTURE AND PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR ARE FULLY DETERMINEDBYINTERACTIONSAMONGITSMOLECULARCONSTITUENTS PRINCIPALLYPROTEINS &UNDAMENTALLY ALLTHEINFORMATIONSPECIFYINGTHESECONSTITUENTSISENCODEDINTHE MATERIALSOFHEREDITYnTHATIS INSTRANDSOF$.!&ROMTHISITFOLLOWSTHATTHE GROWTHORDEVELOPMENTOFTHEORGANISMIS IN-ONODSWORDS @NOTACREATIONITIS AREVELATION-ONOD ORIGINALEMPHASES )TIS INOTHERWORDS NOMORE THANTHEREALIZATIONOFADESIGNTHATISALREADYTHERE ALBEITINTHEVIRTUALFORMOFA BLUEPRINTINSTALLEDATTHEPOINTOFINCEPTIONOFTHEORGANISM TO BE INDEPENDENTLY ANDINADVANCEOFITSLIFEINTHEWORLD "YTHESAMETOKEN CREATIVITYISEXCLUDEDFROMTHELIFE PROCESSITSELF4HE SOURCEOFALLCREATIONINTHEBIOSPHERE -ONODCLAIMS ISNOTLIFEBUTTHOSECHANCE EVENTS OFGENETICMUTATION THATALTERTHEDESIGNSPECIlCATIONSUNDERWRITINGTHE CONSTRUCTIONOFLIVINGTHINGS%VOLUTIONOCCURSPRECISELYBECAUSETHEMECHANISM OFREPLICATIONTHATOTHERWISEENSURESTHEHIGH lDELITYCOPYINGOFELEMENTSACROSS GENERATIONSDOESNOTWORKPERFECTLY)TISTHISINDETERMINACYTHATALLOWSFORTHE CREATIVEEMERGENCEOFNEWDESIGNS !CCORDINGTOMODERNTHEORY THEIDEAOF@REVELATIONAPPLIESTOEPIGENETICDEVELOPMENT BUTNOTOFCOURSETOEVOLUTIONARYEMERGENCE WHICH OWINGTOTHEFACTTHATITARISESFROM THEESSENTIALLYUNFORESEEABLE ISTHECREATOROFABSOLUTENEWNESS-ONOD
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4IM)NGOLD VARIATIONSALONE BUTBECAUSETHESEVARIATIONSUNDERGOAPROCESSOFSELECTIONIN WHICHTHEYARETESTEDINMANIFOLDCOMBINATIONSANDRECOMBINATIONS4HERELATIVE VIABILITYOFTHESECOMBINATIONS UNDERSPECIlCENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS THEN DETERMINESTHEFREQUENCYWITHWHICHTHEIRELEMENTSAREREPRESENTEDINFUTURE GENERATIONS4HUSTHECREATIVITYOFEVOLUTION FOR$OBZHANSKY LAYINWHATHE CALLEDTHE@ANTICHANCEFACTOROFSELECTION WORKINGONTHERAWMATERIALOFVARIATION SUPPLIEDBYCHANCE7HATARECREATED HOWEVER ARENOTLIVINGORGANISMS BUT RATHERDESIGNSFORLIFETHATARESUBSEQUENTLYREALIZEDINTHEFORMSWEACTUALLY OBSERVE@%VERYNEWFORMOFLIFETHATAPPEARSINEVOLUTION WRITES$OBZHANSKY @CAN WITHONLYMODERATESEMANTICLICENSE BEREGARDEDASANARTISTICEMBODIMENT OFANEWCONCEPTOFLIVING$OBZHANSKY )RETURNBELOWTOTHEANALOGYBETWEENTHEORGANISMANDTHEWORKOFART7HAT MATTERSNOWISTHATFOR$OBZHANSKYASMUCHASFOR-ONOD LIFEISAMOVEMENT OFREVELATION ANDNOTOFCREATION)TISNOMORETHANTHEWRITINGOUTOFAGENETIC TEXTTHATHASBEENPRE COMPOSEDTHROUGHARESHUFmINGOFELEMENTS.ORWAS THISVIEWLIMITEDTOTHOSEWHOSEAPPROACHTOSCIENCEWASSIMILARLYREDUCTIONIST .OONECOULDHAVEBEENMOREOPPOSEDTOREDUCTIONISMTHAN'REGORY"ATESON YETINHIS-INDAND.ATURE"ATESONCOMPARESTHEPROCESSOFEPIGENESISnTHAT IS THEEMERGENCEOFTHEFORMOFANORGANISMTHROUGHITSLIFEINTHEWORLDnTO @THEDEVELOPMENTOFACOMPLEXTAUTOLOGYINWHICHNOTHINGISADDEDAFTERTHE AXIOMSANDDElNITIONSHAVEBEENLAIDDOWN"ATESON (EGOESONTO SETUPARADICALOPPOSITIONBETWEEN ONTHEONEHAND EPIGENESISANDTAUTOLOGY ANDONTHEOTHER ART LEARNINGANDEVOLUTION7HEREASTHEFORMERENTAILAWORKING OUT ORUNFOLDING OFWHATISALREADYGIVEN THELATTERCOMPRISE@THEWHOLEREALM OFCREATIVITYINWHICHTHEONGOINGPROCESSESOFCHANGEFEEDONTHERANDOM IBID ORIGINALEMPHASIS 4HUSINARTASINLIFE THECREATIVEELEMENTLIESINTHE SHEERNOVELTYOFTHECONCEPTION NOTINITSSUBSEQUENTREALIZATION9ETJUSTASIN EVOLUTION EVERYNEWDESIGNEMERGESTHROUGHTHERECOMBINATIONOFELEMENTS SO INTHOUGHT ACCORDINGTO"ATESON @THEGENESISOFNEWNOTIONSISALMOSTTOTALLY DEPENDENTUPONRESHUFmINGANDRECOMBININGIDEASWEALREADYHAVEIBID ,EARNINGISLIKEEVOLUTIONINTHATTHETESTINGOFTHESEIDEAS INDIFFERENT COMBINATIONS AFFECTSTHEPROBABILITYOFTHEIRRECURRENCE 4HISCOMBINATORYVIEWOFCREATIVITY ASTHEENDLESSGENERATIONOFlRST TIME NOVELTIESTHROUGHTHEREARRANGEMENTOFELEMENTS"ODEN ISDEEPLY EMBEDDEDNOTONLYINBIOLOGYANDPSYCHOLOGYBUTINMANYOTHERlELDSOFACADEMIC DISCOURSEASWELL NOTLEASTINANTHROPOLOGY&RIEDMANn &OREXAMPLE ITUNDERLIES,¿VI 3TRAUSSSCELEBRATEDNOTIONOFTHECREATIVEMINDASABRICOLEUR THATISFOREVERENGAGEDINTHENOVELASSEMBLYOFSTRUCTURESOFTHOUGHTOUTOFTHE BITSANDPIECESOFOLDONES!NDINLINGUISTICS ITREAPPEARSIN#HOMSKYSNOTION OF@RULE GOVERNEDCREATIVITYASTHECAPACITYTOCONSTRUCTANINlNITEVARIETYOF COMPREHENSIBLEEXPRESSIONSFROMAlNITEREPERTOIREOFLEXICALITEMS,¿VI 3TRAUSS n n
0ART )NTRODUCTION #HOMSKYn 9ETTHISVIEWHASALWAYSEXISTEDSIDEBYSIDE WITHANOTHER LESSMAINSTREAMPERHAPS WHICHWOULDDENYTHATTHEREISANYTHING INTRINSICALLY CREATIVE ABOUT THE RECOMBINATORY GENERATION OF NOVELTY )N HIS 3CIENCEANDTHE-ODERN7ORLD lRSTPUBLISHEDIN THEPHILOSOPHER!LFRED .ORTH7HITEHEADINSISTEDTHATTHECREATIVITYOFTHEEVOLUTIONARYPROCESSWASTOBE FOUNDINSOMETHINGOTHERTHANTHEMECHANISMOFVARIATIONUNDERNATURALSELECTION 7HITEHEAD;=n &ORTHEWORLDWEINHABITISNOTMADEUPOF STATICANDDISCRETEBITSANDPIECESTHATMAYBECONNECTEDUPINMYRIADWAYSINTO EVER CHANGINGPATTERNS)TISRATHERAMOVEMENT ORmOW INWHICHEVERYELEMENT WEMIGHTIDENTIFYISBUTAMOMENT#REATIVITY FOR7HITEHEAD LAYINTHATVERY MOVEMENTOFBECOMINGBYWHICHTHEWORLD ASITUNFOLDS CONTINUALLYSURPASSES ITSELF7HITEHEADSTERMFORTHISUNFOLDINGWAS@CONCRESCENCE)NGOLD CF7HITEHEAD )TWASINTHEPHILOSOPHYOF(ENRI"ERGSONnWHICH-ONODWOULDLATERDISMISS AS@ALMOSTCOMPLETELYDISCREDITED-ONOD nTHAT7HITEHEADFOUND INSPIRATION)NHIS#REATIVE%VOLUTIONOF "ERGSONHADBEENQUITEEXPLICIT INREPUDIATINGTHECREATIVITYOFTHEKINDOFINVENTIONTHATPROCEEDS@BYANEW ARRANGEMENTOFELEMENTSALREADYKNOWN"ERGSON 4HUSANEVOLUTIONARY MECHANISMTHATWORKEDINTHISWAY THROUGHMUTATIONANDRECOMBINATION ALTHOUGH ITMIGHTGENERATEANEVER CHANGEFULSEQUENCEOFNON RECURRENTPATTERNS WOULDNOT INITSELFBECREATIVE4OTHECONTRARY THECREATIVITYOFEVOLUTION FOR"ERGSON LAY PRECISELYINTHELIFEPROCESSITSELFnTHATIS INTHEVERYPROCESSTHATWRITERSLIKE -ONOD $OBZHANSKYAND"ATESONREGARDEDASREVELATORYOREXPRESSIVERATHER THANCREATIVE4OHIGHLIGHTTHECONTRASTBETWEENTHESETWOVIEWSOFCREATIVITY WECANRETURNTOTHEANALOGYBETWEENTHELIVINGORGANISMANDTHEWORKOFART &ORAS"ERGSONINSISTED THEARTISTSINVENTIONISINSEPARABLEFROMTHEPROGRESS OFHISWORK)FHEISPAINTINGAPICTURE THEPICTUREISNOTALREADYCREATEDBEFORE THEPAINTINGBEGINS4HISISWHATMAKESPAINTINGDIFFERENTFROMSOLVINGAJIGSAW PUZZLE7ITHTHEPUZZLETHERESULTISALREADYGIVEN@TOOBTAINITREQUIRESONLYA WORKOFRECOMPOSINGANDREARRANGINGnAWORKTHATCANBESUPPOSEDGOINGFASTER ANDFASTER ANDEVENINlNITELYFAST UPTOTHEPOINTOFBEINGINSTANTANEOUS7ITH PAINTING BYCONTRAST THETIMETAKENUPBYTHEINVENTIONISONEWITHTHEINVENTIONITSELF)TISTHEPROGRESSOFA THOUGHTWHICHISCHANGINGINTHEDEGREEANDMEASURETHATITISTAKINGFORM)TISAVITAL PROCESS SOMETHINGLIKETHERIPENINGOFANIDEA"ERGSONn
4HUS THE MOVEMENT OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE PAINTERS WORK IS CREATIVE IN BRINGINGFORTHTHEIDEAITEMBODIESITDOESNOTMERELYGIVEOUTWARDEXPRESSION TOACONCEPTIONTHATHASSPRUNGREADY FORMEDTOHISMIND)NJUSTTHESAMEWAY THELIFEOFTHEORGANISMISGENERATIVEOFFORMRATHERTHANMERELYTHEREVELATIONOF PRE EXISTINGDESIGN n n
4IM)NGOLD !CREATIVITYTHATISINHERENTINTHEmOWOFLIFEORCONSCIOUSNESS HOWEVER IS CONTINUOUSRATHERTHANPUNCTUAL)TCANNOTBECOLLAPSEDINTOASEQUENCEOFONE OFF EVENTSORNOVELTIES NORCANITBERECONSTRUCTEDBYJOININGTHEMUP4HEARTISTS INVENTION INTHISVIEW DOESNOTENDWITHTHECOMPLETIONOFHISWORK ANYMORE THANITBEGANWITHAPRECONCEIVEDIDEAOFITSlNALFORM)TISNOT INOTHERWORDS ENCOMPASSEDWITHINTHEBOUNDSOFANYSPECIFICPROJECT2ATHER EVERYWORK ENCAPSULATESTHEMOVEMENTTHATBROUGHTITFORTH ANDISINTURNENCAPSULATEDIN THEMATURATIONOFWHATFOLLOWS,IKEWISETHELIFEOFTHEORGANISMISNOTSIMPLY EXPENDEDINTHETRANSLATIONOFANINITIAL GENETICALLYENCODEDDESIGNINTOAMATERIAL END PRODUCT)FWEASKWHATORGANISMSANDPERSONSCREATE THEANSWERMUST BETHATTHEYCREATEONEANOTHERANDTHEMSELVES PLAYINGTHEIRPARTINTHENEVER ENDINGANDNON SPECIlCPROJECTOFKEEPINGLIFEGOING@&ORACONSCIOUSBEING AS"ERGSONREASONED @TOEXISTISTOCHANGE TOCHANGEISTOMATURE TOMATUREIS TOGOONCREATINGONESELFENDLESSLY3HOULDNOTTHESAMEBESAIDOFEXISTENCEIN GENERAL "ERGSON 4OANSWER"ERGSONSQUESTIONINTHEAFlRMATIVEISTO ACKNOWLEDGETHATWHILENOARTISTISIMMORTAL ANDWHILEEVERYCREATUREDIESINTHE END THEPROCESSOFLIFENEVERTHELESSGOESONINAWORLDTHATHASBEENUNALTERABLY AFFECTEDBYTHEIRPRESENCE )HAVEDWELTONTHECONTRASTBETWEENTHESETWOVIEWSOFCREATIVITYSINCE)BELIEVE ITACCOUNTSFORMANYOFTHETENSIONSTHATCOMETOLIGHTINTHETHREECHAPTERSTHAT FOLLOW)NHISDISCUSSIONOFTHEKōLAMnBEAUTIFULPATTERNSOFINTERWOVENLINES TRADITIONALLYDRAWNBY4AMILWOMENINSOUTHERN)NDIATOCLEANSEANDPROTECT THEIRHOMESANDTEMPLESn!MAR-ALLNOTESTHECONCERNOFMANYSCHOLARSTHATTHE WIDESPREADPUBLICATIONOFPATTERNBOOKSWILLTHWARTLOCALCREATIVITY ENCOURAGING WOMENTOCOPYEXISTINGPATTERNSRATHERTHANINVENTTHEIROWN4HESEBOOKS HOWEVER REPRODUCE READY MADE PATTERNS AND SAY LITTLE OR NOTHING ABOUT THE TECHNIQUESINVOLVEDINFORMINGTHEM4HEPERCEPTIONTHATCOPYINGISINIMICAL TOTHEEXERCISEOFTHECREATIVEIMAGINATIONBETRAYSANAPPROACHTOCREATIVITYTHAT SEESINTECHNIQUENOTHINGMORETHANTHEREVELATIONORTRANSCRIPTIONOFADESIGN THATALREADYSTANDSFULLYFORMEDBEFORETHEPRACTITIONERSMIND)FONEFOLLOWSTHIS APPROACH THENTECHNIQUEBECOMESIRRELEVANTTOTHEEXPLANATIONOFFORMORPATTERN SINCEITADDSNOTHINGTOWHATHASBEENLAIDDOWNFROMTHESTART$RAWINGAKōLAM TORECALL"ATESONSANALOGY WOULDBEEQUIVALENTTOTHEDEVELOPMENTOFACOMPLEX TAUTOLOGY"UTAS-ALLSHOWS ITISVERYFARFROMTHECASE ESPECIALLYWITHMORE CONVOLUTEDPATTERNS THATTHEDESIGNPRECEDESITSEXECUTION)TRATHERDEVELOPSOR MATURESASTHEWORKPROCEEDS SOTHATTHElNALFORMOFTHEPATTERNONLYEMERGES WHENITISVIRTUALLYCOMPLETEnWHENTHEMEANDERINGLINEKAMPI HAVINGMADE ANYNUMBEROFPOSSIBLYUNANTICIPATEDTWISTSANDTURNS EVENTUALLYlNDSITSWAY HOME ORATLEASTWHENJOURNEYSENDISINSIGHT/NLYTHEN ASKōLAM MAKERSSAY HASTHEPATTERN@COMEORBEEN@BROUGHTBACKTOITSSTARTINGPOINT SOASTOFORMA n n
0ART )NTRODUCTION CLOSEDLOOPTHATHASNEITHERBEGINNINGNOREND!NDTHEPRACTITIONERMAYBEBOTH SURPRISEDANDDELIGHTEDBYTHERESULTSURPRISED SINCEITMAYBEFARFROMWHATWAS EXPECTEDDELIGHTED BECAUSETHEINNOVATIONHASCOMEOUTOFTHEWORKITSELF 4HECAPACITYOFTHEKAMPIKōLAMPATTERNSnASINDEEDOFTHEIRMAKERSnTO@GOON CREATINGTHEMSELVESENDLESSLYTOBORROW"ERGSONSWORDS ISEVENMORESTRIKING BYCONTRASTTOKōLAMDIFFERENTSORT INWHICHTHELINESCONNECTlXEDPOINTSRATHER THANWEAVINGAROUNDTHEM SOASTOREVEALASTRUCTURETHAT RATHERLIKEINA@JOIN THE DOTSPUZZLE ISALREADYGIVENINADVANCEOFITSEXECUTION7HEREASITMIGHTBE SAIDOFTHEMAKEROFAKAMPIKōLAM INTHEMEMORABLEPHRASEOFTHEPAINTER0AUL +LEE THATHERLINE@GOESOUTFORAWALK ALWAYSDEVELOPINGASITGOES INKōLAMOFTHISOTHERSORTEVERYCONSTITUENTLINEISPRECONCEIVEDASALINKBETWEEN POINTSEVENBEFOREITISMARKEDOUTONTHEGROUND4HESELINESAREINmEXIBLE OF lNITELENGTH ANDSTATICRATHERTHANDYNAMIC WELDINGTHEPOINTSTHEYCONNECTINTO ARIGIDASSEMBLY4HECONTRASTBETWEENTHESETWOSPECIESOFKōLAM ANDTHEKINDS OFLINEINVOLVEDINEACH ISCLEARLYRECOGNIZEDBYPRACTITIONERS-OREOVERAQUITE DIFFERENTSENSEOFINNOVATIONISENTAILEDINEACHCASE4OCREATEANEWASSEMBLY MEANSSHATTERINGTHEORIGINALCONNECTIONSBETWEENITSELEMENTSANDRECONNECTING ORRECOMBININGTHEMINNOVELCONlGURATIONS INTHEMANNEROFTHEBRICOLEUR4HE MAKERSOFKAMPIKōLAM HOWEVER lNDTHEIRWAYASTHEYGOALONG SOTHATTHE NOVELTYOFTHEIRPATTERNSISAPPARENTONLYWHENTHEYHAVElNALLYARRIVEDRATHER THANPRIORTOSETTINGOUT )TWOULDBEAGREATMISTAKE THEN TOREGARDEVERYSORTOFPATTERNASTHEREALIZA TIONOFAPREFORMEDCOGNITIVEASSEMBLY ORASTHEEMBODIMENTOFA@CONCEPTION THATHASLODGEDITSELFINTHEMAKERSMIND!NDFORTHESAMEREASON ITWOULDBE WRONGTOSUPPOSETHATTHEPATTERNNECESSARILYAPPEARSTOTHOSEWHOCOMEACROSSIT ASANINTELLECTUALPUZZLETOBESOLVED4HIS FOREXAMPLE ISHOW!LFRED'ELL INHIS STUDYOFCOMPLEXPATTERN UNDERSTANDSTHEKōLAM)TISA@MIND TRAP'ELL THATENSNARESANYONEnINCLUDING INTHISCASE POTENTIALLYMALEVOLENTDEMONS nWHOWOULDATTEMPTTOlGUREOUTTHEGENERATIVEPRINCIPLESOFITSCONSTRUCTION ORTOUNPACKTHETAUTOLOGYITREPRESENTS9ETWHATSURELYDISTINGUISHESTHEKAMPI KōLAMFROMKōLAMOFOTHERKINDSISNOTADIFFERENCEOFDEGREEOFCOMPLEXITY AS'ELL SUGGESTS BUTONEOFKIND CORRESPONDINGQUITEPRECISELYTO"ERGSONSDISTINCTION BETWEENPAINTINGANDPUZZLE MAKING!S"ERGSONSAIDOFTHEWORKOFART SO ONECOULDALSOSAYOFTHEKAMPIKōLAM THATIT@EMBODIESTHEPROCESSOFTHINKING RATHERTHANTHEDETACHEDTHOUGHT ACONSCIOUSNESSRATHERTHANACONCEPTION LIFE ITSELFRATHERTHANAWAYOFLIVING)NGOLD 4HEMEANINGOFTHEPATTERN THEREFORE CANBEGRASPEDONLYBYANINTUITIONTHATENTERSINTOIT ORTHATFOLLOWSITS TRAILS RATHERTHANBYANINTELLECTTHAT INCONTEMPLATINGTHElNISHEDWORK ATTEMPTS TORECONSTRUCTTHEPUZZLEFROMITSSOLUTION -UCHTHESAMECONCLUSIONCANBEDRAWNFROM&UYUBI.AKAMURASSTUDYOF CONTEMPORARY*APANESECALLIGRAPHICART)NDEEDTHELINESOFTHEKAMPIKōLAMAND n n
4IM)NGOLD THOSEOFCALLIGRAPHYHAVEMUCHINCOMMON)NBOTHCASESTHEYlNDTHEIROWNWAY mEXIBLYANDORGANICALLY RATHERTHANCONNECTINGlXEDPOINTS)NBOTH TOO THEYARE LEARNEDANDREMEMBEREDASRHYTHMICGESTURES7HILETHESEGESTURESLEAVETHEIR TRACESINTHELINESWESEE ITISTHANKSTOTHEIRVERYRHYTHMICITYTHATTHESETRACES AREWOVENINTORECOGNIZABLEPATTERNS2HYTHMS AS!NDR¿,EROI 'OURHANHAS OBSERVED AREINTHISSENSE@THECREATORSOFFORMS,EROI 'OURHAN 4HUSTHECALLIGRAPHICLINEIS@READBYRELIVINGTHEGESTURALMOVEMENTTHATGAVE RISETOIT RATHERTHANBYCONTEMPLATINGITSlNALFORMANDSEEKINGTOEXTRAPOLATETO SOMECONCEPTOFWHICHITMIGHTBESUPPOSEDTOBETHEEXPRESSION!GAIN THESAME ISTRUEOFTHELINEOFTHEKAMPIKōLAM"OTH INTHISSENSE CANBECOMPAREDINTHEIR PERFORMANCETOMUSICORDANCECF'ELL !S.AKAMURASHOWS ONECAN NEVERGRASPTHEMEANINGOFCALLIGRAPHYSIMPLYBYLOOKINGATITANDWONDERING WHATITMIGHTEXPRESSORREVEAL/NEHASTOENTERINTOITANDTOJOININTHEPROCESS OFITSPRODUCTIONnINOTHERWORDS TOBEREUNITEDWITHTHECALLIGRAPHERINHISORHER @INKEDTRACESSEEALSO9ENn 9ETTOBEABLETODOTHAT ONEMUSTHAVE SOMEKNOWLEDGEOFCALLIGRAPHYSHISTORYANDTECHNIQUES -OREOVER WHILETHECONVENTIONSOFTHEARTWORLDMIGHTLEADUSTOSPEAKOF CALLIGRAPHIC@WORKS NOWORKISEVERlNISHED)TCANNOTBECONTAINEDWITHINTHE BOUNDSOFAPROJECTTHATORIGINATESWITHACONCEPTIONANDISFULlLLEDINITSMATERIAL EXPRESSION4HEWORKMIGHTRATHERBECOMPAREDTOANEVER ENDINGSTORYWHOSE EVERYTELLINGISSHAPEDBYPREVIOUSRELATIONSANDGOESONTOSHAPESUBSEQUENT ONES)NTHISSENSE ITEVOLVESTHROUGHTIMEITHASNODETERMINATEPOINTOFORIGIN NORANYlNALDESTINATION&ARFROMYIELDINGACONCRETEANDOBJECTIlEDEND PRODUCT EVERYPERFORMANCEISJUSTONEMOMENTINTHEWORKSCONCRESCENCEnITSONGOING GENERATION4HISIDEAISREINFORCEDBYAMETHODOFLEARNINGINWHICH THROUGH REPETITIVEPRACTICEINCOPYINGORIMITATINGPREVIOUSORCLASSICEXEMPLARS NOVICES INCORPORATETHEMOVEMENTSANDSENSIBILITIESOFTHEMASTERSINTOTHEIROWNBODILY COMPORTMENT ONLYTOSURPASSTHEMINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEIROWNPERSONAL STYLE!TNOPOINT HOWEVER DOTHEYCEASETOCOPY&OREVERYORIGINALISACOPY INTHATITISMODELLEDONPREVIOUSSTUDIES ANDEVERYCOPYISANORIGINALINTHATIT CANBECOMEAMODELFORTHOSEWHOFOLLOW4HEREISNOTHINGCREATIVE FOR*APANESE CALLIGRAPHERS ABOUTTHEPRODUCTIONOFNOVELTYFORITSOWNSAKE7HATISOBSERVED INCALLIGRAPHY ACCORDINGTO.AKAMURA ISACREATIVITYOFADIFFERENTKINDONETHAT ISNOTOPPOSEDTOIMITATIONASTHEORIGINALISTOTHECOPY BUTTHATlNDSINIMITATION THEVERYIMPETUSTHATKEEPSAWORKALIVE ALLOWINGITTOGROWANDmOURISH *AMES,EACH INTHElNALCHAPTEROFTHISPART SHOWSHOWIMITATIONANDCREATIVITY WHICHTHE*APANESECRITIC+OBAYASHI(IDEOHASDESCRIBEDAS@MOTHERAND@CHILD CAMETOBEPRISEDAPARTINTHEHISTORYOFMODERNITY TOTHEPOINTATWHICHTHEYNOW APPEARRADICALLYOPPOSEDONEITHERSIDEOFAMASTERDICHOTOMYBETWEENSUBJECT ANDOBJECT INTELLECTUALFREEDOMANDMECHANICALNECESSITYSEEALSO)NGOLD )TISTHISTHATHASLEDTOTHEEMERGENCEOFANOTIONOFCREATIVEARTORINVENTION n n
0ART )NTRODUCTION ASTHESPONTANEOUSPRODUCTIONOFNOVELTY FEEDINGONTHERANDOMRECOMBINATION OFEXPERIENCESORELEMENTSOFDESIGN!NDBYTHESAMETOKEN ITHASREDUCEDTHE PROCESSOFIMITATIVELEARNINGORCOPYINGTOTHEMEREREPLICATIONOFTHESEELEMENTS INAMANNERANALOGOUSTOGENETICREPLICATION)NTHISVIEW THEPRACTICEOFIMITATION AMOUNTSTONOMORETHANRUNNINGOFFIDENTICALCOPIESFROMATEMPLATEORSCHEMA THATHASALREADYBEEN@DOWNLOADEDINTOTHENOVICESMIND4HISISNOT HOWEVER THEWAYNOVICECALLIGRAPHERSLEARNTHEIRART4HEYDOSO RATHER BYFOLLOWINGIN THEFOOTSTEPSOFPREDECESSORS ALONGTHESAMEORSIMILARTRAILS.OVICESARETHEREBY ENABLEDTOGROWINTOTHEKNOWLEDGEANDSKILLSOFTHEMASTERS INTHEVERYPROCESS OFFORMINGTHEIROWN4HEWISDOMTOWHICHTHEYASPIRE FARFROMHAVINGBEEN TRANSMITTEDATTHEOUTSET LIESATTHEENDOFTHEJOURNEYnALBEITATAHORIZONTHEY CANAPPROACHBUTNEVERREACH 4HISISWHY AS*EROME"RUNER HASPOINTEDOUT THERECANBENO DISTINCTIONINPRACTICEBETWEENLEARNINGCULTUREANDRE CREATINGCULTURE SINCE THECONTEXTSOFLEARNINGARETHEVERYCRUCIBLESFROMWHICHTHECULTURALPROCESS UNFOLDS)NTHISPROCESS KNOWLEDGEISNOTSOMUCHREPLICATEDASREPRODUCED nTHATIS @PRODUCEDANEW ASTHECRYSTALLISATIONOFCONCRETE SITUATEDACTIVITY )NGOLDONTHISDISTINCTION SEE*ABLONKA 4HOUGHAPIECEOF MUSICISREPLICATEDEACHTIMEITISPLAYEDFROMADISK ITISREPRODUCEDEACHTIME ITISPERFORMEDWITHANINSTRUMENT!KAMPIKōLAM AS-ALLSHOWS ISLIKEWISE REPRODUCEDORCREATEDANEWEVERYTIMEITISCOPIED!NDSO TOO ISACALLIGRAPHIC EXEMPLAREVERYTIMEITISPERFORMEDWITHTHEBRUSH.OPERFORMANCECANBE REPEATED YETASAWORKCOMPRISESTHEACCUMULATINGTRAILOFITSPERFORMANCES nEACHONECOPYINGTHECOPYOFACOPYnEVERYPERFORMANCEBECOMESPARTAND PARCELOFTHEEVER EVOLVINGWORK#ONTEMPORARYCALLIGRAPHERS HOWEVER ARETORN BETWEENTHISUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEIRARTANDTHEDEMANDSOFANARTWORLDTHATLAYS ALLTHEEMPHASISONTHEORIGINALITYANDCREATIVEAGENCYOFTHEINDIVIDUALARTIST)N THISMODERNISTCONCEPTION EVERYTRACEONPAPERISAUNIQUEANDlNISHED@WORK WHICHMAYBELINKEDTOTHEAGENCYTHATPRODUCEDITASOBJECTTOSUBJECT )NHISCHAPTER ,EACHSPELLSOUTTHEHISTORYOFIDEASTHATLEDTOTHISISOLATIONOF HUMANSUBJECTSVIS · VISONEANOTHERANDTHEIROBJECTIVEPRODUCTIONS(ESHOWS HOWTHECONNECTIONSBETWEENSUBJECTSANDOBJECTSCAMETOBEEPITOMIZEDIN THEIDEAOFPROPERTY ANDHOWTHESECONNECTIONSWEREGUARANTEEDANDENFORCED THROUGHTHEELABORATIONOFPROPERTYRIGHTS)NTHISWORLDOFSUBJECTSANDOBJECTS OR PERSONSANDTHINGS CULTUREITSELFBECOMESAPROJECTWHEREBYHUMANITYINSCRIBES ITSPRECONCEIVEDDESIGNSUPONAMATERIALSUBSTRATE!TTHECENTREOFTHISSTORYOF THEEMERGENCEOFPOSSESSIVEINDIVIDUALISMSTANDSTHEMAGISTERIALlGUREOF*OHN ,OCKE ONEOFTHEFOUNDINGFATHERSOFTHE%UROPEAN%NLIGHTENMENT&OR,OCKE PROPERTYBEGINSATTHEPOINTWHEREHUMANSUBJECTSMIXTHEIRLABOURWITHTHERAW MATERIALSOFNATURE IMPREGNATINGTHETHINGSTHEYlNDTHEREWITHTHEIROWNCREATIVE AGENCYANDCAUSINGTHEMTOBEARFRUITCF'UDEMANn 4HUSINTILLING n n
4IM)NGOLD THESOIL INCULTIVATION THEYMIXTHEIRLABOURWITHTHELAND!NDINTHEMEASURE THATTHEYTRANSFORMTHELAND ANDESTABLISHCONTROLOVERIT THEYALSOTRANSFORM THEMSELVESINTHECOLLECTIVEHUMANPROJECTOFCULTURE BUILDINGORCIVILIZATION .OWASITTURNSOUT CALLIGRAPHERS ACCORDINGTO.AKAMURA ALSOSPEAKOFMIXING "UTTHEMIXISNOTJUSTOFTHEIRLABOURWITHTHEMATERIALS BUTOFTHEMATERIALS THEMSELVES PRINCIPALLYPAPER INKANDINK STONE!STHE@ACTIVEINGREDIENT THE INKISSAIDTOMIXWITHTHEPAPERnINWAYSTHATARENEVERENTIRELYPREDICTABLE nTOYIELDANOUTCOME)TSEEMSASTHOUGHTHEAGENCYOF@THINGSTHEMATERIALS SUPPLIEDBYNATURE HASATLEASTPARTIALLYTAKENOVERFROMTHEAGENCYOFTHE@PERSON THECALLIGRAPHERANDHISTECHNIQUES SOTHATTHEOUTCOMEISACONSEQUENCEOF THEINTERACTIONBETWEENTHETWO3IGNIlCANTLY THISTHEMEOFTHEDISPLACEMENTOF AGENCYRUNSTHROUGHALLTHREECHAPTERSINTHISPART)NTHECASEOFTHEKōLAM -ALL CONTENDSTHATAGENCYISTOSOMEDEGREEDISPLACEDFROMTHEPRACTITIONERTOTHE PATTERN SOTHATTHEOUTCOMEMAYSURPASSORCONFOUNDHERORIGINALINTENTION!ND OFTHEVILLAGERSOF2EITE ONTHE2AI#OASTOF0APUA.EW'UINEA ,EACHARGUES THATINTHECREATIONOFKNOWLEDGE AGENCYISDISPLACEDFROMTHEPEOPLETOTHELAND INWHICHTHEYLIVE4HEGROUND VILLAGERSSAY GIVESPEOPLEKNOWLEDGE "UTTHEIMPLICATIONSOF,EACHSARGUMENTAREMOREPROFOUND&ORTHELANDTHAT 2EITEPEOPLEINHABIT CONTRARYTOTHEIMAGINATIONOF,OCKEANDHISINTELLECTUAL SUCCESSORS ISNOTFILLEDWITHCONCRETEENTITIESTHATHAVE ASITWERE ALREADY CRYSTALLIZED FROM THE FLOWS AND CIRCULATIONS OF SUBSTANCE IN WHICH THEY ARE FORMED4HEIRWORLDISRATHERCONCRESCENT IN7HITEHEADSSENSE UNDERGOING CONTINUALFORMATION)NSUCHAWORLD CREATIVEAGENCYRESIDESNEITHERINPERSONS NORINTHINGS NOREVENINPERSONSANDTHINGS)NDEEDITISNOT AS'ELL WOULDHAVEIT ANINTERNALPROPERTYTHATRESIDESATALL ORTHATEITHERPERSONS ORTHINGSPOSSESS WHENCEITCAUSES@EFFECTSINTHEIRVICINITY!TTEMPTSTOMOVE BEYONDTHEMODERNISTPOLARIZATIONOFSUBJECTANDOBJECT ORTHEMENTALANDTHE MATERIAL INTERMSOFALANGUAGEOFAGENCYTHATREMAINSTRAPPEDINTHESEVERY SAMECATEGORIES AREBOUNDTOLEADTOCONTRADICTIONANDCONFUSION#ONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY AS'ELLSWORKEXEMPLIlES ISINTHETHICKOFIT0ERHAPS INSTEAD OFCLAIMINGTHATENTITIESPOSSESSANAGENCYTHATCAUSESTHEMTOACT WESHOULD ACKNOWLEDGETHATAGENCY@POSSESSESTHEENTITIESTHATnLIKEEDDIESOFDUSTRAISED BYTHEWIND TOADOPT"ERGSONS METAPHORnARECAUGHTUPINIT 4HISAGENCYCOULDBENONEOTHERTHANTHEGENERATIVEmUXOFTHEWORLDITSELFIN ITSCONTINUALCONCRESCENCE FROMWHICHPERSONSANDTHINGSEMERGEANDTAKETHE FORMSTHEYDOFORTHEDURATIONOFTHEIREXISTENCE4HUSTHEKōLAMISTHEOUTLINE OFAMOVEMENTTHATISASMUCHCREATIVEOFTHEPRACTITIONERASOFTHEPATTERN THE CALLIGRAPHICTRACECAPTURESTHEMOMENTARYCONmUENCEOFHAIR SOOTANDMORNING DEWINTHESWEEPOFABRUSH ANDnIN2EITEnANEWSONGCOMESTOAMANTHROUGH HISSUSCEPTIBILITYTOTHEGENERATIVEPOWEROFTHEGROUNDINAPARTICULARPLACE-ORE GENERALLY WHATTHESECHAPTERSSHOWISTHATHUMANSDONOT THROUGHTHEIRCREATIVE n n
0ART )NTRODUCTION INTERVENTIONS TRANSFORMTHEWORLDFROMWITHOUT BUTRATHERnBELONGINGWITHINIT nPLAYTHEIRPARTINTHEWORLDSCREATIVETRANSFORMATIONOFITSELF
2EFERENCES "ATESON ' -INDAND.ATURE ,ONDON&ONTANA "ERGSON ( #REATIVE%VOLUTIONTRANS!-ITCHELL ,ONDON-ACMILLAN "ODEN -! 4HE#REATIVE-IND ,ONDON7EIDENFELDAND.ICOLSON "RUNER *3 !CTUAL-INDS 0OSSIBLE7ORLDS #AMBRIDGE -ASS(ARVARD 5NIVERSITY0RESS #HOMSKY . #URRENT)SSUESIN,INGUISTIC4HEORY 4HE(AGUE-OUTON $OBZHANSKY 4 @#HANCE AND CREATIVITY IN EVOLUTION IN &*!YALA AND4$OBZHANSKY EDS 3TUDIES IN THE 0HILOSOPHY OF "IOLOGY ,ONDON -ACMILLAN &RIEDMAN * @4HEIRONCAGEOFCREATIVITYANEXPLORATION IN*,IEPED ,OCATING#ULTURAL#REATIVITY ,ONDON0LUTO0RESS 'ELL ! !RTAND!GENCY!N!NTHROPOLOGICAL4HEORY /XFORD#LARENDON 0RESS 'UDEMAN 3 %CONOMICSAS#ULTURE-ODELSAND-ETAPHORSOF,IVELIHOOD ,ONDON2OUTLEDGEAND+EGAN0AUL )NGOLD 4 %VOLUTIONAND3OCIAL,IFE #AMBRIDGE#AMBRIDGE5NIVERSITY 0RESS 4HE0ERCEPTIONOFTHE%NVIRONMENT%SSAYSON,IVELIHOOD $WELLING AND3KILL ,ONDON2OUTLEDGE @"ETWEENEVOLUTIONANDHISTORY"IOLOGY CULTURE ANDTHEMYTHOF HUMANORIGINS IN-7HEELER *:IMANAND-!"ODENEDS 4HE%VOLUTION OF#ULTURAL%NTITIES /XFORD/XFORD5NIVERSITY0RESS *ABLONKA % @,AMARCKIAN INHERITANCE SYSTEMS IN BIOLOGY A SOURCE OF METAPHORS AND MODELS IN TECHNOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN * :IMAN ED 4ECHNOLOGICAL)NNOVATIONASAN%VOLUTIONARY0ROCESS #AMBRIDGE#AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY0RESS +LEE 0 .OTEBOOKS 6OLUME 4HE 4HINKING %YE ,ONDON ,UND (UMPHRIES ,EROI 'OURHAN ! 'ESTURE AND 3PEECH TRANS! "OSTOCK "ERGER #AMBRIDGE -ASS-)40RESS ,¿VI 3TRAUSS # 4HE3AVAGE-IND ,ONDON7EIDENFELDAND.ICOLSON -ONOD * #HANCE AND .ECESSITY TRANS! 7AINHOUSE ,ONDON #OLLINS 7HITEHEAD !. 0ROCESSAND2EALITY!N%SSAYIN#OSMOLOGY #AMBRIDGE #AMBRIDGE5NIVERSITY0RESS
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4HE+ōLAMOF3OUTHERN)NDIA
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4HE+ōLAMOF3OUTHERN)NDIA
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*AMES,EACH THEYCOULDBEHARNESSEDBYPROPERPLANNING4HECRUCIALMOVE ACCORDINGTO (IRSCHMAN WASTHEIDEATHATGOVERNMENTSWHICHTOOKINTOACCOUNTPEOPLES RATIONALSELF INTERESTWEREMORELIKELYTOSUCCEEDTHANTHOSEWHICHRELIEDMERELY UPONSUPPRESSING@PASSIONSOFEVERYKIND4HISDEVELOPMENTISAPPARENTINTHE WRITINGSOFTHEPOLITICALPHILOSOPHERSTOWHOMHEREFERSANDINCORRESPONDING CHANGESINLAWSANDINSTITUTIONS'IAMBATTISTA6ICO WRITINGINTHEEARLYEIGHTEENTH CENTURY PUTTHEIDEAINTHISWAY /UTOFFEROCITY AVARICE ANDAMBITION THETHREEVICESWHICHLEADALLMANKINDASTRAY ;THESTATE=MAKESNATIONALDEFENCE COMMERCE ANDPOLITICS ANDTHEREBYCAUSESTHE STRENGTH THEWEALTH ANDTHEWISDOMOFTHEREPUBLICSOUTOFTHESETHREEGREATVICES WHICHWOULDSURELYDESTROYMANONEARTH SOCIETYTHUSCAUSESTHECIVILHAPPINESSTO EMERGE4HISPRINCIPLEPROVESTHEEXISTENCEOFDIVINEPROVIDENCETHROUGHITSINTELLIGENT LAWSTHEPASSIONSOFMENWHOAREENTIRELYOCCUPIEDBYTHEPURSUITOFTHEIRPRIVATEUTILITY ARETRANSFORMEDINTOACIVILORDERWHICHPERMITSMENTOLIVEINHUMANSOCIETY6ICO n
!S(IRSCHMANCOMMENTS THEEXPANSIONOFCOMMERCEANDINDUSTRYAROUNDTHIS TIMEWASHERALDEDASASOURCEOFRULESOFCONDUCTTHATMIGHTSUBSTITUTEFORTHE RELIGIOUS PRECEPTS OF MEDIEVAL TIMES IMPOSING MUCH NEEDED DISCIPLINE AND CONSTRAINTONBOTHRULERSANDRULED(IRSCHMAN 4HECOMPLEXOFCHANGESINNOTIONSOFTHEPASSIONS ANDOFWHATWASNEEDEDTO REGULATEORNULLIFYTHEIRDESTRUCTIVEINmUENCE WASINTURNBASEDONTHEEMERGING IDEALOFSCIENTIlCOBSERVATION APPLIEDTOHUMANBEINGSASPARTOFTHENATURALWORLD 4HEPHILOSOPHER3PINOZAPROFESSEDINHIS%THICSOFTO@CONSIDERHUMAN ACTIONSANDAPPETITESJUSTASIF)WERECONSIDERINGLINES PLANESORBODIES3PINOZA 3PINOZAMAKESTHENOTIONOF@MANASHEREALLYISnTHATIS ACONSIDERATION OFHUMANNATUREnTHEBASISOFHISRECOMMENDATIONSFORGOVERNANCE&ORHIM HOW@MANREALLYISCANBEASCERTAINEDTHROUGHTHEKINDOFSCIENTIlCSTUDYTHAT ISMOREUSUALLYASSOCIATEDWITHTHEPHYSICALWORLD(IRSCHMANALSOPOINTSTO 2OUSSEAU WHO INTHEOPENINGPAGESOF4HE3OCIAL#ONTRACT WRITESTHATHISWORK HASCOMEFROMANEXAMINATION@TAKINGMENASTHEYARE ANDTHELAWSASTHEYMIGHT BECITEDIN(IRSCHMAN !LTHOUGH3PINOZA 2OUSSEAUAND6ICONO DOUBTHADDIFFERENTWAYSOFCONCEPTUALIZINGHUMANNATURE THEPRINCIPLETHATONE COULDBASEAPRESCRIPTIVEPHILOSOPHYOFTHESTATEUPONASTUDYOFTHATNATUREWAS THUSlRMLYESTABLISHED4HROUGHTHISSTUDYTHEIDEAOFINTERESTS WHICHSUBSTITUTED FORTHATOFPASSIONS CAMETOBENARROWEDINITSMEANING!DAM3MITHTOOKUPTHIS MEANINGOFINTERESTANDFAMOUSLYOUTLINEDHISVISIONOFHOW THROUGHTHEPURSUIT OFINDIVIDUALWEALTH SOCIETYWOULDBEMADEABETTERANDCONSTANTLYDEVELOPING PLACE4HROUGHSUCHINmUENTIALARGUMENTS RATIONALSELF INTERESTCAMETOMEANTHE INTERESTTOPURSUEWEALTH2ATIONALSELF INTERESTBECAMEECONOMICINTEREST
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,ABOUR 0ROJECTSAND.ATURAL2EASON 4HISDEVELOPMENTOFANOTIONOFHUMANNATUREASABASISFORMORALPHILOSOPHIZING ABOUTHOWBESTTOREGULATEHUMANBEHAVIOURTHROUGHTHESTATEALSOSETTHEAGENDA FORANOTHERGREATTHINKER *OHN,OCKE/FCOURSE AS-AC0HERSON POINTS OUT ,OCKEDIDNOTHIMSELFINVENTTHEIDEASOFPROPERTYONWHICHHEEXPOUNDS)N FACT MUCHLIKEANETHNOGRAPHER ,OCKESAWHIMSELFASRECORDINGTHECURRENTSTATE OFOWNERSHIPANDRATIONALIZINGITINHISTREATISE)NOTHERWORDS THEREALREADYWAS ACULTURALREALITYTOTHEPARTICULARLYCLEAREXPRESSIONOFTHEDOCTRINEOFPOSSESSIVE INDIVIDUALISMPROVIDEDBY,OCKE &OR,OCKE LANDHELDANARCHETYPALSTATUSINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFPROPERTY 4HROUGHANALYSISOFLANDUSEANDIMPROVEMENT ONECOULDHYPOTHESIZEAMOVEMENT FROMTHECOMMONINHERITANCEOFALLMANKINDTOINDIVIDUALOWNERSHIP4HEREWAS APARTICULARLYOBVIOUSMORALJUSTIlCATIONFORATRANSITIONFROMHOLDINGTHEEARTHS RESOURCESINCOMMONTOTHEPRIVATECONTROLOFLAND4HEJUSTIlCATIONRANALONGTHE FOLLOWINGLINES WHICHAREIMPORTANTFORMYARGUMENTLATERON,OCKEPOSITSTHAT THEEARTHWASGIVENTOALLMANKINDBY'ODFORITSCOMMONUSEANDENJOYMENT)N FACT ITWASGIVENTOHISSONS WHOGAVEITTOTHEIRSONS ANDSOON @.ATURALREASON ,OCKETELLSHISREADERS DETERMINESTHATEVERYMANHASTHERIGHTTOPRESERVATION ANDFORTHAT HENEEDSSUSTENANCE"UTHOWCANANYMANGUARANTEEACCESSTOTHAT WHICHSUSTAINSHIMWHENTHEEARTHANDALLITSPRODUCTSARETHECOMMONHERITAGEOF ALLMANKIND 3PONTANEOUSCREATIONSOFNATUREAREOBVIOUSLYOWNEDBYEVERYONE "UTINORDERTOMAKETHEMOFUSE THEYMUSTBEAPPROPRIATED4HUSFOR,OCKE REASONSHOWSTHATAMANMUSTAPPROPRIATEAFRUITTHATHASFALLENTOTHEGROUND AND MAKEITHISOWN IFITISTOBEOFANYUSETOHIM)TCANNOTBELONGTOANOTHER SINCE BYNOURISHINGTHISPARTICULARMANnBYSUSTAININGHIMnITHELPSTOACHIEVETHEEND HEHASARIGHTTOACHIEVE NAMELYHISSURVIVAL !NDSO,OCKEARRIVESATAFURTHERPRINCIPLE@EVERYMANHASPROPERTYINHISOWN PERSON4HROUGHAPPROPRIATINGTHINGSTHATARECOMMONLYOWNED THESETHINGS BECOMEAPARTOFHIM#RUCIALLY BYMIXINGHISLABOURWITHNATURE WITHTHINGSTHAT AREALREADYTHEREINTHENATURALWORLD HEMAKESTHINGSHISOWN)NTHEVERYACT OFAPPROPRIATION ,OCKEARGUES PROPERTYCOMESABOUT)TISTHELABOUROFPICKING UPTHEAPPLE NOTTHEEATINGOFIT THATMAKESITTHEPROPERTYOFONEPERSON@IFTHE lRSTGATHERINGMADETHEMNOTHIS NOTHINGELSECOULD4HELABOURPUTADISTINCTION BETWEENTHEMANDTHECOMMON,OCKE 4HEADDITIONOFLABOURMAKES ACOMMONRESOURCEINTOPROPERTYIRRESPECTIVEOFOTHERSCONSENT,OCKEDOESSAY THATREASONALSODEMANDSTHATPEOPLEONLYAPPROPRIATEENOUGHFORTHEIRNEEDS AND THUSDONOTWASTECOMMONRESOURCES(EALSODISCUSSESTHEADVENTOFMONEYAND HOWSOMEPEOPLECOULDOWNMORETHANOTHERS"UTTHEIMPORTANTASPECTFORMY EXPOSITIONHEREISSUCCINCTLYDEVELOPEDBELOW
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*AMES,EACH 4HOUGHTHETHINGSOFNATUREAREGIVENINCOMMON YET-ANBYBEINGMASTEROFHIMSELF AND0ROPRIETOROFHISOWNPERSONANDTHEACTIONSOF,ABOUROFIT HADSTILLINHIMSELFTHE GREAT&OUNDATIONOF0ROPERTYANDTHATWHICHMADEUPTHEGREATPARTOFWHATHEAPPLIED TOTHE3UPPORTOR#OMFORTOFHISBEING WHEN)NVENTIONAND!RTSHADIMPROVEDTHE CONVENIENCESOF,IFE WASPERFECTLYHISOWN ANDDIDNOTBELONGINCOMMONTOOTHERS IBIDn
,ANDWASTHEARCHETYPALPROPERTYFOR,OCKEBECAUSETHROUGHLABOURITCOULDBE CULTIVATED TILLEDANDMADEPRODUCTIVE4HEIMPORTANCEOFTHEPLOUGH ANDTHUSOF AGRICULTUREASASTABLEANDENDURINGRELATIONTOTHELAND WASVITAL4OOWNLAND ITMUSTBEAPPROPRIATED!NDTHISREQUIREDTHEMIXINGOFLABOURWITHLAND.OTICE THATTHEIDEAOFAPROJECTCOMESINHERE,ANDISTURNEDFROMACOMMONRESOURCE TOPRIVATEPROPERTYTHROUGHTHEPROJECTTOCULTIVATEIT(UMANBEINGSOWNTHE FRUITSOFTHEIRLABOURSANDENDEAVOURSASTHEOUTCOMESOFTHEIRPROJECTS(EREWE ALREADYSEETHEBEGINNINGSOFTHECURRENTEMPHASISONMENTALLABOURANDINTENTAS CRUCIALTOPROPERTY4HEEMPHASISISPLACEDUPONAKINDOFMIXING OFINTENTIONAL DIRECTEDACTIONWITHPRODUCTSOFNATURETHATARELITERALLY@GIVENTOALLnACOMMON HERITAGE 0OSSESSIVEINDIVIDUALISMHADFAR REACHINGIMPLICATIONSFOR7ESTERNPOLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AS0OCOCK HASOBSERVED0OCOCKCONCURSWITH-AC0HERSONIN SUGGESTINGTHATTHEASSUMPTIONSINVOLVEDPREDATE,OCKE)NFACTHETRACESELEMENTS OFITTOTHE"IBLE WHERE'ODSCHOSENPEOPLEWEREGIVENTHE0ROMISED,ANDTOBE HANDEDDOWNFROMFATHERTOSONTHROUGHTHEGENERATIONS!SHEPOINTSOUT @OTHER PEOPLEWERETHOSEWHOWANDEREDAWAYFROMTHISLAND ROAMINGANEARTHTHATWAS NOBODYSTOOWN"YTHESEVENTEENTHCENTURY ASWEHAVESEEN THEORISTSWERE CONSTRUCTINGTHENOTIONOF@NATURALRIGHTSONTHEBASISOFANEXAMINATIONOFHUMAN NATURE4ODOSO THEYENVISAGEDTHE@STATEOFNATUREASAPRIMEVALCONDITION OFHUMANEXISTENCE!NDTHATCONDITIONWASCHARACTERIZEDBYTHEIMAGEOFAN INDIVIDUALASAKINDOFWANDERER0OCOCKGOESONTOARGUETHATFORTHEPOLITICAL THEORISTSOFTHESEVENTEENTHANDEIGHTEENTHCENTURIES ITWASNOTUNTILPRIMEVAL INDIVIDUALSSTARTEDTOAPPROPRIATETHINGSTHATTHEYNEEDEDANYKINDOFLAW AND ITWASBECAUSETHEYHADNOLAWTHATTHEYEXISTEDINASTATEOFNATURETHATIS WITHOUTCIVILIZATION 4HEINDIVIDUALTHUSPRECEDEDPROPERTYIN%NLIGHTENMENT POLITICALPHILOSOPHY)NTHESTATEOFNATUREANASSORTMENTOFINDIVIDUALSROAMED THEEARTHSSURFACE"UTAPPROPRIATION IN,OCKESACCOUNT LEDTOPROPERTY WHICH LEDTORIGHTS WHICHLEDTOGOVERNMENTSTOENFORCETHEM)TRESULTEDINSYSTEMS OFINSTITUTIONALIZEDVALUES)NEFFECT THEHUMANINDIVIDUALASASOCIABLECREATURE WASDElNEDBYHISPROPERTY ANDTHEINDIVIDUALWHOHADSTILLTOAPPROPRIATETHINGS FROMTHECOMMONWASNOTYETFULLYHUMAN4HESAVAGEWASAPRIMEVALRATHER THANAPOSSESSIVEINDIVIDUAL@THEESSENTIALSTEPINTOHUMANITYWASTAKENWITHTHE ACCEPTANCEOFLAWANDGOVERNMENT ANDITWASPREMISEDTHATTHISSTEPCOULDNOT
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4HE$YNAMICOF0OSSESSIVE)NDIVIDUALISM BETAKENWITHOUTTHEPRECEDINGORACCOMPANYINGSTEPOFAPPROPRIATION0OCOCK 0RIMEVALINDIVIDUALSHADNOTAPPROPRIATEDTHELANDTHROUGHMODIlCATION ANDIMPROVEMENTANDTHUSDIDNOTDEVELOPLAWS ARTSANDSCIENCESASTHECODIlED EXPRESSIONSOFORGANIZEDSOCIALRELATIONS4HESESOCIALRELATIONS WHENTHEYDID EVENTUALLYEMERGE WEREBASEDONTHEFACTTHATAPPROPRIATIONCONVERTEDINDIVIDUALS INTOPROPERTYOWNERS)NOTHERWORDS TOUSE0OCOCKSPHRASE @PROPERTY;=WAS THEIRNAMEFORRELATIONSHIPIBID (UMANSOCIETYISBASEDONTHEOWNERSHIP OFPROPERTY ASRELATIONSHIPSBETWEENINDIVIDUALSCAMEINTOBEINGBECAUSEOFTHE APPROPRIATIONOFRESOURCESANDTHENEEDTOINSTITUTIONALIZETHATAPPROPRIATION @4HEENLIGHTENEDMINDWASBENTUPONTHESEPARATIONOFSPIRITFROMMATTER OF APPROPRIATORFROMTHESUBSTANCEAPPROPRIATEDIBID 3OTHROUGHTHEIRPROJECTS HUMANBEINGSMODIlEDANDIMPROVEDTHEIRENVIRONMENT ANDTHUSOWNEDITAS PROPERTY &ORACONTEMPORARYVERSIONOFTHEPECULIARDILEMMAOFHOWTOREGULATETHE PASSIONSANDINTERESTSOFINDIVIDUALSINTENTONMAXIMIZINGTHEIRPERSONALWEALTH INTHEABSENCEOFSTRONGSTATEREGULATION WEMAYTURNTO'ARRET(ARDINSFAMOUS ARTICLEON@THETRAGEDYOFTHECOMMONS(ARDIN (ARDINTOOKITASSELF EVIDENT THATPEOPLEAREALLPOSSESSIVEINDIVIDUALS ACTINGINTHEIROWNRATIONALSELF INTEREST "ASEDONTHISASSUMPTIONHEARGUEDTHATANYRESOURCESHELDINCOMMONARELIKELY TOBEEITHEROVER EXPLOITED ANDTHEREFOREDEPLETEDANDDEGRADED ORUNDERUSEDAND DEGENERATEDTHROUGHLACKOFINVESTMENT!CCORDINGTO(ARDIN ONTHEONEHANDA @RATIONALUSEROFACOMMONRESOURCEWILLMAKEDEMANDSONTHATRESOURCEUNTILTHE EXPECTEDBENElTSFROMTHATAPPROPRIATIONAREOVERTAKENBYTHECOSTSOFEXPLOITING IT"ECAUSEEACHUSERISANINDIVIDUAL ANDIGNORESCOSTSIMPOSEDUPONOTHERSBY THEIRUSE INDIVIDUALDECISIONSCULMINATEINTRAGICOVERUSEAND POTENTIALLY THE DESTRUCTIONOFOPEN ACCESSCOMMONS/NTHEOTHERHAND COMMONOWNERSHIPIS SEENASAHINDRANCETOECONOMICDEVELOPMENTBECAUSEITISINNOONESRATIONAL SELF INTERESTTOINVESTLABOURORRESOURCESINIMPROVINGCOMMONLANDWHENOTHERS WHOSTANDTOBENElTNEEDNEVERTHELESSNOTRECIPROCATE4HEBOGEYMANIMAGE OFTHEFREELOADERISCENTRALTOCONCERNSABOUTTHECOMMONSANDTHEIRRATIONAL EXPLOITATION)TISACLASSICECONOMISTSARGUMENT!NDWECANSEEHOW FROM BEINGATHEORYOFHUMANNATURE THENOTIONOFPOSSESSIVEINDIVIDUALISMBECAME AFOUNDATIONALASSUMPTIONINMAKINGPOLICIESFORGOVERNING@ECONOMICLIFETHAT PERSISTSTOTHISDAY !S%LINOR/STROM POINTSOUT THEMODELPRESUMESTHATALLINDIVIDUALS ARESELlSH NORM FREEANDMOTIVATEDBYSHORT TERMGAIN9ETWEKNOWTHATTHERE AREMANYSYSTEMSOFLANDTENURE FOREXAMPLE THATDONOTFOLLOWFROMTHESEKINDS OFASSUMPTIONSABOUTPERSONS#ROCOMBE 0ROPERTYTENUREINTHEMODEOF POSSESSIVEINDIVIDUALISMISSPECIlCTOOURCULTURALANDSOCIALHISTORY ANDTOTHE IMAGINATIVEPROJECTIONSWEMAKE!NDSO THEREFORE ISTHEIDEATHATACOMMON RESOURCEWILLINEVITABLYBEMISUSEDBYINDIVIDUALS!COMMONSINLANDOFTHESORT nn
*AMES,EACH (ARDINIMAGINEDISAPRODUCTOFAPARTICULARKINDOFRETROSPECTIVEORHISTORICAL IMAGINATION4HIS IS PERTINENT TO 0OCOCKS POINT &OR (ARDINS IMAGE OF THE COMMONSANDITSUSERSISSUSPICIOUSLYSIMILARTOTHENOTION ADVANCEDBYEARLIER THEORISTS OFTHESTATEOFNATUREANDOFTHEPRIMEVALINDIVIDUALSWHOINHABITEDIT )NTHISPICTURE INDIVIDUALSPURSUINGRATIONAL SELF INTERESTEDPROJECTSWILLCARE ONLYFORWHATTHEYOWN%NCLOSUREANDCULTIVATIONMAKEPOSSIBLETHEMATERIAL FULlLMENTOFINDIVIDUALPROJECTS 4HESEDISTINCTIONS OFMENTALFROMMATERIAL ANDOFONEINDIVIDUALSINTERESTS FROMANOTHERS CONJOINWITHTHENOTIONTHATINVENTIONANDINNOVATIONARETHE DRIVINGFORCESBEHINDCIVILIZATIONANDPROGRESS)NTHEOVERALLTRAJECTORYTHATCAME TOBEDESCRIBEDASMODERNITY PROGRESSCOMESEXACTLYTHROUGHTHEINCEPTIONAND REALIZATIONOFNEWPROJECTS WITHATTENDANTMODIlCATIONSTOTHEENVIRONMENT &ROMTHISPOINTOFVIEW IFMODERNCIVILIZATIONISTHEMOSTSUCCESSFULANDPOWERFUL FORMOFHUMANORGANIZATIONTHATHASEVEREXISTED ITISPRECISELYBECAUSEITIS FOUNDEDONAN@ACCURATEREADINGOFHUMANNATURE4HISVIEWAMOUNTSTOAFORM OFEVOLUTIONISMANDCLEARLYMARKSASELF PERCEPTION AMONGITSADHERENTS THAT ELEVATESTHEMABOVETRADITIONALANDTRIBALPEOPLES-ODERNITY THEYSAY ALLOWS COMPETITIONTOTHRIVE ANDTHUSGENERATESPROGRESSASINDIVIDUALSCOMPETETOOUTDO ONEANOTHER
#ULTUREANDTHE#REATIONOF#IVILIZATION )NITSCONTEMPORARYUSAGE AS2OY7AGNER HASPOINTEDOUT THEWORD@CULTURE HASAMARKEDANDANUNMARKEDSENSE@(IGHCULTUREISTHECIVILIZINGINmUENCEOF GREATART OFlNEARCHITECTURE OFTHEOBJECTSWElNDINMUSEUMS&OR7AGNER THIS KINDOF@#ULTUREISCLOSELYLINKEDTOTHEPREVALENTUNDERSTANDINGOFCIVILIZATION ASAPROCESS ANDPROJECT OFCULTIVATION*USTASLANDANDAGRICULTUREAREIMPROVED THROUGHDEVELOPMENTSINTHEPROJECTSOFSETTLEMENT INTENSIlCATION SPECIALIZATION ANDSOFORTH SOHUMANSOCIETYISIMPROVEDANDDEVELOPEDTHROUGHTHECULTIVATION OFITSPUBLICLIFE ITSINSTITUTIONSANDITSSYMBOLS7AGNERDIRECTSOURATTENTION ONCEAGAINTOTHEPOLITICALANDMORALPHILOSOPHERSOFTHE%NLIGHTENMENT4HROUGH PROPERTY AS,OCKETELLSUS PEOPLECAMETOHAVELEISURETOCREATEINSTITUTIONS AND THESEINTURNALLOWEDTHESPECIALIZATIONOFLABOURANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEARTS (IGHCULTUREANDCIVILIZATIONDEVELOPTOGETHER 7HEN ANTHROPOLOGISTS GO TO OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD HOWEVER AND ARE CONFRONTEDWITHUNFAMILIARBEHAVIOURANDWITHOBJECTSANDINSTITUTIONSTHEYDONOT READILYCOMPREHEND THEIRlRSTINCLINATIONISTOCREATEASYSTEMOFMEANINGANAL OGOUSTOTHATTHROUGHWHICHTHEYWOULDEXPLAINTHEEMERGENCEOFTHEIROWNFORMS OFLIFE!GRICULTURALPRACTICESARETIEDTOBELIEFSYSTEMS KINSHIPISTIEDTOECONOMY EXCHANGEISTIEDTOKINSHIPANDMYTHS"YPLACINGANYUNFAMILIARELEMENTOR
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0ART)) #REATIVE!PPROPRIATIONSAND )NSTITUTIONAL#ONTEXTS
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7EORIGINALLYCONCEIVEDTHECONFERENCEPANELFROMWHICHTHESECHAPTERSARE TAKENASAFORUMINWHICHTOEXPLORECRITICALLYTHENATUREOFCREATIVITYINSOCIAL POLITICALANDRELIGIOUSLIFEBYCONSIDERINGTHEEXTENTTOWHICHnORTHOSECONTEXTS WITHINWHICHn@CREATIVITYISIMAGINEDASASOCIALRATHERTHANANINDIVIDUAL CAPACITY7HILEANTHROPOLOGISTSHAVEPERIODICALLYINVOKEDCREATIVITYINTHEIR CONSIDERATIONSOFSOCIALANDCULTURALNOVELTY MOREOFTENTHANNOTCREATIVITYIS CONCEIVEDASAPSYCHOLOGICALRESPONSETORADICALCHANGE+IRSHENBLATT 'IMBLETT 3TEPHEN ORTHENOVELACTIONSOFINDIVIDUALPERSONSWHOBECOME AFOCALPOINTFOROTHERSINTHEIRSOCIETY,AVIE 2OSALDOAND.ARAYAN )NEITHERCASE NOMATTERHOWSOCIALLYDISPERSEDTHEEFFECTSOFCREATIVITYMAY APPEARTOBE CREATIVITYASACAUSEORSOURCEOFACTIONISSTILLCONSTRUEDASAN INTERIORCAPACITYOFTHEAUTONOMOUSINDIVIDUAL THE@GENIUSWHOSECREATIONSAND INNOVATIONSMASKTHESOCIALRELATIONSUPONWHICHTHOSEINNOVATIONSDEPENDED 7OODMANSEE"IAGIOLI )NORDERTOAVOIDREPRODUCINGTHISVERSION OFCREATIVITY WEPROPOSEDASOURSTARTINGPOINTTHATTHEINNOVATIONSWHICHAPPEAR TOCAUSETEMPORALORHISTORICALDISCONTINUITIESARENOTALWAYSIFINDEEDEVER GENIUS INSTIGATEDANDUNPRECEDENTEDPRACTICESORFORMSOFKNOWLEDGE2ATHER THEYAREAPPROPRIATIONSINTHESENSETHATPRACTICES INFORMATIONORBELIEFSYSTEMS ARE@TRANSPLANTEDANDTHENRECONTEXTUALIZEDBYTHOSEWHOAPPROPRIATETHEM4HIS PROCESSOFDECONTEXTUALIZATIONANDRECONTEXTUALIZATIONGENERATESTHEEFFECTOR APPEARANCEOFSOCIALDISCONTINUITY 4HEPROBLEMOFCOURSEISTHATINNOVATIONMIGHTNOTBEANAPPROPRIATIONOF APRACTICEATALL4OPLAYWITHCONTEXTSCOULDJUSTASEASILYCAUSELONG STANDING PRACTICESTOBERECONTEXTUALIZEDINANUNANTICIPATEDMILIEU(ERE THEAPPROPRIATION WOULDBEOFTHECONTEXTRATHERTHANTHEPRACTICEITSELF AN@ASIFSCENARIOWHERE DISSIMILARSOCIALCONTEXTSARETREATEDASHOMOLOGUESTOONEANOTHER4HISTOO WOULDATTESTTOAFORMOFCREATIVITYTHATCOULDRARELYBEUNDERSTOODINTERMSOF INDIVIDUALCAPACITIES ANDONETHATMIGHTNOTEASILYBERECOGNIZABLEASCREATIVITY INVERNACULAR%URO !MERICANTERMS4HEREASONFORTHISISPRECISELYBECAUSESUCH AFORMOFCREATIVITY INWHICHENDURINGTERMSOFREFERENCEAREPRESSEDINTOSERVICE INCONTEXTSFORWHICHTHEYSEEMUNWARRANTED UNEXPECTEDORMISPLACED EFFECTS ACLAIMTOCONTINUITY#REATIVITY ACCORDINGTOITSCOMMON SENSEDElNITION IS SUPPOSEDTOBEABOUTTHENEW nn
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0ART )NTRODUCTION 4HEFASHIONABLELINETOTAKENOWISTHATTHISISESPECIALLYTRUETODAY WHENTHE INTERNALLYCOHERENTANDSELF REGULATING@HOTAND@COLDSOCIETIES ASENVISAGEDBY ,¿VI 3TRAUSS HAVEBEENREPLACEDBYSOCIETIESINANINTERCONNECTEDWORLD BETWEENWHICHIDEASmOWASFREELYASPEOPLEORCOMMODITIESDO"UTIFTHISISTHE CASE WHEREDOESITLEAVETHECONCEPTOFCREATIVITYINSOCIALLIFEnISCREATIVITYJUST ANOTHERPRACTICEOFCONSUMPTION #ANTHECONCEPTOFCREATIVITYOFFERANYSPECIAL PURCHASEOFTHISKINDTOETHNOGRAPHICANALYSIS ORISITSTILLSIMPLYA4ROJANHORSE FORTHOSEASYMMETRIESOFMODERNITYWHICHALLOW7ESTERNERSTOSEETHEMSELVES INBOTHWHATTHEYAPPROPRIATEANDWHATISAPPROPRIATEDFROMTHEMCF3TRATHERN 7EARGUETHATCREATIVITYHASBEENDOGGEDBYATENDENCYTOLINKITTOWHATMIGHT ONTHEFACEOFITBEIMAGINEDASITSPOLAROPPOSITEAUTHENTICITY)FCREATIVITYIS THECAPACITYORPROCESSTHROUGHWHICHWEARESUPPOSEDTODISCOVERNEWSOCIAL FORMS AUTHENTICITYISTHEKNOWLEDGEPRACTICETHROUGHWHICHWEDISCOVERWHATIS IRREFUTABLYENDOGENOUSTOOURSELVESORTOOTHERPEOPLE"ENDIX $RAWINGON THISTRADITION SOMEVERSIONSOFCULTURALTHEORYFOREXAMPLE 'AILEY WOULD HAVEITTHATCULTUREITSELFACTSCOUNTERTOTHEHOMOGENIZINGEFFECTSOFTHEMARKET ANDTHATASSUCHITSINHERENTCREATIVITYISALSOANINHERENTPROCESSOFAUTHENTICATION AGAINSTTHETHREATOFMASSPRODUCTIONANDINlNITELYINTERCHANGEABLEVALUE"UT THERE ARE OTHER WAYS OF DEMONSTRATING ETHNOGRAPHICALLY HOW CREATIVITY AND AUTHENTICITYARENOTSOFARREMOVEDFROMEACHOTHERASTHEYMIGHTSEEM!SEACH OFTHETHREECHAPTERSINTHISPARTREVEALS CREATIVITYCANBEMOBILIZEDTODISCOVER @AUTHENTICFORMSOFSOCIALEXPERIENCE)N*EANETTE%DWARDSCHAPTER#HAPTER "APTISTMINISTERSINTHENORTHOF%NGLANDPOSITTHEFAMILYOF'ODASSUBSUMING ORREPLACINGTHE@BIOLOGICALFAMILY SUCHTHATDISCUSSIONSOFTHEAPPROPRIATENESS OFNEWREPRODUCTIVETECHNOLOGIESCENTREONTHEPROBLEMOFWHETHERTHE@THIRD PARTIESINVOLVEDINTHESERELATIONSHIPSIRREDEEMABLYDISRUPTTHISFAMILY ORCAN UNPROBLEMATICALLYBEEXCLUDEDFROMIT)NTHECHAPTERBY*UDITH3CHEELE#HAPTER +ABYLEPOLITICALACTIONIN!LGERIAISSTYMIEDBYTHEAPPARENTPARADOXOFTHE @PERPETUALREVOLUTION WHEREINTHEONLYWAYTOCLAIMPOLITICALLEGITIMACYISTO APPROPRIATETHEREVOLUTIONARYRHETORICSOF/CCUPIED&RANCE THElGHTFOR!LGERIAN INDEPENDENCE ORTHE0ALESTINIANINTIFADA)N%LIZABETH#ORY 0EARCESACCOUNT OFEARLYTWENTIETH CENTURY-AORISCHOLARSHIP#HAPTER ATTEMPTSTOCLASSIFY THEWORKOF-AKERETI-ARGARET4HOMASSTEMMINGFROMEITHERAN@INDIGENOUS ORA@COSMOPOLITANPERSPECTIVEAREBOUNDTORUNINTOTROUBLE PARTICULARLYAS -AKERETIHERSELFAPPEARSTOHAVEDECLINEDTODISTINGUISHBETWEENANTHROPOLOGICAL ANDANCESTRALSOURCESOFKNOWLEDGEABOUT-AORIDOM ANDINSTEADTREATSONEASAN EXPRESSIONOREMBODIMENTOFTHEOTHER%ACHOFTHESECONTRIBUTIONSINTERROGATESTHE RELATIONSHIPOFCREATIVITYTOAUTHENTICITYININTRIGUINGWAYS ANDDEMONSTRATESTHAT THERELATIONSHIPITSELFISPREDICATEDONAPRIOR BUTPOSSIBLYSPURIOUS ASSOCIATIONOF AUTHENTICITYWITHCONTINUITY ANDCREATIVITYWITHDISCONTINUITY nn
-ELISSA$EMIANAND3ARI7ASTELL #ORY 0EARCEALSOPOINTSTOONEOFTHEOTHERIMPLICITTHEMESTHAT WHILENOT COMPRISINGPARTOFOURORIGINALREMIT EMERGEDINTHECOURSEOFTHECONFERENCE SESSIONHOWWEKNOWWHENWEAREBEINGCREATIVE ANDWHETHERTHISKNOWLEDGE ISASIGNOFCREATIVITYSMORALLEGITIMACYORILLEGITIMACY!SINTIMATEDEARLIER SELF CONSCIOUSNESSAROUNDINNOVATIONISAHALLMARKOF7ESTERNSENSIBILITIES ABOUTCREATIVITY ANDYOKESCREATIVITYTOAUTONOMOUSEFlCACY)TALSORESONATES WITHONEOFTHEMETAPHORSOFCREATIVITY*OASn THATHASLONG CAPTUREDTHEATTENTIONSANDENTHUSIASMSOF7ESTERNSCHOLARSONTHESUBJECT CREATIVITYASEXPRESSION7HERECREATIVITYISIMAGINEDINTERMSOFEXPRESSION IT IS RELIANT ON A SUBJECT OBJECT DISTINCTION THAT HAS NOT ALWAYS PROVED A HELPFUL ANALYTIC ACROSS THE DIVERSITY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC CONTEXTS WITH WHICH ANTHROPOLOGISTSGRAPPLESEE,EACH THISVOLUME #HAPTER (OWEVER TWO OTHERPREDOMINANTMETAPHORSFORCREATIVITYEXPLOREDBY*OAS @PRODUCTIONAND @REVOLUTION PRESENTTHEIROWNPROBLEMS0RODUCTIONORIENTSCREATIVITYINTHE DIRECTIONOFTHEMATERIALWORLD POSITINGTHEOBJECTIVECIRCUMSTANCESOFNATURE ASTHELIMITINGFACTORSWHICHBOTHINSTIGATEANDCONSTRAINCREATIVEACTION 2EVOLUTION ONTHEOTHERHAND @ASSUMESTHATTHEREISAPOTENTIALOFHUMAN CREATIVITY RELATIVE TO THE SOCIAL WORLD NAMELY THAT WE CAN FUNDAMENTALLY REORGANIZETHESOCIALINSTITUTIONSTHATGOVERNHUMANCO EXISTENCEIBID .OTONLYISTHEVERYSTABILITYOFWHATCONSTITUTESTHENATURALWORLDASOPPOSED TOTHESOCIALWORLDADUBIOUSSTARTINGPOINTFORANTHROPOLOGY BUTCONCEIVING OFCREATIVITYINTERMSOFANORIENTATIONTOONEOVERANDABOVETHEOTHERBRINGS THE QUESTION OF REmEXIVITY INTO ACUTE FOCUS4HE -ANCHESTER DEBATE CONCERNINGWHETHERHUMANWORLDSARECULTURALLYCONSTRUCTEDCOUCHEDTHIS QUESTIONINSLIGHTLYDIFFERENTTERMS(ERETHEDEBATEEMPHASIZEDADISTINCTION BETWEENCONSTRUCTIONASASELF CONSCIOUSACTWHICHPRESUMESBOTHGOALSAND THEMEANSFORREALIZINGTHEM ANDIMPROVISATION WHICHTENDSTOEMERGEIN THEABSENCEOFABLUEPRINTFORACTIONANDISCONTINGENTUPONWHATISTOHAND )NGOLD2ICHARDS 7HETHERBOTHMODALITIESAREEQUALLYCREATIVE nANDFORWHOMnBECAMEASUBJECTOFSERIOUSDISCUSSIONANDDEBATEWITHIN OURCONFERENCESESSION &OREXAMPLE IN%DWARDSCONTRIBUTION @COMINGTOBEKNOWNISAPROCESS OFCREATIVELEGITIMATIONIN%NGLISH"APTISTNARRATIVESOFCONCEPTION WHEREINTHE FOETUSISDEEMEDALIVEORSENTIENTWHENITCOMESTOBEKNOWNBY'OD/NTHE OTHERHAND SUGGESTS3CHEELE REmEXIVITYANDFORETHOUGHTHARBINGERDELEGITIMATION INTHEPERPETUALLYREVOLUTIONARYPOLITICSOF+ABYLIA WHEREINTHEREVELATIONOFA POWERFULPERSONSMOTIVESISASIGNOFTHEWANINGOFTHATPERSONSPOWER)F INTHE WORDSOFONEOF3CHEELESINTERLOCUTORS @!LLWORDS;HAVE=ALREADYBEENTAKEN THEAGENCYOFPOLITICALACTIONCANNOTPOSSIBLYHAVEITSSOURCEINLIVINGPEOPLEOR INCONTEMPORARYPOLITICALENTITIES BUTINSTEADEMANATESFROMAPASTTHATISALWAYS JUSTOUTOFREACH nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION 4HE AMBIVALENCE TOWARDS CREATIVITY IN THESE CASES AND IN #ORY 0EARCES QUESTIONOFWHETHER-AKERETIWASANANCESTRALAPPROPRIATORORAPLAGIARISTOR BOTH ORNEITHER ISITSELFASUPPRESSEDASPECTOFTHECREATIVITYCONCEPT!S,ÏFGREN AND,EACHTHISVOLUME #HAPTER HAVEBOTHOBSERVED CREATIVITY ISNOWTOUTEDASANUNQUALIlEDGOOD DESIRABLETOFUELA@KNOWLEDGEECONOMY WITHA@FLEXIBLEWORKFORCEAND PERHAPSMORETOTHEPOINT TEACHABLETOTHE CHILDRENWHOWILLONEDAYSUPPLYTHATWORKFORCE"UTTOCONCEIVEOFCREATIVITY ASUNEQUIVOCALLYVALUABLEISITSELFANOVELPOSITION0ERHAPSLURKINGINALLTHREE CHAPTERSINTHISPARTISTHEOLDER@TRADITIONOFCREATIVITY WHEREINCREATIVITYIS REGARDEDASTHEDISRUPTIVECHARACTERISTICOFTHEMYTHOLOGICALMONSTERS HEROES ANDTRICKSTERSWHOMAKEUSHUMAN BUTALSOSEPARATEUSIRRETRIEVABLYFROMDIVINE LAW-ASON )NTHISTRADITION CREATIVITYISASTERRIBLEASITISDESIRABLE AND ISFURTHERCONCEIVEDINEXPLICITOPPOSITIONTOSOCIETYTHOSEWHOCREATEMUSTBE COUNTERBALANCEDBYOTHERSWHOASSESSTHEMORALVALUEOFTHEIRCREATIONSIBID 7ITHTHEADVENTOFMONOTHEISTICRELIGIONS ALLCREATIVITYWASASSIGNEDTOTHE #REATOR SUCHTHATTHEMORALITYOFCREATIVITYWASUNEQUIVOCALASLONGASITWAS ATTRIBUTEDTODIVINEINSPIRATION4HE%NLIGHTENMENTCONCEPTOFARTISTICGENIUS IN OTHERWORDS WASONLYPOSSIBLEBECAUSE'ODHADBEENREMOVEDASANAGENTOF CREATIVITY+RISTELLER "UTAS%DWARDSCHAPTERINPARTICULARSHOWS THIS FEATWASONLYPARTIALLYACCOMPLISHED#ONTEMPORARY%NGLISH"APTISTSHAVENO TROUBLEREINSCRIBINGDIVINEINTENTIONSINTHECONCEPTIONOFCHILDRENBYMEANSOF )6& SINCETHECHILDSOCONCEIVEDISNOTINTHEEND@RELATEDTOITSPARENTSBYMEANS OFBIOLOGYOREVENTECHNOLOGY BUTBYMEANSOFTHEKNOWINGRECOGNITIONOF'OD 4HEPOTENTIALDISRUPTIONOFCREATIVITYISTHEREBYOBVIATEDTHEREAREALWAYSALREADY NOVELIDEASTHATPRECEDETHENOVELIDEASOFMEREHUMANS 7EHAVESOUGHTTOHIGHLIGHTSOMEOFTHEKEYQUESTIONSTHATEMERGEDDURINGTHE CONFERENCEPANEL ANDTHATARERAISEDBYTHECHAPTERSTHATFOLLOW&IRST WHYHAS DISCONTINUITYBECOMEPRIVILEGEDASEVIDENCEFORCREATIVITY WHENINFACTPEOPLE MAYENDEAVOURASFARASPOSSIBLETOIMPORTOLDCONTEXTSINTOTHEBACKGROUND OFNEWPOLITICALFORMSINORDERTOLEGITIMIZETHOSEFORMS3CHEELE 3ECOND ISCREATIVITYONLYRECOGNIZABLEASSUCHIFITISSELF CONSCIOUS THATIS IFACTION ISUNDERTAKENWITHTHEREmEXIVEINTENTTOANTICIPATETHEREGARDOFOTHERS#ORY 0EARCE &INALLY WEMIGHTASKHOWPRE %NLIGHTENMENTNOTIONSOFADIVINEAGENCY UNDERLYINGCREATIVITYHAVEBEENREINSCRIBEDINTOTHEDISCOURSEONAPPARENTLY NOVELTECHNOLOGICALINTERVENTIONS%DWARDS 4HEFOLLOWINGCHAPTERSINVITEUS TODENATURALIZETHECONCEPTOFCREATIVITYWITHTHESAMERIGOURWITHWHICH SAY MODERNITYHASBECOMEDENATURALIZED ANDTHEYALSOASKWHETHERCREATIVITYMAYBE FOUNDINTHEAPPROPRIATIONOFCONTEXTSRATHERTHANINTHEAPPROPRIATIONOFSPECIlC SOCIALFORMS 4HEREAREOFCOURSERISKSTOlNDINGCREATIVITYINEVERYMOMENTOFSOCIALLIFE NOTONLYBECAUSEOFTHEDISRUPTIONTHATSEEMSINVARIABLYTOBEREGARDEDASA nn
-ELISSA$EMIANAND3ARI7ASTELL CONCOMITANTOFINNOVATION3TRATHERN /NERISKISTHATWEENDUPLOOKING FORDISCONTINUOUSAGENCYORINTENTINEVERYINTERPOLATIONANDHYBRIDTHATAPPEARS RATHER IN THE MANNER OF THE VOGUE FOR TRANSGRESSION AND RESISTANCE THAT HAS CHARACTERIZEDMUCHANTHROPOLOGICALWRITINGINRECENTYEARS"ROWN 4HE OPPOSITEORPERHAPSCOMPLEMENTARYRISKISTHAT@CHANGEORVARIATIONCANONLYBE APPROACHEDNEGATIVELY ASAKINDOFENTROPY STATIC ORhNOISEv7AGNER INTHESOCIALORDERWHICHISITSELFTHECREATIONOFASOCIETYIMAGININGITSELF INRELATIONTOOTHERSOCIETIES7AGNERSCAUTIONISSTILLAPPOSITE)FANTHROPOLOGY ITSELFISAPROCESSOFLOOKINGFORSOCIALPATTERNSTHATENABLEUSTOCOMMUNICATE OURCONVICTIONTHATPARTICULARKINDSOFRELATIONSHIPSEXIST THE@NOISEOFSOCIAL POLITICALANDRELIGIOUSCREATIVITYISTHEBY PRODUCTOFOURATTEMPTSTOCONVERTOUR EXPERIENCEOFTHESERELATIONSHIPSINTOETHNOGRAPHICDESCRIPTION
.OTES 3AHLINS STRUCTURALHISTORICISMCANBEREADINJUSTTHISLIGHT(ISTORY IT ISPROPOSED ARRIVEDON(AWAIIANSHORESANDTHE(AWAIIANSMETITWITHINTHE ENDURINGTEMPLATESOFTHEIR@CULTURE!S!PPADURAI NOTEDNOTREFERRING SPECIlCALLYTO3AHLINSWORK INSUCHAMODELTHENATIVESDONOTSIMPLYHAVE CULTURE THEYARETRAPPEDINSIDEIT 4HEURGETOCLASSIFYINNOVATIVEPOLITICALFORMSHASALONGHISTORYINANTHROPOLOGY (EREONEISREMINDEDOF'LUCKMANS DISTINCTIONBETWEENREBELLIONS ANDREVOLUTIONS OR7ALLACES lVE STAGE@LIFECYCLEFORREVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS)NBOTHINSTANCESTHEANTHROPOLOGISTISFACEDWITHTHEIMPROBABLE TASKOFLOCATINGTHELEVELORUNITOFSOCIETYFROMWHICHNEWPOLITICALFORMS EMANATE 4HEEXTENTTOWHICHAUTHENTICITY LIKECREATIVITY ISANINTRINSICCHARACTERISTIC OFSOCIALITYISANTICIPATEDINTHEWORDSETYMOLOGY WHICHLINKSAUTHENTICITYTO DIRECTEXPERIENCE TO@BEINGTHERE ANDTHEREFORETOTHEUNIQUEANDUNREPEATABLE NATUREOFTHATEXPERIENCE4HEEXPERIENTIALSUBTEXTOFAUTHENTICITYCANALSOBE FOUNDIN(EIDEGGERS WRITINGSONAUTHENTICITYASBEINGTRUETOONES $ASEIN /NECOULDTHINKEITHEROF-ARXISTHISTORICALMATERIALISMOROF(EIDEGGERIAN PHENOMENOLOGYINTHISRESPECT
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0ART )NTRODUCTION
2EFERENCES !PPADURAI ! @0UTTING(IERARCHYINITS0LACE #ULTURAL!NTHROPOLOGY n "ENDIX 2 )N3EARCHOF!UTHENTICITY4HE&ORMATIONOF&OLKLORE3TUDIES -ADISON5NIVERSITYOF7ISCONSIN0RESS "IAGIOLI - @4HE)NSTABILITYOF!UTHORSHIP#REDITAND2ESPONSIBILITYIN #ONTEMPORARY"IOMEDICINE 4HE&!3%"*OURNAL n "ROWN -& @/N2ESISTING2ESISTANCE !MERICAN!NTHROPOLOGIST n 'AILEY #7 @)NTRODUCTION4HE0OLITICSOF#ULTUREIN#IVILIZATION IN#7 'AILEYED 4HE0OLITICSOF#ULTUREAND#REATIVITY 'AINESVILLE5NIVERSITY 0RESSOF&LORIDA 'LUCKMAN - /RDERAND2EBELLIONIN4RIBAL!FRICA ,ONDON#OHEN 7EST (EIDEGGER - "ASIC#ONCEPTS "LOOMINGTON)NDIANA5NIVERSITY0RESS )NGOLD 4 @(UMANWORLDSARECULTURALLYCONSTRUCTED!GAINSTTHEMOTION IN4)NGOLDED +EY$EBATESIN!NTHROPOLOGY .EW9ORK2OUTLEDGE *OAS ( 4HE#REATIVITYOF!CTION #HICAGO5NIVERSITYOF#HICAGO0RESS +IRSHENBLATT 'IMBLETT " @#ULTURE3HOCKAND.ARRATIVE#REATIVITY IN 2-$ORSONED &OLKLOREINTHE-ODERN7ORLD 4HE(AGUE-OUTON +RISTELLER 0/ @h#REATIVITYvANDh4RADITIONv *OURNALOFTHE(ISTORYOF )DEAS n ,AVIE 3 .ARAYAN +AND2OSALDO 2EDS #REATIVITY!NTHROPOLOGY )THACA .9#ORNELL5NIVERSITY0RESS ,EACH * @-ODESOF#REATIVITY IN%(IRSCHAND-3TRATHERNEDS 4RANSACTIONSAND#REATIONS0ROPERTY$EBATESANDTHE3TIMULUSOF-ELANESIA .EW9ORK"ERGHAHN"OOKS ,¿VI 3TRAUSS # 4HE3AVAGE-IND ,ONDON7EIDENFELDAND.ICOLSON ,ÏFGREN / @#ELEBRATING#REATIVITY4HE3LANTINGOFA#ONCEPT IN*,IEP ED ,OCATING#ULTURAL#REATIVITY ,ONDON0LUTO0RESS -ASON *( @4HE#HARACTEROF#REATIVITY4WO4RADITIONS (ISTORYOF %UROPEAN)DEAS n 2ICHARDS 0 @(UMANWORLDSARECULTURALLYCONSTRUCTED!GAINSTTHEMOTION IN4)NGOLDED +EY$EBATESIN!NTHROPOLOGY .EW9ORK2OUTLEDGE 3AHLINS - )SLANDSOF(ISTORY #HICAGO5NIVERSITYOF#HICAGO0RESS 3TEPHEN - @#ARGO #ULTS #ULTURAL #REATIVITY AND !UTONOMOUS )MAGINATION %THOS n 3TRATHERN - 2EPRODUCINGTHE&UTURE%SSAYSON!NTHROPOLOGY +INSHIP ANDTHE.EW2EPRODUCTIVE4ECHNOLOGIES .EW9ORK2OUTLEDGE
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*UDITH3CHEELE REPRESENTEDTHEPEOPLE BUTTHATTHEYHADTHENBEENCO OPTEDR¿CUP¿R¿S BYTHE @POUVOIRANDWERENOWUSEDBYTHEGOVERNMENTTODELEGITIMIZEANDULTIMATELY DESTROYTHETWOREGIONALPARTIES WHICHCONSTITUTEDTHEONLYSERIOUSTHREATTOTHE GOVERNMENTSPOWERLOCALLY4HEMOVEMENTITSELFQUICKLYCLAIMEDTHATITWAS DIVIDEDINTO@LOYALDELEGATESAND@4AIWAN;IEFAKE=DELEGATES SAIDTOBEONTHE GOVERNMENTSPAYROLL9ETAGAIN ALLTHESEINTERPRETATIONSSEEMEDTOAGREEONONE POINTTHEREBELLIONOFDIDNOTMARKARADICALPOLITICALCHANGE BUTRATHERTHE PERMANENCEOFEXISTINGPOLITICALSTRATEGIESANDCATEGORIESTHERIOTSOFWERE JUSTANOTHERRITUALOF!LGERIANNATIONALPOLITICS)NANYCASE INDIVIDUALAGENCYOR EVENSOCIALCHANGE THESEINTERPRETATIONSSEEMEDTOSUGGEST WEREIMPOSSIBLEIN THEPOLITICALARENA&URTHERMORE THEVARIETYOFMODELSANDSYMBOLSTHATSEEMED TOHAVEINSPIREDTHERIOTSWEREREGARDEDASSPOOFSTOFOOLACREDULOUSPUBLICWITH WORDSANDIMAGESTHATELSEWHERERHYMEDWITHHEROISM FREEDOM DEMOCRACY PEACE WEALTHANDJUSTICE4HERIOTERSANDTHEIRFAMILIES THEAµROUCHANDTHE GENDARMES HADALLBECOMEACTORS SOTHEARGUMENTRAN INAPUBLICDRAMADIRECTED BYTHE@POUVOIR FORTHEBENElTOFTHELOCALPOPULATIONANDANINTERNATIONAL AUDIENCE 7HOMTOBELIEVE !SALWAYSINTHE!LGERIANCONTEXT THEWISESTANSWERnAT LEASTFORTHEOUTSIDEOBSERVERnWOULDPROBABLYBETOSAYBOTHANDNEITHER ANDTO TRYTOUNDERSTANDHOWANDWHYTHESEVARYINGINTERPRETATIONSARENEGOTIATEDAND PLAYEDOFFAGAINSTEACHOTHER RATHERTHANTOESTABLISHTHEIRABSOLUTETRUTH VALUE (OWEVER INTHISCASE)THINKTHEQUESTIONDESERVESFURTHERSCRUTINY ASITPOSES MOREGENERALQUESTIONSABOUTHOWNOTIONSOFPOLITICALCHANGEANDINDIVIDUAL AGENCY COUCHEDINTERMSOF@REVOLUTIONAND@HEROISM AREAPPLIEDLOCALLY AND HOWTHEYRELATETOLARGERBODIESOFTHOUGHTANDPOLITICALTHEORYWITHINWHICHLOCAL SOCIETIESAREOBLIGEDTOPOSITIONTHEMSELVES
+ABYLIAAND2EVOLUTION !LGERIAISAREVOLUTIONARYCOUNTRY4HEMOSTTALKED ABOUTMOMENTINITSHISTORY ISTHE@NATIONALREVOLUTION THEOFlCIALTERMUSEDFORTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCE FROM&RANCEn ANDTRUE@!LGERIAN NESSHASLONGBEENPERCEIVEDTOBEA FUNCTIONOFNATIONALISTCOMMITMENT OROFMEMBERSHIPINAGROUPKNOWNFORITS NATIONALISTCOMMITMENT IDEALLYPROVENBYDEATHTHROUGH@MARTYRDOMOFONEOFITS MEMBERSINTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCE%VERSINCEINDEPENDENCE !LGERIAHASBEEN GOVERNEDBYPEOPLEWHODERIVETHEIRPOLITICALLEGITIMACYFROMTHEIRPARTICIPATION INTHE@NATIONALREVOLUTION)TSMEMORYHASBEENENSHRINEDIN!LGERIANPOLITICAL DISCOURSEANDPRACTICESTHROUGHCOMMEMORATIONDAYSANDPARADESTHROUGHTHE DEVELOPMENTOFTHEADMINISTRATIVECATEGORIESOFTHEMUJAHIDINlGHTERSINTHE WAROFINDEPENDENCE OFTHESHUHADµWARDEAD ANDOFTHEIRDESCENDANTSAND
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2EVOLUTIONASA#ONVENTION THROUGHTHERESULTINGTRANSFORMATIONSOFLANGUAGETHATPERVADEALLDOMAINSOF LIFEIN!LGERIA PUBLICORPRIVATE)THASRESHAPEDTHE!LGERIANLANDSCAPETHROUGH THE CONSTRUCTION OF MONUMENTAL GRAVEYARDS OF THE WAR DEAD IN ALL BUT THE REMOTESTOF!LGERIANVILLAGES%VENINTHEDECADESAFTERINDEPENDENCE THENOTION OF@REVOLUTIONREMAINEDCENTRALTO!LGERIANPOLITICALDISCOURSE3TORA +EEPINGINLINEWITHTHEPOLITICALFASHIONSOFTHETIME !LGERIAHASSTUMBLEDFROM THE@NATIONALREVOLUTION VIATHEAGRICULTURALANDINDUSTRIAL@REVOLUTIONSOFTHE S TOTHE@DEMOCRATICREVOLUTIONOFTHELATESWITHOUT ONECOULDARGUE EVEREXPERIENCINGMUCHPOLITICALCHANGEONTHEGROUNDCF2OBERTS 2EFERENCESTO@REVOLUTIONASACONSTITUENTFEATUREOFCOLLECTIVEIDENTITYARE EVENMOREWIDESPREADIN+ABYLIATHANELSEWHEREIN!LGERIA+ABYLIAISAWORD INVENTEDANDPOPULARIZEDBYTHE&RENCHAFTERTHE&RENCHCONQUESTOF!LGIERS IN,ORCIN )TCERTAINLYREFERSTOASPECIlCGEOGRAPHICAREAINTHE MOUNTAINSOFNORTH EASTERN!LGERIA BUTITALSOREFERSTOABUNDLEOFSOCIO POLITICAL NOTIONSORRATHER ITREFERSTOANIDEALPOLITICALMODEL TOANETHNOGRAPHICUTOPIA DEVELOPEDINTHEWAKEANDUNDERTHEINmUENCEOFTHE&RENCH2EVOLUTION!GERON ,UCASAND6ATIN,ORCIN )NTHENINETEENTHCENTURYALONE MORETHANFORTYVOLUMESOF&RENCHETHNOGRAPHYWEREPRODUCEDONTHE+ABYLES 4HESEWEREWRITTENMAINLYBY&RENCHMILITARYOFlCERS WITHAGOODEDUCATION ANDASTRONGPOLITICALVISION&R¿MAUX WHOSAWIN+ABYLIAANEXAMPLE OFEVERYTHINGNINETEENTH CENTURY&RANCEWASNOT BUTMIGHTBECOMEIFASECOND REVOLUTIONWASALLOWEDTOTAKEPLACE+ABYLIAWASDESCRIBEDASTHEABODEOF DEMOCRATIC EGALITARIAN HONEST HARD WORKINGANDSECULARHILLTOPFARMERS A@KIND OFSAVAGE3WITZERLAND ACCORDINGTO'ENERAL$AUMAS ASTHE@IDEALOF ANINDEPENDENTANDINEXPENSIVEGOVERNMENT WHOSESECRETOURPHILOSOPHERSARE STILLSEARCHINGFORTHROUGHATHOUSANDUTOPIANPROJECTS INTHEWORDSOF'ENERAL (ANOTEAU(ANOTEAUAND,ETOURNEUX -ARXHIMSELF ASCONTEMPORARY +ABYLESNEVERFAILTOMENTION ISSAIDTOHAVEBEENIMPRESSEDWITHTHE@TRULY COMMUNISTSOCIETYHEENCOUNTEREDWHILEHESOJOURNEDINTHE+ABYLEMOUNTAINS TOTREATHISWEAKLUNGS!LARGEPERCENTAGEOFTHESENINETEENTH CENTURYTEXTSHAVE NOWBEENRE EDITED OFTENBYTHEGRANDCHILDRENOFTHOSETHEYAIMEDTODESCRIBE AND AREWIDELYREADAMONGCONTEMPORARY+ABYLES BOTHIN&RANCEANDIN!LGERIA )NTHEDECADESLEADINGUPTOTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCE MANYEARLYNATIONALISTS ANDLEADINGNATIONALISTPOLITICIANSWEREFROM+ABYLIA3TORA nNOTLEAST BECAUSE&RENCHEDUCATIONANDEMIGRATIONTO&RANCEWASINITIALLYMOREWIDESPREAD IN+ABYLIATHANELSEWHEREIN!LGERIA#OLONNA$IRECHE 3LIMANI $URING THE WAR ITSELF +ABYLIA WAS SUBJECT TO EXCEEDINGLY BRUTAL REPRESSION BYTHE&RENCHARMY ANDSUFFEREDDISPROPORTIONATELYHIGHLOSSES"OUAZIZAND -AH¿ !STHEWARWASTURNEDINTOANATIONALFOUNDINGMYTH THEIDEAOF THE@REVOLUTIONARY+ABYLESASDEVELOPEDBYTHE&RENCH ANDASPROPAGATEDIN &RENCHPRIMARYSCHOOLSINTHEREGION MERGEDWITHTHEIMAGEOFTHE+ABYLES nn
*UDITH3CHEELE AS@NATURALLYBORNMUJAHIDIN ANDASSUCHBECAMElRMLYROOTEDLOCALLY%VEN TODAY VISITORS TO +ABYLIA ARE RECEIVED WITH WHISPERED SUGGESTION THAT THE +ABYLESHADACTUALLYFOUGHTANDWONTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCEALLBYTHEMSELVES AGAINSTALLODDSANDESPECIALLYAGAINSTTHEINERTIAOFTHEIRFELLOW!LGERIANS BUT THATAFTERTHEWAR THEYHADBEENEXCLUDEDFROMGOVERNMENTANDDEPRIVEDOF THEIRJUSTREWARDSBY@TRAITORS OR@FAKEREVOLUTIONARIESCF"ESSAOUD )NTHEREGIONALISTDISCOURSETHATDEVELOPEDAFTERTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCE lRST AMONG+ABYLEEMIGRANTSTO&RANCE ANDTHENALSOIN!LGERIAITSELF DEMOCRATIC ASPIRATIONS INDIVIDUALFREEDOM SECULARISM INDEPENDENCE MORALPROPRIETYAND HEROISMGRADUALLYBECAMECOTERMINOUSWITH@+ABYLE NESS)NTHESAMEWAY THENEIGHBOURING@!RABPOPULATIONSWEREDESCRIBEDASEMBODYING@TYRANNY @APATHYAND INCREASINGLY ALSOTHETHREATOF@)SLAMICFANATICISM ANATHEMATO &RENCHPUBLICOPINION $URINGTHES THEIMAGEOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYANDDEMOCRATIC+ABYLESEEMED TOBEFURTHERCONlRMEDAS+ABYLIAWASHAILEDBYTHENATIONALANDINTERNATIONAL MEDIAASTHELAST@DEMOCRATICBASTION,ACOSTE $UJARDIN AGAINSTPOLITICAL )SLAMTHATHAD ELSEWHEREINTHECOUNTRY WONALANDSLIDEVICTORYINTHElRST DEMOCRATICELECTIONSIN!LGERIA,OCALLY THISNOTIONGAINEDFURTHERSTRENGTHDUE TOTHEGENERALFEELINGTHATADISPROPORTIONATELYLARGENUMBEROF+ABYLESHADBEEN SINGLEDOUTASVICTIMSOFTHEVIOLENCETHATFOLLOWEDTHECANCELLATIONOFTHEELECTIONS BYTHEMILITARYIN)N+ABYLIA RUMOURSWEREHEARDTHATTHE@POUVOIRHADJUST @INVENTEDTHE@BARBUS@BEARDEDONES IE)SLAMISTS TOSILENCETHE+ABYLESAND THEIRDEMOCRATICASPIRATIONSONCEANDFORALL7ITHINAPOLITICALCLIMATETHATWASLESS ANDLESSCONDUCIVETOCOMPROMISE THE@REVOLUTIONARYAND@DEMOCRATICDISCOURSE IDENTIlEDWITH@+ABYLE NESSLEFTLITTLEROOMFORmEXIBILITY @POLITICALCREATIVITYOR CHANGE)TALLOWEDFORANTI !RABRACISMANDRHETORICSOF+ABYLEEXCLUSIVITYAND CONSERVATISM ANDDElNEDANYBODYWHOMIGHTQUESTIONTHEINHERENTLYDEMOCRATIC NATUREOF@THE+ABYLEASA@TRAITOR4AKE FOREXAMPLE THEFOLLOWINGMESSAGES SENTTOONEOFTHEMOSTWIDELYCONSULTED+ABYLEWEBSITES 7HYDOWEWANTTOIMPOSEOURDEMOCRACYATALLCOST THEY;THE@!RABS=DONTUNDERSTAND IT WHATTHEYWANTISMORE)SLAMANDMOSQUESANDABITOFWORKHAMDULLAHWWW KABYLIECOM )FWESUCCEEDINLIBERATINGOURREGIONANDTHECOUNTRY WESHOULDSERIOUSLYTHINKABOUT THEEXPULSIONOFALLTHE!RABO "AATHISTS)SLAMISTS GOVERNMENT "ERBER TRAITORS TOTHEIR ORIGINALCOUNTRY THATISTOSAY!RABIAIBID )TELLYOUTHATGOATSWILLmYINAFROZENPARADISETHEDAYASYSTEMBASEDON!RABO )SLAMICFOUNDATIONSMAKESANYCONCESSIONSTOTHESUPPORTERSOFMODERNITYANDSOCIAL EQUALITY4OWEDTHEBEAUTYDEMOCRACY YOUHAVETODISINFECTHERFUTUREHOUSEHOLD INFESTEDWITHTHE!RABO )SLAMICPESTIBID
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2EVOLUTIONASA#ONVENTION
2EVOLUTIONANDTHE2EBELLIONOF 7HENTHERIOTERSOFTOOKCARETOEMPHASIZETHE@REVOLUTIONARYNATUREOF THEIRMOVEMENT THEYWERETHUSDRAWINGONALONGTRADITIONTHATHADVIRTUALLY EQUATED@+ABYLEIDENTITYWITH@REVOLUTION ASWELLASONWELL KNOWNNATIONALIST RHETORICANDSYMBOLS(OWAMBIGUOUSANDPOTENTIALLYDANGEROUSTHISMIGHTBE BECAMECLEARINTHEDISAGREEMENTOVERPOLITICALTERMINOLOGYTHATSOONERUPTED 3HOULDTHECOMMITTEESTHATDEVELOPEDINTHEWAKEOFTHERIOTSBELABELLEDAµROUCH @TRIBES ASSUGGESTEDBYTHENATIONALANDINTERNATIONALPRESS THEREBYIMPLICITLY REFERRINGTOTHE@LONGDEMOCRATICTRADITIONOFTHEREGION /RWASSUCHAREFERENCE TO@TRIBALISMDEGRADING ARCHAICOREVENCOLONIALIST 4HECOMMITTEEMEMBERS THEMSELVES RESOLUTELY@MODERN CHOSETOCALLTHEMSELVESCOMIT¿SDECITOYENS CITIZENSCOMMITTEES ALWAYSUSEDIN&RENCH REMINISCENT INTENTIONALLYORNOT OFNINETEENTH CENTURY&RANCE ANDTOREJECTANYSUPPOSEDCONNECTIONWITHTHE @TRADITIONALVILLAGECOUNCILnTHE@LOCALMAlA ASSOMEDESCRIBEDITTOME4HE MOSTPOPULARREVOLUTIONARYRHETORIC HOWEVER WASDERIVEDNOTFROM&RENCHOR @TRADITIONALMODELS BUTFROM!LGERIANNATIONALISMITSELFTHElRSTSTATEMENTS MADEBYTHECOMMITTEESWERESIGNEDINTHENAMEOFTHE2¿PUBLIQUE!LG¿RIENNE $¿MOCRATIQUE ET 0OPULAIRE THE NATIONALIST JARGON WAS CONSCIOUSLY COPIED NATIONALMEMORIALSANDNATIONALREMEMBRANCEDAYSWEREUSEDASTHESITESAND OCCASIONSFORPUBLICDEMONSTRATIONS ANDTHEMYTHOFJUSTMARTYRDOMINTHElGHT FORFREEDOMANDDEMOCRACYWASHEAVILYDRAWNUPONCF#!$#A B @7HATELSECOULDTHEYHAVEDONE ASAFRIENDOFMINECOMMENTEDRETROSPECTIVELY @ALLWORDSHADALREADYBEENTAKEN 3UCHFAMILYRESEMBLANCES ALTHOUGHTHEYMIGHTATlRSTSIGHTSEEMTOBEMERELY RHETORICAL BORETHEIROWNDANGERS7HATWASCOMMONTOALLTHEMODELSCITED WASTHEIRREJECTIONOF@POLITICSINFAVOUROFDIRECT GRASS ROOTSACTION ANDTHE CONSTANTFEAROF@TRAITORSnWHICHEVENTUALLYCAUSEDTHEMOVEMENTTOCOLLAPSE 2ESEMBLANCESWITH@&RENCHMODELSMEANTTHATTHEMOVEMENTCOULDBEACCUSED OFHAVINGBEENMASTERMINDEDBYTHE&RENCHSECRETSERVICES WHILETHEEMPHASIS ON@REVOLUTIONALLOWEDTHEREBELLIONTOBEMADEPARTOFNATIONALHISTORY WHICH INITSELFCLAIMEDTOBEBUTALONGHISTORYOFREVOLUTION4HEREBELLIONTHEREBYLOST MUCHOFITSDISRUPTIVEPOTENTIAL4HISSHAREDSYMBOLISMALSOMEANTTHAT BEFORE LONG THECOMMITTEESCOULDBEACCUSEDOFHAVINGBEEN@CO OPTEDR¿CUP¿R¿ BYTHE STATEITSELF UNLESSnASSOMEMAINTAINEDnTHEYHADBEENTHESTATESINVENTIONRIGHT FROMTHESTART4HEMYTHOFTHE@STOLENREVOLUTIONANDTHE@FAKEREVOLUTIONARY RESURFACED ANDPROVEDASEFFECTIVEASEVER)TLEFTEVERYBODYWITHABADTASTEIN THEIRMOUTHS AGREEINGTHAT ASALWAYS NOTHINGHADCHANGED !LGERIA THEN PRESENTSARATHERPUZZLINGnBUTCERTAINLYNOTUNIQUEnCASE WHEREALLPOSSIBLEPOLITICALLEGITIMACYISDERIVEDFROMCLAIMSTOBEINGA@REVOLU TIONARY TOTHEPOINTWHERE ASMOSTPEOPLEAGREE NOTHINGEVERCHANGESAND nn
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2EVOLUTIONASA#ONVENTION !SIMILARAMBIGUITYCOULDBEOBSERVEDINTHERIOTSOF)NDIVIDUALVICTIMS OFTHERIOTS QUICKLYLABELLEDSHUHADµ WEREVENERATEDANDREMEMBERED AND THESYMBOLICLANGUAGEOFMARTYRDOMWASOMNIPRESENTNOTONLYINTHEPOLITICAL DEMANDSVOICEDBYTHECOMMITTEES BUTALSOINTHEACTIONANDLANGUAGEUSEDBYTHE RIOTERS)NTHEPHOTOGRAPHSTHELATTERTOOKOFTHERIOTS IMAGESOFYOUNGMENWITH BARECHESTSTHROWINGTHEMSELVESINTOTHERImE lREOFGENDARMESWERECOMMON AS WEREIMAGESTHATECHOEDTELEVISIONREPORTSONTHE0ALESTINIANINTIFADA0HOTOGRAPHS OFTHISTYPEEMPHASIZEDTHEWILLINGNESSOFYOUNGMENTOSACRIlCETHEMSELVES INTHElGHTFOR@FREEDOM ANDTHEIRCELEBRATIONASMARTYRSBYTHECOMMUNITY ESPECIALLYBYWOMEN3IMILARLY VICTIMSWEREBURIEDINSITESREMINISCENTOF NATIONALWARMONUMENTSSEE&IGURESAND !GAIN @INDIVIDUALMARTYRDOM WAS ATLEASTINPUBLICDISCOURSE SUBSUMEDUNDERPURELYCONVENTIONALMODELSOF POLITICALACTIONANDPERCEPTION)MPLICITLY THISEMPHASISONDEATHANDMARTYRDOM SUGGESTEDANETERNALLYREPEATEDPROCESS)NTHEWORDSOFONEOFTHERIOTERS 7EAREHEREWEWILLALWAYSBEHERE7EWONTLETTHEMSLEEPINPEACE%VENWHENWE HAVEFALLENTOTHEGROUND AREALORANIMAGINARYBULLETINOURmATCHEST WEWILLGETUP TOTHROWYETANOTHERSTONEINTOTHEFACEOFTHEBADGUYSIN!LGIERSANDELSEWHERE4HE FUTUREYOUNGMARTYRSWILLKNOWWHATTODO/URPHOTOSWILLBEONAPOSTERTHATOTHER
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*UDITH3CHEELE
&IGURE -ONUMENTTOTHEVICTIMSOF )GHZER!MOKRANE SPRING0HOTOGRAPHBY*UDITH 3CHEELE
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#ONCLUSION .OTIONSOFCHANGE CREATIVITYANDINDIVIDUALAGENCYARECRUCIALTOANTHROPOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING4HISDOESNOTMEAN HOWEVER THATTHEYAREPOLITICALLYNEUTRAL ORTHATTHEYDONOTHIDEIMPLICITASSUMPTIONSANDMORALJUDGEMENTS.ORDOES ITMEANTHATTHEYARENECESSARILYCLOSERTOLOCALREALITIESORTHATTHEYNEEDTO BETREATEDWITHLESSCAUTIONANDSELF AWARENESSTHANNOTIONSOFPERMANENCE CONTINUITYANDTHEEMPHASISONCOLLECTIVEHISTORICALSUBJECTSOREVENIMPERSONAL HISTORICFORCES)NTHEPRECEDINGPARAGRAPHS)HAVETRIEDTOSHOWHOWNOTIONSOF CHANGEANDAGENCY ONCEREIlEDANDIMBUEDWITHMORALVALUE CANBECOMESELF FULlLLINGPROPHECIESORLOCALLYMANIPULATEDCATEGORIESINMUCHTHESAMEWAYAS SAY @TRADITIONHASLONGBEENKNOWNTODO&AVRET )NTHISWAY AFORTIORI INTHECURRENTPOLITICALCLIMATE @CHANGEMIGHTBECOMEACONVENTION @INDIVIDUAL AGENCYASOCIALLYIMPOSEDCATEGORY AND@CREATIVITYACONSTRAINT4HISDOESNOT MEANTHATTHESENOTIONSCANBEIGNOREDINANALYSISnRATHERTHECONTRARYBUT ITDOESMEAN MUCHASINTHECASEOF@TRADITION THATTHEYNEEDTOBESTUDIED NOTONLYASUNIVERSALSOR@OBJECTIVEDESCRIPTIONSOFEVENTS BUTALSOASPARTOF LOCALDISCOURSESUNDERSTOODINTHEIRRELATIONSHIPBOTHTOLOCALPRACTICESANDTO INTERNATIONALRHETORIC
.OTES 3EE FOREXAMPLE THECOLLECTIONOFESSAYSIN,IEP WHERE ALTHOUGH @CREATIVITYISSOMETIMESDElNEDASASOCIALPROCESS ALLEXAMPLESCITEDSPEAK OFCREATIVITYASEXERCISEDBYTHEINDIVIDUALAGAINSTORINMODIlCATIONOFTHE NORMSOFSOCIETY &ORAMOREDETAILEDANALYSISOFTHE@FAMILYRESEMBLANCEOFSOCIALISM CON SERVATISMANDLIBERALISM SEE7ALLERSTEIN +ABYLIAISANAREATHATHASLONGBEENCENTRALTO&RENCHANTHROPOLOGY FROMTHE lRSTWORKSOF&RENCHETHNOGRAPHYTHATWEREWRITTENTHEREINTHENINETEENTH CENTURYSUCHAS#ARETTE(ANOTEAUAND,ETOURNEUX-ASQUERAY ;= TO"OURDIEUSWELL KNOWNWORKSONTHEAREA"OURDIEU &ORANOVERVIEWOFTHEAVAILABLELITERATUREONTHEAREA SEE-AH¿ -UCHOFTHEMORERECENTPOLITICALTERMINOLOGYCOMMONLYUSEDINDEBATESAND CONVERSATIONIN+ABYLIAISBORROWEDORDERIVEDFROM&RENCH SUCHASTHETERM COMIT¿SDESCITOYENSUSEDHERE4HETERMAµROUCHISA'ALLICIZEDVERSIONOF nn
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A+ABYLEWORDWITHAN!RABICROOT MEANINGTRIBE WHICHHAS INITS&RENCH VERSIONANDSPELLING COMETOMEAN@TRIBALCOMMITTEESSETUPIN AND IS INLOCALUSAGE CLEARLYDISTINGUISHEDFROMTHE+ABYLEWORDεRCTRIBE 0OLITICAL TERMINOLOGY AND SPELLING FOLLOWS LOCAL USAGE THROUGHOUT THE ARTICLE !POLITICALMOVEMENTDEMANDINGTHEOFFICIALRECOGNITIONOFTHEVARIOUS !LGERIAN"ERBERLANGUAGESANDTHE@"ERBERCOMPONENTOF!LGERIANHISTORY ANDNATIONALIDENTITYHADSTARTEDTOEMERGEAMONG+ABYLEEMIGRANTSIN &RANCEFROMTHESONWARDS$IRECHE 3LIMANI )TBECAMEPOPULAR THROUGHOUT+ABYLIAINTHELATESANDESPECIALLYFROMONWARDS OFTEN PROVIDINGANOUTLETFORTHEGROWINGFRUSTRATIONWITHTHECENTRALGOVERNMENT SEE#HAKER'UENOUN 4HE&RONTDES&ORCES3OCIALISTES&&3 ANDTHE2ASSEMBLEMENTPOURLA #ULTUREETLA$¿MOCRATIE2#$ !LTHOUGHBOTHDECLARETHEMSELVESTOBE NATIONALPARTIES THEYRECRUITMOSTOFTHEIRMEMBERSANDVOTESIN+ABYLIA AND UNTILTHEEVENTSOF ENJOYEDACERTAINPOLITICALLEGITIMACYUNKNOWNTO ANYOTHERPARTYnAPARTFROMTHE&,. THERULINGPARTY ITSELFnINTHEAREA 4HELABEL@4AIWAN FOREVERYTHINGTHATPURPORTEDTOBEGENUINEBUTWASNOT ISDERIVEDFROMCHEAPANDOFTENFAULTYPRODUCTSPRODUCEDIN4AIWANAND DISGUISEDAS%UROPEANOR*APANESEPRODUCTS #ONVERSELY THEHARKIS OR@COLLABORATORSWITHTHE&RENCH DURINGTHEWAROF INDEPENDENCEHADFORFEITEDANYRIGHTTOAN!LGERIANPASSPORT ANDTHEYAND THEIRCHILDRENWEREBARREDFROMVISITINGTHECOUNTRYUNTILTHELATES %VENTHEGOVERNMENTSMOSTSERIOUSOPPOSITION THE)SLAMISTS COUCHEDTHEIR POLITICALPROGRAMMEINTERMSOFA@SECONDREVOLUTIONTHATWOULDlNALLYFULlL THETRUEAIMSOFTHE@lRSTREVOLUTIONTHEWAROFINDEPENDENCE CF!L !HNAF "OTIVEAU AND&R¿GOSI 3UCHAREADINGmOURISHEDPARTLYBECAUSEITCOINCIDEDWITHNOTIONSBOTHOF @REVOLUTIONANDOF!LGERIANANDWORLDPOLITICSHELDBYTHE&RENCHLEFTATTHAT TIMECF%ISENHANS-ALLEY,E3UEUR !LTHOUGHNATIONWIDETHE&RONT)SLAMIQUEDU3ALUT&)3 !LGERIASMOST SUCCESSFUL)SLAMISTPARTY WONPERCENTOFTHEREGIONALSEATSIN AND PERCENTOFTOTALVOTESINTHElRSTROUNDOFGENERALELECTIONSIN -ARTINEZ THEIRSUCCESSWASMINIMALIN+ABYLIA WHERE INMANY CASES THEYHADNOTEVENPRESENTEDACANDIDATE 4HISWASNOTTHECASEEVERYWHEREIN+ABYLIA WHERETHERELATIONSHIPBETWEEN THEAµROUCHANDTHEVILLAGEELDERSWASOFTENMORECOMPLEX 3UCHSTATEMENTSARECERTAINLYALSODUETOPRUDENCEANDFEAROFTHEOMNIPRESENT SECRETSERVICES(OWEVER )THINKTHEREISMOREINVOLVEDTHANTHIS ASTHESAME PEOPLEHAVESHOWNATOTALLACKOFPRUDENCEINMYPRESENCEONOTHER SIMILARLY POLITICALANDPOTENTIALLYDANGEROUSOCCASIONS nn
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-R9OUNGISBOTH@mYINGAGAINSTTHEWINDAND@GOINGWITHTHEmOWOUTOFTUNE WITHDOMINANT#HRISTIANIDEOLOGYANDINTUNEWITHPEOPLEINTHEIRDAILYLIVESFACED WITHCONTINGENCYANDDEALINGWITHCONTRADICTION /FINTERESTISTHEWAYINWHICH4HE6ALLEYMINISTERSACKNOWLEDGETHESITUATIONAL NATUREOFMORALITY4HEYREmECTON.24FROMARANGEOFPERSPECTIVESANDFROM THEPOINTOFVIEWOFANUMBEROFACTORS)HAVEWRITTENELSEWHEREOFHOWOTHER RESIDENTSINTHISPARTOF%NGLANDREJECTORDISAGREEWITHSPECIlCBIOTECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONSINHUMANCONCEPTION BUTATTHESAMETIMEACKNOWLEDGETHATWERE THEYINADIFFERENT@POSITIONTHEYWOULDTHINKDIFFERENTLY4HEYALSO WITHGREAT ALACRITY SHIFTPERSPECTIVESANDIMAGINETHESAMEINNOVATIONFROMTHEPOINTOFVIEW OFADIFFERENTPERSONTHEGAMETEDONOR THESURROGATEMOTHER THEINVOLUNTARILY CHILDLESSCOUPLE THEENSUINGCHILD THEDOCTOR ANDSOON )IMAGINEDTHAT"APTISTMINISTERSWOULDHAVELESSLEEWAYINTHEIRIMAGININGS THAT THEIR EXPLORATION OF .24 WOULD BE WITHIN MORAL FRAMEWORKS ALREADY CIRCUMSCRIBED4OACERTAINEXTENTTHISISTHECASE BUTONLYUPTOAPOINT4HE "APTISMONWHICH)HAVEFOCUSEDHEREAPPEARSTOSUPPORTSOMEDOCTRINALmEXIBILITY WITHOUTCOMPROMISINGCERTAINBOTTOMLINESWHICHINTHEMSELVESANDINTHEIRTURN AREFUZZY -INISTERSEITHERECHOTHESENTIMENTSOFTHEIRCONGREGATIONASVOICES OFTHEIROWN ORPERSUADEOTHERWISEANDPRAYFORCHANGE4HE6ALLEY"APTIST MINISTERS LIKEOTHER6ALLEYPEOPLE READILYRATIONALIZEANDJUSTIFYTECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONINHUMANREPRODUCTION4HEIROWNRELIGIOUSTECHNOLOGIESALLOWFORAN INCORPORATIONOFREPRODUCTIVETECHNIQUESTHATENCOURAGETHEHETEROSEXUALMARRIED COUPLETOGOFORTHANDMULTIPLY
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#REATIVITYAND4EMPORALITY#REATIVITYOR4EMPORALITY @#REATIVITYANDTEMPORALITYWASTHEORIGINALTITLEOFTHECONFERENCEPANELATWHICH THECHAPTERSINTHISPARTWEREPRESENTED/NEQUESTIONTHATWERAISEDINOURPANEL ABSTRACTCONCERNEDTHEKINDSOFCHANGEOVERTIMETHATMIGHTBECOUNTEDASEVIDENCE OF@CREATIVITY7HENWASACHANGEDEEMED@CREATIVEANDWHENWASITSOMETHING ELSE #OULDCHANGETHATWAS@MERELYTHEOUTCOMEOFTHEPASSAGEOFTIMEOROFTHE PASTSOMEHOWPRESSINGITSELFINTOTHEPRESENTBECONSIDEREDCREATIVEORNOT !ND SHOULD@CREATIVITYBESEENASENTAILINGAVALUEJUDGEMENTABOUTPARTICULARKINDSOF AGENCYTHATRESTINCULTURALLYANDHISTORICALLYSPECIlCINTERPRETATIONSOFTIME !FTER HEARING THE ORIGINAL CONFERENCE PAPERS AND THE COMMENTS OF OUR DISCUSSANTS 0ENNY(ARVEYAND-ARILYN3TRATHERN ITBECAMECLEARTHATPOSINGOUR TITLEASAQUESTIONn@CREATIVITYORTEMPORALITY nEMPHASIZEDTHESECENTRALQUESTIONS ANDHIGHLIGHTEDKEYTHEMESRUNNINGTHROUGHTHEPAPERS INPARTICULARTHOSEOF AGENCYANDOFHOW@CREATIVITYISDElNEDBYBOTH@NATIVESANDANTHROPOLOGISTS)T ALSOBROUGHTTOTHEFOREANOTHERQUESTIONTHATWERAISEDINOURCONFERENCEABSTRACT WHYISTHERESOMUCHEMPHASISONCREATIVITYnESPECIALLYINTHEACADEMYANDIN 7ESTERNSOCIETIESnATPRESENT 7EEXPLORETHESEQUESTIONSBELOW BEGINNINGWITHABRIEFCONSIDERATIONOFTHE HISTORYOFTHETERM@CREATIVITYITSELFANDTHECONSTELLATIONOFNOTIONSANDSOCIAL FORMSWITHWHICHITISASSOCIATED LEADINGTOREmECTIONONITSCONTEMPORARYUSAGE ANDSPREAD4HEN BYWAYOFREmECTIONONTHETHREECHAPTERSTHATFOLLOW WELOOKAT SOMEFURTHERIMPLICATIONSOFTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENCREATIVITYANDTEMPORALITY THATAREOPENEDUPBYOUR@CREATIVITYORTEMPORALITYPERSPECTIVE
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%RIC(IRSCHAND3HARON-ACDONALD DISTINCTIVENESS4AYLOR 3UCHCONCEPTIONSPUTNEWLEVELSOFEMPH ASISONINDIVIDUALRESPONSIBILITYANDTHECAPACITYFORMAKINGOPPORTUNITY RATHER THANSEEINGLIFETRAJECTORIESASDIVINELYPLOTTED0ERSONALACCUMULATIONOFWEALTH ANDSUCCESSBECAMECONSPICUOUSSOCIALVALUES ANDFAILURETOTAKERESPONSIBILITY FORTHESELF OR@TAKEOPPORTUNITIES COULDBEMETWITHDISAPPROVAL)AN(ACKING FOLLOWING$OUGLAS POINTSTO,OCKESTHEORYOFPERSONALIDENTITY lRSTPUBLISHEDIN nWHEREHECONSIDERSTWOCONCEPTSOFIDENTITYnASA KEYFORMULATIONOFTHESEVALUES#ENTRALTOTHETHEORYWASTHECHOICEOFTHEWORD @PERSONFORWHAT,OCKECALLEDA@FORENSICCONCEPT CONSTITUTEDVIACHAINSOF MEMORYANDRESPONSIBILITY(ACKING @-AN BYCONTRAST WASCHOSEN ASACONCEPTBECAUSEITREFERREDTOBODILYCONTINUITYIN,OCKESTERMINOLOGY 4HESENEWCONCEPTIONSOFIDENTITYWEREPARTOFTHEENTERPRISESOCIETYnMARKED BYNEWPRACTICESOFCOMMERCE LAW PROPERTYANDTRADEnTHATWASTAKINGSHAPE ATTHETIMEIBID 4HISWASASOCIETYINWHICHPEOPLEWERECALLEDUPONTO BE@CREATIVEINTHESENSEOFTAKINGINDIVIDUALRESPONSIBILITYANDREALIZINGTHEIR IMMANENTPOTENTIAL 4HEEXPRESSIVITYOFTHISNOTIONOF@CREATIVEWASSUBSEQUENTLYEXPANDEDINTO THEREALMSOFARTANDLITERATUREDURINGTHE2OMANTICPERIODOFTHELATEEIGHTEENTH CENTURY(EREITWASCOUPLEDWITHTHEIDEAOFTHEIMAGINATION WHICHWASUNDER STOODASAMENTALFACULTYCAPABLEOFACTSOFCREATIONTESTIFYINGTOINDIVIDUAL DISTINCTIVENESSANDPERSONALIDENTITY4HE2OMANTICSSOUGHTFURTHERTODISTINGUISH BETWEEN@THEMERELYREPRODUCTIVEIMAGINATION WHICHSIMPLYBRINGSBACKTO MINDWHATWEHAVEALREADYEXPERIENCEDANDTHECREATIVEIMAGINATIONWHICH CANPRODUCESOMETHINGNEWANDUNPRECEDENTED4AYLORn 4HIS CHARACTERIZATIONOF@CREATIVEASREQUIRINGNOVELTYINFORMSMUCHSUBSEQUENT DISCOURSE THOUGHITREMAINSCONTESTEDANDTHESUBJECTOFMUCHPHILOSOPHICALAND OTHERDISCUSSION"ERGSONS@CREATIVEEVOLUTION FOREXAMPLE ISANATTEMPTTO EXPANDTHENOTIONINTOTHEREALMOFEARLYTWENTIETH CENTURYSCIENCE)NGOLD nTHISVOLUME)NTRODUCTIONTO0ART) "YTHEENDOFTHATCENTURY @CREATIVE HADTAKENONOTHERMEANINGSTOO ASINTHEDOMAINOFlNANCIALMATTERSn@CREATIVE ACCOUNTING $ESPITETHEVARIABILITYINTHEMEANINGSOFTHETERM THEREARETWOOTHERPOINTS ABOUTTHEHISTORICALEMERGENCEOFITSUSETHATWEMIGHTNOTEHERE FORTHEYARE IMPORTANTINSUBSEQUENTCHARACTERIZATIONSOF@CREATIVEAND@CREATIVITY ANDHAVE ABEARINGUPONCONSIDERATIONSOFCREATIVITYORTEMPORALITY4HElRSTISTHEOBJECT IlCATIONOF@IMAGINATIONnTHEIDEATHATTHEREISASPECIlCMENTALFACULTYORLOCUSIN WHICHNOVELTYMIGHTBEPRODUCED4HISLAYSTHEGROUNDFOR@CREATIVITYLATERCOMING TOBEREGARDEDASADISTINCTIVEQUALITY WITHAPRESUMEDMENTALLOCATION RATHERTHAN SIMPLYATEMPORALREALIZATIONANDBECOMINGASUITABLETOPICFORPSYCHOLOGICAL nANDEVENNEUROLOGICALnINVESTIGATION4HESECONDISTHEOBJECTIlCATIONOFTIME THATHASIMPLICATIONSFORTHECREATIVEWORKINGOUTOFINDIVIDUALDISTINCTIVENESS nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION ,IFE NARRATIONEMERGESASAKEYMODEOFSELF EXPRESSION ONECAPABLEOFRELATING MEMORYANDTHEACTIONSOFTHEINDIVIDUALTOTHETEMPORALUNFOLDINGOFEVENTS 4AYLOR 4HECONCEPTOF@CREATIVITYITSELFONLYREALLYBECAMECONVENTIONALWELLINTOTHE PERIODOFTHE)NDUSTRIAL2EVOLUTION THOUGHAPPLIEDSOLELYTOINDIVIDUALARTISTIC MATTERS4OWARDS THE END OF THE TWENTIETH AND INTO THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY HOWEVER THEREHASBEENANEXPLOSIONOFINTERESTINCREATIVITYINDElNINGITASMUCH ASEXHIBITINGIT)NPART THISSEEMSTOBEBOUNDUPWITHWHATSOMECALLED@THEEND OFHISTORYnTHE@TRIUMPHOFANEOLIBERALVISIONOFTHEWORLDTHATDISPLACEDTHEOLD CERTAINTIESABOUT%ASTAND7EST CAPITALISMANDCOMMUNISM SOCIETYANDINDIVIDUAL nANDTHEDOMINANCEOFAWORLDVIEWINWHICHTHE@INDIVIDUALREIGNSSUPREME )NSUCHAWORLDVIEW TRANSNATIONALCORPORATIONSARETYPICALLYCONCEPTUALIZEDAS LARGERVERSIONSOFTHEPRIVATEINDIVIDUALnSUPER PRIVATEANDSUPER INDIVIDUALISTIC ANDCHANGESOFSCALEBETWEENTHEINDIVIDUALPERSONANDPRIVATECOMPANYSEEM IRRELEVANT4HEREIS@ONLYAMAGNIlCATIONORDIMINUTIONALONGTHESAMESCALEOF VIRTUES3TRATHERNn !KEYASPECTOFTHIS@CREATIVITYEXPLOSIONnOR@CULTOFCREATIVITY%RIKSEN nISTHATCREATIVITYCOMESTOBEEXPECTEDANDEVENDEMANDED WIDELYAND COERCIVELY7HERE@INDIVIDUALSREIGNSUPREME ITSEEMS THEYNEEDTODEMONSTRATE WHATISPERCEIVEDTOBETHEHIGHESTACHIEVABLEGOODCREATIVITY/SBORNE ,IEP 7HATCREATIVITYIS THOUGH ISFARFROMCERTAIN
#REATIVITYASA0ARTICULAR&ORMOF!GENCY #ONSIDERABLEPHILOSOPHICALATTENTIONHASBEENACCORDEDTOATTEMPTINGTODElNE WHATISMEANTBY@CREATIVITYSEE FOREXAMPLE "EANEYCH 3UCHDIS CUSSIONTYPICALLYFOCUSESONQUESTIONSOFNOVELTYHOW@NEWAND@ORIGINALDOES APRODUCTHAVETOBETOPROVIDEEVIDENCEOF@CREATIVITY VALUEISANYTHINGNEW @CREATIVEORDOESITHAVETOBEINSOMESENSEWORTHWHILE ANDAGENCYEGIS INTENTIONALITYAPREREQUISITE 3UCHDEBATEINFORMS+IRSTEN(ASTRUPSDISCUSSION OFCREATIVITYANDAGENCYBELOW THOUGHUNLIKEMOSTPHILOSOPHICALDEBATE (ASTRUP EMPHASIZESTHESOCIALNATUREOFCREATIVITYAND INTURN THEPERFORMATIVENATURE OFTHESOCIAL4HISHASTHEEFFECTOFREFRAMINGCONVENTIONALQUESTIONS)NRELATION TOTIMEANDNOVELTY (ASTRUPSACCOUNTPUTSPARTICULAREMPHASISONANTICIPATION RATHERTHANINTENTIONALITY4HELATTER SHEARGUES INEVITABLYCASTSCREATIVITYAS AMATTEROFINDIVIDUALAGENCYWHEREASANTICIPATIONISANINHERENTFEATUREOF ALLSOCIALACTIONnWEACTINANTICIPATIONOFFUTUREEVENTS#REATIVITY HOWEVER PARTSCOMPANYFROMTHATWHICHISANTICIPATEDITIS@ECCENTRIC.EVERTHELESS THIS DOESNOTMEANTHATITISRAREORCHARACTERISTICOFONLYSOMEKINDSOFSOCIETIES FOR (ASTRUPFOLLOWING"ATESON REGARDSTHESOCIALASINHERENTLYmEXIBLEANDTHEREFORE
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%RIC(IRSCHAND3HARON-ACDONALD ASCONTAINING@UNCOMMITTEDPOTENTIALFORCHANGE"ATESON "ECAUSE @ALLSOCIALWORLDSHAVESUCHUNCOMMITTEDPOTENTIAL ALLSOCIETIES ACCORDINGTO (ASTRUP MANIFESTCREATIVITY 7HILE(ASTRUPSCAREFULANALYSISISVERYUSEFULFORCLARIFYINGWAYSINWHICH ANTHROPOLOGISTSMIGHTUNDERSTANDANDUSE@CREATIVITYANDALLIEDNOTIONS ASWELL ASSHOWINGHOWALLSOCIETIESCANBEUNDERSTOODTOBECREATIVE THEREREMAINS AQUESTIONOVERWHETHERCERTAINCULTURALCONCEPTIONSOFPERSONHOOD AGENCY ANDTEMPORALITYLEADTOPARTICULARKINDSOFCONCERNSOVERCREATIVITY ASWEHAVE SUGGESTEDABOVE!S0ENNY(ARVEYAND-ARILYN3TRATHERN POINTOUTINTHEIR REmECTIONONTHECONFERENCECONTRIBUTIONS THEREISVARIABILITYACROSSCULTURESIN WHICHKINDSOFEVENTSAREUNDERSTOODASEVIDENCEOFHUMANAGENCYANDCREATIVITY ANDWHICHAREREGARDEDASOUTCOMESMERELYOFTHEPASSAGEOFTIME0ARTICULARLY CHARACTERISTICOFSO CALLED@%URO !MERICANSIS INTENSECONCERNINHOWTHEYWILLGETINTOTHEFUTURE!NEXISTENTIALCRISISISMADE OUTOFWHATISGOINGTOOCCURANYWAY4HEREISASTRONGNEEDFELTTOPROPELONESELF FORWARDTHEREISADISTINCTIVEVALUEACCORDEDTOSPEEDANDTEMPOINTHISREGARD!N OUTCOMEOFTHISISTHERECENTVALUEACCORDEDTOmEXIBILITYTHAT%RIKSEN CRITICALLY ASSESSES4HEREASONFORTHISVALUATIONISBECAUSETHEFUTUREISREGARDEDASSOMETHING THATHASNOTHAPPENEDYET ASA@NEWTIME4HEEXISTENTIALDIMENSIONPRESENTSITSELF INENTICINGQUESTIONSWHATAM)GOINGTOBE WHATKINDOFWORLDWILLITBE 4HE CONCEPTOFCREATIVITYTHUSAUGMENTSTHESCOPEOFHUMANAGENCY APOTENTIALTHAT%URO !MERICANSSEEASLYINGINTHEPASSAGEOFTIME7HATISSODISTINCTIVEABOUTTHESE%URO !MERICANVALUESISTHATTHEYDIVIDEPEOPLETHATUSETIMEINTHISPRODUCTIVESENSE FROM THOSEWHODONOT!CONSEQUENCEOFTHISDIVISIONISTHATCERTAINMATTERSFOLLOW .OTALLPOTENTIALISREALISED .OTALLMOMENTSINTOTHEFUTUREAREINNOVATIVE .OTEVERYONEISCREATIVE .OTALLSOCIETIESANDCULTURESARECREATIVE(ARVEYAND3TRATHERN
(ENCE THECURRENT@%URO !MERICANOBSESSIONWITHTRYINGTOIDENTIFY DElNEAND CAPTUREPRODUCTIVEUSESOFTIMEANDTHECREATIVEnANDITSASSOCIATEDDOWNGRADING OFTHATWHICHISNOTJUDGEDTOBESO 3OMEOFTHEIMPLICATIONSOFSUCHNOTIONSFORTHOSELIVINGIN7ESTERNSOCIETIES ARE WELL ILLUSTRATED BY #ATHRINE $EGNENS STUDY OF OLDER PEOPLE4HE AGED WITHLESSFUTUREANDUNCOMMITTEDPOTENTIALAHEADOFTHEM DONOTCONFORMTO THEDESIREDIDEALOFTHECREATIVESELFAND AS$EGNENDESCRIBES THEYEASILYlND THEMSELVESDElNEDASINHABITINGADIFFERENTnNON PRODUCTIVEANDNON CREATIVE nTEMPORALITYFROMTHATOFYOUNGERPEOPLE(ERSENSITIVEANALYSISHIGHLIGHTSTHE WAYSINWHICHOLDERPEOPLEFREQUENTLYEMPLOYNARRATIVESTYLESTHATDIFFERFROMTHE LINEARSELF NARRATIVESTHATEMERGEDALONGSIDEDOMINANTMODERN,OCKEANNOTIONSOF nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION PERSONHOOD7HILEPARTOFHEROWNANTHROPOLOGICALAIMWASTORECOVERTHESTATUS OF@CREATIVEFORSUCHALTERNATIVESTYLES SHESHOWSHOWTHEYCANNEVERTHELESS FEEDBACKINTOSTEREOTYPESOFOLDAGE)NSODOINGSHERAISESIMPORTANTQUESTIONS ABOUTANTHROPOLOGICALATTEMPTSTOIDENTIFYANDCELEBRATEAGENCYANDTHECREATIVE 3UCHATTEMPTSMAY SHESUGGESTS FAILTORECOGNIZEIMPORTANTASPECTSOFPEOPLES EXPERIENCE INCLUDINGTHEIROWNSENSESOFLOSS
#REATIVITYAND4RADITION $ESPITETHEOVERWHELMINGEMPHASISONNOVELTYANDTHEFUTUREIN7ESTERNUNDER STANDINGSOFCREATIVITY ALLTHREEOFTHECHAPTERSTHATFOLLOWSHOWTHATTOBEACCORDED THESTATUSOF@CREATIVE ACTIONSMUSTBEPERCEIVEDTOBEPARTOFSOMEKINDOF@LARGER WHOLE(UGHES &REELAND RATHERTHANAS@CUTLOOSEFROMTHEWORLDINWHICHCASE ;THEY=WOULDREGISTERASMADNESS (ASTRUP nASTHEACTIONSOFSOMEOFTHEOLDER PEOPLEIN$EGNENSSTUDYAREINDEEDSOMETIMESJUDGEDTOBE4HISISAPOINTWELL RECOGNIZEDBYMANY7ESTERNARTISTSANDPHILOSOPHERS WHOHAVETRIEDVARIOUSLY TODElNETHEDEGREEANDNATUREOFTHERELATIONSHIPTOWHATHASGONEBEFORETHATA THINGORACTIONSHOULDHAVEINORDERTOBEDEEMEDCREATIVE /NEPARTICULARLYINTERESTINGCOMMENTATOR PARTLYBECAUSEOFHISUNUSUALLY STRONGASSERTIONOFTHEIMPORTANCEOFTRADITIONOVERTHATOFINDIVIDUALPERSONALITY WAS43%LIOT ASDISCUSSEDBY&ELICIA(UGHES &REELAND,IKE$EGNENSACCOUNT OFTHEALTERNATIVETEMPORALITIESOFOLDERPEOPLE (UGHES &REELANDSATTENTIONTO 43%LIOTSIDEASISIMPORTANT AMONGOTHERREASONS FORHIGHLIGHTINGSOMEOFTHE VARIATIONSWITHINTHE7ESTERNCONTEXT&OR43%LIOT CREATIVITYWASASMUCHIFNOT MOREABOUTBEINGPARTOFATRADITIONASABOUTBREAKINGFREEFROMITnACONCEPTION THATENTAILEDSEEINGTHEARTISTASEMBODYINGTRADITION ANDTIMENOTASLINEARBUT TO ADEGREE ASCYCLICAL WITHPRESENTACTIONSALTERINGTHEPASTASMUCHASVICEVERSA )F43%LIOTSASSERTIONSABOUTCREATIVITYTOSOMEEXTENTSURPRISEBYDENYING THESTRONGEMPHASISONINDIVIDUALCREATIVITYANDNOVELTYTHAT7ESTERNARTISTS MOREUSUALLYHOLD (UGHES &REELANDSDISCUSSIONOF*AVANESEDANCERSSERVES TODISRUPTFURTHERSOMEOFTHEWAYSINWHICHCREATIVITYISTYPICALLYUNDERSTOOD IN THE7EST!S SHE POINTS OUT 7ESTERNERS TYPICALLY SEE *AVANESE DANCE AS INVOLVINGTHEEFFACEMENTOFINDIVIDUALCREATIVITYANDTHEVALUATIONINSTEADOF SELF DISCIPLINEANDTHEACCURATEFOLLOWINGOFTRADITION(ERARGUMENT HOWEVER IS THATTHISOPPOSITIONISUNHELPFUL FORITISINTHEACHIEVEMENTOFTOTALIMMERSION IN@GETTINGITRIGHT THATTHEDANCERMAYBECOMECREATIVELYFREEAND@TRANSCEND ANYMECHANICALMOVEMENTDETERMINISM7ITHRESPECTTOCHOREOGRAPHYTOO SHESHOWSTHAT@INNOVATIONISNOTALWAYSAPPARENT ANDTECHNICALEXPERTISECAN DISSIMULATENEWNESSBEHINDTHEAPPEARANCEOFSIMILARITY3OWHEREASCREATIVITY INDOMINANT7ESTERNCONCEPTIONSISGENERALLYIDENTIlEDVIAVISIBLE@PRODUCTS
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#ONTESTINGTHE&UTURE !SWELLASENTAILINGPARTICULARTHOUGHVARIABLERELATIONSHIPSTOTRADITION WHAT CONSTITUTESCREATIVITYISOFTENSIMULTANEOUSLYACONTESTABOUTHOWTHEFUTURE SHOULDMATERIALIZE!CCORDINGTO7ESTERNEVALUATIONS THEFUTURESHOULDAPPEAR ASNEWnBUTNOTENTIRELYNEWnANDASANEWNESSTHATOTHERSlNDCONVINCING ANDCOMPELLING4HISISGLOSSEDASCREATIVITY WHILEOTHERS SUCHAS*AVANESE COURTDANCERSNOTEDABOVE REQUIREMUCHGREATERVISIBLEADHERENCETOTRADITION !MONGOTHERCONTRIBUTIONSTOTHEORIGINALCONFERENCEPANEL #RISTINA'RASSENI SHOWEDHOWFUTURETEMPORALITIESINTHECOMPETING@FOODSCAPESOF)TALYARE HIGHLIGHTEDINPUBLICDEBATESSURROUNDINGSO CALLED@SLOWFOODANDTHE@FASTGENES OFGENETICALLYMODIlEDCROPS!ND*OY(ENDRY DESCRIBEDHOW@)NDIGENOUS 0EOPLESSEEKTODEMONSTRATETHROUGHTHEIRMATERIALFORMSTHATTHEYARECAPABLEOF NEWNESSANDCHANGE ANDTHATTHEYARENOT@STATICASTHEYARECONVENTIONALLYSHOWN TOBEINMUSEUMEXHIBITS4OACTANDAPPEARASCAPABLEAGENTS THESEPEOPLESFEEL COMPELLEDTODEMONSTRATETHEIRCREATIVITY.EVERTHELESS AS*AMES7EINERSHOWED INHISCONFERENCECONTRIBUTIONONINDIGENOUSTRIBALNAMESIN.ORTH1UEENSLAND !USTRALIA THERECANALSOBESTRONGLEGALANDPOLITICALPRESSURESAGAINSTINNOVATION nEVENWHERETHISISITSELF@TRADITIONALnINTHECONTEXTSINWHICHSOMEINDIGENOUS PEOPLESLIVE !NOUTCOMEOFAWORLDDOMINATEDBYTHE7ESTERNVIEWOFTHEFUTUREASUNKNOWN ASPOTENTIALLYNEW ISTHATPEOPLESEEKTOENTERTHATFUTUREASCAPABLYASTHEYCAN @7ASTINGTIME NOTUSINGALLONESTIMEPRODUCTIVELY BECOMESTANTAMOUNTTOA RELINQUISHMENTOFRESPONSIBILITYANDOPPORTUNITY"EINGmEXIBLEISANIDIOMMOST APPROPRIATETOSUCHATEMPORALORIENTATIONONEISNOTCONSTRAINEDBYCONTEXT ORCONVENTION ANDTHENEWTECHNOLOGIESOFTHEINTERNET $6$ VIDEO ANDSO ON SEEMTOENABLESUCHAVISION(OWEVER AS4HOMAS(YLLAND%RIKSEN ARGUED TAKINGHISCUEFROM"ATESON mEXIBILITYISONLYREALLYPOSSIBLEWHENALLTHE GAPSINTIMEARENOTlLLED !NDTHIS ITSEEMS ISONEOFTHEIMPLICATIONSOFTHEASSOCIATEDEXPLOSIONIN AUDITCULTUREnASSOCIATED THATIS WITHTHESIMILAREMPHASISONCREATIVITYnAND THEREGIMESOFTRUSTITISMEANTTOFOSTER!CCORDINGTOAUDITCULTURE TRUSTCAN ONLYBEATTAINEDIFALLRELEVANTKNOWLEDGEISRENDEREDVISIBLE AS!LBERTO#ORSÄN *IM¿NEZ POINTEDOUTINHISCONFERENCECONTRIBUTION"UTTHEATTEMPTTO RENDERSUCHKNOWLEDGEEVIDENTEG ASISOLATEDVALUE EPISODESINTHEINTERNET LANGUAGEOF8"2, ISANALOGOUSTOTRYINGTOlLLALLTHETEMPORALGAPSIRONICALLY SUCHATTEMPTSAREANTITHETICALTOTHEVERYSOCIALLIFEANDSOCIALRELATIONSTHEYARE MEANTTOSUSTAIN nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION
4HE)RONYOF!NTHROPOLOGICAL0RACTICE !SANTHROPOLOGISTS WEARESENSITIVETOTHESELIMITATIONSOF7ESTERNNOTIONSOF CREATIVITYANDTEMPORALITY!TTHESAMETIME THOUGH THESENOTIONSINADVERTENTLY ENTEROURETHNOGRAPHICACCOUNTSINQUITEFUNDAMENTALWAYS4HE-ALINOWSKIAN MYTHOFTHECREATIVE HEROICETHNOGRAPHERWHOFORGESANEWBEGINNINGWITHHIS ORHERVERSIONISONEINWHICHWEALLPRECARIOUSLYPARTICIPATEANDWHICHWESEEK ALBEITCRITICALLY TOREPRODUCE"UTAS(ASTRUPREMINDSUS ITISAMYTHNONETHELESS !NDYETMYTHS LIKEOTHERWAYSINWHICHOURPERCEPTIONSOFTHE@PRESENCEOF TIME7AGNERn AREMANIFESTED AREANINESCAPABLEFEATUREOFSOCIAL RELATIONS4HEREARENOULTIMATEBEGINNINGS JUSTASTHEREISNODElNITIVECREATIVITY ,IVESARELIVED JUSTASMUCHASTHEYAREDESCRIBEDANDINTERPRETED WITHRESPECT TOUNIQUECONlGURATIONSOFPAST PRESENTANDFUTURE THATIS INRELATIONTOWHAT 7AGNERCALLS@ORGANICTIME4HESEARECONSTRAINTSWECANONLYACCOMMODATEAS MUCHASWESEEKCONTINUALLYAND@CREATIVELYTOSURPASSTHEM4HECHAPTERSTHAT FOLLOWDEMONSTRATETHISTENSIONVIVIDLY
.OTES !FULLSETOFPAPERS WITHTHEEXCEPTIONOFTHATBY*AMES7EINERWHICHCOULD NOTBECOMPLETEDINTIME HASBEENPUBLISHEDIN#AMBRIDGE!NTHROPOLOGY VOLNO 4HISINCLUDESANAFTERWORDBY0ENNY(ARVEYAND-ARILYN 3TRATHERN BASED ON THEIR DISCUSSANT COMMENTS AND A SHORT INTRODUCTION ONWHICHTHEPRESENTCONTRIBUTIONISBASED7EAREGRATEFULTO#AMBRIDGE !NTHROPOLOGYFORALLOWINGUSTOREPRODUCETHIS ANDTHEFOLLOWINGCHAPTERS HERE
2EFERENCES "ATESON ' 3TEPSTOAN%COLOGYOF-IND .EW9ORK"ALANTINE"OOKS "EANEY - )MAGINATION AND #REATIVITY -ILTON +EYNES4HE /PEN 5NIVERSITY0RESS #ORSÄN*IM¿NEZ ! @!FTER4RUST #AMBRIDGE!NTHROPOLOGY n $OUGLAS - @4HEPERSONINANENTERPRISECULTURE IN3((EAPAND! 2OSSEDS 5NDERSTANDINGTHE%NTERPRISE#ULTURE4HEMESINTHE7ORKOF -ARY$OUGLAS %DINBURGH%DINBURGH5NIVERSITY0RESS nn
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)NTHISCHAPTER)SHALLEXPLOREASETOFTHEORETICALISSUESRELATEDTOTHEWAYIN WHICHSOCIALWORLDSAREPERFORMEDBYTHIS)MEANTHATSOCIALWORLDSHAVENO EXISTENCEOUTSIDEOFPRACTICEANDPERFORMANCEnHOWEVERMUCHTHEYSEEMTOBE SYSTEMATICINSOMESENSEOROTHER"YTHEIRUNIQUEANDUNREPEATABLEACTS PEOPLE ACTUALLYCONTRIBUTETOAPERCEIVEDPATTERNSOCIALLIFEISROUTINELYCHOREOGRAPHED BYTHECEREMONIALANIMAL*AMES 3TRESSINGTHEPERFORMATIVERATHERTHAN THESEMANTICORTHECOGNITIVEASPECTSOFSOCIALWORLDSISnAMONGOTHERTHINGSnTO ACKNOWLEDGETHEPROMINENCEOFTIMEANDTEMPORALITYINTHEIRMAKE UP)SHALL ARGUETHATOURAPPERCEPTIONOFTHESOCIALDEPENDSONASENSEOFCLOSURETHATIS BELIEDBYLIFEITSELFnALWAYSSPILLINGOVERINTONEWHISTORIES NEWWAYSOFTHINKING ANDNEWCOMPLEXITIES.EWHISTORIESAREMADEINDIVERSEWAYS BUTINTHISCHAPTER )SHALLCONCENTRATEONTHEPROCESSESOFANTICIPATIONANDCREATIVITY4HEFORMER ISSEENASANINHERENTFEATUREOFALLSOCIALACTION WHILETHELATTERISECCENTRICIN RELATIONTOTHEPATTERNASPERCEIVED 4HEBASELINEOFMYARGUMENTISTHATHUMANSARESOCIALTOTHECORE4HISIS THELEGACYOF%UROPEANSOCIALANTHROPOLOGY ANDWITHITGOESAWHOLENESSOF VISIONTHATALLOWSFORCOMPREHENSIVEANALYSESOFSOCIALFORMS INDIVIDUALACTIONS COLLECTIVEBELIEFS MATERIALRESTRAINTSANDCREATIVEEXPRESSIONS4HEPOINTISTHAT @THERECANNOTBEAhNON SOCIALvANTHROPOLOGY AHUMANSCIENCEWHICHSETSASIDE THEKINDOFhSOCIALITYvWElNDCELEBRATEDINTHEHUMANITIES INPOETRY RELIGIONOR MUSIC TOQUOTE7ENDY*AMES 4HISIMPLIESTHATEVENCREATIVITYISA PROFOUNDLYSOCIALFACTnASECCENTRICASITMAYBE!DDRESSINGMATTERSOFACTION ANDCREATIVESOCIALPROCESSESRESPONDSTOTHELONG FELTNEEDTOREINTRODUCETIME ANDTEMPORALITYINTOASCIENTIlCPRACTICETHAT@ISSODETEMPORALIZEDTHATITTENDSTO EXCLUDEEVENTHEIDEAOFWHATITEXCLUDES"OURDIEU -YARGUMENTWILLSTARTINADISCUSSIONOFTHEEVENTNESSOFBEING WITHAVIEW TOIDENTIFYINGSOCIALAGENCYANDITSTEMPORALITY)SHALLPROCEEDTOADISCUSSIONOF THEILLUSIONOFWHOLENESSTHATPERVADESSOCIALLIFE WITHAVIEWTOESTABLISHINGTHE ROLEPLAYEDBYANTICIPATIONAFTERTHAT)SHALLDISCUSSCREATIVITYASANACCORDION
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+IRSTEN(ASTRUP OFMEANING)SHALLCONCLUDEWITHSOMEINTIMATIONSOFIMAGINATIONASTHELINK BETWEENACTIONANDHISTORYINAMOREGENERALSENSE
!GENCY4HE%VENTNESSOF"EING %VANS 0RITCHARD ONCENOTEDTHATHISTORYISWHATREVEALSSOCIETYFORWHAT ITISEFFECTIVELYTHISIMPLIEDTHATTIMEWASANALL IMPORTANTPARAMETERINTHE IDENTIlCATIONOFSOCIALWORLDS-ORERECENTLY ITHASBECOMEACKNOWLEDGEDTHAT THESOCIALISNOTONLYREVEALEDOVERTIME BUTALSOCONSTRUCTEDWITHTIME"OURDIEU &ABIAN )NANTHROPOLOGICALACCOUNTS THESUCCESSIONOFMOMENTS ANDTHEDURATIONANDDENSITYOFEVENTSHAVEMOSTOFTENBEENSUBSUMEDUNDERTHE PRESENTATIONOFACONlGURATIONTHISISAFEATUREOFNARRATIVE ASWEKNOW2ICOEUR 4HECHALLENGENOWISTOHIGHLIGHTTHEOCCURRENCEOFLIFEANDTHEVARIETY OFWAYSINWHICHPEOPLECONSTRUCTTHEIRREALITYWITHTIMEnINANTICIPATIONOF ANOUTCOMEORINTHEINTERESTOFINVENTION3OCIALLIFEANDINDIVIDUALACTIONARE CLOSELYINTERTWINEDWITHANTICIPATIONANDCREATIVITY ,ET US START WITH THE OBSERVATION THAT LIVING IS ESSENTIALLY UNREPEATABLE BORROWINGATERMFROM-IKHAIL-"AKHTIN ONECOULDCLAIMTHATTHE ESSENCEOFBEINGISITS@EVENTNESS4HERATIONALISTLEGACYHADMADEUSTHINKTHAT TOTRULYUNDERSTANDAPARTICULARACTIONWEHAVETOSPLITITINTOITSCONTENTORSENSE ONTHEONEHAND ANDITSHISTORICALACTUALITYONTHEOTHER(OWEVER NOACTIONEXISTS BEYONDONES@ONCE OCCURRENTEXPERIENCINGOFIT"AKHTIN 4HEACTIS REALONLYASANINDIVISIBLEWHOLE)TISINITSENTIRETYTHATTHEACTIONCONTRIBUTESTO THEPROCESSOFBIOGRAPHYANDHISTORY WHEREITHASNOMEANINGINDEPENDENTOFTHE MOODSITRELEASESANDTHEMOTIVESITEMBODIES "EINGCONSISTSINBEINGENGAGEDINAREALITYOFUNIQUE UNREPEATABLEEVENTS AND UNIQUE ONCE OCCURRENTEXPERIENCESTHATAREREALONLYASWHOLES4HEEVENTSEXIST ONLYINTHEMOMENTOFTHEIRREALIZATIONANDOUREXPERIENCE3IMILARLY THINKINGIS NOTSOMETHINGTHATMOREORLESSSUCCESSFULLYATTACHESITSELFTOANDREmECTSUPON ACTION)TISPARTOFANACTIONOREVENANACTIONINITSOWNRIGHTACCORDINGTO'EERTZ THINKINGISTHEMOSTCONSEQUENTIALOFSOCIALACTS4OACKNOWLEDGETHE EVENTNESSOFBEINGISTOACKNOWLEDGETHEUNDIVIDEDEXPERIENCEOFMEANINGAND ACTIONASASOCIALFACT 4HEEVENTNESSOFBEINGGIVESNEWSUBSTANCETOTHEIDEATHATBEINGISBECOMING /FTENTHESETWOTERMSHAVEBEENSEENASOPPOSED @BECOMINGREFERRINGTOAN UNSTEADYSTATE LEADING HOPEFULLY TOASTEADYSTATEOF@BEING"UTAS&RIEDRICH .IETZSCHE REALIZED THESETWOSTATESAREBUTONE/NEBECOMESWHATONE ISTHROUGHAPROCESSBYWHICHTHEINDIVIDUALINCORPORATESANDACCOMMODATES EXPERIENCES/NESIDENTITYISNOTDEPENDENTONBEINGALWAYS@THESAME BUTON BEINGCONSISTENTLYTRUETOONESELFANDBEINGABLETOINCORPORATENEWEXPERIENCES
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!GENCY !NTICIPATIONAND#REATIVITY 2ICOEUR !LLOFAPERSONSACTIONS INCLUDINGTHOSEPERFORMEDAGAINSTBETTER JUDGEMENT CONTRIBUTETOHISORHERCHARACTER4HEGENERALPOINTISTHATTHESELF HASNOESSENCE ONLYCHARACTER EMERGINGFROMONESACTIONSnNOTTHEOTHERWAY ROUND(ASTRUPA @7HAT)AMHASTOBEUNDERSTOODASWHAT)HAVEBECOME 4AYLOR 4HEEMERGENTNATUREOFCHARACTERANDTHEEVENTNESSOFBEINGSHEDAPECULIAR LIGHTONTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENSELFANDTIME WHICHINASENSEAREBUTABSTRACT NOTIONSFORAGENTANDACTION!GENCYPOINTSTOTHEPOWERTOACTRESPONSIBLYWITHIN APARTICULARSOCIALWORLDnCERTAINLYNOTEXCLUSIVETO7ESTERNSUBJECTSnWITH AVIEWTOBOTHPASTANDFUTURE#URIOUSLY WHATISOFTENLEFTOUTOFTHEORIESOF AGENCYISTHENOTIONOFTIMEHOWEVER THEEMERGENTNATUREOFCHARACTERIMPLIES THATTHEAGENTISCONSTANTLYINAPROCESSOFRECONCILIATIONWITHTHEPAST4HEREMAY BEACTIONSONEREGRETS ANDEVENTSONEWOULDRATHERFORGETnYETONTHEWHOLE THEPASTISWHATHASLEDTOTHEPRESENT ANDONLY@NOWISONEABLETOCHANGETHIS COURSE ANDPROJECTONESELFINTOTHEFUTURE)NTHEPROCESSOFAPPROPRIATINGTHE FUTURE THROUGHONESACTIONS THENATUREOFTHEPASTISCONSTANTLYREINTERPRETED nTHIS WEKNOWALSOFROMTHEPLAYSONSTAGE INSOMANYWAYSMIRRORINGSOCIAL LIFEINGENERAL(ASTRUPA !STHEPLOTPROGRESSES PREVIOUSOCCURRENCESGAIN RENEWEDSIGNIlCANCE!NDTHESUSPENSEOFFORMnBEINGTHEDIACRITICALFEATUREOF DRAMATICILLUSIONnMAKESTHISPROCESSENDONLYWITHTHECURTAIN(ASTRUPB 4HISALSOPERTAINSTOOURLIVESONLYWHENTHEREISNOFUTURELEFTWOULDWEBEABLE FULLYTOCOMPREHENDOURSTORYnANDWITHITOURCHARACTER4HEN OFCOURSE ITIS TOOLATETORESTYLEIT)NCIDENTALLY THISISWHYTHEWRITINGOFAUTOBIOGRAPHIESMAY IMPLYASYMBOLICDEATH(ASTRUPB 4OTHEEXTENTTHATWECANNOTSAYOFALLTHECONSTITUTIVEEVENTSOFOURLIVES THAT@THUS)WILLEDIT WEHAVETOACCEPTTHATWECANNOTWILLTHEFUTUREEITHER 4HEEVENTNESSOFBEINGANDTHEEMERGENTNATUREOFCHARACTERMAKESUCHCONTROL IMPOSSIBLE4HEFUTUREISORCHESTRATEDBYMANYPARTLYUNKNOWNPLAYERSWHOMONE CANNOTDIRECTATWILL4HISISALESSONWELLTAKENFROM3HAKESPEARESDRAMA WHOSE CHARACTERSARECONSTANTLYCAUGHTUPINTHEIROWNACTS)N-ACBETH THEPROTAGONIST ISCAUGHTUPINTHEHISTORYHEHIMSELFHASORCHESTRATEDBUTCANNOTCONTROL(IS COMMAND @,ETEVERYMANBEMASTEROFHISTIME))) GRADUALLYLOSES CONVICTION)FTHEQUESTIONFOR(AMLETISTOBEORNOTTOBE FOR-ACBETHITISTO KILLORNOTTOKILL-ACBETHlNDSHIMSELFINASTATEOFLIMINALITY ORINTERIM ASHE SAYS) )N*ULIUS#AESAR 3HAKESPEARESIDEAOFTHISINTERIMISPOWERFULLY DEPICTEDBY"RUTUS "ETWEENTHEACTINGOFADREADFULTHING !NDTHElRSTMOTION ALLTHEINTERIMIS ,IKEAPHANTASMAORAHIDEOUSDREAM*ULIUS#AESAR))n
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+IRSTEN(ASTRUP 7HODOESNOTKNOWTHISFEELINGFROMEXPERIENCE &EWHAVEPLANNEDAMURDER BUTMANYHAVECONSIDEREDWHETHERTOAPPLYFORAPARTICULARJOB FOREXAMPLE ANDFOUNDTHEMSELVESINATEMPORALCRISISAKINTO-ACBETHS@AMOMENTTHAT SEEMSEXEMPTFROMTHEUSUALMOVEMENTOFTIME WHENTHEFUTUREISCRAMMED INTOTHEPRESENT+ERMODE 4HEINTERIMISSATURATEDWITHONTOLOGICAL UNCERTAINTY!CTINGTEMPORARILYSOLVESIT4HISGOESFORSOCIALACTINGINGENERAL ) WOULDSUGGEST WHERE@THEPRESENTISALWAYSTHEMOMENTOUSUNKNOWN3TRATHERN #AUSAL EXPLANATIONS IN HISTORY ARE OFTEN REDUCED TO AN IDENTIFICATION OF PRECEDENTSnANDMOREOFTENTHANNOTTHEMOSTRECENTANDTHEMOSTEXCEPTIONAL AMONGALLTHEEVENTSTHATPRECEDEDTHEPHENOMENONTOBEEXPLAINED"LOCH &ROMANANTHROPOLOGICALPERSPECTIVE THEANTICIPATEDFUTUREPLAYSANEVENMORE SIGNIlCANTROLEINTHEUNDERSTANDINGOFHISTORYTHANPRECEDINGEVENTS EVENIF PASTEXPERIENCEDOESINlLTRATEANTICIPATION(ASTRUPC (ISTORYISCREATED BYPEOPLE WHOACT@INCHARACTERWITHINAPLOT SPACETHATTHEYMAYONLYPARTLY COMPREHEND BUTTOWHICHTHEYINEVITABLYCONTRIBUTETHEIRACTIONS 4HISPOSESTHEQUESTIONOFTHEEXTENTTOWHICHHUMANSAREREALLYTHESOURCEOF THEIRACTIONSnAQUESTIONALREADYRAISEDBYCLASSICALTRAGEDY!S6ERNANTHASSAID ABOUTTHEWORLDOF!RISTOTLESDRAMAS THEINDIVIDUALWHOCOMMITSACRIMEISALSO ITSVICTIM 4HEACTIONDOESNOTEMANATEFROMTHEAGENTASFROMITSSOURCERATHERITENVELOPSHIM ANDCARRIESHIMAWAY SWALLOWINGHIMUPINAPOWERTHATMUSTPERFORCEBEBEYONDHIM SINCEITEXTENDS BOTHSPATIALLYANDTEMPORALLY FARBEYONDHISOWNPERSON4HEAGENT ISCAUGHTINTHEACTION(EISNOTITSAUTHORHEREMAINSINCLUDEDWITHINIT6ERNANT
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!GENCY !NTICIPATIONAND#REATIVITY INTENTIONALITY HOWEVERMUCHTHISPROVIDESTHEAGENTWITHAMETAPHORFORTHE ACT 4HEINHERENTPROBLEMINMANYDISCUSSIONSOFAGENCYANDWILLISAPPARENTLY THENOTIONOFWILLITSELF/NE@WILLSSOMUCHFORSOMANYREASONS ANDWITHIN SUCHDIFFERENTSOCIALCONTEXTSANDMORALHORIZONS THATTHECONCEPTOFWILLITSELFIS SEVERELYWEAKENEDASARATIONALEXPLANATIONFORACTION"YITSELF @WILLEXPLAINS ONLYAFRACTIONOFTHECOURSEOFEVENTS BETHEYONTHELEVELOFBIOGRAPHYOR WORLDHISTORY7ILLINGSOMETHING ANDNOTJUSTWILLING ISTHEKEYTHEOBJECTIVE OFTHEWILLISNEVERSIMPLYAFORMALLYDElNEDGOAL BUTAFULlLMENTOFDESIRES ANDANTICIPATIONSTHATAREIMBUEDWITHEMOTIONALANDMORALVALUESOFWHICHONE ISRARELYAWARE)NDEED AWARENESSMAYRESULTINWILLINGNOTHING ASWEKNOW FROM(AMLET BECAUSEITMAKESUSREALIZETHATTHEREISNOSIMPLE UNIlEDGOALOF HUMANACTION NOSHAREDMASTERMOTIVETHATWILLEVENTUALLYRESULTINETERNALBLISS IFREASONCOULDONLYREIGN
!NTICIPATION4HE)LLUSIONOF7HOLENESS )NAPRECURSORTOTHISCHAPTER)HAVEDISCUSSED@ILLUSIONASAKEYTOUNDERSTANDING HOWSOCIETYISREALIZEDINTHEACTIONSOFPEOPLE ENGAGEDINAGRADUALFULlLMENT OFWHATTHEYSEEASTHECURRENTANDRELEVANTDRAMA(ASTRUPB )LLUSIONISTO BEUNDERSTOODINTHETHEATRICALSENSEOF@SUSPENSEOFFORMRATHERTHANASUSPENSE OFPLOTWHATMAKESTHEDRAMAGRIPPINGFORBOTHPLAYERSANDAUDIENCE ISNOT UNCERTAINTYABOUTOUTCOME BUTTHEPROCESSOFGETTINGTHERE5NTILTHEDRAMAIS OVER THEPARTICIPANTSACTINTHEINTERESTOFCOMPLETINGTHESTORY4HISALSOAPPLIES TOOTHERSOCIALSPACES WHEREAGENTSGRADUALLYREALIZEWHATTHEYPERCEIVEASTHE @PLAYTHROUGHTHEIRACTIONS4HEYPLAYTHEIRPARTINAPLOTTHATTRANSCENDSTHEM BECAUSETHEYARELINKEDINSPACEANDTIMETOOTHERPEOPLE OTHERMOMENTSAND OTHERSTORIES#ONVERSELY THESELFEMERGESASACHARACTERWITHINAPLOTSTRUCTURE THATISALWAYSDEEPLYSOCIAL AS)SUGGESTEDABOVE3OCIALREALITYISNOTREDUCIBLE TOEITHERTHEWHOLEORTHEPARTS 4HENOTIONOFPLOTSTRUCTUREISORIGINALLYOWEDTO!RISTOTLE WHOINHISWORK ONDRAMASIMPLYDElNEDITASTHEORGANIZATIONOFEVENTS4HEPLOT@ISTHElRST PRINCIPLEAND SOTOSPEAK THESOULOFTHEDRAMA(ALLIWELLn &OR !RISTOTLE THEPLOTSTRUCTUREISTHEORGANIZATIONOFEVENTSINTOONEWHOLEDRAMA ANDITISTHEREFOREONLYWHENTHEDRAMAISOVERTHATTHEACTIONSTAKEONTHEIRTRUE SIGNIlCANCE6ERNANT #HARACTERIZATIONISSECONDARYTOPLOTBECAUSE ITISINCLUDEDONLYFORTHESAKEOFTHEACTIONSINOTHERWORDS THEACTIONSARENOT THERETOPORTRAYTHECHARACTERS7ECANNOTFAILTONOTICETHELIKENESSTOSOCIAL LIFEINGENERALWEDONOTACTINOURDAILYLIVESINORDERTOPORTRAYOURSELVES BUT THROUGHOURACTIONSOUR@CHARACTERSTANDSOUT MOREORLESSCLEARLY"YSTRESSING
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+IRSTEN(ASTRUP THEPRE EMINENCEOFPLOT !RISTOTLESIMPLYBUILTUPONTHEPRE EMINENCEOFACTION INREALLIFE&REELAND &ORTHEPLAYER THECONNECTIONISEMBODIEDTHEWHOLENESSOFTHEPLOTISPRES ENTINTHEINDIVIDUALACTION4HEREISONLYONEACTIONATATIME AHYPOTHESISOF CHARACTEREXISTING ASTHEACTOR3IMON#ALLOWEXPLAINS @ONTHEINTERFACEBETWEEN YOUANDWHATTHEAUTHORHASWRITTEN 4HROUGHTHEEMBODIMENTOF THEPLAY PLAYERSMAYEVENGETTOKNOWTHEINDIVIDUALCHARACTERSBETTERTHAN THEWRITERTHEWRITERWROTETHECHARACTERSWITHALLDUECONCESSIONTOTHEPLOT BUTTHEPLAYERSARETHEMIBID 4HEIRACTIONSAREREALINTHISSENSE)FITISAN IMITATIONOFACTION ITISSTILLANIMITATIONINACTION ASWELL4HEEMPHASISISON THEMAKINGOFTHEREPRESENTATION NOTONREPRESENTATIONITSELF)TISANACTIVITY THATDEEPLYAFFECTSTHEPLAYERFORWHOM@IMITATIONBECOMESALIVEDEXPERIENCE !S#ALLOWPUTSIT THEPLAYERlNDSHIM ORHERSELFINASTATEOF@ONTOLOGICALmUX IBID 4HENOTIONOFONTOLOGICALmUXIMPLIESMUCHMORETHANSIMPLYSWITCHING BETWEENBEINGONESELFANDIMPERSONATINGANOTHER&ORTHEACTOR ACTIONISONE WHOLETHING ANDTHEREISLITTLEDISCUSSIONOFTHEPRIMACYOFEITHERACTIONOR CHARACTERBOTHARECONSTITUTEDWITHINAPLOTTHATLENDSCOHERENCEANDMEANING TOINDIVIDUALACTIONS WHILEALSOACHIEVINGITSREALITYFROMTHESEVERYACTIONS 4HESUSPENSEOFFORMPREMEDITATESAKINDOFCULTURALENGAGEMENTnTOUSE -ICHAEL(ERZFELDSNOTION nTHATBREAKSAWAYFROMANYNOTIONOF CULTURALDETERMINATIONWHILEALSOGIVINGROOMFORANILLUSIONOFWHOLENESS )NTHEDRAMA THEREPRESENTATIONOFACTIONTHEACT ANDTHEORGANIZATIONOF THEEVENTSTHEPLOT FUSEANDMAKEONEWHOLEPLAY AWORLD4HISACTUALLY QUALIlESTHENATUREOF@IMITATIONATAVITALPOINT4HEPLAYACHIEVESITSREALISTIC EFFECTNOTBYCOPYING BUTBYMAKINGTHEAUDIENCEVICARIOUSLYEXPERIENCEREAL ACTIONSASINTELLIGIBLEONLYBYWAYOFEMPLOTMENTnTHATIS BYMAKINGAWHOLE CONlGURATIONOUTOFSUCCESSIVEEVENTS2ICOEUR )NACTUALSOCIALLIFE EACHMOMENTANDEACHACTIONBOTHEXPOSEANDBETRAYTHEABSENT@SOCIALORDER 4HERHETORICOFREGULARITYISDENIEDBYTHESOCIALEXPERIENCETHATPRECEDESIT *ENKINS !LLSOCIALlELDS RANGINGINSCALEFROMTHEGLOBALCOMMUNITYTOVILLAGESAND FAMILIES DEPENDONILLUSIONASSUSPENSEOFFORM TOBEREAL4OACCEPTTHE@RULES OFTHEGAMEANILLUSIONOFAWHOLE ORDEREDBYCERTAINCONVENTIONSANDOFA SHAREDINTEREST ISAPRECONDITION"OURDIEUFFFF 4HEPOINT ISTHATBYINVESTINGTHEIROWNINTERESTSANDACTIONSINlLLINGOUTTHEFORM SOCIAL AGENTSMAKETHECOMMUNITYHAPPEN7ITHOUTASUSTAINEDANDSHARED ILLUSION ABOUTTHESOCIALSPACEINWHICHONEPARTICIPATES NOACTIONMAKESSENSE3OCIETY ISASUSPENDEDFORMTHATPRECIPITATESPARTICULARACTIONS THROUGHWHICHTHEILLUSION ISGRADUALLYREALIZED)NDEED SOCIETYDOESNOTEXISTEXCEPTINITSPERMANENT SEEKINGOFFORMINOTHERWORDS ASOCIALSPACEnBEITANATIONSTATE AUNIVERSITY nn
!GENCY !NTICIPATIONAND#REATIVITY CONFERENCEORACONSTRUCTIONSITEnHASNOONTOLOGICALSTATUSASAWHOLEAPART FROMWHATISCOLLECTIVELYATTRIBUTEDTOITANDMADEMANIFESTINACTION#ONVERSELY SOCIALSPACESARENATURALIZEDANDALLOWEDTOEXERTPHYSICALFORCEOVERINDIVIDUAL ACTION !CTIONISNEVERSIMPLYAREACTIONTOWHATHASALREADYHAPPENEDITISALSOA MODEOFACTINGUPONANTICIPATION!GENCYINTHISSENSE )WOULDARGUE ISCLOSELY TIEDTOAVISIONOFPLOT TOTHEANTICIPATIONOFASTORY ALINEOFFUTUREDEVELOPMENT )TISAPROFOUNDMATTEROFRESPONDINGRESPONSEBEINGMADEWITHINAMORALHORIZON ANDWITHINASOCIALCONTEXTTHATWEINTERPRETANDPROJECTFORWARDASWEGOALONG @!NTICIPATIONISALSOPOTENTIATION3TRATHERN 7ITHOUTASENSEOF PLOT MEANINGFULACTIONWOULDBEPRECLUDED4HESENSEOFPLOTISWHATINTEGRATES INDIVIDUALACTIONSINTOALARGERVISIONOFTHEWORLD lLLEDOUTIMAGINATIVELYAND ACTEDUPON)NTHATSENSEANYSOCIALACTIONISACREATION CONTRIBUTINGTOAHISTORY THATOUTLASTSANDOUTWITS OURIMAGINATION 7EPERFORMAWORLDINTOBEING ACTINGASMUCHUPONANTICIPATIONASUPON ANTECEDENT7EMAYEVENSPEAKTHEWORLDINTOOCCURRING BECAUSESPEECHINITSELF ISANACTWORDSARETHOUGHTSINACTION"ERRY 7ORDSARENOTSIMPLY EXPRESSIONSOFTHEWORLD THEYAREMEANSOFDEALINGWITHITnAFTERWHICHITISNO LONGERTHESAME3PEAKINGnLIKESEEINGANDTHINKINGANDOTHERPROCESSESBYWHICH ONEAPPROPRIATESTHEWORLDnISBOUNDUPWITHTIMEANDHISTORY4OUNDERSTANDA MODEOFACTIONORAFORMOFLIFE WEMUSTBRINGlGUREANDGROUND OR@THEPASSING OCCASIONANDTHELONGSTORY INTOCOINCIDENTVIEW'EERTZ 4HEUNIQUE EVENTOFTHEACTANDTHE@LONGSTORYOFTHEPLOTBELONGTOGETHER4HE@FRAMEIS ALWAYSPARTOFTHEEVENTTHELARGERPLOTISINCORPORATEDINTOINDIVIDUALAGENTS)T ISNOTFORTHEMTOFULLYCOMPREHENDTHEIRACTIONSBECAUSETHEDESCRIPTIONSTHATARE AVAILABLETOTHEMFROMINSIDETHEIREXPERIENCECANNOTATTHESAMETIMEBRINGTHE COMPLETESTORYINTOVIEW 4HEILLUSIONOFASOCIALWHOLEISANEFlCIENTFRAMEWORKFORSOCIALACTIONITS EFlCIENCYISCONSTANTLYREAFlRMEDINPRACTICE WHEREAGENTSREALIZETHEWHOLEAS THEYENGAGEINUNIQUEACTIONSnWITHAVIEWTOAPERCEIVEDPLOTANDINANTICIPATION OFPARTICULARRESPONSES)NTHISSENSE TIMEISANINTEGRALPARTOFWHATLOOKSLIKE PATTERNnBUTCANONLYBESOINRETROSPECTORINANTICIPATION4HIS )WOULDARGUE IS PARTOFTHEREASONWHYTIMEANDTEMPORALITYTENDTORECEDEFROMVIEWnFORSOCIAL AGENTSANDTHEORISTSALIKEnNAMELYTHATTHEFRAMEMOVESALONGWITHTHEACT4HE EVENTNESSOFBEINGCONCEDESTOTHEILLUSIONOFWHOLENESS
#REATIVITY4HE!CCORDIONOF-EANING )FANTICIPATIONISCREATIVEINTHESENSETHATRESPONSIBLESOCIALACTIONALWAYSCON TRIBUTESTOTHERE SHAPINGOFTHESOCIAL CREATIVITYASSUCHMUSTMEANSOMETHING
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+IRSTEN(ASTRUP DIFFERENT%VIDENTLY THEREAREMANYPOSSIBLEWAYSOFDEFININGTHENOTIONOF CREATIVITYINITIALLY)SHALLTAKEITTODESCRIBEAWAYINWHICHPERCEIVEDNEWNESS ENTERSTHEWORLD(ASTRUP #REATIVITYISNOTCUTLOOSEFROMTHEWORLDIN WHICHCASEITWOULDREGISTERASMADNESS NORISITSIMPLYACOMPETENTRESPONSE TOANTICIPATEDOUTCOMESPUTTINGITONAPARWITHAGENCY &OR@CREATIVITYTORETAIN ASEPARATEMEANING ITMUSTCOMPRISEBOTHTHEUNEXPECTEDANDTHERECOGNIZABLE BOTHNEWNESSANDANTICIPATION 4HECREATIVEAGENTISONEOFTHOSE@GIFTEDINDIVIDUALSWHOHAVEBENTTHECULTURE INTHEDIRECTIONOFTHEIROWNCAPACITIES AS2UTH"ENEDICTHASPHRASEDIT ECHOING3APIR WHOSUGGESTEDTHAT@CREATIONISABENDINGOFFORMTOONESWILL NOTTHEMANUFACTUREOFFORMEXNIHILO3APIR )NTHISRESPECTITDIFFERS FROMMAGIC WHICH-AUSSIDENTIlEDASPRECISELYTHATACREATIONEXNIHILO #REATIVEAGENCYBRINGSTHEUNPRECEDENTEDINTOEFFECTBYWAYOFIMAGINATIVE POWERANDTHUSEXPANDSTHECOMMUNITYSAWARENESSOFITSELF4HEEXPANSIONIS POSSIBLEDUETOTHEINHERENTmEXIBILITYOFTHESOCIAL"ATESONHASDElNEDmEXIBILITY AS@UNCOMMITTEDPOTENTIALFORCHANGE AND)WOULDARGUETHATALL SOCIALWORLDSHAVESUCHUNCOMMITTEDPOTENTIALnOUTSIDEOFTHECOMMITMENTTO UPHOLDTHEILLUSIONOFWHOLENESSANDDRAMATICCLOSURE4HEILLUSIONISNECESSARY FOR@THESOCIALTOMAKESENSE ANDFORINDIVIDUALSTOSEETHEMSELVESINTHEFRAME 4HISILLUSIONPROVIDESASAFETYNETFORCREATIVEAGENTSTOEXPERIMENTWITHFORM "ATESONPROVIDESTHEPARABLEOFTHEACROBATONAHIGHWIRETOILLUSTRATEHISPOINT ABOUTmEXIBILITYIBID 4OMAINTAINHISPOSITIONONTHEWIRE THEACROBAT MUSTBEFREETOMOVEFROMONEPOSITIONOFINSTABILITYTOANOTHER ANDHISARMS MUSTHAVEMAXIMUMmEXIBILITYTOSECURETHESTABILITYOFMORECENTRALPARTS)F THEARMSARELOCKED THEACROBATWILLFALL$URINGTHEPERIODWHENTHEACROBATIS LEARNINGTOWALKONTHEWIRE ANDTHUSLEARNINGTOMOVEHISARMSINANAPPROPRIATE WAY ASAFETYNETISNECESSARYTHISGIVESHIMTHEFREEDOMTOFALLOFFTHEWIRE @&REEDOMANDmEXIBILITYINREGARDTOTHEMOSTBASICVARIABLESMAYBENECESSARY DURINGTHEPROCESSOFLEARNINGANDCREATINGANEWSYSTEMOFSOCIALCHANGEIBID "OTHFREEDOMANDmEXIBILITYAREPROVIDEDBYTHESOCIAL4HUS EVENTHELONESOME ANDECCENTRICACROBATDEPENDSONASENSEOFTHECOMMUNALTOENGAGETHEHIGH WIRE )N GENERAL CREATIVITY DELIBERATELY PARTS COMPANY FROM ANTICIPATION THE FORMERPRESENTSTHETRULYDISCONTINUOUS WHILETHELATTERISATMOSTINADVERTENTLY TRANSFORMATIVE&RIEDMAN !NEXAMPLEOFSUCHTRANSFORMATIONISFOUNDIN 3AHLINSWORKONTHEHISTORICALREWORKINGOF(AWAIIANMYTHICALTHEMES 4HEPOINTISTHATSOCIALCREATIVITYCANNOTBEAMEREFACTOFNOVELCOMBINATIONS MAKINGITAWHOLLYINTELLECTUALISTICENTERPRISE&RIEDMAN )TMUSTALSO CONTAINASENSEOFSEMANTICANDEMOTIONALNEWNESS INWHICHOTHERSAREPREPARED TOTAKEINTERESTnANDINVESTTHEMSELVESnINSPITEOFITSBEINGUNPRECEDENTEDAND DISCONTINUOUS nn
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/NCEWEDESCRIBEPARTICULAREVENTSORSPEAKOFAGENCY WEINCORPORATEAGOOD MANYTHINGSTHATHAVELITTLETODOWITHTHESIMPLEBODILYACT ANDMUCHTODOWITH WAYSOFPERCEIVINGONESELFINSOCIALSPACEINACONSTANTPROCESSOFREORIENTATION THROUGHACTUALSOCIALPERFORMANCE)WOULDSUGGESTTHATCREATIVITYRESIDESIN THEABILITYTOPLAYTHEACCORDIONnTOACTnWITHOUTINCORPORATINGANANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCEINTOTHEPERCEPTIONOFTHEACTION ORTOMAKETHEEVENTBREAKFREEOF THEFRAMEWHILESTILLALLOWINGITTOBERECOGNIZED)NTHATSENSECREATIVITYBELONGS OUTSIDEOFHISTORICALTIMEITREFUSESSIMPLYTOREALIZEAPRECONCEIVEDILLUSION
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+IRSTEN(ASTRUP
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0ERFORMING#ONTINUITYAND)NNOVATION $RAWINGONTHEIDEASOUTLINEDABOVE )NOWTURNTOAGENCYANDCREATIVITYIN *AVANESEDANCETRADITIONSOFTHECOURTCITYOF9OGYAKARTA TOCONSIDERWHERE CREATIVITYMIGHTBESAIDTORESIDEINATRADITIONINWHICHTHEDEGREESOFFREEDOM FORINNOVATIONANDINDIVIDUALEXPRESSIONMIGHTAPPEARLIMITED(UGHES &REELAND A )NHIGHARTTRADITIONSIN)NDONESIAANDELSEWHERE THEROLEOFTHEDANCERHAS BEENTOCONFORMTOAPRE EXISTINGMOVEMENTTEXTBYWORKINGTOPERFECTTHEEXECU TIONOFDANCElGURESTOREPEAT NOTTOINNOVATEORIMPROVISE3UCHPRACTICESHAVE BEENSEENASEXPRESSIONSOFREGIMESOFDISCIPLINE NOTSELF EXPRESSION3CHOLARS OFDIFFERENTDANCEANDDRAMATRADITIONSIN)NDONESIAHAVEOFTENCOMPAREDTHE PERFORMERTOAPUPPET EXPLAININGTHATWHATISATISSUEISNOTTHEDANCERBUTTHE DANCED RATHERASPOETICWORKFOR%LIOTINVOLVESTHE@EXTINCTIONOFPERSONALITY )NTHECASEOF*AVA GENRESAREATISSUE$ANCEFORMSHAVENAMESTHATREFERAS MUCH TO CIRCUMSTANCE AS TO ANYTHING INHERENTLY GENERIC (UMAN DANCE IS REFERENCEDBACKTOAPRIORPUPPETFORM THOUGHNOTINTHECASEOFCEREMONIAL FEMALEDANCE!SECONDPROBLEMOFCOMPARISONHEREISTHATWHEREAS7ESTERN CRITICISMHASALITERARYTAXONOMYBAROQUE 'OTHIC ETC ANDACRITICALAPPARATUS *AVANESEDISCRIMINATIONSANDEVALUATIONSHAVEWORKEDDIFFERENTLY&ORINSTANCE PARTICULARSULTANSOFTHECOLONIALPRINCIPALITYOF9OGYAKARTAAREASSOCIATEDWITH PARTICULAR@CULTURALPHASESTHUS3ULTAN(AMĕNGKUBUWANA6)))SREIGNn ISVARIOUSLYASSOCIATEDWITHTHEHEYDAYOFDANCETHEATRE ITSRENAISSANCEORITS DEGENERATIONINTOKITSCH!UTHORSHIPOFSPECIlCDANCEWORKSHASBEENATTRIBUTED TOTHESULTAN ANDNOTTOTHECHOREOGRAPHERSANDPRACTITIONERSWHOCREATEDTHEM #ONSIDERINGTHERELATIONSHIPOFMOVEMENTTEXTSTOPERFORMANCES ITISIMPORTANT NOTTOOBSCUREORCOMPRESSTHEPROCESSESOFPRODUCTIONTHATLINKANYPERFORMANCE TOITSOTHERVERSIONSSEE(UGHES &REELAND 3UCHPROCESSUALDATAARECENTRAL TOELUCIDATINGMOREGENERALLYHOWPERFORMANCESAREPRODUCEDOUTOFPRIORTEXTS ANDINTURNGENERATESUBSEQUENTTEXTS 4HECLASSICALDANCESOF*AVAASPERFORMEDINTHEROYALCOURTSREQUIRETHEDANCER TOEFFACEVISUALEXPRESSIONANDTOlTHISORHERBODYMOVEMENTSTOPRElGURED SEQUENCES INAMANNERWHICHSUGGESTSA&OUCAULDIANSENSEOFDISCIPLINESEE (UGHES &REELANDNDFORACRITIQUEOFTHISAPPROACH )NCOURTDANCE PERFORMERS HADTOSATISFYTHERIGOROUSSCRUTINYOFASULTANLIKE(AMĕNGKUBUWANA6))) WHO ISREMEMBEREDASADISCIPLINARIANANDASTICKLERFORDETAIL)NMOSTCOURTDANCES THEDANCERDOESNOTAIMTOSTANDOUTBUTTOlTINTOTHEGROUP WHICHCANBESEEN ASANIMAGEOFTHEBODYPOLITICMOVINGINHARMONIOUSACCORDUNDERTHESCRUTINY OFTHESULTANSGAZE7OMENSCEREMONIALDANCEFORMSREPRODUCETHERESTRAINING CLOTHINGANDBEHAVIOURALCODESFORSPEECHANDCOMPORTMENTTHATCHARACTERIZE FORMALSOCIALINTERACTION ANDTHEYDOSOATAPACEWHICHISALMOSTSLOWMOTION nn
43%LIOTFOR!NTHROPOLOGISTS 4HEAESTHETICGOALOFDANCEMOVEMENTISTOACHIEVEAQUALITYCALLEDALUS WHICH ISOFTENGLOSSEDAS@RElNED ALTHOUGHWORDSLIKE@GENTLENESSOR@RESTRAINTBETTER COMMUNICATETHISFEELING EXPERIENCEDINDANCINGASWELLASINSOCIALINTERACTION 0ERFORMANCEPRACTITIONERSEXPLAINEDTHATALUSISACHIEVEDTHROUGHACORRECT RELATIONSHIPTOMEASUREWIRAMA 4HISCANBEILLUSTRATEDBYNGĕNDHEREK ONEOF THESIMPLESTMOVEMENTSEQUENCESFROM3ARITUNGGAL THETRAININGDANCEFORTHE FEMININESTYLE)TISACCOMPANIEDBYTHEMUSICALFORMKĕTAWANG INWHICHTHERE ARESIXTEENBEATSTOEACHSTROKEOFTHEBIGGONGGONGAGĕNG 4HEINTERMEDIARY EIGHTHBEATISMARKEDBYTHEKĕNONGVERTICALLYHUNGGONGS ANDEVERYOTHER BEATBYSMALLHORIZONTALLYHUNGGONGSKĕTHUKANDKĕMPUL 4HEDANCERlTSHER MOVEMENTSTOTHEMUSICBYATTENDINGTOTHESEINSTRUMENTS NOTATEDBELOWAS'ONG Kĕ NONG Kĕ THUKANDKĕM PUL4HENUMBERSAREHOWTHESEQUENCEISCOUNTED OUTHEREIN*AVANESE INDANCETRAININGSI JI LO RO TI GA PA PAT LI MA ĕ NĕM PI TU WO ,5 THE,5INDICATINGTHEACCENTOFTHEGONGONTHESIXTEENTHBEAT&OR THEDANCERTHESESIXTEENBEATSARECOUNTEDASEIGHT ASSHOWNINTHEFOLLOWING EXAMPLETHEDASHESINDICATETHEPLACESlLLEDBYBASICANDELABORATINGINSTRUMENTS ANDTHERHYTHM DIRECTINGDRUMKĕNDANG
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43%LIOTFOR!NTHROPOLOGISTS STAMPOFTHESULTAN ASITALWAYSHASBEENINTHE*AVANESECOURTSYSTEMSINCETHE EIGHTEENTHCENTURYIFNOTBEFORE $IDIK(ADIPRAYITNO@$IDIK.INI4HOWOK PLAYSWITHTRADITIONALFORMSTO SURPRISEHISAUDIENCESWITHTHEOSTENSIBLYANDDEMONSTRABLYNEW!CLASSICALLY TRAINEDINNOVATORWHOISNOTPARTOFTHECOURTCENTRE BUTMARGINALINRESPECTOF HISETHNICITY RELIGIONANDSEXUALITY(UGHES &REELANDB HESTUDIESWITH THEOLDESTPRACTITIONERSOFDIFFERENTREGIONALTRADITIONS TOLEARNTHETECHNIQUE APPROPRIATETOTHEGENREHEWISHESTOUSELIKE%LIOTSPOET WORKINGTOGETTHE HISTORICAL SENSE IN HIS BONES "UT RATHER THAN REPLICATING THE APPEARANCE OF TRADITIONALFORMS HEUSESASPECTSOFTHEIRGESTURALANDPRESENTATIONALRESOURCES INNEWFORMS&OREXAMPLE INTHE7ALANG+EKEKDANCE HEDRAWSON"ALINESE MASKEDDANCE 3UNDANESEMUSICANDDANCEMOVEMENTAND7ESTERNMIMEIN THE$WIMUKA@4WOFACESDANCEHEPLAYSWITH3UNDANESEMASKDANCING ANDWEARSTHEMASKONTHEBACKOFHISHEADSEE&IGURE !MOREEXTREME
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#ATHRINE$EGNEN 7ESTERNWORLD BLANKETUSEOFTHETERMMASKSSIGNIlCANTDIFFERENCESAND NUANCESBETWEENTHECULTURALGROUPSTHATMAKEUPTHE7EST ASWELLASTHEEVEN MORELOCALLEVELSOFEXPERIENCEANDMEANINGWITHINTHESEGROUPSTHEMSELVES #LASS GENDERANDAGEISSUESALSOGOUNSIGNALLED/NTHEOTHERHAND ITDOESACT ASASORTOFSHORTHANDTOEXPRESSCERTAINSHAREDTENDENCIESWHICHLIEBEHINDTHE QUESTIONSPOSEDINTHISCHAPTER!DDITIONALLY )PURPOSEFULLYADOPTTHEINDISTINCT TERM@OLDERPEOPLERATHERTHAN@ELDERLYOR@OLDOR@THEAGED INANATTEMPTTO MOVEAWAYFROMLABELSTHATDEMARCATEOLDAGEINTIDYCOMPARTMENTSANDTHAT CONNOTECHRONOLOGICALAGE .OTONLYDOINDIVIDUALSELVESSHIFT BUTCULTURALNOTIONSOFWHATISACCEPTED AS@THESELFAREPERPETUALLYSHIFTINGASWELL3EVERALAUTHORSRESISTINGEARLIER WORK IN THE SCHOOL OF CULTURE AND PERSONALITY STUDIES MAKE THIS EXPLICIT BYPROBLEMATIZINGTHENOTIONTHATTHEREISA@UNITARYDISCOURSEOFSELFHOOD PERVASIVEINANENTIRESOCIETY+ONDO 3IMILARLY .ANCY!BELMANN ARGUESTHAT@BYASSUMINGVARIOUSANDBLURREDEPISTEMOLOGIESINTHETRADITIONAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL FIELD AGAINST A UNIFIED SELFHOOD IN ADVANCED CAPITALIST SOCIETIES WE IMPOVERISH OUR UNDERSTANDING OF SELFHOOD EVERYWHERE !BELMANN #ONSIDERATIONOFSOMECHARACTERISTICSSPECIlCTOTHEAGEINGSELFOFFERSTHE CHANCETOWIDENTHEORETICALCONCEPTUALIZATIONSOFTHE7ESTERNSELF4HESE INCLUDEDYNAMICSSUCHASTHEUNEVENANDMULTI DIRECTIONALPROCESSOFSELFHOOD CREATIONANDANINCREASINGRIGIDITYINREPRESENTATIONSOFSELFTHAT)DISCUSS ELSEWHERE$EGNEN !SANASIDE WHILEPEOPLETENDNOTTOTALKEXPLICITLYABOUTTHESELFUNDERNORMAL CONDITIONS THEINTERVIEWCONTEXTOPENSUPAPARTICULARSORTOFSOCIALSPACE TOREmECTONONESSELF4HISRAISESIMPORTANTCONTEXTUALIZINGPOINTSABOUT THEPRESENTATION CONSTRUCTIONANDSTAGINGOFSELFUNIQUETOINTERVIEWING-Y RESEARCH HOWEVER WASNOTCONlNEDTOINTERVIEWS WHICHWEREBALANCEDBYAS MUCHTIMESPENTWITHOLDERPEOPLE JUSTASINTENSIVELY OUTSIDEOFTHEINTERVIEW SETTINGS
2EFERENCES !BELMANN . @.ARRATINGSELFHOODANDPERSONALITYIN3OUTH+OREA7OMEN ANDSOCIALMOBILITY !MERICAN%THNOLOGIST n "OYARIN *AND"OYARIN $ @3ELF EXPOSUREASTHEORY4HEDOUBLEMARK OFTHEMALE*EW IN$"ATTAGLIAED 2HETORICSOF3ELF -AKING "ERKELEY 5NIVERSITYOF#ALIFORNIA0RESS "RUNER % @4HEOPENINGUPOFANTHROPOLOGY IN%"RUNERED 4EXT 0LAY AND3TORY4HE#ONSTRUCTIONAND2ECONSTRUCTIONOF3ELFAND3OCIETY
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4EMPORALITY .ARRATIVEANDTHE!GEING3ELF 0ROCEEDINGSOFTHE!MERICAN%THNOLOGICAL3OCIETY 7ASHINGTON $# !MERICAN%THNOLOGICAL3OCIETY @%XPERIENCEANDITSEXPRESSIONS IN64URNERAND%"RUNEREDS 4HE!NTHROPOLOGYOF%XPERIENCE 5RBANAAND#HICAGO5NIVERSITYOF)LLINOIS 0RESS "RUNER * !CTS OF -EANING #AMBRIDGE -ASS (ARVARD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS $EGNEN # -INING%XPERIENCE4HE!GEING3ELF .ARRATIVE AND3OCIAL -EMORY IN $ODWORTH %NGLAND UNPUBLISHED 0H$ THESIS $EPARTMENT OF !NTHROPOLOGY -ONTREAL 1UEBEC-C'ILL5NIVERSITY (AZAN ( &ROM&IRST0RINCIPLES!N%XPERIMENTIN!GEING 7ESTPORT #ONN"ERGIN'ARVEY (ERSKOVITS % @3TRUGGLINGOVERSUBJECTIVITY$EBATESABOUTTHEhSELFvAND !LZHEIMERSDISEASE -EDICAL!NTHROPOLOGY1UARTERLY n (OCKEY *AND*AMES ! 'ROWING5PAND'ROWING/LD!GEINGAND $EPENDENCYINTHE,IFE#OURSE ,ONDON3AGE +AUFMAN 3 4HE!GELESS3ELF3OURCESOF-EANINGIN,ATER,IFE -ADISON 5NIVERSITYOF7ISCONSIN0RESS +ONDO $ @#REATINGANIDEALSELF4HEORIESOFSELFHOODANDPEDAGOGYAT A*APANESEETHICSRETREAT %THOS n -YERHOFF " .UMBER/UR$AYS .EW9ORK%0$UTTON 0EACOCK *AND(OLLAND $ @4HENARRATEDSELF,IFESTORIESINPROCESS %THOS n 2APPORT .AND/VERING * @.ARRATIVE IN.2APPORTAND*/VERINGEDS 3OCIALAND#ULTURAL!NTHROPOLOGY THE+EY#ONCEPTS ,ONDON2OUTLEDGE 2OSALDO - +NOWLEDGEAND0ASSION)LONGOT.OTIONSOF3ELFAND3OCIAL ,IFE #AMBRIDGE#AMBRIDGE5NIVERSITY0RESS @4OWARD AN ANTHROPOLOGY OF SELF AND FEELING IN 2 3HWEDER AND2,E6INE EDS #ULTURE4HEORY%SSAYSON-IND 3ELFAND%MOTION #AMBRIDGE#AMBRIDGE5NIVERSITY0RESS 4HOMPSON 0 @h)DONTFEELOLDv3UBJECTIVEAGEINGANDTHESEARCHFOR MEANINGINLATERLIFE !GEINGAND3OCIETY n 4URNER 6ED%4URNER /NTHE%DGEOFTHE"USH!NTHROPOLOGYAS %XPERIENCE 4UCSON5NIVERSITYOF!RIZONA0RESS 7HITE 'AND+IRKPATRICK *EDS 0ERSON 3ELF AND%XPERIENCE%XPLORING 0ACIlC%THNOPSYCHOLOGIES "ERKELEY5NIVERSITYOF#ALIFORNIA0RESS
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0ART)6 4HE#REATIVITYOF!NTHROPOLOGICAL3CHOLARSHIP
)NTRODUCTION -ARK(ARRIS
$URINGONEOFTHESESSIONSOFTHECONFERENCETHATGAVERISETOTHISVOLUME A PANELLISTREMARKEDWITHSOMEEXASPERATIONTHAT@RESEARCHISALMOSTTHEOPPOSITE OFCREATIVITY4HEREMARKWASMADEPUBLICLYAND OFALLTHOSEPRESENTATTHE SESSION NEITHER)NORANYONEELSECHALLENGEDIT4HEREAPPEARSTOBEADEEPLYAND WIDELYFELTSENSETHATREALCREATIVITYLIESBEYONDTHEREALMSOFSCIENCE WHETHER HUMAN SOCIALORNATURAL)FITEXISTSINTHESEREALMS ITISBUTAPALEIMITATION ORASHAM4HECORRECTPLACEFORCREATIVITY ITISOFTENASSUMED ISINTHEWORLD OFHIGHARTANDLITERATURE4HEPANELLISTSEEMEDTOBESAYINGTHATTHEWORKOF SCHOLARSHIPISABOUTCOLLECTINGDATA APPLYINGMETHODS RElNINGIDEASANDIN GENERALCONTRIBUTINGTOTHEACCUMULATIONOFKNOWLEDGE!NDINTHEMAIN ITIS DREARYLABOUR4HEPRODUCTIONOFHIGHCULTURE BYCONTRAST lZZESALONGWITHITS OWNABUNDANTINVENTIVENESS#REATIVITYISUNDERSTOODASTYPICALLYTHEPRESERVEOF THEINDIVIDUALAUTHORORARTIST3CHOLARLYWORK EVENTHOUGHOFTENCARRIEDOUTBY ASINGLEPERSON EFFACESINDIVIDUALIDENTITYSINCEITISBYDElNITIONACONTRIBUTION TOALARGERBODYOFLEARNING4HERESEARCHTHATWEDOASANTHROPOLOGISTSCANNOT THENBECREATIVEBECAUSEITISCHARACTERIZEDBYVARIOUSCHECKSONCREATIVITY7E HAVETOUSETHEORIESDEVELOPEDBYOTHERPEOPLEATOTHERTIMESANDPLACESWE ARETRAINEDTOAVOIDTHEIDIOSYNCRATICWEHAVETOlTINWITHEXISTINGSCHOLARSHIP SOTHATOURARGUMENTISRECOGNIZABLE4OCAPITALL @AUDITCULTURERESTRICTSANY RESIDUALCREATIVEOREXPERIMENTALTENDENCIES3TRATHERN .OTONLYDOWE HAVETOCOMPLYWITHTHERIGOURSOFSCHOLARSHIPWEALSOHAVETODOWHATOUR MANAGERSEXPECTUSTODO 4HISBLEAKPICTUREIS )HOPE ACARICATURE-ANYCONTRARYEXAMPLESCOULD OFCOURSEBEADDUCED FROMBOTHANTHROPOLOGYANDNEIGHBOURINGDISCIPLINES REMINDINGUSOF#OLLINGWOODS INSISTENCETHATHISTORYCANNOTBEDONE WITHOUTIMAGINATIVEEMPATHY"UTTHEIDEATHATRESEARCHIS@DULL ANDTHATIT REQUIRESNOTHINGOFTHECREATIVEIMAGINATION PERSISTSINVARIOUSGUISES7EARE THUSINARATHERODDSITUATION FORWHILEWECANSTUDYTHECREATIVITYOFOTHERS WEARERELUCTANTTORECOGNIZEITINOUROWNACCOUNTS7HATEVERCREATIVITYTHE DISCIPLINEMAYHAVEREMAINSIMPLICITINTHEMETHODSANDPROCEDURESTHATHAVE DRIVENSTUDIESOFOTHERPEOPLESCREATIVITY SUCHASTHOSEDESCRIBEDINPREVIOUS PARTSOFTHISBOOK)NINTRODUCINGTHEPRESENTPART )SHALLARGUETHATTHESEPARATION OFRESEARCHANDCREATIVITYISUNNECESSARYnADEPRESSINGREmECTIONOFCERTAIN nn
-ARK(ARRIS ASPECTSOFACADEMICLABOURTHATEFFECTIVELYMYSTIFYWHATANTHROPOLOGISTSDOAND HOWTHEYGOABOUTTHEIRWORK'IVENTHENATUREOFITSINQUIRY ASTHESTUDYOF HUMANITY CRITICALREmEXIVITYISNOTANENDPOINTOFANTHROPOLOGYBUTINTEGRALTO ITSOVERALLPROJECT'IAMBATTISTA6ICOWASTHElRSTMODERNAUTHORTOMAKETHIS ARGUMENTINHISCRITICISMOF#ARTESIANRATIONALISM INHIS.EW3CIENCEOF 6ICO 6ICOINSISTEDTHATTHESTUDYOFHUMANITYREQUIRESITSOWNMETHODS ANDTHEORIES DIFFERENTFROMTHOSENEEDEDFORSTUDYINGTHEWORLDOFNATURE3INCE NATUREHASNOTBEENCREATEDBYHUMANS HEARGUED ITMUSTALWAYSREMAINTO SOMEEXTENTUNFATHOMABLE4HEHISTORYOFHUMANSOCIETIES HOWEVER FASHIONED THROUGHIMAGINATIONANDREASON CANBEUNDERSTOODTHROUGHTHEEXERCISEOFTHESE SAMEFACULTIES#ENTRALTO6ICOSTHOUGHTISTHEIDEATHATSOCIETIESANDINDIVIDUALS FOLLOWASEQUENCEOFDEVELOPMENTTHATISNOTRANDOM BUTLOGICALANDCUMULATIVE "ERLIN 4HESTUDYOFTHISHISTORICALLYSITUATEDPROGRESSIONISCRITICALTOTHE PROPERUNDERSTANDINGOFTHECREATIVEIMPULSEOFHUMANITY)NTHEFOLLOWING)TAKE INSPIRATIONFROMTHISIDEATOARGUEFORANEXPANDEDNOTIONOF@THElELDTOINCLUDE THECREATIVESPIRITOFRESEARCHANDTEACHING 7HATAREWEDISCUSSING THEN UNDERTHERUBRICOFTHECREATIVITYOFANTHROPO LOGICAL SCHOLARSHIP )T COULD BE THE RANGE OF CREATIVE ETHNOGRAPHIC WRITING TAKINGINSUCHWORKSAS'REGORY"ATESONS.AVEN (UGH"RODYS-APS AND$REAMS 2UTH,ANDES#ITYOF7OMEN -ICHAEL4AUSSIGS 3HAMANISM #OLONIALISMANDTHE7ILD-AN ALISTLESSDElNITIVETHAN EXEMPLARY/RITCOULDBETHECREATIVEANDRESPONSIBLEUSESTOWHICHANTHROPOLOGY CANBEPUTBYANTHROPOLOGISTS SUCHASINPOLITICALCAMPAIGNS INTEACHINGANDIN CRITICALINTERVENTIONSINPUBLICDEBATE!LTERNATIVELY CREATIVITYCOULDBESOUGHT INTHEDEVELOPMENTOFSPECIlCCONCEPTSORMETHODSINORDERTOANALYSEMORE EFFECTIVELYOLDTOPICSORNEWSOCIALFORMATIONS ASEXEMPLIlEDIN2ICHARD6OKES INNOVATIVEUSEOFTHERADIOASARESEARCHTOOLIN5GANDA ORIN!MANDA2AVETZS EXPLORATIONOFTHEUSESOFPHOTOGRAPHY )FCREATIVITYISTOMEANANYTHINGITHASTOBEFRAMEDBYCONCRETESITUATIONS RATHER THAN ABSTRACT PROPOSITIONS -OREOVER WE HAVE TO DECIDE WHETHER THE CREATIVEPROCESSINANTHROPOLOGYISDIFFERENTFROMANYOTHERKINDnBEARINGIN MIND%DMUND,EACHSn COMMENTTHATANTHROPOLOGISTSAREUSUALLY BADNOVELISTS4HISISPRECISELYTHEISSUETHAT4REVOR3TACKAND2OBEY#ALLAHAN ADDRESSINTHEIRCHAPTERCOMPARINGTHEWORKOFlCTIONWRITERS ANTHROPOLOGISTSAND ADVERTISINGCREATIVES"YWAYOFINTRODUCTION )WANTTOREFOCUSONCREATIVITYBY EXPANDINGONANDREINVIGORATINGTHENOTIONOFTHElELD)NPARTICULAR MYCONCERNIS TOINTEGRATETHEACTIVITIESOFTEACHINGANDRESEARCH#ONVENTIONALLY THElELDREFERS TOTHELOCATIONINWHICHANETHNOGRAPHERCONDUCTSEMPIRICALRESEARCH TYPICALLY ADENSENETWORKOFPEOPLEDElNEDGEOGRAPHICALLY4HISNOTIONOFTHElELDIS ROOTEDINSTRUCTURALFUNCTIONALISMANDITSATTENDANTLITERARYFORM THEMONOGRAPH WHICHFOCUSEDONTHEBOUNDEDlELDASASETOFRELATIONS(ART 7HATDOES nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION AlELDSITEMEANINCONTEMPORARYANTHROPOLOGY #ANAMONOGRAPHCAPTURETHAT PLACE 7HATFORMMIGHTBEBETTERSUITED 4HESEQUESTIONSSHOULDBEPRACTICALAND METHODOLOGICAL RATHERTHANABSTRACT )NTHESTUDYOF,ATIN!MERICANPEASANTRIESnMYOWNREGIONALINTERESTnTHE CONVENTIONALNOTIONOFTHElELDCAMEUNDERATTACKOVERlFTYYEARSAGO4HEDElNING INTELLECTUALMOMENTWASWHEN*ULIAN3TEWARDORGANIZEDTHE0EOPLEOF0UERTO 2ICOPROJECTINTHEEARLYS.EWMETHODOLOGICALANDTHEORETICALQUESTIONS WERECATAPULTEDTOTHEFOREFRONTOFTHESTUDYOFNON TRIBALPEOPLESCAUGHTUPIN LABOURMIGRATIONS AGRICULTURALMODERNIZATIONANDCLASSINEQUALITY)NTHISAND SUBSEQUENTWORKCONCERNINGPEASANTRIESIN,ATIN!MERICA INNOVATIONSWEREMADE INTHEFORMOFWRITINGANDMETHODFOREXAMPLE THELIFEHISTORYMETHOD USEDBY 3IDNEY-INTZ TOLOOKATBOTHPERSONALANDGLOBALCHANGE AND%RIC7OLFS SYNTHETICUSEOFANTHROPOLOGY ARCHAEOLOGYANDHISTORYTOSTUDYETHNICITY IN'UATEMALAAND-EXICO4HISWASNOTACASEOFLOSINGSIGHTOFTHEVILLAGE BUTOFUNDERSTANDINGTHATITWAS INIMPORTANTWAYS SHAPEDANDCONSTRAINEDBY PROCESSESANDMOVEMENTSOFPEOPLEOUTSIDETHEIMMEDIATEAREA.EWFORMS OFANTHROPOLOGICALENGAGEMENTWERENECESSARYTOUNDERSTANDTHESEPROCESSES &IELDWORK BASEDETHNOGRAPHYWASTOOLIMITED#OMPLEMENTARYTECHNIQUESAND SOURCESWEREREQUIRED SUCHASlLMS NOVELS ARCHIVESANDJOURNALISM TOEXPRESS THEINTERTWININGOFDIFFERENTWAYSOFKNOWINGTHEWORLD -ORE RECENTLY ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT HAS PRODUCED SIMILAR INNOVATION IN SCOPE!LTHOUGHNOTUNIQUELYRESPONSIBLE -ICHAEL*ACKSONS0ATHS4OWARDA #LEARING PIONEEREDANAPPROACHINWHICHEXPERIENCEWASFOREGROUNDED BOTHASAPARTICIPATORYMETHODACTIVEINVOLVEMENTINPRACTICALLIFE INTHElELD ANDANEPISTEMOLOGICALORIENTATIONPHENOMENOLOGY 4HISARGUMENTHELPSTO OPENUPTHESTAGESINWHICHANTHROPOLOGICALKNOWLEDGEISMADE RUNNINGFROM lELDSITETOACADEMY SINCEITFORCESAREmECTIONONTHEMOVEFROMUNARTICULATED EXPERIENCETOEXPLICITLYARTICULATED REPRESENTATIONALFORMS-OREOVER ITDREW ATTENTIONAWAYFROMTHETEXTnTHATIS FROMPREOCCUPATIONSWITH@WRITINGCULTURE nTOWARDSANDINTOTHEWORLDITSELF)NMYTERMS THEEMPHASISONEXPERIENCEISA WAYOFRECLAIMING6ICOSPROJECTFORTHESTUDYOFHUMANITY GROUNDINGITINWHAT HUMANSSHAREASTHEIRCOMMONHERITAGEANDINWHATCONNECTSTHEMTOONEANOTHER 4HElELD INEFFECT COMPRISESTHEMANIFOLDPATHWAYSCONNECTINGVARIETIESOF SUBJECTIVEEXPERIENCE !NOTHERCONSEQUENCEOFTHEEXPERIENTIALTURNWASTOQUESTIONTHEBOUNDARIES BETWEENCOMMON SENSEKNOWLEDGE OFTHEEVERYDAYKINDTHATETHNOGRAPHERS COLLECT ANDTHESORTOFEXPERTKNOWLEDGEFOREXAMPLE OFKINSHIPSYSTEMS THATWASSUPPOSEDTORESULTFROMSPECIALISTANALYSISBYTRAINEDANTHROPOLOGISTS ANDTHATTHEYALONECOULDUNDERSTAND4HEFOCUSONEXPERIENCETHREATENEDTHIS DIVISIONBYREFUSINGTOALLOWTHATKNOWLEDGE SINCEITISALWAYSCONNECTEDTO PERCEPTIONANDSENSATION COULDEVERESCAPETHEWORLD-OREOVERTHIS@RADICAL nn
-ARK(ARRIS EMPIRICISM AS*ACKSON CALLEDHISAPPROACH FORCEDACONSIDERATIONOF WHETHERANETHNOGRAPHERSAPPRENTICESHIPINANOTHERWAYOFLIFEISREALLYANY DIFFERENT INPRINCIPLE FROMACHILDSLEARNINGTHEBUSINESSOFLIFEAMONGSTFAMILY ANDNEIGHBOURS)STHElELDWORKERSEDUCATIONSODIFFERENTFROMTHEINTERPERSONAL ENCOUNTERS IN WHICH ALL SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE SUBSISTS !LTHOUGH THEY ARE ORGANIZEDANDVALUEDDIFFERENTLY THEYINTERTWINEINWAYSTHATREVEALANINNOVATIVE DYNAMICTHATHASALWAYSBEENIMPORTANTTOANTHROPOLOGY)SHALLILLUSTRATETHIS POINTBRIEmYBYTURNINGTOTHERELATIONBETWEENCREATIVITYANDTEACHING AGAINWITH REFERENCETOTHENOTIONOFTHElELD )TISUNCOMMONFORANTHROPOLOGISTSTOREmECTONTHEIRTEACHINGEXPERIENCE AND EVENMOREUNCOMMONFORTHEMTOWRITEABOUTTEACHINGASACREATIVEEXERCISE) COULDNOT FORINSTANCE lNDANYONEWILLINGTOPRESENTACONTRIBUTIONONTEACHING TOTHECONFERENCESESSIONON@THECREATIVITYOFANTHROPOLOGICALSCHOLARSHIPON WHICHTHISPARTOFTHEBOOKISBASED4HEREARE HOWEVER SOMEEXCEPTIONSINTHE HISTORYOFANTHROPOLOGY%DMUND,EACH WHOHADMUCHTOSAYABOUTTHECLEAR COMMUNICATIONOFIDEASnESPECIALLYINTEACHINGnANDDEVOTEDSIGNIlCANTTIME TOSTUDENTS(UGH *ONES4AMBIAH SAIDINHISlFTH2EITHLECTURE DELIVEREDON""#RADIOIN #ERTAINLYTHEYOUNGNEEDTOBEEDUCATEDTHEYNEEDTOBETAUGHTTOGAINCONlDENCEIN THEASTONISHINGPOWEROFTHEIRIMAGINATIONS"UTTHEYDONTNEEDTOBELOADEDDOWN WITHTHECLUTTEROFUSELESSINFORMATIONWHICHISALLTHATTRADITIONALSCHOLARSHIPHASTO OFFER/NLYTHOSEWHOHOLDTHEPASTINCOMPLETECONTEMPTAREEVERLIKELYTOSEEVISIONS OFTHE.EW*ERUSALEM,EACH
!LTHOUGHTHISPASSAGEWASOFITSTIMEANDSPOKETOTHEGENERATIONALTENSIONS OF"RITISHSOCIETYINTHES ITSHOULDSTILLPROVOKEANYTEACHERWHOWISHESTO RELEASETHEPOWEROFSTUDENTSIMAGINATIONS)ASSUMETHATPUSHINGTHEPASTTOONE SIDEWHICHISTOSAYTHATCONSERVATISMISAMATTEROFCHOICEANDNOTOFSCHOLARLY NECESSITY ANDWORKINGTHINGSOUTFORONESELFISCREATIVE)NDEED )BELIEVETHE SPIRITOF,EACHSARGUMENTISTHATNOBODYLEARNSWITHOUTTRYINGSOMETHINGOUT FORHIM ORHERSELF7ITHTHISEXPERIMENTALAPPROACHTOPEDAGOGY ,EACHSAW ANTHROPOLOGYASAPERSONALSKILLREQUIRINGTRAINING ANDNOTASASERIESOFTHEORIES ORFACTSTOBELEARNED,EACH 9ETHOWCANTHISAPPROACHPOSSIBLYWORKAS ATEACHINGPROGRAMMEINUNIVERSITIES POLICEDASTHEYAREBYQUALITYASSURANCE ANDAUDITS 4HEREHAVEBEENMANYEXAMPLESIN"RITAINOVERTHELASTDECADEOR SO BUTFEWOFTHEMHAVEBEENREmECTEDUPONSUFlCIENTLYTOMAKETHEIRWAYINTO PRINTSEE FOREXAMPLE THE# 3!0WEBSITE'RIMSHAWETAL)NGOLDWITH ,UCASFORTHCOMING )NTERESTINGLY THESEEXPERIMENTALPROGRAMMESHAVETAKEN PLACEMOSTLYINDEPARTMENTSOFANTHROPOLOGYLINKEDTOASPECIALISTCENTREVISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY-ANCHESTER SEE2AVETZ THISVOLUME #HAPTER ETHNOMUSICOLOGY nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION "ELFAST COMPUTING+ENT !TTHEHEARTOFTHESEMOVESISANATTEMPTTOMAKETHE TEACHINGPROCESSMORELIKETHERESEARCHPROCESS4HISISTOENCOURAGESTUDENTSTO BECOMERESEARCHERS DISCOVERINGTHEIRSUBJECTSFORTHEMSELVES WITHTHEIRTEACHERS GUIDINGTHEMALONGTHEWAY 4HEREISNOTHINGNEWABOUTSEEINGTEACHINGANDRESEARCHASCOMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES BUTTHISHASBEENMOREFROMTHEPOINTOFVIEWOFTHEACADEMICTHAN FROMTHATOFTHESTUDENT4HERECENTSWITCHTOWARDSAMORESTUDENT CENTREDVIEW HASBEENMOTIVATEDBYATHEORETICALEMPHASIS NOTEDABOVE ONTHEEXPERIENTIAL ASPECTSOFSOCIALLIFE,EARNING ACCORDINGTO4IM)NGOLDFORTHCOMING ISAN EXPLORATORYPRACTICETHATGENERATESITSOWNKNOWLEDGEANDUNDERSTANDING)FTHIS ARGUMENTWORKSFORLEARNINGINSOCIALANDCULTURALLIFE THENWHYSHOULDITNOT BEAPPLIEDTOMOREFORMALEDUCATIONALENVIRONMENTS SUCHASTHETEACHINGOF ANTHROPOLOGY )NTHISLIGHT LEARNINGBECOMESTANTAMOUNTTOACQUIRINGTHESKILLS OFPERCEPTION OBSERVATIONANDIMAGINATION4OGETHERWITH2AY,UCAS )NGOLD HASTAUGHTACOURSEAT!BERDEENALONGTHESELINES)TNATURALLYRAISEDAHOSTOF QUESTIONS NOTLEASTOFWHICHWASHOWTOASSESSSTUDENTWORK"UTINITSREJECTION OFTHEDIVISIONBETWEENLEARNINGANDRESEARCH THEORYANDPRACTICE DISCOVERYAND CREATIVITY ITFORCESANAWARENESSOFTHEPROCESSOFMAKINGANANTHROPOLOGICAL ARGUMENT)TTHROWSINTORELIEFTHECHANGESASTUDENTUNDERGOESINTHECOURSEOF LEARNING ALONGWITHTHEMETHODSANDRESOURCESUSEDANDSOCIALRELATIONSENGAGED TOMAKEPROGRESS,EARNINGTHENBECOMESAJOURNEYINWHICHKNOWLEDGEISNOTSO MUCHPASSEDDOWNREADY MADEASCONTINUALLYPRODUCEDUNDERCONDITIONSTHAT FAR FROMBEINGOBSCUREDANDMYSTIlED ACTUALLYPROPELSTUDENTSFORWARD4HESAME KINDOFJOURNEYISENTAILEDINPOSTGRADUATEANDESTABLISHEDACADEMICWORK EVEN THOUGHWEMAYWISHTODENYORDISTORTIT !LLTHESEPOINTSCOMETOGETHERINASUPERBARTICLEBY!LBERTO#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZ WHICHCONSIDERSTHEAUTHORSEXPERIENCEOFRESEARCHINGMININGCOMMUNITIES IN#HILE INTHESAMEPLACEASTHEUNIVERSITYWHEREHEWASALSOWORKING!SWELL ASTEACHINGHISSTUDENTSTHECLASSICALTEXTS HEENGAGEDTHEMWITHSOMEOFHISOWN RESEARCHTOTHEEXTENTTHATSOMEOFTHEMBECAMEHISINFORMANTSnHENCETHETITLE OFHISESSAY @TEACHINGTHElELD(OWEVER THEYWEREALSOTHROWINGBACKATHIM SOMEOFTHECONCEPTSANDTHEORIESlRSTENCOUNTEREDINTEACHING4HIS HEARGUES WASA@REDUPLICATIONOFKNOWLEDGETHATREVERSEDTHENORMALmOWOFINFORMATION FROMTHElELDOFOBSERVATIONTOTHEANALYTICALlELDOFWRITINGUP3TUDENTSUSED IDEASTHEYENCOUNTEREDINTEACHINGTOMAKESENSEOFTHEIROWNLIVESANDTHOSE OFOTHERS#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZARGUESTHATTHISASPECTOFTEACHINGGIVESITASPECIAL @ETHNOGRAPHICNESS UNITINGTHEDIFFERENTlELDSOFANTHROPOLOGICALWORKSUCHAS THElELDWORKSITE THECANTEEN THESEMINARROOM OFlCE ANDSOON%THNOGRAPHY DOES NOT PRODUCE KNOWLEDGE AS SUCH RATHER IT MOBILIZES KNOWLEDGE ACROSS PLACES#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZ &OLLOWING-ARILYN3TRATHERN THIS CANBESEENASA@RESCALINGOFKNOWLEDGE THATIS AMOVEMENTBETWEENORDERSOF nn
-ARK(ARRIS SIGNIlCATION4HENOTIONOFTHElELDINTHISARGUMENTISREINVIGORATEDTHROUGHITS EMPLACEMENTWITHTHEETHNOGRAPHERWHOCOULDBETHESTUDENTORTHEPROFESSIONAL ANTHROPOLOGIST ASHEORSHEMOVESBETWEENDIFFERENTCONTEXTSANDRELATIONS4HE lELDISLIKEAMAPONWHICHPATHSOFKNOWLEDGEAREINSCRIBED ECHOING)NGOLDS ARGUMENTTHATKNOWLEDGE lNDINGISAFORMOFWAYFARINGORTHETRACINGOF ACONTINUOUSLINE .EWLYESTABLISHEDTEACHERS FRESHFROMTHEIRRECENTDOCTORALlELDWORK MAKE BETTERTEACHERS ACCORDINGTO#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZ4HEYAREKEENERTOENGAGEINTHE ETHNOGRAPHICNESSOFTEACHING TOENCOURAGESTUDENTSTOTHINKWITHANDAPPLY THECATEGORIESANDCONCEPTSOFETHNOGRAPHY#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZ /LDER TEACHERSARELIKELYTOBELESSCONVERSATIONALLYINCLINED WHICHISTOSAYTHATTHEY MIGHTBEFURTHERFROMTHEDIALOGICANDRELATIONALCONTEXTSOFPARTICIPATIONIN THEIRlELDSITE THOUGHTHEYMAYOTHERWISEBEBETTERREADANDINTELLECTUALLYMORE RIGOROUS4HISCONTENTIONISNOTASPOLEMICALASITSEEMSITWASMADEBY%DMUND ,EACHINHIS2EITH,ECTURESnNOTEACHEROFYOUNGPEOPLE ,EACHDECLARED SHOULDBEOVERFORTY lVEYEARSOFAGE4EACHING #ORSÄN*IM¿NEZTELLSUS ISTHE @PARADIGMATICFORMOFANTHROPOLOGICALKNOWLEDGE )NTHETERMS )HAVEINTRODUCEDHERE lELDWORKISNOTGROUNDEDINASPECIlCLOCATION7ECAN OPENOUTTHENOTIONOFTHElELDTOINCLUDETHEWORKOFTEACHING WHEREATEACHER ANDSTUDENTALSOENGAGEINTHEACTIVITYOFETHNOGRAPHICLABOURDEPLOYINGCONCEPTS INNEWCONTEXTSANDMAKINGTHEEFFORTTOEXPLAINANUNFAMILIARARGUMENT !NDIF WESEETHEUNIVERSITYCONTEXTSINWHICHWEWORKASANOTHERKINDOFlELD THENWE CANOPENUPTHEMOVEMENTOFKNOWLEDGETOMETHODOLOGICALSCRUTINY )HAVESHOWNBRIEmYHOWRESEARCHANDTEACHINGHAVEBEENSUBJECTTOINNOVA TIONSANDREmECTIONSTHATHAVEMOVEDBEYONDARESTRICTEDNOTIONOFTHElELDAND ACADEMICLABOUR4HESEDEVELOPMENTSHAVEBEENMETHODOLOGICALINCHARACTERAND HAVEBEENINTENDEDTODEMYSTIFYTHECONDITIONSINWHICHETHNOGRAPHERSCOMETO UNDERSTANDTHEIRSUBJECTS4HEMOVEMENT AS#ORSÄN*IM¿NEZSHOWS ISBETWEEN DIFFERENTORDERSOFUNDERSTANDING)NSTEADOFSQUASHINGTHECREATIVEPROCESSINTO ANENDPOINT SUCHASTHEWRITTENETHNOGRAPHYORTHECLASSROOMLECTURE WECAN SEEITASACONTINUOUSPATHCONNECTINGPLACESANDPERSONS4HOSEPATHSAREANTHRO POLOGICALWAYSOFKNOWING3OLONGASWEPERSISTINSEEINGASPECIlCKINDOF lELDWORKASTHEINITIALEXPERIENCEOFANTHROPOLOGY )BELIEVEWEREDUCETHECREATIVE POTENTIALOFTHEDISCIPLINE4HISUNDERSTANDINGOFlELDWORKISTOOOFTENLINKEDTO THETOOLBOXIMAGEOFMETHODOLOGY ASTHOUGHITCONSISTEDOFANASSORTMENTOF INSTRUMENTSTOBEPICKEDUPANDPUTDOWN ORLEFTLYINGAROUNDINTHElELD RATHER THANEMBODIEDSKILLSREQUIRINGEDUCATION INSEPARABLEFROMTHEIRUSERS)DONOT MEANTONEGATETHESIGNIlCANCEOFlELDWORKORITSDATA ORTOIMPLYANYANTI SCIENCESENTIMENT/NTHECONTRARY )MAINTAINTHATTHECREATIVITYOFANTHROPOLOGY LIESINITSlDELITYTOEXPERIENCEANDTHEWORLD ANDITSREVELATIONOFTHECONNECTIONS OFSUBJECTANDOBJECT nn
0ART )NTRODUCTION 4HETHREECHAPTERSHEREPROVOKEARETHINKINGOFMETHODOLOGY4HEYARGUE FOR MORE OPENNESS AND MORE ANALYTICAL ATTENTION TO THE PROCESS OF MAKING ANTHROPOLOGY 7HILE THE DISCIPLINE IS NO LONGER COMMITTED TO THE KIND OF lELDWORK BASEDETHNOGRAPHYTHATAIMEDTOUNCOVERSOCIALSTRUCTURESANDREVEAL THEIRFUNCTIONS ITISNOTYETCLEARWHATHASREPLACEDIT4HISISPARTLYDUETO THEGROWTHANDSUBSEQUENTPARTITIONINGOFANTHROPOLOGYINTOSUBDISCIPLINES! COMMONAIMHASBECOMEFRAGMENTED4HECHAPTERSINTHISPART INTHEIRDIFFERENT WAYS REVEALWHATANECLECTICANDMETHODOLOGICALLYSOPHISTICATEDANTHROPOLOGY COULDLOOKLIKEANDTHEREAREOTHEREXAMPLES TOBESURE %ACHONEENGAGESIN ACONVERSATIONBETWEENANTHROPOLOGYANDANOTHERSUBJECTRADIOBROADCASTING PHOTOGRAPHYANDCREATIVEWRITING4HISFRAMINGISINTENDEDTOBEANADVANCE ON THE @ANTHROPOLOGIES OF THAT TURN EVERY OTHER SUBJECT INTO AN OBJECT OF INVESTIGATION)NSTEADWEHAVE@ANTHROPOLOGYAND%VERYSUCHCOMBINATION OPENSADEBATE ANINTERROGATIONPERHAPS BUTALWAYSONAMOREEQUALFOOTING 4HISEXPLICITNESSCONCERNINGMETHODANDTHEORYISAFORMALIZATIONOFWHATHAS ALWAYSBEENATTHEHEARTOFANTHROPOLOGY7ITHITSTWO SIDEDNATURE ONEFOOT INTHElELDANDTHEOTHERINTHEACADEMY ANTHROPOLOGYSCREATIVEMOTORHAS BEENITSUNIQUEANDAMBIVALENTIDENTITY!S'RIMSHAWAND(ARTARGUE @ITMIGHTBESAIDTHAT COMPAREDWITHTHEOTHERSCIENCESANDHUMANITIES ANTHROPOLOGYHASREMAINEDINIMPORTANTWAYSANANTI DISCIPLINEnTAKINGITSIDEAS FROMANYWHERE STRIVINGFORTHEWHOLE CONSTANTLYREINVENTINGPROCEDURESONTHE MOVE.EVERTHELESSTHEREISANOPPOSITETENDENCYWITHWHICHANTHROPOLOGISTS STRUGGLETHEMOVETOFORMALIZETHESEINFORMALPROCEDURES ANDTOINSTITUTIONALIZE THEANTI DISCIPLINEnINSHORT TOKEEPANTHROPOLOGYGOINGASAUNIVERSITY BASED SUBJECT4HEFOLLOWINGCHAPTERSEXEMPLIFYTHISSTRUGGLEANDTHEINNOVATIVEAND IMPROVISATIONALSPIRITOFANTHROPOLOGY4HEYARENOTSOMUCHCONCERNEDWITH CREATIVITYPERSEINANTHROPOLOGICALSCHOLARSHIPASWITHSOMEASPECTSOFTHEWAYIN WHICHANTHROPOLOGYCANWORKCREATIVELY
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)NTRODUCTION )N2AW(ISTORIES ACOLLECTIONOFESSAYSABOUTPHOTOGRAPHY ANTHROPOLOGYAND MUSEUMS %LIZABETH%DWARDS SHOWSHOWTHEPOINTSOFFRACTUREINTHE ETHNOGRAPHICIMAGESSHEPRESENTSADMITCONTESTEDHISTORIESANDPRACTICESATODDS WITHTHEFORMSOFCLOSUREATTEMPTEDBYTHEIRMAKERS5NDERSTOODASMATERIAL OBJECTS WITH THEIR OWN SOCIAL BIOGRAPHIES PHOTOGRAPHS HAVE AN AMBIGUOUS CHARACTERASALSODISCUSSEDBY"ERGERn THATCHALLENGESTHEIDEAOF THEARCHIVEASANEMBODIMENTOFHOMOGENIZINGMETADISCOURSES@-EANINGSARE MADETHROUGHDYNAMICRELATIONSBETWEENPHOTOGRAPHSANDCULTURETHATDONOT STOPATTHEDOOROFTHEARCHIVE%DWARDS 4HISAMBIGUITYALLOWSTHE PHOTOGRAPHICIMAGETOBEUSEDASATOOLTOINTERROGATECONTEMPORARY7ESTERN MUSEUMSREPRESENTATIONSOFPOST COLONIALANDMINORITYCULTURES(ERE @SHIFTSIN ASSUMPTIONSABOUTTHEROLEOFPHOTOGRAPHY ESPECIALLYINETHNOGRAPHICMUSEUMS CANFUNCTIONASANINTERPRETATIVESTRATEGYORASASITEOFTRANSLATIONWITHINTHE PUBLICSPACEOFTHEMUSEUMIBID !TTHEINTERSECTIONOFMUSEUM ANTHROPOLOGY PHOTOGRAPHYANDCULTURE ITIS INCREASINGLYTHElGUREOFTHEARTISTWHOSTANDSASANINTERMEDIARY FACILITATING A CRITIQUE OF MUSEUM PRACTICE AND REVEALING @THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL BASE OF COLLECTINGANDTHEMUSEUMTHROUGHCOUNTER NARRATIVEIBID !RTISTS WORK SPECIlCALLYTHEIRUSEOFPHOTOGRAPHY CANBECOMEAMEANSTOQUESTION AUTHORITATIVEFORMSOFCULTURALAPPROPRIATIONANDREPRESENTATION4HEABILITYOF ARTISTSTOTAKEUPTHISPOSITIONREmECTSADOMINANTSTRANDOFCONTEMPORARYART PRACTICETHATHASITSROOTSINTHETWENTIETH CENTURYAVANT GARDEANDWHICHPUTS PARTICULAREMPHASISON@ARTASAVERB!RTINTHISMODEISTHOUGHTTODOWORK AND TODOSOTHROUGHSELF CONSCIOUSLYCONTINGENT AFFECTIVEANDINTERRUPTEDMEANS 2AVETZ FORTHCOMING nn
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#ONCLUSION %LIZABETH %DWARDS SHOWS HOW THE DYNAMIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PHOTOGRAPHS ANDCULTUREGENERATEMEANINGSBEYONDTHEDISCIPLINARYFUNCTIONOFTHEARCHIVE 3HE ARGUES THAT SHIFTS IN ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PHOTOGRAPHYS ROLE OPEN UP A SITEOFTRANSLATION4HEWORKOFANUMBEROFCONCEPTUALARTISTSINTHES SUGGESTSTHATTHISDYNAMICCOULDBEADDRESSEDANDUSEDBYARTISTSINCONSCIOUS WAYS THROUGH MAKING PHOTOGRAPHS THAT ENGAGE AND OFTEN MANIPULATE THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE VIEWER )F ARTISTS USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY CAN BE A WAY OF QUESTIONINGTHEAUTHORITATIVEFORMSOFCULTURALREPRESENTATIONANDAPPROPRIATION THEWORKSHOPDESCRIBEDHERESETOUTINAMODESTWAYTOASKIFANTHROPOLOGICAL USESOFPHOTOGRAPHYMIGHTUSEFULLYASPIRETOSOMETHINGSIMILAR4HETHESISOF THISCHAPTERISTHATONEOFTHETHINGSTHATSTANDSBETWEENANTHROPOLOGYANDA MOREEXTENDEDUSEOFPHOTOGRAPHYISTHECONSISTENTAMBITIONFORTHECAMERATO ACTASARECORDINGDEVICE !RTISTSINTHESTOOKTHISSAMEFEATUREANDDIDSOMETHINGDIFFERENTWITHIT THEYMANIPULATEDTHEDYNAMICBETWEENIMAGEANDHOWITISREAD TRYINGTOlNDA SPACEFORREmEXIVITYWITHINTHEVIEWINGOFTHEIMAGE4HISREQUIREDWHAT#ATHERINE 2USSELL INRELATIONTOEXPERIMENTALETHNOGRAPHY HASCALLEDAMOVEFROM THEDOCUMENTATIONOFCULTURETOEXPERIMENTINGWITHCULTURALPHENOMENA4HIS MIGHTBESAIDTOINVOLVEANABILITYBOTHTOBEWITHINASITUATIONANDTOTRACKYOUR MOVEMENTSTHROUGHIT ASWELLASTOUNDERSTANDIMAGEASAFFECTnTHATIS TOLEARN TOREADANIMAGETHROUGHADIFFERENTSETOFCOORDINATESTHANTHOSECONVENTIONALLY ASSUMEDINTHEPRODUCTIONANDCONSUMPTIONOFETHNOGRAPHICIMAGES -AC$OUGALLCONCURSWITH'RIMSHAWSANALYSISTHATANTHROPOLOGYS@LOSTVISION SEEMSTOHAVEOCCURREDATTHESAMETIMEASTHE'REAT7AR AMOMENTOFSPIRITUAL ANDINTELLECTUALDRAMATHATALIENATEDTHESENSES PARTICULARLYVISION-AC$OUGALL POINTSOUTTHATTHISMAYALSOHAVELEDTOAMORESOPHISTICATEDUNDERSTANDINGOFTHE INTERSECTIONOFVISIONWITHLANGUAGE BODYANDMINDnWHILEMODERNISMQUESTIONED SURFACEAPPEARANCES ITALSOCELEBRATEDTHEEXPRESSIVENESSOFTHEVISUAL@7HEN ANTHROPOLOGISTSMOREORLESSSTOPPEDUSINGVISUALIMAGES ITWASNOTNECESSARILY FORTHEREASONTHATTHEYHADLOSTTHEPOWEROFVISUALIMAGINATIONBUTTHATTHEY HADNOTYETFOUNDTHEMEANSTOMAKEVISUALEXPRESSIONCOMMENSURATEWITHTHEIR
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2OBEY#ALLAHANAND4REVOR3TACK
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2OBEY#ALLAHANAND4REVOR3TACK /URTIMEINTHElELDISOFTENONEOFNEAR CONTINUOUSmUXANDENGAGEMENT #AROLYN INCOMMONWITHMANYOFUS FOUNDTHAT WITHALLTHE@THINGS;THAT=HAPPEN INlELDWORK SHEHARDLYEVERHADTIMETOWITHDRAWANDREmECTnTODISENGAGE ANDFOCUSONWRITINGlELDNOTES,IKEAlCTIONWRITERSJOURNAL ANANTHROPOLOGISTS lELDNOTESREPRESENTASORTOFHALFWAYHOUSEONTHEROADTOAPUBLISHABLEPIECE ANDYETTHEYARESOMUCHMORE7ITHINTHERELATIVESAFETYANDDISTANCETHEY PROVIDE THEMANYFAILURESANDTRIUMPHSOFDAILYLIFEINTHElELDAREBROUGHTINTO SOMESEMBLANCEOFTEMPORARYORDER FORENDSNOTSIMPLYACADEMIC4HETASKOF WRITINGlELDNOTESISMORETHANONEOFRECORDING ANDPERHAPSCODIFYING DATAON APIECEMEALBASIS)TREQUIRESASORTOF@ROOMOFONESOWNFORMANY ALTHOUGHTHE @WALLSOFTHAT@ROOMUSUALLYNEEDNOTANDCANNOT BEASSOLIDANDIMPENETRABLE ASTHOSEOFOURROOM@BACKHOME9ETTHElELDNOTESPACECANALSOBEAVITALFORM OFPERSONALTHERAPYnAWAYOFCOMMUNICATING EVENIFONLYINFANTASY WITHTHOSE WHOSHAREOUROWNVALUESANDNORMSANDWHOMAYSYMPATHIZEWITHOURPLIGHTS INWAYSOURSUBJECTSPERHAPSCANNOT 4HE@WRITINGSTAGEINANTHROPOLOGYISNORMALLYCONSIDEREDQUITESEPARATE FROMTHE@lELDWORKSTAGE"EFOREWRITINGOFTHEETHNOGRAPHYPROPERCANBEGIN HOWEVER THEETHNOGRAPHERMUSTHAVESOMEGROUNDINGIDEATOGUIDEHISORHER EFFORTS&OR4RUDY ASFORMOSTETHNOGRAPHERS THISIDEABEGINSLIFEWITHINHER ORIGINALPROPOSAL ANDTHEN@DEVELOPSANDCHANGESASETHNOGRAPHICMATERIALIS COLLECTED)FABIG TRANSFORMATIVEEUREKAMOMENTDIDNOTEMERGEINTHEmUXOF THElELD THENIDEALLYITSHOULDCOME UNBIDDENYETDESIRED AFTERWARDS!SSUMING THATITHASCOME THEREREMAINSTHETASKOFlNDINGTHERIGHTCONDITIONSINWHICH TOWRITE!NDREW ANETHNOGRAPHERNOVELIST SPEAKSOFTHENEEDTOSTRIKEABALANCE BETWEEN@EMOTIONALPROXIMITYASASTIMULUSTOWRITING AND@CRITICALDISTANCEAS ASTIMULUSTOWRITINGETHNOGRAPHY 4HEWRITINGSTAGEOFTENTAKESPLACEATGREATPHYSICALREMOVEFROMTHElELD &ORSOMEETHNOGRAPHERSTHISDISTANCEISESSENTIALFORFOCUS ANDTHEIRmUXPERIODS OCCURWHILEWADINGTHROUGHlELDNOTESORSIMPLYGOINGABOUTTHEIRLIVES ASTHEY DOFORADVERTISINGCREATIVESANDlCTIONWRITERS4HEIR@ROOMSRESEMBLEINMOST RESPECTSTHOSEOFTHElCTIONWRITERSWEHAVEALREADYMETSOMEPREFERTHESOLITUDE OFOFlCEORHOME WHILEOTHERSlNDCOMFORTANDFOCUSINTHEWHITENOISEOFPUBLIC SPACES&OR-ARK ITISACOMBINEDSPACEOFFOCUSANDmUXnAQUIETPLACETHATIS ALSO@SOMEWHEREYOUCANJUSTLETYOURNOTEBOOKS BINDERS DOCUMENTS RECORDS WHAT HAVE YOUEXPLODE 3OMEETHNOGRAPHERS HOWEVER FEELDRAWNTOWRITESOMEORALLOFTHEIRETHNO GRAPHIESINTHElELDANDlNDITPOSSIBLETOACHIEVEASENSEOFDISTANCEBYOTHER MEANS7HILEFOR*EREMY@THEREISACERTAINCLARITYINTHINKINGABOUTSOMETHING FROMAFAR THEREAREBENElTSINBEINGPRESENT;INTHElELD=ANDDETACHED ;INSOMEOTHERWAY=3TACKWROTEHISDOCTORALDISSERTATIONINTHElELD BUTENJOYED AGOODDEALOFPRIVACYINTHATWEST-EXICANTOWN FULLOFLARGEANDOFTENEMPTY nn
!DVERTISING &ICTIONAND%THNOGRAPHY HOUSESnMANYRESIDENTSHAVINGLEFTTOWORKIN#ALIFORNIAWHILEOTHERHOUSES WEREOWNEDBYWEEKENDERSFROMTHECITY#ALLAHAN BYCONTRAST HADMUCHLESS PRIVACYINHIS9UCATECANVILLAGE BUTSTILLFELTSOMEWHATDETACHEDBYTHESIMPLE FACTOFWRITINGIN%NGLISH!GAIN THEREAREMANYWAYSOFBUILDINGA@ROOMOF ONESOWN !TTHEENDOFTHEDAY EVERYETHNOGRAPHER INCOMMONWITHEVERYADVERT ISINGCREATIVEANDEVERYlCTIONWRITER HASHISORHEROWNWAYSOFCREATIVELY ACCOMPLISHINGTHETASKSBEFOREHIMORHER3OMEOFTHESEMETHODSAREUNIQUELY PERSONALANDPERHAPSNOTEVENOPENTOCONSCIOUSREmECTIONOTHERSAREMOREOR LESSCULTURALLYESTABLISHED!LLARISEFROMANDGIVENEWLIFETOOURABIDINGSENSEAS MODERNSTHATNEWNESSISINHERENTLYVALUABLE
#ONCLUSION !LLCULTURESEMPHASIZETRADITIONANDNOVELTYTOSOMEDEGREE/NECANNOT IN ANYMEANINGFULSENSE HAVEONEWITHOUTTHEOTHER4HEINNOVATIONCANONLYBE RECOGNIZEDANDACKNOWLEDGEDASSUCHBYCONTRASTTOTHESTANDARDFROMWHICHIT DEVIATES(OWEVER SOMECULTURESAREFARMORERESISTANTTONOVELTY WHILEOTHERS FEELITSSEDUCTIVEPULLINNEARLYEVERYDOMAINOFLIFE3APIR NOTESTHAT AMONGTHE.AVAJO ACHANTPERFECTLYRENDEREDINLINEWITHTRADITIONALEXPECTATIONS MAYACCORDPRESTIGETOTHEPERFORMER7EKNOWTHATAMONGOURSELVES ACLEVER AD ATHOUGHT PROVOKINGNOVELORAGROUNDBREAKINGETHNOGRAPHYMAYBRING RECOGNITIONANDRESPECTTOITSCREATOR -ODERNCULTURES@QUESTFORNEWNESSNOTONLYlNDSEXPRESSIONINTHEELITE FORMSCONSUMEDBYVARIOUSSPECIALISTANDNON SPECIALISTAUDIENCESASWEHAVE SEEN ITALSOGIVESTHECREATIVITIESIMPLICATEDINTHEPRODUCTIONOFTHOSEFORMS THEIRPECULIARCHARACTERS7HILEWECOULDHAVEFOCUSEDSOLELYONTHEPRODUCTS OFCREATIVEACTIVITYFOREVIDENCEOFTHISUBIQUITOUSPATTERN WEHAVECHOSENTO INVESTIGATETHEDIFFERENCESINTHECREATIVEPROCESSESBEHINDTHEPRODUCTS 4IMEANDAGAINWEHAVESEENTHEIMPORTANCEOFMIMESIS OFTHEREPLICATIONOF TRADITION OFTHEMASTERYOFGENERICFORMS INTHECREATIONOFNOVELTYADVERTISING CREATIVESDRAWONPASTADS PARTICULARLYTHOSEWHICHHAVEPROVEDCOMMERCIALLY SUCCESSFUL TOGIVEDIRECTIONTOTHEIROWNWORKSlCTIONWRITERSSTRESSTHEIMPORTANCE OFREADING@GOODBOOKSASAGUIDETOPRODUCING@GOODlCTIONTHEMSELVESAND ETHNOGRAPHERSEMPHASIZEAFAMILIARITYWITHRELEVANTACADEMICWORKSANDEVINCE ADESIRETOSITUATETHEIROWNEFFORTS@WITHINTHELITERATURE9ETCAUGHTASWEARE WITHINWARPANDWOOFOFMODERNITYANDITSQUESTFORNEWNESS WEAREJUSTAS MUCHIMPELLEDTOREPRODUCENOVELTYASTHE.AVAJOSPECIALIST WHOSECULTURE UNDERSCORESTHEPOTENCYOFTRADITION ISIMPELLEDTOSEEKDISTINCTIONTHROUGHTHE CAREFULREPLICATIONOFPASTFORMS
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2OBEY#ALLAHANAND4REVOR3TACK 2EPRODUCINGNOVELTYMEANSEMBODYINGTHEPRACTICALSTEPS SHAREDOROTHER WISE THATLIBERATETHEINDIVIDUALTOWHATEVERDEGREEFROMTHEBURDENSOFTRADITION ANDTHATLEAVEHIMORHERMOREOPENTOUNEXPECTEDTURNSOFTHOUGHT)TALSOMEANS REmECTINGTOSOMEEXTENTUPONSUCHSTEPS DISPENSINGWITHSOMEOFTHEMAND MODIFYINGOTHERSINORDERTOBECOMEBETTERANDMORERELIABLECREATIVEPRODUCERS )NEACHOFTHETHREEDOMAINSEXPLOREDINTHISCHAPTER WEHAVEWITNESSEDWHATARE CLEARLYSHARED PROPERLY@CULTURALTECHNIQUESnTRICKSOFTHETRADE9ETWEHAVE ALSOWITNESSEDATlRSTHANDTHESOFTBORDERSBETWEENSHAREDCULTUREANDINDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY !CROSSTHEDOMAINSOFADVERTISING lCTIONANDETHNOGRAPHY WEHAVEENCOUNT EREDBOTHSIMILARITIESANDDIFFERENCESINPEOPLESEXPERIENCESOFCREATIVITY)NALL CASESWEHAVESEENTHATTHECREATIVEPROCESSENTAILSMOVEMENTBETWEENSPACES LITERALANDlGURATIVE WHICHAREBROADLYCHARACTERIZEDEITHERBYmUXANDENGAGE MENTAND SOMETIMES EUREKAMOMENTS ORBYFOCUSANDDISENGAGEMENT ALONG WITHOCCASIONALFORAYSINTOTHEMIDDLEGROUNDOFFOCUSEDmUX4HEREAREDIFFER ENCESTOO)NADVERTISING FORINSTANCE WElNDAGREATDEALOFATTENTIONPAIDTO CREATIVETECHNIQUESINVOLVINGCOLLABORATION!DVERTISINGISALSOPROBABLYTHE MOSTCREATIVEWHENITCOMESTOCREATINGNEWWAYSTOBECREATIVE 4HESOLUTIONS OFlCTIONWRITERSTEND LIKETHEIRWRITINGS TOBEMOREPRIVATEANDIDIOSYNCRATIC 9ETBOTHADVERTISINGCREATIVESANDlCTIONWRITERSSHAREAHIGHREGARDFORCREATIVITY ANDTHEYVIEWTHEMSELVESANDTHEIRBESTWORKSASSOMETIMESCLEVER SOMETIMES PROFOUNDANDSOMETIMESSIMPLYENTERTAININGnBUTALWAYSINNOVATIVE /UROWNBRIEFEXPLORATIONSHAVELEDUSTOSUGGESTTHATWEASETHNOGRAPHERS TOOOFTENDOWNPLAYTHEIMPORTANCEOFCREATIVEPROCESSESTHATDRAWTHEIRSPECIAL QUALITIESFROMTHEUNIQUEINTENSITYANDmUXOFOUR@DIRTYINGEXPOSUREINlELDS FOREIGNTOTHOSEOFOUR@NORMALLIVES!LTHOUGH*EREMY ALONGWITHMANYOF US IS@STRONGLYMOTIVATEDBYASENSEOFSCIENTIlCCREATIVITY ITSEEMSTHATWE AREATTHESAMETIMESOMEWHATSUSPICIOUSOFTHINKINGABOUTOURWORKASBEING FUNDAMENTALLYCREATIVE0ERHAPS THOUGH WECANSERVEOURSELVES OURDISCIPLINE ANDOURAUDIENCESBETTERNOTONLYBYACKNOWLEDGINGOURCREATIVITY BUTALSOBY ACTIVELYSEEKINGTOENHANCEIT BOTHTHROUGHPAYINGGREATERATTENTIONTOOUROWN TRADITIONALCREATIVE@SPACESANDTHROUGHOPENINGOURSELVESUPMORETOTHETRICKS OFOTHERCREATIVETRADES7EANTHROPOLOGISTSARE AFTERALL WHAT"ARTH CALLS @ENTREPRENEURS7EAREUNIlERSOFDISPARATEDOMAINSOFVALUE TRANSLATORS LINKERS ANDINNOVATORS)NSHORT WECREATE
!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7EAREGRATEFULTOTHEPARTICIPANTSINOURSTUDY SOMEOFWHOMKINDLYOFFERED FEEDBACKONEARLIERDRAFTSOFTHISCHAPTER#ALLAHANWOULDLIKETOTHANK INADDITION
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!DVERTISING &ICTIONAND%THNOGRAPHY TOHISCO AUTHOR *IM'ILBERTAGOODFRIEND EXCELLENTWRITERANDUNUSUALLYCREATIVE FORCE FORHISHELP
.OTES 5SEFULCOLLECTIONSANDSYNTHESESOFLITERATUREONCREATIVITYINCLUDE6ERNON 'LOVER 2ONNINGAND2EYNOLDS AND2UNCOAND0RITZKER /NEOFTHEFEWANTHROPOLOGICALCOLLECTIONSIS,AVIE .ARAYANAND2OSALDO #SIKSZENTMIHALYI USESTHETERM@mOWFORTHESTATEINWHICHINDIVIDUALS nONTHEIROWNORINGROUPSnMANAGETOREMAINFOCUSEDONSOMETHINGAND TOPURSUETHATTHINGINAPARTICULARDIRECTION)NOTHERWORDS HEUSES@mOW FORWHATWECALLASTATEOF@FOCUS(EGIVESLITTLEIMPORTANCETOWHATWECALL @mUX WHICHISAVERYDIFFERENTKINDOFMENTALMOVEMENT NOTINONEDIRECTION BUTINSEVERALSHIFTINGDIRECTIONS /URDISCUSSIONOFMODESOFBEINGINTHEWORLDHASOBVIOUSRESONANCEWITHTHE LITERATUREONPHENOMENOLOGYEG(EIDEGGER WHILETHENOTIONOFTHE MINDWORKINGBELOWTHELEVELOFCONSCIOUSNESSISRESONANTWITHPSYCHOANALYSIS EG"ROPHY 7EINTENDTOADDRESSTHESELITERATURESINFUTUREPUBLICATIONS TOGETHERWITHTHEPOLITICALECONOMYOFCREATIVITYEG.EGUSAND0ICKERING THEHISTORYOFTHECONCEPTOFTHE@CREATIVEIMAGINATIONEG%NGELL ANDTHECRITIQUEOFAUTHORIALINTENTIONINLITERARYSTUDIESEG"ARTHES 4HISINFORMATIONISDERIVEDFROM#ALLAHANSOBSERVATIONSFROMHISTIMEASA COPYWRITERWORKINGINAGENCIESIN%DINBURGHAND,ONDON4HEMATERIALON WHICHOURSTUDYISBASEDISDRAWNFROMTAPEDINTERVIEWSWITH ANDCOMPLETED QUESTIONNAIRESFROM MORETHANTWODOZENRESPONDENTS 3OMEOFTHESETECHNIQUESAREDISCUSSEDIN/,OONEYETALn 6ERITYS COMMENTS HERE ARE A BEAUTIFUL RENDITION OF THE MATHEMATICIAN 0OINCAR¿S;=n EXPERIENCEOFHISOWNCREATIVEPROCESSES LATER DEVELOPEDBY7ALLAS;= INTOHISTHEORYOFTHE@STAGESOFCREATIVITY PREPARATION INCUBATION ILLUMINATIONANDVERIlCATION0ARTICULARLYRELEVANTIS THEIRCONCEPTOF@INCUBATIONAFTERANINITIALCONSCIOUSATTEMPTATCREATIVITY USUALLYFRUITLESS IDEASCONTINUETOGESTATEUNCONSCIOUSLYORSEMI CONSCIOUSLY CF/,OONEYETAL 3OMEWRITERS LIKE*ULIO#ORT´ZAR ENTERINTOEXTREMESTATESOFDISENGAGEMENT SEPARATINGTHEMSELVESFROMOTHERSANDTHEWORLDFORLENGTHYPERIODSOFTIME nn
2OBEY#ALLAHANAND4REVOR3TACK #ORT´ZAR;= 4HISISLESSCOMMON BUTNOTUNKNOWN AMONGACAD EMICS WHOAREAFFORDEDSUCHSPACESINSABBATICALS 4HIS OFCOURSE RAISESTHEISSUEOFCREATIVE@PEAKS-ORESPECIlCALLY THESORTS OFCREATIVITYVALUEDINlCTION ASINDEEDINETHNOGRAPHY MEANITSPRACTITIONERS TENDTOPEAKCREATIVELYRATHERLATERINLIFETHANTHOSEWORKINGINADVERTISING /URUSEOF4URNERHEREISINSPIRED THOUGHTOASOMEWHATDIFFERENTPURPOSE BY 3HOSTAK WHOPROVIDESONEOFTHEFEWANTHROPOLOGICALACCOUNTSOF CREATIVITY
2EFERENCES !MABILE 4- #REATIVITYIN#ONTEXT5PDATETO4HE3OCIAL0SYCHOLOGYOF #REATIVITY "OULDER #OLOAND/XFORD7ESTVIEW0RESS "ARTH & 4HE2OLEOFTHE%NTREPRENEURIN3OCIAL#HANGEIN.ORTHERN .ORWAY /SLO5NIVERSITETSFORLAGET "ARTHES 2 )MAGE -USIC 4EXTTRANS3(EATH .EW9ORK(ILLAND 7ANG "ROPHY + #REATIVITY0SYCHOANALYSIS 3URREALISMAND#REATIVE7RITING -ELBOURNE5NIVERSITYOF-ELBOURNE0RESS #ORT´ZAR *;= *ULIO#ORT´ZARENTREVISTACON*OAQUÄN3OLER3ERRANO -ADRID%DITRAMA #SIKSZENTMIHALYI - &LOW4HE0SYCHOLOGYOF/PTIMAL%XPERIENCE .EW 9ORK(ARPER0ERENNIAL $!NDRADE 2' @3CHEMASANDMOTIVATION IN2'$!NDRADEAND #3TRAUSSEDS (UMAN-OTIVESAND#ULTURAL-ODELS #AMBRIDGE#AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY0RESS %NGELL * 4HE#REATIVE)MAGINATION%NLIGHTENMENTTO2OMANTICISM #AMBRIDGE -ASSAND,ONDON(ARVARD5NIVERSITY0RESS &REUD 3;= @#REATIVEWRITERSANDDAY DREAMING IN0%6ERNONED #REATIVITY3ELECTED2EADINGS ,ONDON0ENGUIN"OOKS 'ARDNER ( !RT -IND AND"RAIN .EW9ORK"ASIC"OOKS 'LOVER *! 2ONNING 22 AND 2EYNOLDS #2 EDS (ANDBOOK OF #REATIVITY .EW9ORKAND,ONDON0LENUM0RESS (EIDEGGER - "ASIC7RITINGS&ROM"EINGAND4IME TO4HE4ASK OF4HINKING TRANS$&+RELL .EW9ORK(ARPER2OW ,AVIE 3 .ARAYAN +AND2OSALDO 2EDS #REATIVITY!NTHROPOLOGY )THACA .9AND,ONDON#ORNELL5NIVERSITY0RESS .EGUS +AND0ICKERING - #REATIVITY #OMMUNICATIONAND#ULTURAL 6ALUE ,ONDON3AGE
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2E CONSTRUCTINGTHE&IELDTHROUGH3OUND PROJECT TOEXAMINELOCALUSESOFRADIO4HElRSTINVOLVEDWHATMIGHTBETERMED @RADIOWALKS!STHEPHRASESUGGESTS THESEWALKSINVOLVEDMEMOVINGAROUNDTHE VILLAGEALONGAPREDETERMINEDROUTEABOUTTHREEMILESLONG4HEROUTEWASDESIGNED TOTAKEMEPASTARANGEOFHOUSEHOLDSOFDIFFERENTSOCIO ECONOMICSTATUS ASWELL ASTHROUGHVARIOUSPUBLICSPACES THROUGHTHESWAMPANDHILLTOPRANGELANDSTHIS PARTOF#ENTRAL!FRICABEINGCHARACTERIZEDBYSTEEPHILLSANDVALLEYS ACROSSTHE ROADATVARIOUSPOINTS PASTTHECHURCH PASTTHESCHOOL ANDAROUNDSEVERALBARS ANDSHOPS7ALKINGWITHANOTEBOOKANDPEN THEIDEAWASTOBUILDUPARECORDOF THEVILLAGE@SOUNDSCAPE BYNOTINGDOWNALLTHESOUNDSTHATCOULDBEHEARDALONG THEWAY0ARTICULARATTENTIONWASPAIDTORADIONOISE ANDWHENEVER)CAMEACROSS ARADIOPLAYING )DIDMYBESTTOASCERTAINFROMWHEREITWASCOMING WHATSTATION WASPLAYINGANDnWHEREPOSSIBLEnWHATPROGRAMMEWASBEINGLISTENEDTO)ALSO TRIEDTOASCERTAINWHOWAS@INCONTROLOFTHESET HOWMANYPEOPLEWERELISTENING TOITANDWHATOTHERTHINGSTHEYMIGHTHAVEBEENDOINGATTHESAMETIMEIE WHETHERORNOTTHEYWERELISTENINGEXCLUSIVELY ORWEREDOINGSOWHILECOOKING DIGGING ETC )REPEATEDTHESEWALKSALONGMOREORLESSTHESAMEROUTEnALTHOUGH ATDIFFERENTTIMESOFDAYANDNIGHT ANDEVENTUALLY ATDIFFERENTTIMESOFYEARnON DOZENSOFOCCASIONS)SHOULDNOTEHERETHAT)DIDNOTBEGINTHESE@WALKSUNTIL SOMEMONTHSINTOMYlELDWORK WHENPEOPLEWEREALREADYUSEDTOMYPRESENCE ANDWHENTHESIGHTOFMEMOVINGAROUNDNOLONGERCAUSEDPEOPLETOBREAKTHEIR USUALROUTINE)NTHISWAY )WASABLETOBUILDUPADETAILED ANDOBJECTIVE PICTURE OFTHEVILLAGESOUNDSCAPE HOWTHISCHANGEDOVERTIME ANDHOWRADIONOISEWAS @LOCATEDWITHINTHIS 4HESECONDMETHOD)USEDINVOLVEDWHATMIGHTBETERMED@UNSTRUCTUREDRADIO ELICITATION4OBEGINWITH THISINVOLVEDLITTLEMORETHANSITTINGWITHPEOPLEAS THEYLISTENEDTOTHERADIOASPARTOFTHEIRNORMALDAILYROUTINES/NTHESEOCCASIONS )WOULDTRYTOKEEPVERYQUIETANDSTILL OFTENSITTINGINACORNERnEVENINTHE SHADOWSnSOASNOTTOBREAKTHEmOWOFPEOPLESINTERACTIONSWITHTHERADIO OR WITHEACHOTHERINTHELISTENINGGROUP!TTHISSTAGEMYACTIONSWEREEFFECTIVELY THESAMEASTHOSEOFANYRESEARCHERTRYINGTODOATYPICAL@RECEPTIONSTUDY!S TIMEWENTON HOWEVER )BEGANTOPOSEONEORTWOQUESTIONSTOTHELISTENERS RELATEDEITHERTOTHEPHYSICALRADIOSETORTOTHECONTENTOFTHEPROGRAMMETHEN PLAYING'RADUALLY OVERVERYMANYOFTHESESESSIONS )BEGANTO@TAKECONTROLOF THELISTENINGSITUATION BYASKINGMOREANDMOREQUESTIONSOFTHEOTHERLISTENERS !LTHOUGH ) NEVER HAD CONTROL OVER THE RADIO SET OR THE CONTENT OF THE RADIO BROADCASTS )COULDUSECERTAINTYPESOFSHOWSnHEALTHPROGRAMMES POLITICAL BROADCASTS FOREXAMPLEnASANCHORSFORQUESTIONINGONTHOSESAMETOPICS,ITTLE BYLITTLE )BEGANTOINTRODUCEANOTEBOOKTOTHESESSIONSASWELL/FCOURSE THE WHOLEINTERVIEWINGEFFECTWASEASIERTOACHIEVEINCERTAINLISTENINGENVIRONMENTS THANINOTHERS)NTHISREGARD ITWASESPECIALLYIMPORTANTHOWOTHERLISTENERS PLACEDME&OREXAMPLE THEPROCESSWORKEDMORENATURALLYWHEN)WASINA nn
2ICHARD6OKES LISTENINGGROUPINWHICH)SEEMEDTO@BELONGFOREXAMPLE INAGROUPOFYOUNG #ATHOLICMEN THANWHEN)WASINAGROUPTOWHICH)CLEARLYDIDNOTSUCHASA GROUPOFELDERLY0ROTESTANTWOMEN 4HEINTENDEDEFFECTWASALSOACHIEVEDMORE EASILYWITHCERTAINTYPESOFPROGRAMMESTHANWITHOTHERS&OREXAMPLE PHONE IN SHOWSPROVEDMUCHBETTERTHANMUSICPROGRAMMES4HETIMEOFDAYALSOMADEA DIFFERENCE 4HETHIRDOFMYMETHODSINVOLVEDAMOREFORMALMODEOF@RADIOELICITATION BASEDONTHECLASSICFOCUS GROUPMODEL4OBEGIN )WOULDINVITETOMYHOUSEA NUMBEROFPEOPLEWHOM)HADPRE SELECTEDTOCOMPRISEAREPRESENTATIVESAMPLE BASEDONAGE GENDER RELIGION ORWHATEVER'ATHERINGTHEMINMYLIVINGROOM ) WOULDPLACEARADIOONACENTRALTABLEANDPLAYTHEMASERIESOFCLIPSFROMVARIOUS RADIOSHOWS WHICH)HADEDITEDDOWNINADVANCE!TTHEENDOFEACHCLIP)WOULD ASKTHEGROUPASERIESOFPREPAREDQUESTIONSONTHEMATERIALTHEYHADJUSTHEARD )NTHISWAY )WASABLETOGENERATEDISCUSSIONONOFTENQUITEFOCUSEDSUBJECTS WITHMYROLEBEINGRECASTASTHATOFFACILITATOR-OSTOFTHESESESSIONSINVOLVED SELECTIONSFROMVARIOUSSORTSOF@CULTURAL HISTORICALSHOWS(OWEVER )WOULD ALSOUSEOTHERCLIPS WHICHWEREOFTENSELECTEDTOBEASPROVOCATIVEASPOSSIBLE FORPURPOSESOFGENERATINGDEBATE &OREXAMPLE FORONESESSION)DIDONLOCAL POLITICS )SELECTEDPARTOFANINTERVIEWWHICHHADJUSTBEENRECORDEDFOR-ONITOR &-IN+AMPALAWITH-ILTON/BOTE4HISWASPURPOSELYDESIGNEDTOCAUSEAS MUCHDEBATEASPOSSIBLE/BVIOUSLY AHIGHDEGREEOFJUDGEMENTISREQUIREDIN THESEMATTERS ANDFORTHISREASON)CONDUCTEDMOSTOFTHESESESSIONSTOWARDSTHE ENDOFMYlELDWORK WHEN)KNEWALLMYRESPONDENTSVERYWELL4HISWASALSO IMPORTANTGIVENMYDESIRETOTAPETHEDISCUSSIONSINALLTHESESESSIONS RATHERTHAN TOUSEANOTEBOOKANDPEN *UDGINGFROMMYEXPERIENCEOFUSINGTHESEMETHODS )WOULDCONCLUDETHAT THECLAIMS#OLLIERMAKESFORPHOTOELICITATIONAREEQUALLYAPPLICABLETO@RADIO ELICITATION,IKEPHOTOGRAPHS RADIOSCERTAINLYDOHAVESOMETHINGOFA@HYPNOTIC PULL)NDEEDTHISMAYBEEVENMOREPRONOUNCEDWITHRADIO GIVENTHECONTENT OFMUCHRADIOPROGRAMMINGANDESPECIALLYTHATOFINTERNATIONALBROADCASTERS %VENTHESIMPLESTRADIOSETHASTHEABILITYTOBRINGINEXOTICSTORIESFROMIMAGINED FARAWAYPLACES)AMREMINDEDOF'RAHAM&URNISSSANECDOTEATTHEBEGINNING OF!FRICAN"ROADCAST#ULTURES INWHICHHERECALLSONCEMEETINGANOLD(AUSA MAN INTHEREMOTEMOUNTAINOUSPARTOFTHE.IGERIAn#AMEROONBORDER WHO AS ARESULTOFHAVINGLISTENEDTOTHE""#7ORLD3ERVICE HADDEVELOPEDAPARTICULAR FASCINATIONWITHTHEPOLITICSOF0AKISTANIN&ARDONAND&URNISS ,IKE #OLLIERSPHOTOGRAPHS RADIOSETSALSOGENERATEANINTENSESOCIALITY INTHATTHEY TOOAREHANDLEDANDPASSEDAROUND ANDBROADCASTSALSOGENERATEKEENDISCUSSION ANDDEBATEAMONGGROUPSOFLISTENERS&URTHERMORE UNLIKEPHOTOGRAPHS WHICH AREUSUALLYSEENINVERYSPECIlC OFTENQUITEFORMALIZEDCONTEXTS RADIOSARE EVERYWHEREIN!FRICA ACOMMONPARTOFTHENORMAL EVERYDAYmOWOFSOCIAL nn
2E CONSTRUCTINGTHE&IELDTHROUGH3OUND RELATIONS4HUSANANTHROPOLOGISTTRYINGTOCONSTRUCTDIALOGUEAROUNDARADIO PROGRAMMEISEMPLOYINGAMEDIUMOFSOCIALITYWITHWHICHPEOPLEAREALREADY FAMILIARANDCOMFORTABLE&ROMTHEANTHROPOLOGISTSPOINTOFVIEW THENATURE OFRADIOPROGRAMMINGMEANSTHATRADIOISOFTENTHEPRIMARYMEDIUMTHROUGH WHICHPEOPLEGAINKNOWLEDGEOF ANDINASENSEINTERACTWITH THE@OUTSIDEWORLD ANDBYEXTENSIONWITH@OUTSIDERS )NADDITIONITISNOTEWORTHYnANDOFGREATEST RELEVANCETOANANTHROPOLOGISTINTHEEARLYSTAGESOFHISORHERlELDWORKnTHAT RADIOPROGRAMMESARETHEMEDIUMTHROUGHWHICHMOSTPEOPLEHAVETHEIRMOST REGULAREXPOSURETOMULTILINGUALENVIRONMENTSIBIDn -OREIMPORTANTLYFORMYDISCUSSIONHERE THETHREEMETHODSOUTLINEDABOVE DEMONSTRATE DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH THE RADIO AS BOTH MATERIAL OBJECT AND BROADCASTSIGNAL MIGHTBEMOBILIZEDINTHECOURSEOFETHNOGRAPHIClELDWORK)N THElRSTINSTANCE THATOFTHE@RADIOWALKS NODIRECTCONTACTWASMADEWITHANY RADIOSETORWITHANYLISTENINGGROUP)NSTEAD THESOUNDFROMTHESETSWASUSED INDIRECTLYTOMAPOUTSUCHTHINGSASVILLAGERSUSESOFSPACEINPARTICULARTHEIR PUBLICANDPRIVATEDOMAINS ASWELLASTHETYPESOFINTERACTIONSANDACTIVITIES ASSOCIATEDWITHTHOSESPACES)NTHECASEOF@UNSTRUCTUREDELICITATION AGAINNO CONTACTWASMADEWITHTHERADIOITSELF4HISTIME HOWEVER THERADIOSOUNDS WEREUSEDMOREACTIVELYTOMANIPULATERELATIONSWITHINTHELISTENINGENVIRONMENT 4HISWASDONESOMEWHATSPECULATIVELYATlRST BUTMOREANDMOREBOLDLYAS) BEGANSLOWLYTOTAKECONTROLOFTHEVARIOUSLISTENINGGROUPSINTHESENSEOFMY @CONTROLLINGTHEmOWOFCONVERSATION &INALLY WITHTHETHIRDMETHOD THATOF @RADIOELICITATIONPROPER )MADEDIRECTCONTACTWITHTHERADIOSET AS)ACTIVELY MANIPULATEDnOR@RE VERSIONEDnITSSIGNAL WITHAVIEWTOSTEERINGTHEFOCUS GROUPCONVERSATIONINAPARTICULARDIRECTIONOFMYOWNCHOOSING%ACHOFTHESE SHIFTSWASFACILITATEDBYACONSCIOUSREmEXIVESHIFTINTHEPOSITIONINGOFMYSELFAS ETHNOGRAPHER BYACHANGEINTHECONSTITUTIONOFTHE@ETHNOGRAPHIC))NTHECASEOF THERADIOWALK THE@)WASTHATOFTHEMETAPHORICAL SPY ONEWHOSEEKSTOGATHER INFORMATIONPRIMARILYTHROUGHOVERHEARINGRATHERTHANINTERVENTION)NTHEMETHOD OFUNSTRUCTUREDELICITATION )BECAMEINSTEADTHEPROFESSIONALSTRANGER ONEWHO INTERVENESnFROMAPOSITIONOFIGNORANCEnINPURSUITOFELUCIDATION&INALLY WITH THEMETHODOFSTRUCTUREDRADIOELICITATION THE@)HADBECOMETHATOFTHESCIENTIST ONEWHOISABLETORECREATEREALITYnUNDERCONTROLLEDCONDITIONSnINORDERTO ISOLATESPECIlCANDPREDElNEDOBJECTSOFRESEARCH)NTHISSENSE THESETTINGOFTHE STRUCTUREDELICITATIONSESSIONSHADINDEEDBECOMEMYOWN@LABORATORY /VERTHECOURSEOFTHESERESEARCHES THEREWEREALSOKEYSHIFTSINMYINTERACTION WITHTHERADIOSETITSELF)HADEVERGREATERCONTACTWITHIT ANDMADEINCREASING INTERVENTIONSINTHEmOWOFRADIOnANDRADIO RELATEDnSOUNDS/RTOPUTITANOTHER WAY )MOBILIZEDTHERADIOTOASSEMBLEDIFFERENTSORTSOFHYBRIDITIESINEACHOF THEDIFFERENTMETHODS4HEPREDICTIONHERE FROMTHEPOINTOFVIEWOFTHEACTOR NETWORKTHEORISTUNWILLINGTOCASTTHESOCIALWORLDASANOUTCOMESOLELYOFHUMAN nn
2ICHARD6OKES AGENCY WOULDBETHATOVERTHECOURSEOFTHESESHIFTSTHERADIOWOULDGAINMORE ANDMORESOCIALAGENCYINITSOWNRIGHT)NOTHERWORDS ITWOULDBECOMEAN INCREASINGLYIMPORTANTAGENTOFTRANSLATIONBETWEENTHESOCIALWORLDANDMY DESCRIPTIONSREPRESENTATIONSOFIT!SARESULT THESEDESCRIPTIONSREPRESENTATIONS WOULDBECOME TOANEVERGREATERDEGREE ACCOUNTSOFHYBRIDS!NDTHISWAS INDEEDWHATTRANSPIRED,OOKINGBACKOVERMYNOTESFROMTHERADIOPROJECTWITH THEBENElTOFHINDSIGHT )REALIZETHATTHERADIODIDINDEEDBECOMEMOREANDMORE IMPORTANTOVERTIME4HUSINMYNOTESFROMTHERADIOWALKS THERADIOnANDITS SIGNALnISSCARCELYMENTIONED!PARTFROMAFEWWORDSOFGENERALDESCRIPTION ONISSUESSUCHASWHERETHESETWASPHYSICALLYLOCATED WHOOWNEDITANDWHAT STATIONWASPLAYING THESENOTESARETAKENUPWITHDESCRIPTIONSOFSOCIALACTIVITIES ANDSOCIALRELATIONS#ONSIDER FOREXAMPLE THEFOLLOWINGEXCERPTFROM@2ADIO 7ALK3EPTEMBER PM #ROSSEDTHESWAMPBYTHEBRIDGEBEHIND"WENTESHOUSE ;TOOKTHE=PATHTHROUGH;THE= ORUTOOKYE;PLANTATION=BEHINDHERCOMPOUND2ADIOPLAYINGn)THINKITS"WENTESOWN nVERYLOUD TUNEDTO2ADIO7EST EBIRANGO;ANNOUNCEMENTS=!LLPRESENTLISTENING INBETWEENDISCUSSIONS!S)COMEINTOVIEW )MGREETEDBY"WENTE SWEEPINGTHE COMPOUND4ELLSMETHAT"AKYENGAISNOTAROUND;"AKYENGAIS"WENTESSON ANDMY CURRENTRESEARCHASSISTANT=!LSOPRESENT &LORENCE;"WENTESDAUGHTER= SIXSMALL KIDS -ODESTA;ANEIGHBOUR= 4WEHEYO;AFRIEND= SEVERALOTHEROLDMEN)DONTKNOW -ODESTAANDMENSITTINGINALINEALONGTHESMALLWALL3TOPTOSAYHELLO &LORENCE TRANSLATES;THISBEINGJUSTAFEWMONTHSINTOMYlELDWORK MYOWN2UNYANKOREWASNOT VERYGOOD=3HETELLSMETHAT-ODESTAANDTHEOTHERMENAREHERETOTALKABOUTACOUSIN WHOHASJUSTDIEDNOT4WEHEYO HEWASJUSTPASSING 3EEMSTOBESOMEDISPUTEABOUT LANDPARTOFITISADJACENTTO"WENTESPLOT ANDTHEYARETHINKINGOFPUTTINGINANEW BOUNDARYMARKER BUTTHEREHAVEBEENSOME PROBLEMS;ANDSOITCONTINUES=
!S)MOVEINTOTHEUNSTRUCTUREDELICITATION HOWEVER THESEGENERALDESCRIPTIONS AREREPLACEDWITHMOREANDMOREDETAILEDACCOUNTSOFBOTHTHEMOVEMENTSOF THERADIOSETANDTHECONTENTOFITSBROADCASTS&URTHERMORE THROUGHOUTTHENOTES FROMTHESESESSIONS DESCRIPTIONSOFTHERADIOAREMOREORLESSINTERSPERSEDWITH DESCRIPTIONSOFDISCOURSEANDSOCIALACTIVITY 2ETURNEDHOMEFROMINTERVIEWWITH"USENENE WROTEUPNOTESETC'RACE;THEHEADOF OURHOUSEHOLD=OUT PROBABLYDRINKINGUPINTHETRADINGCENTRE.OTMUCHGOINGON SODECIDEDTOHAVEANOTHERGOATRADIOINTERVIEWING+EKYERUNGA;OUR@HOUSEGIRL= ISCOOKINGWITHMYRADIOON LISTENINGTOAHEALTHPHONEINSHOWFORYOUNGPEOPLEON #APITAL2ADIOTALKINTERSPERSEDWITHSONGSn"RITNEY3PEARSAGAIN !LSO"OBAND !RUWO;'RACESSONS= 2UKANGA;AYOUNGMANWHOLIVESATOURHOUSE= :IWADE;A YOUNGMANWHOLIVESNEARBY=!S)MSITTING ACOUPLEOFOTHERSDRIFTINATTRACTEDBY THERADIO n3EBUGIRIGIRISNEWHERDBOYNAME AND4WEHEYOSELDESTSONNAME 4HEYREALLSITTINGAROUNDTHEHILLBITATTHEBACKOFOURHOUSE ACOUPLEOFTHEMONTHE
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2E CONSTRUCTINGTHE&IELDTHROUGH3OUND VERANDA+EKYERUNGAISPREPARINGTHEFOOD OTHERSJUSTTALKINGETC:IWEDEHOLDSTHE RADIO!RUWOETCDANCING)SITONASTOOLONTHEEDGEOFTHEGROUP DONTREALLYSAY ANYTHING!CALLERTOTHEHEALTHSHOWASKSAQUESTIONABOUTCONDOMS@ISITTRUETHATYOU CANSTILLGET()6WHILEUSINGONE 2UKANGASAYSTHATHESHEARDTHATASWELL:IWEDE SAYSTHAT+IHURA.KUBASAYSTHATASWELL;+IHURA.KUBAISAPROMINENTCOMMENTATOR ONANOTHERLOCALRADIOSTATION=(ETHINKSTHATCONDOMSAREUSELESS)COMEINANDASK IFTHEYRETOLDANYTHINGABOUTCONDOMSATSCHOOL 2UKANGASAYSTHATTHEYTALKABOUT ITALLTHETIME4HEREISATEACHERTHEREWHOGIVESCLASSESINHEALTHISSUES2UKANGA GOESOVERANDTAKESTHERADIOOFF:IWEDEANDCONTINUES SAYINGTHATTHEREISALSOA GOVERNMENTHEALTHADVISORWHOVISITSTHESCHOOLFROMTIMETOTIME!NDSINCETHE CURRENTCHAIRMANHASTAKENOVER THEREISALSOTALKABOUT()6!)$3ATSOMEPUBLIC MEETINGSETCSOMECONNECTIONHEREBETWEENHOLDINGTHERADIOANDSPEAKING )NOTICE THROUGHOUTTHESESSIONTHATTHEPERSONCURRENTLYHOLDINGTHERADIOSEEMSTOTALKTHEMOST ABOUTTHEISSUEATHAND 4HENEXTCALLERTOTHEPHONE INASKSIFSOMEONESUFFERINGFROM MALARIAISMORELIKELYTOCONTRACT()6!)$3 ;ANDSOITGOESON=%XCERPTFROM lELDNOTES -AY
&INALLY BYTHETIME)GETTOTHESTRUCTUREDELICITATION THETRANSCRIPTSREFERPRIMARILY TOTHERADIOOUTPUT&URTHERMORE WHEREOTHERPEOPLE@SPEAKINTHETRANSCRIPTS THEIRWORDSARECOMPLETELYDEPENDENTONTHERADIOCONTENT INTHATWHATTHEYSAY SIMPLYCANNOTBEUNDERSTOODINDEPENDENTLYOFIT4HEFOLLOWINGEXCERPTFROM TRANSCRIPTOF@STRUCTUREDRADIOELICITATIONSESSION *ANUARY ISTAKEN FROMASESSIONWHICHAIMEDTOOPENUPDISCUSSIONOFTHE6IRGIN-ARY ANDLOCAL PRACTICESOF-ARIANDEVOTION4HEGROUPnALLOLDERWOMENnAREBEINGPLAYED ANDARERESPONDINGTO ASECTIONFROMALECTUREBROADCASTSOMEMONTHSEARLIERBY +IHURA.KUBA 4O REPAINT THE 3ISTENE #HAPEL IN6ATICAN IN 3T 0ETER ;SIC= 3QUARE3T0ETERS"ASILICAnTHEREISASPECIALCHAPELTHATHAD ANCIENTIMAGESOFABLACK*ESUSANDABLACK-ARYAND0OPE *ULIUS)) 0ARTICIPANT "LACK(UH 0ARTICIPANT .O(UH4HISGUY;+IHURA.KUBA=TELLSLIES;'ROUPLAUGHTER= 0RESENTER COMMISSIONED-ICHELANGELOTOREPAINTTHE3ISTENE#HAPEL ANDCHANGETHEIMAGESFROMBLACKTOWHITE-ICHELANGELOUSES THEIMAGE;SIC=OFHISAUNTIEAS-ARY HISUNCLEAS*ES AS *OSEPH ANDANANONCHILDAS*ESUS4HATISWHYSOMEPICTURES OF*ESUSSHOWHIMWITHBLUEEYES OTHERSSHOWHIMWITHBROWN EYES OTHERSSHOWHIMWITHBLACKHAIR OTHERSSHOWHIMWITH BROWNHAIR OTHERSSHOWHIMSHORT!ND*ESUSWASNOTWHITE 0ARTICIPANT %EE)SITSO 0ARTICIPANT .O 0RESENTER
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2E CONSTRUCTINGTHE&IELDTHROUGH3OUND 9ETNEITHER OFCOURSE DOESITBEGINTHERE!FTERALL THESECHAINSOFTRANSLATIONS BETWEEN THE MATERIAL WORLD AND REPRESENTATIONS OF IT DO NOT BEGIN WITH THE ANTHROPOLOGIST/NTHECONTRARY THEYARETHEVERYSTUFFOFALLHUMANSOCIALLIFE) AMHEREREMINDEDOFMYRADIOWALKS ANDTHEPEOPLE)OBSERVEDONTHEM OFTEN GATHEREDINGROUPSAROUNDSOMERADIONOISE3UCHGROUPSTENDTOFORMAROUNDRADIO SIGNALSWHEREVERTHEYAREPLAYING GIVENTHEASSOCIATIONBETWEENBROADCASTING NOISEANDPUBLICSPACE)NTHISSENSERADIONOISEISUSEDTOMARKOUTnPHYSICALLY TO@INSCRIBEnDOMAINSOFPUBLICANDBYASSOCIATION PRIVATESPACEINTHEVILLAGE IF"UGAMBA WHICHTHENBECOMEMEANINGFULFORSOCIALPRAXIS)NOTHERWORDS EVENBEFORETHERADIOWASMEDIATINGTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHEWORLDANDMY DESCRIPTIONSOFIT ITWASALREADYDOINGEXACTLYTHATFORLOCALPEOPLE4OGOSTILL FURTHER THERADIOSCAPACITYTOMARKOUTDOMAINSINTHISWAYISITSELFTHEOUTCOME OFANEARLIERSETOFTRANSLATIONS INWHICH@BROADCASTINGPOSTSHADBEENUSED BYTHE "RITISHAUTHORITIESFROMTHEEARLYSONWARDS ASATOOLOF@EDUCATIONFORRURAL 5GANDANS,OCATEDOUTSIDEADMINISTRATIONBUILDINGS THESEPOSTSESTABLISHEDAN INITIALCONNECTIONBETWEENPUBLICSPACEANDBROADCASTINGNOISE!NDNODOUBT EARLIERSORTSOFTRANSLATIONSHADHADSIMILAREFFECTSBEFOREHAND)NDEEDITMIGHT EVENBEARGUED ASSOMEACTOR NETWORKTHEORISTSHAVEDONE THATSUCHCHAINSOF TRANSLATIONSCONTINUEINALLDIRECTIONS POSSIBLYADINlNITUM4HEASSUMPTIONIS THATTHESECHAINSAREALWAYSPRESENT EVENTHOUGHTHETERMSOFEACHINDIVIDUAL TRANSLATIONMIGHTTHEMSELVESBECOMEERASED!KEYPROBLEMFORTHEANALYSTIS THENTODECIDEATWHATPOINTTOSTOP7HERECANWE@CUTTHECHAINWITHOUTDOING VIOLENCETOTHEOBJECTOFSTUDY 4HISBROADERQUESTIONISBEYONDTHESCOPEOFTHEPRESENTCHAPTER)NSTEAD MYINTENTIONHASBEENTOHIGHLIGHTAFEWOFTHEWAYSINWHICHPHYSICALOBJECTS HAVEEXERTEDnANDCONTINUETOEXERTnANINmUENCEONANTHROPOLOGICALREPRESENTA TIONSOFTHEWORLD BYACTINGASKEYAGENTSOFMEDIATIONBETWEENTHETWO/VER THELASTCOUPLEOFDECADES MANYANTHROPOLOGISTSHAVEPOSEDTHEQUESTIONOF WHETHERORNOT ORINWHATWAYS ANTHROPOLOGICALMETHODSRESEMBLETHOSEOF THE@HARDSCIENCES)HAVESHOWNTHATINONEKEYWAY ATLEAST ANTHROPOLOGICAL REPRESENTATIONSDORESEMBLETHOSEOFTHEPEDOLOGISTORTHEBOTANIST INTHATTHEY TOOINVOLVEAMOBILIZATIONOFBOTHSYMBOLICSCHEMATAnOUROWN ANDTHOSEOF OURINFORMANTSnANDVARIOUSSORTSOFPHYSICALOBJECTSASWELL7HETHERORNOTWE ALWAYSACKNOWLEDGETHEFACT ANTHROPOLOGICALACCOUNTSAREJUSTASENTANGLEDIN THEMATERIALWORLD
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4HE.OVICE)NTERVENES )AMSURPRISEDTHATYOUTHINKMYPARTICIPATIONINTHEDEBATEISGOINGTODIMINISH ITSQUALITY3INCEYOUPROFESSTOBEASCEPTIC )WOULDHAVETHOUGHTTHATYOURVIEW WOULDDIVERGEFROMTHOSEOFMORECONVENTIONALINTERLOCUTORS ANDTHATYOUWOULD EXPRESSSOMERESERVATIONINRELATIONTOESTABLISHEDAUTHORSANDINSTITUTIONS!LLOW METOINTRODUCEMYSELF)AMFROMTHEROCKGENERATION AND)CANNOTIMAGINEANY OFMYIDOLSAFlRMINGTHATTHEREISBUTONEREALITYORTHATHE;THEIDOLIZEDlGURE= WASPRIVILEGED ORTHAT BYVIRTUEOFPOSSESSINGSOMEUNUSUALEQUIPMENT HEHAD @ACCESSTOREALITY,IKEMANYOFMYGENERATION )HAVEARELATIVISTPERCEPTIONOFTHE WORLD3TILL THELYRICSOFROCKMUSICARESTRANGELYDIFFERENTFROMANTHROPOLOGICAL ARTICLES4HROUGHOUTMYUNDERGRADUATEYEARS )HAVEREADINNUMERABLEARTICLES ANDSOMEETHNOGRAPHIESFORTHEMOSTPART HOWEVER )AMMUCHBETTERABLETO JOTDOWNROCKLYRICSTHANOUTLINEANANTHROPOLOGICALARTICLE7HYISTHELATTERSO DIFlCULT
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#ONCLUSION )BEGANTHISCHAPTERBYNOTINGTHATANTHROPOLOGYISARELATIVELYNEWACADEMIC DISCIPLINE ANDTHATTHEPROMISEOFITSFULlLMENTLIESINITSSELF DISSOLUTION! DISCIPLINEDEDICATEDTOPRODUCINGKNOWLEDGEOFTHE/THERWOULDBEREDUNDANTIN AWORLDWHEREALTERITYHADCEASEDTOBEPROBLEMATIC3UCHAFORMULATIONANDITS UNDERLYINGPROMISE HOWEVER ONLYMAKESENSEIFWELOOKATANTHROPOLOGYINITS RELATIONWITHTHEWORLD4HEEMPHASISONTHEAUTONOMYANDCOMPARTMENTALIZATION OFKNOWLEDGEINUNIVERSITIESINTHELASTFEWDECADESHASDISTRACTEDUSFROMTHIS NECESSARYRELATION7ITHTHEIMAGINARYHELPOFASCEPTICALREADER ACRITICALLISTENER ANDAPASSIONATEBEGINNER )HAVELAIDOUTINTHISCHAPTERSOMEOFTHEANSWERSTO BEING IN THE WORLDOFANTHROPOLOGY !LONG THIS PATH WE HAVE CONSIDERED SOME LEADING EXPONENTS OF MODERN ETHNOGRAPHY LEADINGUSTOTHEREASONABLECONSENSUSTHATANTHROPOLOGYINVOLVES THEPRODUCTIONOFNON lCTIONALINTERPRETATIONSOFEVENTSTHATHAVEOCCURREDINTHE WORLD4HISMAYSEEMANOBVIOUSCONCLUSIONTOREACH UNTILWESTOPTOCONSIDER ONWHATBASISnIFNOTONSOMENOTIONOFTRUTHnWECANHAVECONFIDENCEIN THESTATUSOFOURACCOUNTSASNON lCTIONAL(OWCANWESPEAKOFANENCOUNTER BETWEENA%UROPEANCITIZENANDA4ROBRIANDEXPERTSEAMANWITHOUTCOMINGUP WITHANACCOUNTTHATISEITHEROVERLYFANTASIZEDANDVAGUEORTOOSYSTEMATICAND
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