INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)

INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)

Thesis submitted to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science (Agriculture) in SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

By SAINATH

DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES DHARWAD – 580 005 NOVEMBER, 2009

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

DHARWAD November 2009

(D. S. UPPAR) CHAIRMAN

Approved by : Chairman : (D. S. UPPAR) Members :

1. (V. S. PATIL)

2. (V. K. DESHPANDE)

3.

(RAVI HUNJE)

CONTENTS

Sl. No.

Chapter Particulars CERTIFICATE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF PLATES

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and quality 2.2 Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality 2.3 Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality 2.4

Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality parameters

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality 2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality 3.

MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1 General description 3.2 Previous crop at the experimental site 3.3 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality of annual chrysanthemum 3.4 Seed source 3.5 Cultural practices 3.6 Collection of data 3.7 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum

3.8 Cultural operations 3.9 Net income per hectare and cost benefit ratio 3.10 Statistical analysis 4.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 4.1 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum 4.2 Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum

5.

DISCUSSION 5.1 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum 5.2 Influence of fertilizer 5.3

Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant growth parameters

5.4 Benefit cost ratio 5.5 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum 5.6 Benefit cost ratio 6.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 6.1 Spacing and Fertilizer 6.2 Growth regulators REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES Table No.

Title

1.

Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

2.

Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and the average of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research Station, UAS, Dharwad

3.

Prices of inputs

4.

Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm2)/plant at different stages of annual chrysanthemum Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

10.

Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

11.

Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%), seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

12.

Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling -1 vigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm ) in annual chrysanthemum

13.

Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different spacing , fertilizer levels and their interactions (SxF) Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

14. 15.

Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

16.

Effect of growth regulators on days to 50% flowering, number of flower/plant, diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

17.

Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

18.

Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) and seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

19.

Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index, -1 and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm ) in annual chrysanthemum

20.

Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different growth regulators¸ spray

LIST OF FIGURES Figure No.

Title

1.

Plan and layout of the experimental site

2.

Plan and layout of the experimental site

3.

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

4.

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

5.

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of flowers in annual chrysanthemum

6.

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield/ha in annual chrysanthemum

7.

Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

8.

Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

9.

Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

10.

Influence of growth regulators on Seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

LIST OF PLATES Plate No.

Title

1.

General view of the experimental plots

2.

Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual chrysanthemum

3.

Influence of growth regulators on chrysanthemum

plant

height

in annual

1. INTRODUCTION Chrysanthemum is a member of family Asteraceae. There are about 160 species of chrysanthemum among which the modern autumn flowering perennial (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is most common, usually propagated through suckers (mums) followed by annual chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise of three species viz., Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tricoloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garland chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or Garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium) is a native to Southern Europe, is a branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre, size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with cream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967). It is a fast growing winter blooming annual. In North India, it is one of the cheapest sources of floral material for worship and garland particularly in early summer months when flowers are inadequate in supply. Apart from this, it is used in potted plants, vases, flower decoration, preparation of bouquets and as border in the garden. Its leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in chinese cuisine, yellow and white chrysanthemum flowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia known as ‘chrysanthemum tea’ has many medicinal uses, bioactive terpenes such as dihydro chrysanoride and cumambrin, contents of essential oil proven to have medicinal effect on cancer and blood pressure reduction. It is an economically important as a natural source of insecticide, the flowers are pulverized and an active component called pyrethrin is extracted and used in insecticidal preparation and it is a good companion plant, protecting neighbouring plants from caterpillars. In recent years, it has been introduced as a valuable source of feed for animals. Chrysanthemum plants have also been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) clean air study. Therefore, the growing popularity of annual chrysanthemum has lead to its cultivation as a commercial crop. In Karnataka, the area under chrysanthemums during 2003-04 was 2964 hectares with an annual production of 36,294 tonnes and productivity of 10 tonnes per hectare generating a value of 3,931 lakh rupees (Anonymous, 2004). The area under annual chrysanthemum is increasing year after year and farmers are not getting quality seeds in adequate quantities as very few farmers are taking up seed production. Hence, there is a need to produce adequate quantity of quality seeds of annual chrysanthemum. In the absence of scientific information with regard to appropriate nutrient schedule involving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for a particular zone, it is difficult to reckon and realize the objective of higher flower and seed yield in annual chrysanthemum. Further, there is no comprehensive agronomic package for seed production to obtain higher seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum. This objective can be achieved through balanced and judicious application of plant nutrients and adopting proper spacing for plant growth (Shivakumar, 2000). As there is no recommendation of spacing and fertilizer doses for seed production, there is a need to standardize the optimum spacing and dose of fertilizers. The pre flowering application of growth regulators not only improve the quality and number of flowers produced but also increase the seed yield mainly by increasing the number of seeds in china aster (Doddagoudar, 2000). In the recent years the growth regulators play a major role in overcoming the factors limiting the yield and quality for obtaining maximum benefit from seed production. It is realized that the exogenous application of growth regulators stimulate flowering, pollination, fertilization and seed setting to yield better quality seeds (Sunitha, 2006). Yet, the information on the effect of growth regulators in realizing higher yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum is very meagre. Considering the importance of commercial flower production, the present investigation was initiated with an objective to develop suitable agro-techniques for seed production in annual chrysanthemum with the following objectives.

i.

To study the effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

ii.

To study the effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

iii.

To workout the economics and feasibility of seed production in annual chrysanthemum with relation to different spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Cultivation of annual chrysanthemum has received more attention only in recent years and information available on the effect of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum is meagre. Hence reviews on these aspects in annual chrysanthemum and other closely related flowers, ornamental plants and vegetable crops have been included and presented in this chapter.

2.1

Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and quality

Spacing plays a role in manipulating the micro climate and hence helps in enhancing the seed yield and quality of crop. Proper spacing improves the availability of nutrients, aeration and light intensity (Ravindran et al., 1986) which means better crop growth and response to the inputs and there by enhanced seed yield and quality.

2.1.1 Growth Dongre (1984) noticed increased plant height (110.53 cm) and less number of branches per plant (2.30) with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while decreased plant height (90.59 cm) and more number of branches per plant (5.02) were observed with wider spacing of 50x20 cm in marigold. Mokashi (1988) recorded maximum plant height (77.36 cm) with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while minimum plant height (72.42 cm) was observed with wider spacing of 40x30 cm in gaillardia. Vijay Kumar (1988) reported increased plant height (42.33 cm) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm, where as decreased plant height (31.59 cm) was noticed in wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster. In chrysanthemum, increased plant height (51.96 cm) and less number of branches per plant (28.96) were noticed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while wider spacing of 40x30 cm recorded decreased plant height (48.33 cm) and more number of branches (32.83) per plant (Shivanna, 1994). In marigold significant increase in plant height (62.87 cm), number of main branches (6.05) and secondary branches (33.91) were observed with wider spacing of 30x30 cm, whereas decreased plant height (54.71 cm), less number of main branches (5.55) and secondary (22.15) branches were observed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm (Janakiram and Rao., 1995). Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported increased plant height (109.60 cm), number of primary branches (31.62) and secondary branches (169.47) per plant with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, compared to wider spacing of 60x45 cm which recorded decreased plant height (106.69 cm), number of primary branches (30.35) and secondary branches (166.45) per plant in annual chrysanthemum. Singh (1996) noticed increased plant height (36.24 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (36.22) with wider spacing of 25 x 20 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 10 cm which recorded (31.58 cm and 29.74, respectively) in tuberose. Hugar (1997) reported that closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm recorded taller plants (34.29 cm) with less number of branches per plant (13.62), while wider spacing (30 x 30 cm) resulted in shorter plants (32.28 cm) with more number of branches (14.92) per plant in gaillardia. Mishra (1998) recorded taller plants (77.33 cm) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm, while more plant spread (34.92 cm) was noticed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm in gaillardia.

Shivakumar (2000) noticed significant increase in plant height (101.3 cm) and less number of branches (9.9) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, while shorter plants (89.7 cm) and more number of branches (16.8) with wider spacing of 60 x 45 cm in marigold. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) recorded that closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm gave taller plants (88.58 cm) with less number of branches per plant (23.58) compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (73.42 cm and 32.50, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White. In zinnia, significant increase in plant height (52.64 cm), plant spread (34.83 cm) and number of branches per plant (10.56) was observed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm, whereas decreased plant height (47.74 cm), plant spread (31.02 cm) and number of branches per plant (8.66) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (Poonam et al., 2002). Srivastava et al. (2002) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda noticed increased plant height (59.89 cm) and less number of secondary branches per plant (35.70) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm, while shorter plant height (57.73 cm) and more number of secondary branches (39.46) per plant with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm. Balanchandra et al. (2004) noticed increased plant height (74.60 cm) and less number of branches per plant (14.40) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, whereas wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm recorded decreased plant height and more number of branches per plant (70.40 cm and 19.60, respectively) in ageratum. Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) recorded significant increase in plant height (64.12 cm), more number of primary branches (25.40) and secondary branches (47.02) per plant with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm (59.85 cm 21.27 and 38.35, respectively) in French marigold Cv. Red Brocade. Shah et al. (2005) reported higher plant spread (32.00 cm) with wider spacing of 30 x 35 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 25 cm (31.16 cm) in china aster. Mane et al. (2006) observed tallest plants (47.36 cm) with closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm compared to wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm (44.95 cm) in tuberose cv. Single. Anju and Pandey (2007) reported maximum number of branches per plant, number of leaves per branch, diameter of stem and canopy of plant with wider spacing (40x30 cm), while plant height was highest in closer spacing (20x10 cm) in African marigold. Chaudhary et al. (2007) in zinnia concluded that plants spaced at 30x45 cm spacing recorded increased plant height, number of branches per plant, length of the branches, internodal length and number of nodes per plant. Similarly, Dhatt and Ramesh Kumar (2007) noticed decreased plant height (81.64 cm), increased plant spread (80.06 cm) and number of branches (20.01) per plant with wider spacing of 60x60 cm, compared to closer spacing of 60x30 cm which recorded more plant height, less plant spread and number of branches (85.44 cm, 73.82 and17.47, respectively) in Coreopsis lanceolata Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded increased plant height (66.10 cm) and number of leaves per plant (9.87) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm whereas decreased plant height (56.83 cm) and number of leaves (9.73) per plant with wider spacing of 45x20 cm in gladiolus. Dalvi et al. (2008) noticed decreased plant height (120.21 cm), increased number of leaves (10.34), leaf length (59.72 cm) and leaf breadth (2.66 cm) with the spacing of 30x20 cm in gladiolus, whereas wider spacing of 25x30 cm recorded 120.15 cm, 10.22, 59.25 cm and 2.51, respectively. Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded decreased plant height (56.45 cm), more number of branches (7.00) and dry matter production (42.97 g) per plant with wider spacing of 60x15 cm whereas closer spacing of 45x15 cm recorded (56.45 cm, 6.65 and 16.47 g respectively) in lablab bean.

2.1.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components Dongre (1984) concluded that wider spacing of 50x20 cm resulted in increased number of flowers per plant (21.97) and seed yield (0.54 g) per flower, while decreased number of flowers (12.29) and seed yield (0.31 g) with the closer spacing of 20x30 cm in marigold. Mokashi (1988) noticed significantly more number of flowers per plant (226) with wider spacing of 40x30 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded flowers per plant 185.78 in gaillardia. Similarly, Vijay Kumar (1988) recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (31.33) with wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster, while closer spacing of 30x10 cm recorded less number of flowers per plant (24.97). Venugopal (1991) noticed that the more number of flowers per plant (85.93) and flower yield per plant (85.93 g) were significantly higher in wider spacing of 30x40 cm, while closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded less number of flowers (77.47) and flower yield (74.54 g) per plant in everlasting flower. Rao et al. (1992) recorded higher flower yield (12.12 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 15 cm compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (10.30 t/ha) in chrysanthemum cv. Kasturi. Similarly, John and Paul (1995) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant (38.78) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm as compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (30.63) in chrysanthemum. Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported delayed the days for opening of flower from bud emergence (26.44) and increased mean number of flowers per plant (456.02) and flower yield (22.89 t/ha) with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, while wider spacing of 60x45 cm recorded (26.18 days, 432.86 and 16.99 t/ha, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum. Singh (1996) recorded delayed flowering (153.23 days) with closer spacing of 20x 10 cm compared to wider spacing of 25 x 25 cm (116.31 days) in tuberose. Hugar (1997) observed early flower initiation (53 days) with the closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm, while wider spacing of 30 x 30 cm delayed flower initiation (56.2 days), produced more number of flowers per plant (106.67) and seed yield (5.51 q / ha). Whereas, closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm recorded 47.80 and 3.87 q/ha, respectively. He further reported that 1000 seed weight was not influenced by spacing in gaillardia. Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) reported significantly higher number of flowers per plant (59.201), capsules per plant (21.12) and seed yield (0.48 g/plant) with the spacing of 25 x 25 cm in pansy, while maximum seed yield (11.33 g/m2) was noticed with closer spacing of 20 x 20 cm in pansy. Similarly, Shivakumar (2000) reported increased number of flowers per plant (31.2), number of seeds per flower (69.4) with wider spacing of 60x45 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x30 cm recorded decreased number of flowers per plant (12.9) and seeds per flower (69.4) in marigold. Further, he reported that the seed yield per plot (65.7g) was significantly more with closer spacing of 30x30 cm. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed more flower yield (23958.20 Kg/ha) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (20624.91 Kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum Cv. Local White. Poonam et al. (2002) in zinnia, recorded maximum number of heads per plant (14.36) and seed yield per unit area (2.61 g) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (12.38 and 1.85 g, respectively). Similarly, Srivastava et al. (2002) noticed maximum flowers per plant (54.39) with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm, while higher flower yield (27.78 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm in marigold. Balachandra et al. (2004) recorded higher seed yield (142.0 Kg/ha) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm (117.10 Kg/ha) in ageratum. Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) reported that closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm delayed days to 50 per cent flowering (81.26 days) compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (76.84

days) and more number of flowers per plant (62.69) with wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm. While more flower yield (148.98 q) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm in French marigold. Mane et al. (2006) observed wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm took maximum number of days required for sprouting (11.39 days) compared to closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm (9.50 days) in tuberose Cv. Single. Dhatt and Ramesh kumar (2007) observed early flower initiation (125.14 days) and 2 maximum yield (84.51 g/m ) with closer spacing of 60x30 cm in Coreopsis lanceolata compared to wider spacing of 60x60 cm recorded (125.36 days and 62.71, respectively). Whereas, Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded delayed opening of first floret (60.00 days), increased number of florets per spike (11.93), floret diameter (11.13 cm), spike girth (2.83 cm), corm diameter (4.57 cm) and corm weight (30.40 g) with wider spacing of 45x20 cm in gladiolus. Aliyu et al. (2008) recorded optimum yield of onion bulbs (30.83 t/ha) from 15 cm intra row spacing combined with 100 kg N per ha in onion. He further reported that application of 150 kg N per ha in plants spaced at 25 cm in the row spacing and 20 cm inter row spacing resulted in large bulbs. Whereas, Channabasavanna et al. (2008) recorded higher seed yield (566 q/ha) with closer row spacing of 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 60 cm (515 kg/ha) in ajowan. Dalvi et al. (2008) recorded increased number of florets per spike (15.43), yield of spikes per plot (54.66 kg), yield of corms per plot (55.28 kg) and decreased number of cormels per plant (52.38) with the closer spacing of 30x30 cm in gladiolus. Dhatt and Ramesh (2008) in Gaillardia aristata reported that the plants spaced at 60x60 cm took 123.31 days to anthesis and showed longest flowering duration (86.87 days). He further reported that wider spacing of 60x60 cm resulted in highest seed yield (106.75 g/m2) followed by closer spacing of 60x30 cm (99.85g/m2). Mantur and Sateesh (2008) reported significant increase in average fruit weight (72.50 g), fruit yield (3.67 kg/ per plant) and fruit yield (7.94 kg/m2) under wider spacing of 60x60 cm in tomato, while maximum fruit yield (8.64 kg/m2) was noticed in closer spacing of 60x30 cm. Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) recorded highest seed yield (3039 kg/ha) with 20 cm row distance compared to 40 cm (1930 kg/ha) which gave lowest seed yield in safflower. Srikanth et al. (2008) reported less number of days for flower initiation (42.54), days to 50 per cent flowering (45.10), days to pod initiation (48.01), days to crop maturity (80.15) and increased pod yield (20.44 q/ ha) and seed yield (17.20 q/ ha) with closer spacing of 45x15 cm in lab lab bean compared to wider spacing (42.97, 45.56, 48.33, 81.35, 17.25 q/ha and 15.02 q, respectively). The harvest index (42.14), number of pods per plant (19.06), pod yield per plant (21.42 kg) and seed yield per plant (16.92 g) were also more in wider spacing of 60x15 cm.

2.1.3 Seed quality parameters Ujjinaiah (1985) did not observe any significant effect of spacing on seed quality parameters like germination percentage and vigour index in sunflower. Kobza (1991) studied the effect of plant density on seed quality parameters for ten years in china aster and finally concluded that the seed quality was not affected significantly by plant density. Kobza (1993) reported that plant density does not affect the seed quality in marigold and similar results were also reported in gaillardia (Hugar, 1997). Kanna Babu et al. (1993) reported that plant population of 55,555 plants per hectare gave higher seed quality parameters i.e., 100 seed weight (3.63 g), germination (93 %), field emergence (88 %), seedling vigour index (2673), dry weight of five seedlings (72 mg), shoot

length (14.70 cm) and root length (14.10 cm) compared to plant population of 1,66,666 plants per hectare (2.88 g, 81.00%, 75.00%, 1776.90, 42 mg, 11.80 cm and 10.00 cm, respectively) in sunflower. Balachandra et al. (2004) reported higher germination (65.70%) due to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm (63.70%) in ageratum.

2.2

Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality

2.2.1 Physiological role of NPK Noggle and Fritz (1979) summarized the role of NPK on physiology of plants. Nitrogen is a component of amminoacid, which is essential for protein synthesis. Nitrogen bases like purines, pyrimidines and many co-enzymes need nitrogen for their synthesis. It is also a component of cytochrome and chlorophyll which are essential for photosynthesis. While, Phosphorus forms a source of energy in the form of ATP and ADP, the cell division is also influenced by phosphorus. It is also a component of many enzymes, co-enzymes, nucleic acids and phospholipids and potash acts as catalyst for various enzymes and co-enzymes and starch synthesis takes place in the presence of potash. It has a vital role in photo respiration, translocation of metabolites and transpiration.

2.2.2 Growth Maheshwar (1977) observed increased plant height in china aster with the application of nitrogen up to 180 kg and phosphorus 120 kg per ha. Similarly, Ramachandra (1982) obtained maximum plant height with 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. While, Venkatesh (1983) recorded maximum plant height with 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Whereas, significantly maximum plant height was recorded at 250:120:75 kg NPK per ha (Mantur, 1988) and at 200:100:50 kg NPK per ha by Ravindra (1998) in china aster. In china aster, Ramachandra (1982) noticed maximum plant height (40.0 cm), number of branches (10.5), leaf area index (0.57) and dry matter production (18.67), with application of 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Similar results were also observed in eight varieties of marigold by Nalwadi (1982) with the application of higher doses of fertilizer (225 kg N, 120 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per ha). Venkatesh (1983) observed that china aster plants receiving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium at the rate of 120:60:60 kg per ha recorded higher plant height (60.4 cm) and number of branches per plant (22.4) compared to control. Dongre (1984) in marigold indicated that, application of nitrogen and phosphorus each at 40 g per square metre recorded higher plant height (128.8 cm) and maximum number of branches per plant (4.05). Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) observed significant increase in plant height (47.9 cm) and number of branches per plant (7.30) in chrysanthemum with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK per ha. Mantur (1988) found that application of 240 kg N, 120 kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O per ha recorded maximum plant height, number of branches, dry matter production and higher leaf area index in china aster. While, Mokashi (1988) reported that plant height and number of branches per plant did not respond well to the application of higher doses of nitrogen (150 to 250 kg/ha) and phosphorus (80 to 120 kg/ha) in gaillardia. In marigold, Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) found significant increase in plant height and number of branches per plant with the application of 120 kg N and 90 kg P2O5 per ha. Similarly, Yassin and Pappiah (1990) stated that application of 75 kg nitrogen per ha along with sheep manure recorded maximum plant height (72.6 cm) and more number of branches per plant (23.7) in chrysanthemum.

Jana and Pal (1991) reported in cosmos, that among the nutrient elements nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency showed maximum reduction in growth. Maximum growth of plants were obtained with combined application of 20 g nitrogen, 10 g phosphorus and 10 g potash per square metre. In calendula, application of NPK at the rate of 100:50:25 kg per ha increased the height of plant, number of branches and leaves per plant (Sigedar et al., 1991). Similarly, Rao et al. (1992) noticed increase in number of lateral branches per plant with higher level of nitrogen (200 kg/ha) in chrysanthemum. Ramesh kumar and Kiranjeet Kaur (1996) in balsam found increased number of secondary branches per plant and plant height with the application of nitrogen and phosphorus respectively with 20 and 10 grams per square metre. Similarly, Baboo and Sharma (1997) in chrysanthemum indicated that plants receiving 300:200:120 kg NPK per ha recorded maximum plant height and more number of branches. Hugar (1997) reported increased plant height (43.0 and 39.3 cm), leaf area index (4.83 and 4.62) and dry matter production (29.92 and 28.12 g) with the application of 75 kg N per ha in rabi and summer, respectively. Whereas, increase in number of branches (34.7 and 34.2) and leaves (343 and 327) was recorded at 100 kg N per ha in rabi and summer respectively in gaillardia. De and Dhimon (1998) reported maximum plant height (65 cm) with combined application of 200 kg N and 400 kg K2O per ha when compared to control (33 cm) in chrysanthemum. Similarly, in gaillardia the application of 30 g of nitrogen per square metre recorded significantly maximum plant height of 80.8 cm over the lower doses of nitrogen (Mishra, 1998). Ravindra (1998) reported that all the growth parameters like plant height, number of leaves, stem diameter etc., were influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application, but the effect of potassium was minimum in china aster. Agarwal et al. (2002) obtained significantly maximum plant height (69.6 cm) and number of branches (21.9) with application of 200 kg N per ha, compared to control (52.5 cm and 12.8 respectively) in marigold. Doddagoudar (2002) reported maximum plant height (47.3 cm), number of branches (9.13) and leaves (42.7) per plant and maximum dry weight (34.25 g) with application of 240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster. Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed significantly increased plant height (97.89 cm) and number of branches (34.00) per plant with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum. Kumar et al. (2003) reported that plant height (34.80 cm) and number of branches (4.43) increased significantly with nitrogen of 300 kg per ha as compared to 26.34 cm plant height and 3.3 branches in control without any nitrogen application. Similarly, phosphorus increased the plant height and number of branches, wherein plants receiving higher dose of phosphorus in china aster. Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported that application of 200 kg per ha each of nitrogen and phosphorus produced maximum plant height (95.92 cm), plant spread (49.31 cm) and branches (14.2) when compared to other levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and control in African marigold. Similarly, Saud and Ramachandra (2004) reported that higher dose of fertilizer (150:150:150 kg NPK/ha) resulted in maximum number of primary and secondary branches in French marigold. Gnyandev (2006) reported increased plant height (49.52 cm), number of branches (11.66) and leaves (40.61) per plant with the application of higher dose of fertilizer (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.

Ajay and Vijay (2007) recorded significant increase in number of leaves per plant (36.71), number of branches per plant (11.24) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (100 kg) in calendula compared to control (27.17 and 9.54, respectively). Gaurav and Prabhakar (2007) noticed increased number of corms per plant (1.75), number of cormels per plant (19.66) with higher fertilizer level (50:25:25 NPK kg/ha) in gladiolus cv. White Friendship. Channabasavanna et al. (2008) reported in ajowan maximum seed yield per ha (477 kg) with the application of 60:30:30 kg NPK per ha in ajowan. Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (58.10 cm), number of branches (7.90), dry matter production (18.96 g) per plant with the application of higher dose of 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha in lablab bean.

2.2.3

Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Venkatesh (1983) recorded significantly higher number of flowers in china aster with the application of 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha and he could not observe any influence of fertilizers on flower diameter, however he obtained increased dry weight of flowers only with potash levels. Dongre (1984) reported that application of 40 g of N and 40 g of P2O5 per square metre gave maximum number of flowers per plant and seed yield per plant in marigold. Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) in chrysanthemum reported that flower diameter and flower yield were increased significantly with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK/ha. While, Mantur (1988) obtained higher number of flowers per plant (36.85), flower yield (83.92 g/plant), large size flowers (5.78 cm) and higher seed yield per plant (6.72 g) with the application of 180:120:100 kg NPK per ha in china aster. According to Anuradha et al. (1990) the number of days taken to 50 per cent flowering was reduced with increased levels of N and P2O5 (each from 0 to 90 kg N and P2O5/ha) in marigold. On the contrary, Sharanabasappa (1990) reported that application of higher dose of N and P2O5 at 150 and 100 kg per ha, respectively delayed days to first flowering by 6 days and 50 per cent flowering by 7.37 days over the control in everlasting flower. Jana and Pal (1991) reported that nitrogen and phosphorus treatment showed maximum reduction in flowers and seed yield in cosmos and maximum flowers and seed yield obtained with combined application of 20 g N, 10 g P and 10 g K per m2. Yadav and Bose (1993) stated that application of 300:100 kg N and P2O5 per ha significantly increased the seed yield in marigold but further increase in nitrogen (400 kg) and phosphorus (400 kg) levels reduced the seed yield. While, in gaillardia, the application of 75 kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the number of flowers per plant, ten flower weight and seed yield except breadth of flower (Hugar, 1997). He further reported that the increase in N level to 125 kg per ha did not affect the flower and seed yield as compared to 75 kg per ha. De and Dhimon (1998) reported in chrysanthemum that number of flowers per plant were maximum (32) with the combination of 600 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha followed by 400 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha. Ravindra (1998) reported in china aster, that the time taken for flowering increased with the application of nitrogen. While, phosphorus reduced the time taken for flowering. Flowering duration was increased with increased nitrogen and phosphorus application. While, potassium had no influence on both flowering time and duration of flowering. The flower yield was maximum with the application of 200:100:100 kg NPK per ha.

Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) noticed that the number of flowers per plant (65.42) and seed yield per plant (0.59 g) were significantly influenced by the application of N and P and was maximum in 30 g of N and 20 g of P2O5 per square metre in pansy. Whereas, Yadav et al. (1998) concluded that application of 80 kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the diameter of head, 1000 seed weight and seed yield over 40 and 60 kg N per ha in sunflower. According to Shivakumar (2000), application of 315:84:84 kg NPK per ha significantly increased the number of capitula harvested per plant (25.2), number of seeds per capitula (216), seed yield per plant (7.88 g) and per ha (437 kg). 1000 seed weight did not differ significantly although it was higher in higher fertilizer level (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold. Singh and Sangama (2000) reported in china aster, significant increase in length of flower stalk (27.27 cm) and number of flowers per plant (35.22) with higher levels of N (300 kg/ha), but the number of days taken for 100 per cent flowering, diameter of flower and weight of 5 flowers were not significantly influenced by graded levels of nitrogen. Doddagoudar (2002) recorded more number of capitula per plant (24.2), higher weight of capitula (1.77 g), larger diameter of capitula (5.10 cm), higher seed weight per capitula (0.33 g), filled seed weight per capitula (0.26 g), filled seed percentage (78.7), 1000 seed weight (1.86 g) and harvest index (16.5) with the application of 240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster. Significantly higher flower yield (35786.92 kg/ha) was recorded with the application of higher nitrogen level (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum (Karavadia and Dhaduk, 2002). While, Mohanty et al. (2002) noticed in marigold that the days required for flowering was prolonged from 68.03 days in (control) to 71.29 days with application of nitrogen (30 g/m2). Further, more number of flowers and highest yield of flower was obtained with 30 g N per sq. m. Kumar et al. (2003) reported in china aster maximum number of flowers per plant (35.22), flower diameter (5.13 cm) and flowering duration (37.45 days) with higher dose of nitrogen 300 kg per ha followed by 250 kg per ha and plants receiving higher dose of phosphorus took less time to produce first flower bud (54.05 days) as compared to other levels of fertilizer. Maximum flower production in chrysanthemum cv. Jayanthi could be assured with the application of 20 g N and 16 g K per plot. It may be more advantageous when chrysanthemum plants were pinched at 20 days after transplanting (Singh and Baboo, 2003). Singh and Baboo (2003) reported in marigold that application nitrogen 375 kg per ha gave highest flower yield (329.7 q/ha). Such boosting effect might be due to higher accumulation of carbohydrates in flower heads and increased flower size plants which received higher dose of phosphorus took less time to first flower appearance (50.2 days) as compared to control (58.2 days). The higher dose of P (210 kg/ha) also produced maximum flower yield (317.21 q/ha) than lower levels of phosphorus and control. Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported in African marigold that application of 200 kg of N and P fertilizers per ha recorded increased diameter of flower, number of flowers per plant and flower yield per plant and per ha when compared to other levels of N and P. Gnyandev (2006) noticed more number of days to 50 per cent flowering (90.26), increased number of flowers per plant (32.15), flower diameter (5.09 cm), number of seeds per flower (68.73), seed yield per plant (4.75 g) and seed yield per ha (342.23 kg) with the application of higher fertilizer level (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster. Ajay and Vijay (2007) noticed longer days for bud initiation (54.30), days to first bud opening (76.00) and increased flower diameter (5.08 cm), number of flowers per plant (93.17), flower yield (850.17 g/m2) and flower yield (85.01 q/ ha) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen (100 kg/ha) in calendula.

Ramesh Naik et al. (2008) stated that the application of higher dose of fertilizer, 150 percent of RDF resulted in significant increase in number of capitula per plant (46.66), seed weight per plant (55.06 g), seed yield per ha (13.70 q) and stalk yield (23.63 q/ha) in safflower. Singh et al. (2008) reported maximum flower bud diameter (2.91 cm), flower width (4.73 cm), number of bulbs per plant (1.49), weight of bulbs per plant (68.73 g), bulb diameter (5.37 cm), number of bulblets per plant (1.87) and weight of bulblets (2.50 g) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen 250 kg per ha in Asiatic hybrid lily cv. Novecento. Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded longer days to flower initiation (45.45), days to 50 per cent flowering (48.36), days to pod initiation (51.00), days to crop maturity (84.75), and increased harvest index (43.56), number of pods per plant (22.50), pod yield per plant (23.68 g), pod yield per ha (22.23 q), seed yield per plant (19.95 g) and seed yield per ha (18.50 q) in lablab bean with the application of higher levels of fertilizer 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha. Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in number of fruits per vine (2.18), number of seeds per fruit (384), seed yield per fruit (36.40 g), seed yield per vine (81.11 g), seed yield per plot (1603.0 g) and seed yield per ha (471 kg) with higher dose of fertilizer 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

2.2.4 Seed quality parameters Maheshwarappa et al. (1985) reported an increase in 100 seed weight and germination percentage with increased level of nitrogen and phosphorus in sunflower up to 120 and 90 kg/ha, respectively. Mantur (1988) noticed an increase in germination percentage, root length and shoot length and vigour index with increase in NPK up to 180:120:100 kg/ha in china aster. Hugar (1997) recorded higher germination percentage, root length, shoot length and vigour index in gaillardia with 100 kg nitrogen per ha. Devidaya and Agarwal (1998) noticed significant improvement in 1000 seed weight with the application of N and P2O5 (up to 120 and 60 kg/ha, respectively) in sunflower. Shivakumar (2000) reported that seed quality parameters like root length, shoot length and seedling dry weight except germination percentage and vigour index were not influenced by different fertilizer levels. However, all these parameters recorded higher values at higher fertilizer doses (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold. Higher germination percentage (90.4), shoot length (3.54 cm), root length (1.40 cm), speed of germination (36.6), seedling dry weight (115.9 mg) and seedling vigour index (1449) were recorded with the application of 240:180:180 kg NPK per ha in china aster (Doddagoudar et al., 2004). Gnyandev (2006) reported increase an in 1000 seed weight (2.14 g), germination percentage (88.90), seedling length (4.74 cm), vigour index (421), seedling dry weight (17.32 -1 cm) and lower electrical conductivity (1.47 dSm ) with the application of higher dose of fertilizer 270:180:150 kg NPK per ha in china aster. Manjunath et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in 100 seed weight (8.78 g), seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (88.80) with the application of 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

2.3

Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality

2.3.1 Gibberellic acid Gibberellins are the most widely used plant growth substances in horticulture. These are made up of diterpenoid acid, that function as plant growth regulators influencing a range of developmental processes in plants life like stem elongation, germination, breaking dormancy, flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction and leaf and fruit senescence. Gibberellins are characterized by gibbane carbon skeleton and based on the substitution of gibbane carbon skeleton more than 100 gibberellins are available at present. The most commonly used one is GA3. Kohl and Kofranek (1957) were among the first to investigate the possible use of GA3 in flowering crops.

2.3.2

Growth

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height (46.39 and 58.93 cm) and more number of branches (14.13 and 13.77) compared to control (36.90 and 37.90 cm and 6.06 and 6.80, respectively) in marigold and china aster (Lal and Mishra, 1986). Similarly, spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum height and more number of branches compared to control in chrysanthemum (Nagarjuna et al., 1988). Syamal et al. (1990) noticed maximum height, number of leaves and number of branches in the plants treated with GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control in marigold and china aster. GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in maximum plant height (53.87 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (6.33) compared to control (44.90 cm and 4.67, respectively) in gladiolus (Leena Ravidas et al., 1992). Similarly, Das and Das (1992) observed significant increase in plant height (69.30 cm) and number of leaves (26.00) compared to control (45 cm and 18, respectively) with 200 ppm of GA3 spray in Hemerocallis aurantiaca (Day lily). Goyal and Gupta (1996) observed increased plant height (91.63 cm) and more number of shoots per plant (14.62) in rose with GA3 at 45 ppm spray compared to control (60.37 cm and 10.50, respectively). Singh and Bijimol (2001) observed an increase in plant height (35.15 cm) and more number of leaves per plant (32.83) in tuberose with GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (21.87 cm and 18.91, respectively). Maurya and Nagada (2002) noticed maximum height (104.50 cm) in the plants treated with GA3 (100 ppm) as compared to control (95.10 cm) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. GA3 (90 ppm) significantly increased the plant height (69.00 cm) and number of branches per plant (6.60) compared to control (58.52 cm and 6.10, respectively) in dahlia (Khan and Tewari, 2003). Spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm recorded maximum plant spread (31.10 cm) and more number of leaves (15.19) compared to control (20.00 cm and 11.23, respectively) in gerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). Similarly, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed maximum height (62.00 cm) and number of branches per plant (20.27) in the plants treated with GA3 (200 ppm) as compared to control (46.77 cm, and 16.57, respectively) in china aster cv. Kamini. Lone et al. (2005) observed significant increase in plant height (99.42 cm) and more number of branches per plant (14.96) with the spraying of GA3 (250 ppm) compared to control (82.08 cm and 9.33, respectively) in chilli cv. K-2. In gladiolus, Pranav Rana et al. (2005) revealed that GA3 100 ppm spray increased plant height (119.88 cm) compared to control (115.68 cm). While, Chandrappa et al. (2006) recorded maximum plant height (46.44 cm) with spraying of GA3 (750 ppm) compared to control (45.22 cm) in anthurium cv. Royal Red.

Panwar et al. (2006) reported in tuberose that GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in more number of leaves per plant and increased length of spike. Whereas, significant increase in plant height (40.13 cm), number of leaves per plant (5.69), leaf length (18.11) and leaf width (10.43 cm) in anthurium was recorded with foliar application of 500 ppm GA3. (Dhaduk et al., 2007) Kishan et al. (2007) recorded an increase in plant height (89.50 cm), and number of branches per plant (8.75) in winter, (74.33 cm and 13.66) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold. Significant increase in plant height at harvest (101.2 cm), number of branches per plant (14.5) was recorded with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold (Sunitha, 2006). While, Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum plant height (97.14 cm), number of leaves per plant (10.02), leaf length (45.51 cm) and spike diameter (0.989 cm) with the application of 30 mg per litre of GA3 in gladiolus. Manjunath et al. (2008) seeds per fruit (374), seed yield per plot (1019.00 g) and seed gibberellin compared to control pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

noticed more number of fruits per plant (1.49), number of per fruit (34.26 g), seed yield per vine (52.93 g), seed yield yield per ha (346 kg) with the application of 25 ppm of (1.29, 327, 28.58 g, 39.40 g, 1556 g and 524 kg/ha) in

Pawar et al. (2008) noticed significant increase in plant height (66.83 cm), plant spread (2454.50 cm) with foliar application of 200 ppm of GA3 in gaillardia. Sandeep et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (22.07 cm), more number of 2 leaves per plant (30.60), number of branches per plant (14.24), leaf area (39.95 cm ) with the application of GA3 at 200 ppm in Calendula officinalis cv. Red Orange.

2.3.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold and china aster recorded more number of flowers (22.87 and 84.80) with 200 ppm GA3 spray compared to control (15.63 and 16.30, respectively). Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (Nagarjuna et al., 1988) or twice at 100 ppm (Koriesh et al., 1989) induced early flowering, increased size of the flowers, fresh weight and dry weight of flowers in chrysanthemum. Induction of early flowering (85.36 days) and increased number of flowers (56.00), flower yield per plant (574.55 g) and test weight of seed (2.41 g) was noticed with the application of GA3 500 ppm compared to control (91.45 days, 27.67, 274.84 g / plant and 2.12 g, respectively) by Singh et al. (1991) in African marigold. Leena Ravidas et al. (1992) reported that GA3 at 50 ppm gave maximum number of florets (16.0) per spike, weight of corm (35.61 g) and weight of cormels (13.48 g) compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (35.68 g and 12.12 g, respectively) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. While, Goyal and Gupta (1996) noticed that GA3 at 45 ppm increased the number of flowers (18.00) and flower yield (249.29 g) per plant compared to control (16.00 and 160.91 g, respectively) in rose. Singh and Bijimol (2001) reported that spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm took less number of days for sprouting (11.50 days) and significantly increased the number of florets per spike (41.66) and weight of florets per plant (55.40 g) compared to GA3 100 ppm (9.30 days, 39.91 and 46.45 g, respectively) in tuberose. Maurya and Nagda (2002) noticed that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm increased the number of corms per plant (1.87), weight of corms per plant (78.70 g) and weight of corms per bed (1.60 kg) in gladiolus cv. Friendship compared to control (1.20, 53.30 g and 0.95 kg/bed, respectively).

Spraying of GA3 at 150 ppm recorded more number of flowers per plant (18.63) and diameter of flower head (7.53 cm) compared to control (13.79/plant and 6.93, respectively) in gerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). While, Khan and Tewari (2003) recorded more number of flowers per plant (15.80) with GA3 at 90 ppm compared to control (13.37) in dahlia. In China aster cv. Kamini, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed that spraying of GA3 200 ppm gave maximum number of flowers per plant (67.33), flower weight (2.86 g) and flower yield (192.59 g) compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (65.67, 2.81 g and 184.51 g. respectively). Pranav Rana et al. (2005) reported that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm significantly increased the number of florets per spike (14.29), number of corms per plant (1.66) and corm weight (50.80 g) compared to control (12.87, 1.45 and 49.07 g, respectively) in gladiolus. Baskaran and Misra (2007) observed early induction of flowering in gladiolus with the application of 500 ppm GA3 followed by 100 ppm. Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium reported increased number of flowers per plant (3.93), stalk length (8.53 cm) and spathe length (9.09 cm) with foliar application of 500 pppm of GA3. Whereas, Devadanam et al. (2007) observed minimum number of days required for spike emergence (43.48) maximum spike length (87.20 cm), spike girth (2.84 cm), rachis length (21.37), floret length (6.56 cm) and floret diameter (3.88 cm) with foliar spray of GA3 at 150 ppm in tuberose. Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) recorded minimum days to bud initiation (70.75 cm), days to first flowering (91.50),increased number of flowers per plant (23.25), fresh weight of single flower (6.92 g), yield of flowers per plant (433 g), number of seed per flower (297.50) and 247.00) and seed yield per plant (23.50 g) in winter and (80.66 cm, 103.66, 62.66, 6.06 g, 286.66 g and 1.22 g, respectively) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold. Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) noticed early days to 50 per cent flowering (82.60) and increased number of flowers per plant (25.51) and diameter (2.24 cm) with the application of 50 ppm GA3 in French marigold. While, Sunitha et al. (2006) recorded significantly less number of days to 50 per cent flowering (50.3), more number of flower (68.7), seed yield per plant (20.6 g) and seed yield per ha (531 kg) with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold. Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum corm diameter (5.28 cm) and weight per corm (22.69 g) with the application of 300 mg per litre of GA3. Further, he reported 400 mg per litre gave highest number of florets per spike (14.20) and number of corms (1.20) per plant. 2.3.4 Seed quality parameters Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) noticed increased germination percentage (90.75) and vigour index (660) in china aster by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (87.50% and 552, respectively). Doddagoudar et al. (2004) recorded maximum germination percentage (93.00), shoot length (3.77 cm) root length (1.56 cm). Seedling vigour index (496) and seedling dry weight (18.00 mg) with spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (87.50%, 3.15cm, 1.27 cm, 388 and 12.80 mg, respectively) in china aster. Spraying of GA3 200 ppm to bell pepper cv. California Wonder, recorded higher germination percentage (91.05), root length (5.55 cm), shoot length (7.50 cm) seedling dry weight (53.50 mg) and seedling vigour index (1174) compared to control (8 1.50%, 4.27 cm, 5.75 cm, 42.85 mg and 518, respectively) (Yogananda et al., 2004). Sunitha (2006) recorded significantly higher seed quality parameters such as 1000 seed weight (3.3 g), germination percentage (90.1), root length (6.3 cm), shoot length (5.4 cm), seedling dry weight (11.4 mg), vigour index (1059) and field emergence (77.1 %) with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.

In ridge gourd, Hilli et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (13.88 g), seed germination percentage (93.22) and field emergence percentage (83.95) vigour index (3026), -1 seedling dry weight (83.55 mg) and lower electrical conductivity (0.801 dSm ) in summer and (11.70 g, 87.37%, 84.00% 3026, 82.48 mg and 0.814, respectively) in kharif with foliar application of 350 ppm of GA3. Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (8.72 g), seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (87.40) with foliar application of 25 ppm of gibberellin in pumpkin cv. Arka chandan.

2.4

Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering and seed yield and quality parameters

2.4.1 Tricontanol Tricontanol (TRIA), a 30-carbon primary alcohol, was first identified by Chibnall et al. (1933) in lucerne as a natural component of plants, and verified this early by mass spectroscopy. Later it was observed to increase the growth of plants following application as side dressing. The plant growth regulating activity of TRIA extracted from alfalfa was first discovered in 1977. TRIA is synthesized by plants and is a component of most biological material. Exogenous application of TRIA regulates several physiological and biological processes and is known to increase yield of crops (Stanley and Robert, 1983).

2.4.2 Growth Pandita et al. (1991) noticed maximum plant height at harvest with two foliar sprays of 1.25 ppm vipul (tricontanol 0.1%) in rainy season and three foliar sprays of 2.5 ppm in the summer season in okra. While, Ray (1991) reported relative increase in growth rate, leaf area and leaf area index with the application of tricontanol at 0.3 to 3.0 mg per litre compared to control in capsicum. Sharma (1995) noticed increased plant height and number of branches with foliar spray of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan over control in tomato. Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1987) in chilli recorded significantly more number of branches (13.75), number of leaves (850.63) per plant with foliar application of 2 ppm of tricontanol. While, Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported an increase in plant height and number of branches with the foliar application of tricontanol 1ml/2l over control in mustard. Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased plant height (84.26 cm), and number of leaves per plant (42.11) with the foliar application of miraculan 2000 ppm over control (81.66 cm and 36.03, respectively) in onion cv. Nasik Red. Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) recorded highest number of branches per plant (14.2) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%) in tomato. Whereas, Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in radish recorded increased plant height, number of branches and leaf area with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol. Satao et al. (2007) reported increased plant height and number of leaves by spraying four times (35, 50, 65 and 80 days) after sowing with 0.8 ml per litre of miraculan in okra.

2.4.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components Significantly more number of fruits per plant and yield was obtained by spraying -6 tomato plants with tricontanol at 2.3 x 10 M (Eriksen et al., 1982). Gunasekaran and Shanmugavel (1983) reported highest yield (1230.3 g/plant) with tricontanol at 1 ppm applied at 15 days after transplanting and at flowering in tomato. While, Zheng et al. (1986) reported foliar spray in beans with 10 ppm of tricontanol increased yield by 10 per cent over the control.

Gaur et al. (1987) reported highest yield in safflower with application of miraculan at 500 ppm and 25 kg phosphorus per ha. Whereas, Parmil Singh et al. (1990) recorded increased seed and oil yield in sunflower with the application of 2 mg per ml of tricontanol. Significantly higher leaf yield was recorded with the application of tricontanol (2.5-10 ppm) compared to control in spinach. He further reported highest leaf yield was with 5 ppm of tricontanol (Kadam et al., 1988). Ray (1991) reported higher dry matter accumulation and better yields in plants treated with 0.5 to 1.0 mg tricontanol in capsicum. While, Yadav et al. (1992) reported increased pod yield with the application of 0.2 percent miraculan compared with that of untreated control in pea. Sharma (1995) reported increased number of fruits, yield of fruits and seed per ha with the application of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan compared to control. He further reported that spraying at four weeks after transplanting with 75 pm was most effective in enhancing fruit and seed yield per ha compared to 8 and 12 weeks after transplanting in tomato. Miniraj and Shanmugavelu (1997) in chilli recorded early days taken for first flowering (70.9), increased number of flowers (499.1) per plant, single plant yield (80.25 g), yield per ha (4.45 q) with foliar application of 2ppm of tricontanol. Muralidharan et al. (2000) recorded significant number of fruits per plant (37), individual fruit weight (41.6 g), fruit volume (32.6 cm3) and fruit firmness (1.79 mm) with the application of vipul 0.01 % (tricontanol) 300 ml ha-1 in tomato. Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported increased number of siliqua per plant, length of siliqua, number of seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and seed yield with the application of 1ml/l of tricontanol over control in mustard. Muralidharan et al. (2002) reported higher pod yield with the application of 0.1% miraculan and 0.05 % miraculan at 200, 250 and 300 ml per hectare over control. He further recorded highest dry pod yield (3.22 t/ha) with 300 ml of miraculan 0.1% in chilli. Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded minimum days to 50 per cent flowering (82.22), increased number of umbels per plant (4.56), umbel diameter (4.28 cm), seed weight per umbel (3.07 g), seed yield per plant (16.73 g) and seed yield per ha (12.69 q) with the application of 2000 ppm miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red. While, Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in tomato reported increased number of fruits per plant (94.67), early and total yield per plant (0.480 and 3.2 kg) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%). Sharma et al. (2005) reported tricontanol spray (1.25 ppm) at 15, 30 and 40 DAT significantly increased number of flowers per plant (118.2), size of flowers (8.9 cm), weight of flowers per plant (739.0 g) and flower yield per ha (36.5 q) in African marigold. Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in his studies on growth regulators in radish reported increased tuber length and tuber yield with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol. Whereas, Tripathi et al. (2007) recorded increased number of flowers per plant, percent pod setting per plant, 1000 seed weight, seed yield per ha, harvest index and productivity with the application of 5 ppm miraculan in chickpea over control. Samui and Roy (2007) reported that application of tricontanol 0.05% EC and tricontanol 0.1% EC at 0.250, 0.500 and 1.000 g a.i. per ha foliar spray significantly increased dry matter production, tuber bulking rate, size of tubers and yield in potato. Satao et al. (2007) reported an increase in number of flowers, number of pods and green pod yield with the application of miraculan at 0.8 ml per litre sprayed four times (35, 50, 65 and 80 days) after sowing in okra.

2.4.4 Seed quality parameters Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased 1000 seed weight (3.85 g), seed germination percentage (84.1) and seedling vigour index (983) with the application of 2000 ppm of miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red.

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality Cycocel is chemically termed as (2-Chloro ethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride. In 1960, a new group of quaternary ammonium compounds were reported, the most active of these was designated as CCC, an analog of choline, in that hydroxyl group in choline was replaced with a chlorine substitute. Its trival name chloro choline chloride abbreviated as CCC. The chemical acts as growth retardant in large number of species than any of the earlier compounds.

2.5.1 Growth Shanmugam and Muthuswamy (1974) reported marked suppression of plant growth at all concentrations (500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) of CCC in chrysanthemum compared to control. Sen and Naik (1977) noticed marked reduction in plant height over control with foliar spray of cycocel (1000 ppm) in both pinched and unpinched Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Early white. Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) reported in marigold that foliar spray of cycocel successfully reduced the plant height at all concentrations (1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm), increased the number of branches at pre blooming stage and post blooming stage in first and second season, respectively. Shreedhar (1993) in his studies on gaillardia noticed higher number of branches, leaves and dry matter production and reduced plant height with CCC (2000 ppm) as compared to CCC (3000 ppm). Aswath et al. (1994) noticed decreased plant height, branch length and internodal length with increase in concentrations of cycocel in china aster. Maximum number of branches and leaves were recorded in CCC at 1500 ppm. Spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) on gaillardia significantly increased the number of branches, leaves, leaf area index and total dry matter production compared to control (Hugar, 1997). Khandelwal et al. (2003) reported that spraying of 1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm of CCC significantly reduced the plant height, but increased the number of branches and leaves at all concentrations compared to control in African marigold. While, Singh (2004) reported that CCC at 2000 ppm exhibited maximum number of leaves and secondary shoots and significantly reduced plant height in rose. Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary branches, number of leaves per plant, leaf area and plant spread was recorded with foliar spray of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm in French marigold. Further, reported 500 ppm was superior over all other treatments (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2007). Pawar et al. (2008) recorded reduction in plant height, increased number of branches and plant spread with foliar application of cycocel at (750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively) in gaillardia cv. Picta Mixed.

2.5.2

Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Parmar and Singh (1983) in marigold noticed more flowers per plant and flower yield with foliar spray of CCC at 500 and 750 ppm of spray respectively compared to control. While, Narayanagouda (1985) reported in china aster that application of CCC (1000 ppm) increased the number of days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flower per plant and flower yield compared to control. In china aster, maximum number of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per plant was recorded with CCC at 2000 ppm. Whereas, minimum yield and maximum peduncle length was recorded in control (Narayanagouda, 1985). Aswath et al. (1994) reported that application of cycocel (1000 ppm) delayed the flower bud appearance by 12.40 days. Higher number of flowers per plant was obtained due to the spray of 1500 ppm cycocel followed by alar (1500 ppm) in china aster. Narayangouda et al. (1996) reported that cycocel treated plants of Gundu Mallige flowered early with longer duration of flowering and increase in number and flower yield (120.59) per plant. Hugar (1997) reported that spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) to gaillardia plants significantly increased the days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flowers per plant, seed yield per plant, seed recovery percentage, 1000 seed weight, but decreased capitulum diameter compared to control. Khandelwal et al. (2003) observed significantly increased number of flowers, number of days to first flowering and decreased diameter of flowers with increasing concentration of CCC (1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm) compared to control. Similarly, Singh (2004) reported in rose that CCC (2000 ppm) recorded maximum diameter of flower, early induction of flower bud and flowering compared to CCC (1000 ppm). Significantly more number of flowers per plant (32.43 and 30.17 cm), increased diameter of head (3.46 and 3.30 cm) and stalk length (8.2 and 8.28 cm) was recorded in French marigold with foliar application of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2008). Pawar et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in diameter of flower, highest diameter and yield of flower per hectare with the application of cycocel at 750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively. He further reported that 1000 ppm was significantly superior over all treatments in gaillardia.

2.5.3 Seed quality parameters Mantur (1988) reported that germination percentage, vigour index, shoot and root length of seedling were significantly increased by spraying of CCC at 1000 ppm compared to control in china aster. Significantly higher 1000 seed weight, seed germination percentage and seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) was noticed in gaillardia compared to other treatments and control (Hugar, 1997). Akkannavar (2001) reported higher germination percentage, root length and shoot length, speed of germination, seedling dry weight, seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC (500 ppm) compared to control.

2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and quality Mepiquat chloride (1,1 Dimethyl piperidinium chloride, DPC), a growth regulator known to suppress vegetative growth in cotton (Cothren, 1979). Mepiquat chloride is relatively a new chemical and the literature available on the effect of this chemical is very scanty.

2.6.1 Growth Mepiquat chloride sprayed at first bloom stage in cotton increased the photosynthesis and there by increased the dry matter production (Walter et al., 1980). A decrease in plant height was observed by Mc Connel et al. (1992) with foliar application of mepiquat chloride four times in cotton. Madalageri and Ganiger (1993) recorded reduced plant height (48.9 to 47.3cm) with the application of mepiquat chloride at 100 to 125 ppm than untreated control (59.5cm) in potato. Such reduction in plant height with the spraying of mepiquat chloride was also noticed in potato (Gasti. 1994) and in true potato (Madalageri, 1996). Rajesh (1995) observed significant increase in number of branches (18.73) and number of leaves per plant (219.12) and decreased plant height (39.12 cm) with 500 ppm foliar spray of mepiquat chloride compared to control (10.13, 118.03 and 4265 cm. respectively) in calendula. Whereas, El-Shahawy (2000) reported reduced plant height, with the application of 50 g a.i. per litre of mepiquat chloride in cotton. Foliar spray of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 200 mg per ml during vegetative and flowering stage improved the number of branches, leaves and leaf area index, while spray during the podding stage did not significantly affect these parameters in groundnut (Amandeep et al., 2004). Rao et al. (2005) reported that the application of 50 ppm mepiquat chloride resulted in higher flowers setting, 100 seed weight, seed yield, biomass at harvest, harvest index and lowest number of abortive flowers in chickpea. Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary branches were recorded with the application of mepiquat chloride (300, 200 and 100 ppm) in mustard (Parminder Kaur and Sidhu, 2007).

2.6.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components Significantly higher number and yield of tubers was obtained in TPS transplants and in tuber planted potato with the spraying of mepiquat chloride (Gasti, 1994). Rajesh (1995) recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (23.17) with spraying of mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control (18.49) in càlendula. Seed yield, seed weight per plant and harvest index were significantly higher with spraying of mepiquat chloride in safflower, but the number of capitula per plant, number of seeds per capitulum and test weight were not affected (Kareekatti, 1996). Madalgeri (1996) reported that weight of tubers per plant was significantly higher in the plants treated with mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control. Channakeshava et al. (1999) recorded increased cob length (19.14 cm), cob diameter (15.28 cm), number of seeds per cob (326.2), 100 seed weight (39.28 g) and seed yield per ha (55.56 q) with the application of 150 ppm of mepiquat chloride in African tall fodder maize. Significantly increased number of pods per plant, 100 seed weight and seed yield per plant in seed rape with the application of 200 or 400 ppm of mepiquat chloride compared to untreated plants (Mekki and El-Kholy, 1999). El-Shahawy (2000) reported increased number of monopodia, sympodia, unopened bolls per plant and seed yield with the application of mepiquat chloride 50 a.i. per litre in cotton. Brar et al. (2002) reported that the application of mepiquat chloride in cotton reported two sprays of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 150 ppm increased seed cotton yield by 38.41 per

cent over the control, while a single spray at high concentration (200 and 250 ppm) increased seed cotton yield by 37.39 per cent over the control. Doddagoudar et al. (2002) in china aster recorded that spraying of 500 mepiquat chloride resulted in higher seed yield as compared to control. Bagewadi et al. (2003) reported highest mean number of pods per plant (38.58), number of filled pods per plant (33.36), 100 pod weight (109.08 g), pod yield per plot (1.51/kg) and total pod yield (2533.32 kg/ha) with the application of mepiquat chloride (2 ml/l) in groundnut. Neelima et al. (2005) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant (227.89), number of pods per plant (104.20), pod setting percentage (45.94) and number of seeds per pod (2.270), with the foliar application of 200 mg/l of mepiquat chloride. He further recorded higher 100 seed weight (11.491 g), seed weight per plant (26.04 g) and yield per plot (4.375 kg) with 100 mg/l of mepiquat chloride in soybean. Rao et al. (2005) reported higher flower setting, 100 seed weight, biomass at harvest, seed yield and harvest index and lowest number of aborted flowers with the application of 50 ppm of mepiquat chloride in chickpea. Significantly greater seed yield was recorded with the application of 50 and 25 g a.i. per ha of mepiquat chloride in common vetch (Tan and Temel, 2005). Significant increase in seed yield of pea was reported with the application of mepiquat chloride at 25 g a.i. per ha (Elkoca and Kantar, 2006). Mahadevmurthy and Nagarathna (2008) recorded maximum tuber yield per square metre (4.5 kg) with foliar application of mepiquat chloride at 300 ppm sprayed at 45 and 60 days after sowing in potato.

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS A field experiment was conducted to study the ‘‘Influence of spacing, fertilizer and growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)’’ under rainfed condition during kharif, 2008-2009 at the Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. The details of the material used and experimental techniques adopted during the course of investigation are presented in this chapter.

3.1

General description

3.1.1 Location of the experiment The field experiment was conducted in the ‘E’ block of Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, which comes under northern transitional tract (Zone VIII) of Karnataka State and is situated at 150 26’ North latitude and 760 07’ East longitude and at an altitude of 678 m above mean sea level.

3.1.2 Soil The experiment was conducted in black soil. The physical and chemical composition of soil in the experimental field is presented in Table 1.

3.1.3 Climate The data on weather parameters such as rainfall (mm), mean maximum and o minimum temperature ( C) and relative humidity (%) recorded at Meteorological Observatory, Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during the experimental year (2008-09) and the mean of the last 58 years (1950-2008) are presented in Table 2. The mean annual rainfall for the past 58 years was 768.4 mm and the maximum rainfall was received in the month of July (152.4 mm) followed by October (126.9 mm). The total rainfall during 2008-09 was 844.4 mm and a maximum of 213.2 mm was received in August. The months of December, January and February did not receive any rainfall during o this year. The mean maximum temperature ranged from 35.1 (May) to 26.9 C (August) during 2008. The months of April, May and June were hottest. While the mean maximum temperature during past 58 years indicated that it was maximum in April (37.3oC) followed by o o May (33.7 C). The minimum temperature ranged from 13.0 (January) to 21.0 C (June) during 2008-09. The average of last 58 years indicated that the mean minimum temperature was maximum during June (22.4oC) and minimum during December (12.5oC). The relative humidity ranged from 57.5 (February) to 91.8 per cent (June) during 2008-09, while it ranged from 51.5 per cent (February) to 87.1 per cent (July) during the last 58 years. The cropping period prevailed from July 2008 to November 2008. The rainfall was ill distributed with short dry spells during flowering stage which affected yield to some extent.

3.2

Previous crop at the experimental site

Groundnut was grown in the experimental site during the previous season i.e. rabi 2007-2008.

Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site Sl. No.

Particulars

Values

I.

Physical properties

1.

Coarse sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

6.10%

2.

Fine sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

13.14%

3.

Silt (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

28.00%

4.

Clay (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

62.76%

II.

Chemical properties Available nitrogen (Alkaline permanganate method) (Subbaiah

0.0068%

and Asija, 1956) Available P2O5 (Olsen’s method) (Jackson, 1967)

0.007%

Available K2O (Flame photometry method) (Jackson, 1967)

0.016%

III.

pH

7.5

IV.

Electrical conductivity (dS/m)

0.31

Table 2: Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and the average of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research Station, UAS, Dharwad Temperature (oC)

Rainfall (mm) Months

Mean maximum 2008-09

Relative humidity (%) Mean minimum

1950-2008 2008-09

1950-2008

2008-09

1950-2008

2008-09

1950-2008

April 2008

28.8

49.3

34.7

37.3

20.4

19.8

80.4

75.6

May

55.8

80.2

35.1

33.7

20.6

21.3

85.1

66.2

June

101.6

114.2

28.7

28.8

21.0

22.4

91.8

81.1

July

121.0

152.4

28.2

29.1

20.7

21.0

91.3

87.1

August

213.2

98.5

26.9

26.9

20.1

20.0

91.5

86.0

September

162.4

104.9

27.8

28.5

20.0

19.9

91.4

82.1

October

60.4

126.9

30.3

30.0

18.9

18.4

83.5

75.8

November

72.2

33.0

29.3

30.1

15.9

15.9

79.4

68.0

December

0.0

5.2

28.6

29.3

13.8

12.5

75.4

63.2

January 2009

0.0

0.1

29.8

29.6

13.3

14.6

66.6

63.1

February

0.0

1.1

33.2

31.2

16.8

16.3

57.5

51.5

March

29.0

2.3

35.0

32.4

19.9

19.5

73.0

56.0

Total

844.4

768.4

3.3 Experiment – I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality of annual chrysanthemum 3.3.1 Treatment details The field experiment consisted of 9 treatment combinations involving three levels of spacing and three levels of fertilizer doses. The details are as below. Factor –I : Spacings (S) S1

: 30 x 30 cm

S2

: 45 x 30 cm

S3

: 60 x 30 cm

Factor –II : Fertilizer levels (F) F1

: 75:112.5:75 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

F2

: 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

F3

: 125:187.5:125 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

3.3.2 Treatment combinations S1F1

S2F1

S3F1

S1F2

S2F2

S3 F 2

S1F3

S2F3

S3 F 3

3.3.3 Design and layout The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with factorial concept and replicated thrice. The plan and layout of the experiment is given in Fig. 1.

3.3.4 Plot size Gross plot size : 3.0 m x 3.0 m Net plot size

S1 : 2.70 m x 2.70 m S2 : 2.70 m x 2.55 m S3 : 2.70 m x 2.40 m

3.4

Seed source

The seeds of annual chrysanthemum were obtained from Floriculture Unit, Department of Horticulture, UAS, Dharwad.

3.5

Cultural practices

The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigation including the nursery operations are furnished below.

Nursery

General view at three weeks after planting

General view at three weeks at flowering Plate.1. General view of the experimental plots

Legend

Factor –I : Spacings (S) S1

: 30 x 30 cm

S2

: 45 x 30 cm

S3

: 60 x 30 cm

Factor –II : Fertilizer levels (F) F1

: 75:112.5:75 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

F2

: 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

F3

: 125:187.5:125 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

3.3.2 Treatment combinations S1F1

S2F1

S3F1

S1F2

S2F2

S3 F 2

S1F3

S2F3

S3 F 3

Fig.1. Plan and layout of the experimental site

3.5.1 Nursery Raised nursery bed of 6.0 x 1.2 m was prepared and drenched with captan (0.01%) before sowing the seeds. After sowing carbofuran (3G) granules were sprinkled all along the sides of the nursery bed. The nursery bed was watered twice for first 10 days and daily once for the remaining period. Hand weeding was done 10 days after sowing. The seedlings were ready for transplanting at 20 days after sowing.

3.5.2 Preparation of experimental plot The experimental plot was brought to a fine tilth by ploughing once and repeated harrowing. The experimental plot was laidout as per the treatment requirements.

3.5.3 Transplanting The treatments were allotted randomly in the main experimental plot and 20 days old seedlings were transplanted with the spacings as in experiment distributed randomly. Transplanting was done at the rate of one seedling per hill. Light irrigation was given soon after transplanting.

3.5.4 Fertilizer application The recommended quantity of N, P2O5 and K2O fertilizers in the form of Urea, Single super phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively was calculated as per the treatments at the time of transplanting, half dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied in circular band of about 3-4 cm away from each plant. The crop was top dressed with remaining half dose of nitrogen at 30 days after transplanting.

3.5.5 Inter cultivation Hand weeding was carried out two weeks after transplanting. Irrigation was given depending upon the soil moisture status and climatic conditions. Intercultivation was carried out before top dressing and after 45 days after transplanting.

3.5.6 Plant protection The plant protection measures were taken up to protect the crop from pests. The crop was sprayed with Endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 2 ml per liter of water against hairy caterpillar at 60 DAT.

3.5.7 Harvesting Harvesting of capitula for seed purpose was done at 100 DAT. The fully dried flowers were harvested treatment wise and sun dried for three days. The dried flowers were threshed, cleaned and filled seeds were separated from chaffy seeds and were used for assessing the seed yield and seed quality parameters.

3.6

Collection of data

3.6.1 Sampling procedure The observations on growth parameters were recorded at three stages of plant growth viz., 30, 60 days after transplanting and at harvest for recording various biometric observations, five plants at random from net plot area were selected and tagged in each plot. The observations were made on plant height, number of leaves, leaf area per plant, number of branches per plant, number of flowers per plant, flower diameter, dry weight of flower, number of seeds per flower, test weight, seed yield per plant and per hectare.

3.6.2 Observations on growth parameters 3.6.2.1 Plant height Plant height of five randomly tagged plants were measured at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest from the ground level to the tip of the plant and average was worked out and expressed in centimetres. 3.6.2.2 Number of branches per plant The number of primary branches arising from the main stem of five tagged plants were counted and recorded at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. 3.6.2.3 Number of leaves per plant The number of fully opened leaves were counted from the five tagged plants at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. The average value was recorded as number of leaves per plant. 3.6.2.4 Leaf area per plant Leaf area (cm2) was recorded by taking 25 leaves evenly from bottom, middle and top portion of the plant using leaf area metre (LICOR portable leaf area meter) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.

3.6.3 Observations on flowering, seed yield and yield components 3.6.3.1 Days to 50 per cent flowering The number of days taken for 50 per cent of the plants to produce first flower in each plot was recorded by counting the days from the date of transplanting. 3.6.3.2 Flower diameter The diameter of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was measured at the point of maximum breadth. This was measured by using ‘Vernier calliper’ and average was worked out and expressed in centimetres. 3.6.3.3 Dry weight of flower The dry weight of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was estimated and expressed in grams. 3.6.3.4 Number of seeds per flower After separating the filled seeds from five randomly selected flowers from each treatment, the filled seeds were counted from each flower and average was worked out as number of seeds per flower. 3.6.3.5 Seed yield per plant and per ha For the purpose of determination of seed yield per plant, five earlier tagged plants were harvested separately and seeds were separated, cleaned, weighed and average seed yield per plant was estimated and expressed in grams. The seed yield per ha was computed based on the seed yield per plant and expressed in kilograms.

3.6.4 Seed quality parameters 3.6.4.1 Thousand seed weight One thousand seeds were manually counted from seeds of five plants in each treatment and 1000 seed weight was recorded and was expressed in grams.

3.6.4.2 Germination percentage The seeds obtained from different treatments were tested for germination by adopting 0 0 paper towel roll method kept at optimum conditions of temperature (25 C ± 1 C) and relative humidity (95 ± 1% RH) in four replications of 100 seeds each (Anonymous, 1996). The number of normal seedlings was counted at the end of 21 days (final count) and the germination percentage was calculated. 3.6.4.3 Seedling length Ten normal seedlings from each of the replication from germination test were carefully removed on 21st day and used for measuring seedling length. The seedling length from tip of shoot to tip of root was measured in centimeter and the average length of the seedling was worked out and expressed in centimetres. 3.6.4.4 Seedling vigour index (SVI) Seedling vigour index was calculated by using the below mentioned formula as suggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973) and expressed in whole number. Seedling vigour index = Germination (%) x [Root length (cm)+ shoot length (cm)] 3.6.4.5 Seedling dry weight The ten seedlings that were used for measuring seedling length were kept in butter 0 paper packet and dried in hot air oven maintained at 70 C for 48 hours. Then the seedlings were cooled in desiccator for one hour before recording the weight. The seedling dry weight was measured with the electronic balance and was expressed in milligrams. 3.6.4.6 Electrical conductivity of seed A sample of five gram of seeds from each of the four replications were washed in acetone for half a minute and later thoroughly washed in distilled water for five minutes. The seeds were soaked in 25 ml of distilled water and kept in an incubator maintained at 250C + 10C for 24 hours. The seed leachate was collected and volume was made up to 25 ml by adding distilled water. The electrical conductivity of seed leachate was measured by using the bridge (ELICO) with a cell constant 1.0 and the leachate values were expressed in desi Siemens per metre (dSm-1).

3.7

Experiment II : Effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum

3.7.1 Treatment details G0

-

Control (No spray)

G1

-

Gibberellic acid (100 ppm)

G2

-

Gibberellic acid (200 ppm)

G3

-

Tricontanol (500 ppm)

G4

-

Tricontanol (1000 ppm)

G5

-

Cycocel (1000 ppm)

G6

-

Cycocel (2000 ppm)

G7

-

Mepiquat chloride (1000 ppm)

G8

-

Mepiquat chloride (2000 ppm)

3.7.2 Design and layout The field experiment was carried out in a randomized block design having three replications (Fig. 2). Gross plot size

: 3.0 x 3.0 m

Net plot size

: 2.55 x 2.70 m

3.7.3 Seed source The seeds of annual chrysanthemum cv. Local was obtained from Floriculture Unit, Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

3.8

Cultural operations

The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigation including the nursery operations are furnished as below.

3.8.1 Nursery operation The nursery operations were attended for this experiment was similar to that of experiment –I and the details are described as earlier under 3.5.1. 3.8.2 Preparation of experimental plot The preparation of experimental plot attended for this experiment was similar to that of experiment – I and details are described as earlier under 3.5.2.

3.8.3 Transplanting Twenty days old seedlings were transplanted with 30 x 45 cm spacing. Transplanting was done at the rate of one seedling per hill, light irrigation was given soon after transplanting.

3.8.4 Application of fertilizer A fertilizer dose of 100:150:100 (N:P2O5:K2O kg/ha) was applied in the form of Urea, Single super phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively. At the time of transplanting, half dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied. The crop was top dressed with remaining half dose of nitrogen at 30 days after transplanting.

3.8.5 Inter cultivation Intercultural operations were attended for this experiment similar to that of experiment – I and details are described as earlier under 3.5.5.

3.8.6 Preparation of chemical solutions Gibberellic acid (GA3) 100 ppm : One hundred milligram of GA3 was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 ml of distilled water.

Legend

Growth regulator spray (G)

G0

-

Control (No spray)

G1

-

Gibberellic acid (100 ppm)

G2

-

Gibberellic acid (200 ppm)

G3

-

Tricontanol (500 ppm)

G4

-

Tricontanol (1000 ppm)

G5

-

Cycocel (1000 ppm)

G6

-

Cycocel (2000 ppm)

G7

-

Mepiquat chloride (1000 ppm)

G8

-

Mepiquat chloride (2000 ppm)

Fig.2. Plan and layout of the experimental site

Gibberellic acid (GA3) 200 ppm : Two hundred milligram of GA3 was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 ml of distilled water. Tricontanol (TRIA) 500 ppm: Five hundred milligram was dissolved in few millilitre of distilled water and the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water. Tricontanol (TRIA) 1000 ppm: One millilitre was dissolved in few millilitre of distilled water and the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water. Chloro-choline chloride (CCC) 1000 ppm: One millilitre of CCC was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water. Chloro-choline chloride (CCC) 2000 ppm: Two millilitre of CCC was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water. Mepiquat chloride (MC) 1000 ppm: One millilitre of mepiquat chloride was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water. Mepiquat chloride (MC) 2000 ppm: Two millilitre of mepiquat chloride was dissolved in few millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water.

3.8.7 Time of growth regulator spray The growth regulators were sprayed twice at 30 and 45 days after transplanting

3.8.8 Plant protection Plant protection measures were carried out as described under section 3.5.6.

3.8.9 Harvesting The harvesting method used was similar as described under section 3.5.7.

3.8.10 Collection of data The biometric observations on growth, flowering, seed yield and seed quality parameters were recorded as described under 3.6.1, 3.6.2, 3.6.3 and to 3.6.4 of experiment – I.

3.9

Net income per hectare and cost benefit ratio

Net income per hectare (Rs. ha-1) for both the experiments was calculated by considering the prices of inputs that were prevailing at the time of their use were considered for working out the cost of cultivation (Table.3). Gross return was calculated by multiplying the -1 price of produce (seeds) with total seed yield produced per hectare. Net returns (Rs. ha ) were calculated by deducing cost of cultivation from gross returns. The cost benefit ratio was calculated by dividing net returns by total cost of production.

3.10 Statistical analysis Data collected from both the experiments were analysed statistically by the procedure described by Sundararajan et al. (1972). The critical differences were calculated at five and one per cent level were ‘F’ test was significant. The data on percentage of germination are transformed into arcsine values (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). Then the transformed values were statistically analysed and presented in tables.

Table 3: Prices of inputs

Inputs

Price (Rs.)

1. Seeds

2000 per Kg

2. Urea

500 per q

3. Single super phosphate

480 per q

4. Murate of potash

460 per q

5. Men labour

60 per day

6. Women labour

50 per day

7. Bullock pair

150 per day

8. Endosulphon

280 per litre

9. Gibberellic acid (GA3)

75 per g

10. Tricontanol (Miraculan)

98 per 250 ml

11. Cycocel (CCC)

99 per 100 ml

12. Mepiquat chloride (MC)

280 per litre

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2008 at Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad to study the effect of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum. The results obtained from the experiments are presented in this chapter.

4.1 Experiment – I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum 4.1.1 Growth parameters 4.1.1.1 Plant height (cm) The data on plant height of chrysanthemum at 30, 60 days after transplanting (DAT) and at harvest as influenced by spacing and fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table. 4 and Fig. 3 As the growth advanced, the mean plant height increased from 39.99 cm at 30 DAT to 88.95 at harvest. At 30 DAT plant height differed significantly due to spacing (S1-30x30 cm, S2-30x45 cm, and S3-30x60 cm). It was significantly higher with 30x30 cm (41.94 cm) followed by 30x45 cm (39.89 cm) and was less with 30x60 cm (38.12 cm). At 60 DAT, significantly higher plant height (81.72 cm) was recorded with S1 followed by S2 (78.70 cm) and was less with S3 (75.94 cm). Similarly at harvest plant height (92.58 cm) was significantly more with S1 followed by S2 (88.42 cm) and less with S3 (85.86 cm). The treatments S2 and S3 were statistically on par with each other at all stages of plant growth. The plant height differed significantly at all the stages of crop growth due to fertilizer levels. At 30 DAT significantly higher plant height (41.28 cm) was recorded with (F3-25: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) when compared to (39.90 cm) with (F2-100:150:100 kg NPK/ha) and was less (38.78 cm) with (F1-75:112.5:75 kg NPK/ha). At 60 DAT, significantly higher plant height (80.64 cm) was recorded with F3 when compared to F2 (78.85 cm) and was less with F1 (76.86 cm). Similarly at harvest plant height (90.02 cm) was significantly more with F3 when compared to F2 (88.80 cm) and less with F1 (87.03 cm). Treatments F2 and F3 were statistically on par with each other at all the stages of plant growth.The plant height did not differ significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels at all the stages of crop growth. At 30 DAT, plant height was relatively more with S1F3 (43.70 cm) followed by with S1F2 (41.30) and lowest in S3F1 (36.67 cm). AT 60 DAT, relatively more plant height (82.96 cm) was noticed in S1F3 followed by with S1F2 (82.29 cm) which was on par with S1F1 and lowest in S3F1 (73.33 cm). Similarly at harvest relatively more height (93.69 cm) was noticed in S1F3 followed by S1F2 (92.93 cm) and lowest in S3F1 (83.17 cm). 4.1.1.2 Number of branches The data on number of branches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by spacing and fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 5 and Fig. 4. As the growth advanced, the average number of branches per plant increased from 4.40 at 30 DAT to 22.06 at harvest. Number of branches differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. Significantly more number of branches (5.00) were recorded with S3 and followed by S2 (4.47) and least with S1 (3.72). AT 60 DAT, relatively more number of branches (22.36) were noticed with S3 followed by S2 (18.49) and lowest with S1 (16.21). Similarly at harvest relatively more branches (24.62) with S3 followed by S2 (22.37) and lowest with S1 (19.18). Number of branches differed significantly due to fertilizer treatment at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. Among the fertilizer levels, number of branches were significantly more with F3

Table 4: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Plant height (cm) 30 DAT

Spacing

60 DAT

At harvest

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

40.83

41.30

43.70

41.94

79.90

82.29

82.96

81.72

91.13

92.93

93.69

92.58

S2

38.73

40.20

40.73

39.89

77.34

78.92

79.83

78.70

86.80

88.40

90.05

88.42

S3

36.77

38.20

40.00

38.12

73.33

75.34

79.13

75.94

83.17

85.08

89.33

85.86

Mean

38.78

39.90

41.28

39.99

76.86

78.85

80.64

78.78

87.03

88.80

91.02

88.95

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.60

1.81

0.99

2.97

1.05

3.14

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.60

1.81

0.99

2.97

1.05

3.14

SxF

1.04

NS

1.71

NS

1.81

NS

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

DAT-Days after transplanting NS-Non significant

Fig.3. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

Plate.2.Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual chrysanthemum

(4.76) followed by F2 (4.41) and was less with F1 (4.02) at 30 DAT. AT 60 DAT, relatively more number of branches (20.95) were noticed with F3 followed by F2 (19.14) and lowest with F1 (16.97). Similarly at harvest, number of branches (23.84) were more with F3 followed by F2 (21.96) and significantly less with F1 (20.37). The number of branches per plant did not differ significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels at all the stages of crop growth. At 30 DAT, number of branches (5.17) were relatively more with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (5.03) and S3F1 (4.80) which were on par with each other and lowest with S1F1 (3.03). AT 60 DAT, relatively more branches (24.76) were noticed with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (22.65) and lowest with S1F1 (15.10). Similarly at harvest relatively more branches (26.20) were noticed with S3F3 followed by (24.87) with S3F2 and lowest with S1F1 (17.27). 4.1.1.3 Number of leaves per plant The results on number of leaves at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 6. As the growth advanced, the mean number of leaves per plant increased from 75.71 at 30 DAT to 641.92 at harvest. Number of leaves differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. At 30 DAT, significantly more number of leaves (81.52) were recorded with S3 followed by S2 (75.40) and less with S1 (70.20). At 60 DAT, number of leaves were markedly more (412.44) with S3 followed by S2 (390.63) and lowest (368.78) with S1. Similarly at harvest relatively more number of leaves (666.25) were noticed in S3 followed by (641.55) with S2 and lowest with S1 (617.97). Number of leaves differed significantly due to fertilizer at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. At 30 DAT among the fertilizer levels, number of leaves were significantly more (78.89) with F3 followed by F2 (75.68) and less with F1 (72.56). At 60 DAT also the number of leaves were significantly more (404.49) with F3 followed by F2 (390.56) and less (376.79) with F1. Similarly at harvest relatively more number of leaves (657.12) were noticed in F3 followed by F1 (641.63) and less with F1 (627.02). However F2 and F3 were statistically on par with each other at all stages of crop growth. The number of leaves did not differ significantly due to interaction effect between spacing and fertilizer levels except at harvest. At 30 DAT, number of leaves (84.67) were relatively more with S3F3 which was on par S3F2 (82.00) followed by S2F3 (79.33) and lowest with S1F1 (67.83). AT 60 DAT, relatively more number of leaves (428.23) were noticed with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (411.35) and lowest with S3F1 (356.71). Significantly more number of leaves at harvest were noticed with S3F3 (681.24) followed by S3F2 (666.03) and lowest with S1F1 (602.67). 2

4.1.1.4 Leaf area per plant (cm ) The results on leaf area per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 7. As the growth advanced, the mean leaf area per plant increased from 325.29 cm2 30 DAT to 3176.41 cm2 at harvest. Leaf area per plant differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest. At 30 DAT, significantly more leaf area (395.72 cm2) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (324.09 cm2) and less with S1 (256.06 cm2). At 60 DAT, leaf area was significantly more with S3 (2466.03 cm2) followed by S2 (2063.37cm2) and lowest with S1 (1823.44 cm2). Similarly at 2 harvest relatively more leaf area (3658.83 cm ) was noticed with S3 followed by S2 (3167.38 2 2 cm ) and lowest with S1 (2703.02 cm ). Leaf area per plant differed significantly due to fertilizer treatment at 30, 60 DAT and 2 at harvest. At 30 DAT the leaf area was significantly more with F3 (352.87 cm ) followed by F2 2 2 (323.59 cm ) and lowest with F1 (299.42 cm ). At 60 DAT leaf area was significantly more with

Table 5: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Number of branches /plant Spacing

30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

3.03

3.87

4.27

3.72

15.10

15.67

17.87

16.21

17.27

18.93

21.33

19.18

S2

4.23

4.33

4.83

4.47

16.14

19.10

20.23

18.49

21.03

22.07

24.00

22.37

S3

4.80

5.03

5.17

5.00

19.67

22.65

24.76

22.36

22.80

24.87

26.20

24.62

Mean

4.02

4.41

4.76

4.40

16.97

19.14

20.95

19.02

20.37

21.96

23.84

22.06

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.10

0.30

0.35

1.06

0.38

1.14

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.10

0.30

0.35

1.06

0.38

1.14

SxF

0.18

NS

0.61

NS

0.66

NS

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

DAT-Days after transplanting NS-Non significant

Fig.4. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at 30,60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

Table 6: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Number of leaves /plant Spacing

30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

67.83

70.10

72.67

70.20

356.71

369.59

380.03

368.78

602.67

618.31

632.93

617.97

S2

71.93

74.93

79.33

75.40

375.93

390.73

405.22

390.63

626.90

640.56

657.19

641.55

S3

77.90

82.00

84.67

81.52

397.73

411.35

428.23

412.44

651.48

666.03

681.24

666.25

Mean

72.56

75.68

78.89

75.71

376.79

390.56

404.49

390.61

627.02

641.63

657.12

641.92

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

1.25

3.75

4.99

14.95

4.38

13.14

Fertilizer levels (F)

1.25

3.75

4.99

14.95

4.38

13.14

SxF

2.17

NS

8.64

NS

7.59

22.75

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

DAT-Days after transplanting NS-Non significant

F3 (2324.01 cm2) followed by F2 (2175.70 cm2) and lowest with F1 (1853.13 cm2).Similarly at 2 harvest relatively more leaf area (3479.56 cm ) was noticed in F3 followed by F2 (3174.79 2 2 cm ) and lowest in F1 (2874.89 cm ). The leaf area per plant differed significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels except at harvest stage of crop growth. At 30 DAT, significantly more leaf area 2 2 2 (432.13 cm ) with S3F3 followed by (391.43 cm ) with S3F2 and lowest with S1F1 (224.77 cm ). AT 60 DAT, significantly more leaf area was noticed in S3F3 (2620.68 cm2) followed by (2494.47 cm2) with S3F2 and lowest with S3F1 (1654.76 cm2). Significantly more leaf area 2 2 (3924.73 cm ) at harvest was noticed with S3F3 followed by (3705.36 cm ) with S3F2 and 2 lowest with S1F1 (2439.20 cm ). 4.1.1.5 Days to 50 per cent flowering The data on days to 50 per cent flowering as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 8. Days to 50 per cent flowering differed significantly due to spacing. Minimum number of days to 50 per cent flowering was noticed with narrow spacing of S1 (58.89) followed by S2 (60.56) and maximum with wider spacing of S3 (62.45). Significant differences were noticed on days to 50 per cent flowering due to fertilizer levels. Significantly minimum (60.00) days were taken for 50 per cent flowering with F3 compared to F2 (60.33) days and maximum (61.56) days with F1 level of fertilizer. However F2 and F1 were statistically on par with each other. Significant differences were noticed on days to 50 per cent flowering due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly minimum (58.33) days were taken for 50 per cent flowering with S1F3 which was on par with S1F2 (58.67) days and maximum with S3F1 (63.67).

4.1.2 Yield and yield parameters 4.1.2.1 Number of flowers per plant The data on number of flowers per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 8 and Fig. 5. Number of flowers differed significantly due to spacing were significantly more with S3 (81.14) followed by S2 (73.47) and lowest with S1 (68.85). Number of flowers differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and were more with F3 (78.54) followed by F2 (74.96) and less with F1 (69.96). The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed significant differences on number of flowers. Significantly more number of flowers were recorded with S3F3 (86.28) which was on par with S3F2 (83.83) followed by S2F3 (78.00) and less (66.38) with S1F1 (66.38). 4.1.2.2 Flower diameter (cm) The results on flower diameter as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 9. Significant differences were noticed on flower diameter due to spacing. Maximum flower diameter (5.49 cm) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (5.31 cm) and less with S1 (4.96 cm). The flower diameter found to differ significantly among fertilizer levels. It was significantly more with F3 (5.42 cm) followed by F2 (5.25 cm) and less with F1 (5.09 cm).

2

Table 7: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm )/plant at different stages of annual chrysanthemum 2

Leaf area (cm )/plant Spacing

30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

224.77

262.25

281.16

256.06

1654.76

1807.67

2007.88

1823.44

2439.20

2661.60

3008.27

2703.02

S2

309.87

317.08

345.31

324.09

1621.68

2224.96

2343.48

2063.37

2839.06

3157.42

3505.67

3167.38

S3

363.61

391.43

432.13

395.72

2282.93

2494.47

2620.68

2466.03

3346.40

3705.36

3924.73

3658.83

Mean

299.42

323.59

352.87

325.29

1853.13

2175.70

2324.01

2117.61

2874.89

3174.79

3479.56

3176.41

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

2.55

7.64

25.53

76.54

38.61

115.75

Fertilizer levels (F)

2.55

7.64

25.53

76.54

38.61

115.75

SxF

4.41

13.23

44.22

132.57

66.87

NS

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

DAT-Days after transplanting NS-Non significant

Significant interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels was with respect to flower diameter was recorded. Significantly more flower diameter (5.58cm) was recorded with S3F3 which was on par with S3F2 and S2F3 (5.54 and 5.44 cm, respectively) and less with S1F1 (4.77 cm). 4.1.2.3 Number of seeds per flower The data on number of seeds per flower as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 9. Number of seeds per flower differed significantly due to spacing treatment and was significantly more with S3 (252.12) followed by S2 (245.12) and less with S1 (240.09). Number of seeds per flower differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and was more with F3 (249.83) was statistically on par with F2 (245.98) and less with F1 (241.52). The number of seeds per flower did differed significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly more number of seeds (256.97) per flower were recorded with S1F3 followed by S3F2 (252.00) and less with S1F1 (235.33). 4.1.2.4 Flower dry weight (g) The data on flower dry weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 10. Flower dry weight differed significantly due to spacing treatment and was significantly more with S3 (0.620 g) followed by S2 (0.550 g) and less with S1 (0.496 g). Flower dry weight differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and was more with F3 (0.598 g) which was statistically on par with F2 (0.556 g) and less with F1 (0.511 g). Flower dry weight did not differ significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels. Numerically more flower dry weight (0.660 g) was recorded with S1F3 followed by S3F2 (0.630 g) and less with S1F1 (0.460 g). 4.1.2.5 Seed yield per plant (g) The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 10. Significant differences were noticed on seed yield per plant due to spacing. Significantly more seed yield per plant (5.55 g) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (4.48 g) and lowest with S1 (3.39 g). The seed yield per plant found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels and was more with F3 (5.20 g) followed by F2 (4.33 g) and less with F1 (3.89 g). Among the interaction significantly maximum seed yield per plant (6.07 g) was recorded with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (5.50 g) and minimum with S1F1 (2.87 g). 4.1.2.6 Seed yield per hectare (kg) The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 10 and Fig. 6. Significant differences were noticed on seed yield per hectare due to spacing. Significantly more seed yield per plant (377.04 kg) was recorded with S1 followed by S2 (331.85 kg) and lowest with S3 (308.15 kg). The seed yield per plant found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels and was more with F3 (401.17 kg) followed by F2 (323.58 kg) and less with F1 (292.28 kg). Among the interaction significantly maximum seed yield per plant (478.89 kg) was recorded with S1F3 followed by S1F2 (333.33 kg) and minimum with S3F1 (281.67 kg).

Table 8: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum Days to 50% flowering

Number of flowers

Spacing F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

59.67

58.67

58.33

58.89

66.38

67.85

72.33

68.85

S2

61.33

60.33

60.00

60.55

69.19

73.21

78.00

73.47

S3

63.67

62.00

61.67

62.45

74.31

83.83

85.28

81.14

Mean

61.56

60.33

60.00

60.63

69.96

74.96

78.54

74.49

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.44

1.33

0.68

2.03

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.44

1.33

0.68

2.03

SxF

0.77

2.30

1.17

3.52

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

Fig.5. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number on number of flowers in annual chysanthemum

Table 9: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum Diameter (cm) of flower

Number of seeds/ flower

Spacing F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

4.77

4.86

5.24

4.96

235.33

240.53

244.40

240.09

S2

5.16

5.34

5.44

5.31

241.83

245.40

248.13

245.12

S3

5.35

5.54

5.58

5.49

247.40

252.00

256.97

252.12

Mean

5.09

5.25

5.42

5.25

241.52

245.98

249.83

245.78

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.07

0.20

1.40

4.19

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.07

0.20

1.40

4.19

SxF

0.12

0.35

2.42

8.30

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

DAT-Days after transplanting

4.1.3 Seed quality parameters 4.1.3.1 1000 seed weight (g) The data on 1000 seed weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 11. The 1000 seed weight differed significantly among spacing. It was significantly more with S3 (1.97 g) followed by S2 (1.90 g) and less with S1 (1.83 g). The 1000 seed weight found to differ significantly among fertilizer levels. It was significantly more with F3 (1.94 g) followed by F2 (1.90 g) and less with F1 (1.87 g).The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed no marked differences on test weight. However, more test weight (2.00 g) was recorded with S3F3 which was on par with S3F2 (1.98 g) followed by S2F3 (1.95) and less with S1F1 (1.81 g). 4.1.3.2 Germination (%) The data on germination percentage as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators sprays and their interaction effects are presented in Table 11. The germination percentage found to differ significantly among the spacings. It was significantly more with S3 (64.56 %) followed by S2 (62.67 %) and less with S1 (61.33 %). Significant differences were noticed among the fertilizer levels on germination and it was maximum with F3 (64.11 %) followed by F2 (62.67 %) and minimum with F1 (61.78 %). The interaction effect due to spacing and fertilizer levels showed no marked differences on germination percentage. The germination percentage was comparatively maximum with S3F3 (66.67 %) followed by S3F2 (64.00 %) and minimum with S1F1 (60.33 %). 4.1.3.3 Seedling length (cm) The data on seedling length as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 11. Seedling length differed significantly due to spacing and it was more with S3 (10.04 cm) followed by S2 (9.60 cm) and less with S1 (8.88 cm). Seedling length differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and it was more with F3 (9.95 cm) followed by F2 (9.53 cm) and less with F1 (9.03 cm). The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant differences on seedling length. However, numerically more seedling length (10.63 cm) was recorded with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (10.02 cm) and minimum with S1F1 (8.37 cm). 4.1.3.4 Seedling dry weight (mg) The results on seedling dry weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 12. Seedling dry weight differed significantly due to spacing and highest (32.78 mg) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (30.78 mg) and less with S1 (28.89 mg). Significant differences were noticed on seedling dry weight due to fertilizer levels. Significantly more seedling dry weight (32.11 mg) was recorded with F3 followed by F2 (30.78 mg) and less with F1 (29.56 mg). The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant differences on seedling dry weight. Numerically maximum seedling dry weight (34.67 mg) was with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (32.33 mg) and minimum with S1F1 (27.67 mg).

Table 10: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

Flower dry weight (g)

Seed yield (g/plant)

Seed yield (kg/ha)

Spacing F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

0.460

0.490

0.538

0.496

2.87

3.00

4.31

3.39

318.89

333.33

478.89

377.04

S2

0.503

0.549

0.597

0.550

3.73

4.48

5.23

4.48

276.30

331.85

387.41

331.85

S3

0.569

0.630

0.660

0.620

5.07

5.50

6.07

5.55

281.67

305.56

337.22

308.15

Mean

0.511

0.556

0.598

0.555

3.89

4.33

5.20

4.47

292.28

323.58

401.17

339.01

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.01

0.03

0.07

0.19

5.67

16.99

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.01

0.03

0.07

0.19

5.67

16.99

SxF

0.02

NS

0.11

0.34

9.81

29.42

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

NS-Non significant

Fig.6. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yild/ha in annual chrysanthemum

Table 11: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%), seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum 1000 seed weight (g)

Spacing

Germination (%)

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

1.81

1.83

1.85

1.83

S2

1.84

1.90

1.95

1.90

S3

1.94

1.98

2.00

1.97

Mean

1.87

1.90

1.94

1.90

Seedling length (cm)

F1

F2

F3

Mean

60.33

61.33

62.33

61.33

(50.94)*

(51.53)

(52.12)

(51.53)

62.00

62.67

63.33

62.67

(51.92)

(52.32)

(52.71)

(52.32)

63.00

64.00

66.67

64.56

(52.51)

(53.11)

(54.71)

(53.45)

61.78

62.67

64.11

62.85

(51.79)

(52.32)

(53.18)

(52.43)

F1

F2

F3

Mean

8.37

8.97

9.30

8.88

9.26

9.61

9.93

9.60

9.45

10.02

10.63

10.04

9.03

9.53

9.95

9.50

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.007

0.021

0.22

0.66

0.13

0.39

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.007

0.021

0.22

0.66

0.13

0.39

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.012

NS

0.38

NS

0.23

NS

S- Spacing F- Fertilizer levels NS-Non significant S1: 30 x 30 cm F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha S2: 30 x 45 cm F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha S3: 30 x 60 cm F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha NOTE: Figures in parenthesis are arcsine transformed values and figures without parenthesis indicate the original values

4.1.3.5 Seedling vigour index The data on vigour index as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 12. Seedling vigour index differed significantly due to spacing and it was highest vigour index (648) was recorded with S3 followed by (602) with S2 and less with S1 (545). Seedling vigour index differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and it was more with F3 (639) followed by F2 (598) and less with F1 (558). The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant differences on seedling vigour index. Numerically higher vigour index (709) was recorded with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (641) and lowest with S1F1 (505). -1

4.1.3.6 Electrical conductivity (dSm ) The results on electrical conductivity as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 12. The electrical conductivity found to differ significantly among the spacing. Significantly -1 -1 more electrical conductivity (0.933 dSm ) was recorded with S1 followed by S2 (0.858 dSm ) -1 and less with S3 (0.816 dSm ). The electrical conductivity found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels. Significantly more electrical conductivity (0.912 dSm-1) was recorded with F1 followed by (0.874 dSm-1) F2 and less with F3 (0.822 dSm-1). The interaction between spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant differences on electrical conductivity. Numerically more electrical conductivity (0.973 dSm-1) was recorded with S1F1 followed by S1F2 (0.943 dSm-1) and less with S3F3 (0.781 dSm-1).

4.1.4 Benefit cost ratio The total cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns, cost benefit ratio and increase of cost benefit ratio over control due interaction of spacing and fertilizer level are presented in Table. 13. -1

The maximum cost of cultivation (57168.8 Rs. ha ) was noticed in the treatment combination of S1F3 (S1: 30 x 30 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha) followed by (50059.9 Rs. ha-1) with S2F3 (S2: 30 x 45 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha). The -1 minimum cost of cultivation (42899.15 Rs. ha ) was noticed S2F1 (S2: 30 x 45 cm with F2: 100: -1 150: 100 Kg NPK/ ha). The maximum gross returns per ha (958520 Rs. ha ) was in the treatment combination of S1F3 (S1: 30 x 30 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha) followed by S2F3 (750620 Rs. ha-1) and minimum gross returns was noticed in S2F1 (553080 Rs. ha-1). -1 The maximum net return was noticed in S1F3 (901351.2 Rs. ha ) followed by S2F3 700560.0 -1 -1 Rs. ha ) and minimum in S2F1 (510180.9 Rs. ha ). The cost benefit ratio was maximum in S1F3 (1:15.77) followed by S2F3 (1:13.99) and minimum in S2F1 (1:11.89). Increase in benefit cost ratio was more in S1F3 (1:15.77) and S2F3 (1:13.99) and least in S2F1 (1:11.89).

4.2

Experiment – II : Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum

4.2.1 Growth parameters 4.2.1.1 Plant height (cm) The data on plant height at 30, 60 days after transplanting (DAT) and at harvest as influenced by different growth regulators are presented in Table 14 and Fig. 7. The plant height at 30 DAT did not differ significantly while significant differences were observed at 60 DAT and at harvests.

-1

Table 12: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm ) in annual chrysanthemum

Seedling dry weight(mg)

Electrical conductivity of seed leachate -1 (dSm )

Seedling vigour index

Spacing F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

F1

F2

F3

Mean

S1

27.67

29.00

30.00

28.89

505

550

580

545

0.973

0.943

0.882

0.933

S2

29.67

31.00

31.67

30.78

574

602

629

602

0.910

0.862

0.803

0.858

S3

31.33

32.33

34.67

32.78

595

641

709

648

0.852

0.816

0.781

0.816

Mean

29.56

30.78

32.11

30.81

558

598

639

598

0.912

0.874

0.822

0.869

For comparing the means of

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

SEm±

CD at 5%

Spacing (S)

0.32

0.95

9.79

29.35

0.01

0.03

Fertilizer levels (F)

0.32

0.95

9.79

29.35

0.01

0.03

SxF

0.55

NS

16.96

NS

0.02

NS

S- Spacing S1: 30 x 30 cm S2: 30 x 45 cm S3: 30 x 60 cm

F- Fertilizer levels F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK /ha

NS-Non significant

At 60 DAT application of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly higher plant height (84.93 cm) which was on par with GA3 (100 ppm), tricontanol at 500 ppm and 1000 ppm which recorded (82.77, 79.97 and 80.63 cm, respectively) and significantly more compared to cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 73.01, 71.94, 75.91 and 73.86 cm, respectively. The later four treatments, cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and had more reduced plant height compared to with control (77.30 cm). Similarly at harvest GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly higher (97.28 cm) plant height over control (89.70 cm), tricontanol at 500 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm recorded 90.08 and 87.87 cm, respectively and were on par with GA3 100 ppm, TRIA 1000 ppm which recorded 94.00 and 92.27 cm, respectively followed by CCC 1000 and mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm which recorded 85.01 and 85.97 cm, respectively. The later two treatments were on par with each other. The plants sprayed with CCC (2000 ppm) recorded the lowest plant height (83.17 cm). 4.2.1.2 Number of branches The data on number of branches per plant at 30, 60 days after planting (DAT) and at harvest as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 14 and Fig. 8. At 30 DAT number of branches per plant did not differ significantly, whereas at 60 DAT and at harvest significantly increased the number of branches per plant compared to control. At 60 DAT, foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of branches (25.80) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 24.33 and 23.80, respectively followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 ppm which recorded 22.13, 21.00 and 20.13, respectively and least with CCC 2000 ppm and control which recorded 19.07 and 17.13 respectively. Similarly at harvest GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of branches (27.32) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 500 and 1000 ppm which recorded 26.20, 25.53 and 24.60, respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 23.47, 22.73, 22.27 and 21.73, respectively and least with control (19.43). 4.2.1.3 Number of leaves per plant The data on number of leaves per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 15. The number of leaves per plant differed significantly at 60 DAT and at harvest, while it was non significant at 30 DAT. At 60 DAT all the treatments showed significant differences over control (365.00). GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaves per plant (445.33) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 436.67 and 425.33, respectively followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm recorded 416.33, 406.07 and 396.33, respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and less 385.67 and 376.97, respectively number of leaves among the growth regulating chemicals was recorded with CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm. Similarly at harvest all the treatments showed significant differences over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaves (702.43) which was on par with GA3 100 ppm, tricontanol at 500 and 1000 ppm which recorded 695.40, 676.40 and 666.33, respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 669.0, 654.67, 647.33 and 639.33, respectively and the lowest number of leaves (620.3) was recorded in control.

Table 13: Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different spacing, fertilizer levels and their interactions (S x F)

Treatments

Total seed yield (kg/ha)

Total cost of cultivation (Rs./ha)

Gross returns (Rs./ha)

Net returns (Rs./ha)

Cost-benefit ratio

S1F1

318.52

45515.2

637040

591524.8

1:13.00

S1F2

332.96

46562.1

665920

619357.9

1:13.30

S1F3

479.26

57168.8

958520

901351.2

1:15.77

S2F1

276.54

42899.15

553080

510180.9

1:11.89

S2F2

332.1

46927.2

664200

617272.8

1:13.15

S2F3

375.31

50059.9

750620

700560.0

1:13.99

S3F1

290.74

44356.15

581480

537123.9

1:12.11

S3F2

305.37

45416.83

610740

565323.2

1:12.45

S3F3

337.41

47739.7

674820

627080.3

1:13.14

Table 14: Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum Plant height (cm)

No of branches/plant

Treatments 30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

G0-Control

40.17

77.30

89.70

4.00

17.13

19.43

G1-GA3 @ 100ppm

40.50

82.77

94.00

4.33

24.33

26.20

G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm

40.00

84.93

97.28

4.00

25.80

27.32

G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm

39.17

79.97

90.08

3.67

22.13

24.60

G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm

39.67

80.63

92.27

4.33

23.80

25.53

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

40.83

73.01

85.01

4.67

20.00

22.27

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

39.33

71.94

83.17

3.33

19.07

21.73

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

39.67

75.91

87.87

4.33

21.00

23.47

G8-Mepiquat chloride @ 2000 ppm

41.33

73.86

85.97

4.00

20.13

22.73

SEM±

0.86

1.90

2.13

0.41

0.79

0.97

CD at 5%

NS

5.69

6.37

NS

2.37

2.91

DAT-Days after transplanting

NS-Non significant

Fig.7. Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

Fig.8. Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

Plate.3. Influence of growth regulators on plant height in annual chrysanthemum

4.2.1.4 Leaf area (cm2/plant) The data on leaf area per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 15. At 30 DAT the leaf area per plant did not differ significantly, while significant at 60 DAT and at harvest. At 60 DAT all treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaf area (3742.67 cm2) over all other treatments followed by GA3 2 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 3599.74 and 3527.23 cm , respectively which were on par with each other. tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 3393.24, 3309.57 and 3281.40 cm2 respectively which were on par with each other but they significant over CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 3097.20 2 2 and 2693.09 cm , respectively and least with control (2256.30 cm ). Similarly at harvest all the treatments differed over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaf area (4497.24 cm2) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm 2 (4359.40 cm ) followed by tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2 2000 ppm which recorded 4286.43, 4250.23 and 4190.63 cm , respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 1000 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and less 4031.93 and 3562.09 cm2, respectively with CCC 1000 and 2000 2 ppm and least with control (3123.77 cm ). 4.2.1.5 Days to 50 per cent flowering The data on days to 50 percent flowering as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 16. Significantly minimum number of days to 50 per cent flowering was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (54.00) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 54.67 and 56.67 days, respectively were on par with each other but significant over tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 57.00, 58.00 and 58.33 days respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other. Among chemicals more number of days was recorded with CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 59.33 and 59.67 days, respectively and maximum days was recorded with control (60.33 days).

4.2.2 Yield and yield parameters 4.2.2.1 Number of flowers per plant The data on number of flowers per plant as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 16 and Fig. 9. All treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (91.60), which was on par with GA3 100 ppm (88.76) followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm (86.07) which was on par with tricontanol at 500 ppm (83.86) and they were significant over mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 ppm which recorded 80.73, 77.73 and 76.37, respectively and less number of flowers (74.80) among the growth regulators was recorded with CCC 2000 ppm and least with control (70.81). 4.2.2.2 Flower diameter (cm) The data on flower diameter as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 16. Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more flower diameter (6.150 cm) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000, 500 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm which recorded 5.80, 5.72, 5.69 and 5.55 cm, respectively which were on par with each other. mepiquat chloride at 2000

Table 15: Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum leaf area (cm2)/plant

Number of leaves /plant Treatments 30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

30 DAT

60 DAT

At harvest

G0-Control

73.00

365.00

620.33

375.33

2256.30

3123.77

G1-GA3 @ 100ppm

77.33

436.67

695.40

365.00

3599.74

4359.40

G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm

78.90

445.33

702.43

386.67

3742.67

4497.24

G4-Tricontanol @ 500 ppm

76.60

416.33

666.33

377.83

3393.24

4161.63

G3-Tricontanol@ 1000 ppm

78.33

425.33

676.40

391.67

3527.23

4286.43

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

75.57

385.67

647.33

373.33

3097.20

4031.93

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

74.67

376.97

639.33

394.50

2693.09

3562.09

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

75.67

406.07

669.00

383.00

3309.57

4250.23

G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm

75.07

396.33

654.67

378.33

3281.40

4190.63

SEM±

2.54

9.16

10.83

12.71

45.32

54.33

CD at 5%

NS

27.47

32.46

NS

135.88

162.88

DAT-Days after transplanting

NS-Non significant

ppm (5.40 cm) was on par CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 5.36 and 5.32 cm, respectively and the least with control (5.27 cm). 4.2.2.3 Number of seeds per flower The data on number of seeds per flower as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 16. All treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of seeds per flower (265.33) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 261.67, 259.80 and 258.13, respectively. The later three treatments, GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 100 and 500 ppm were on par with each other followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 ppm which recorded 254.73, 251.67 and 247.67, respectively. CCC 2000 ppm recorded less number of seeds (242.33) among chemical and least with control (236.00). 4.2.2.4 Flower dry weight (g) The data on flower dry weight as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 17. Significantly higher flower dry weight (0.747 g) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded and it was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 0.717 and 0.678 g, respectively and significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 0.642, 0.625 and 0.597 g, respectively were on par with each other but they were significant over control which recorded the lowest flower dry weight (0.527 g). The treatments CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 0.592 and 0.559 g, respectively were on par with each other. 4.2.2.5 Seed yield per plant (g) The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by growth regulators is presented in Table 17. All treatments differed significantly over control. Significantly higher seed yield per plant (6.75 g) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 6.55, 6.42 and 6.17 g, respectively and significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 6.04, 5.84 and 5.67 g, respectively were on par with each other but significant over control which recorded the lowest seed yield per plant (4.35 g). The treatments CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded (5.67 and 5.42 g, respectively) were on par with each other. 4.2.2.6 Seed yield (kg/ha) The data on seed yield per hectare as influenced by growth regulators is presented in table 17 and Fig. 10. All treatments differed significantly over control. Significantly higher seed yield per plant (500.00 kg) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded which were on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 485.19, 475.56 and 457.28 kg, respectively and significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 447.16, 432.35 and 420.00 kg, respectively were on par with each other but significant over control (322.5 kg) which recorded the lowest seed yield per hectare. CCC at 2000 ppm which recorded (401.73 kg) was on par with CCC at 1000 ppm.

4.2.3 Seed quality parameters 4.2.3.1 1000 seed weight (g) The data on test weight (1000 seed weight) as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 18. All the treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest test weight (2.14 g) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and

Table 16: Effect of growth regulators on days to 50 % flowering, number of flower/plant, diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

Treatments

Days to 50% flowering

Number of flower/plant

Diameter of flower (cm)

Number of seeds/flower

G0-Control

60.33

70.81

5.27

236.00

G1-GA3 @ 100ppm

54.67

88.76

5.80

261.67

G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm

54.00

91.60

6.15

265.33

G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm

57.00

83.86

5.69

258.13

G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm

56.67

86.07

5.72

259.80

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

59.33

76.37

5.36

247.67

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

59.67

74.80

5.32

242.33

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

58.00

80.73

5.55

254.73

G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm

58.33

77.73

5.40

251.67

SEM±

0.74

1.52

0.11

3.11

CD at 5%

2.23

4.55

0.32

9.33

Fig.9. Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

Table 17: Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum Treatment

Flower dry weight (g)

Seed yield (g/plant)

seed yield (kg/ha)

G0-Control

0.527

4.35

322.47

G1-GA3 @ 100ppm

0.717

6.55

485.19

G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm

0.747

6.75

500.00

G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm

0.642

6.17

457.28

G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm

0.678

6.42

475.56

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

0.592

5.67

420.00

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

0.559

5.42

401.73

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

0.625

6.04

447.16

G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm

0.597

5.84

432.35

SEM±

0.03

0.19

14.33

CD at 5%

0.09

0.58

42.96

Fig.10. Influence of growth regulators on seed yield (Kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

500 ppm which recorded 2.11, 2.08 and 2.04 g, respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded (2.03, 2.00, 1.99 and 1.97 g, respectively) and least with control (1.90 g). 4.2.3.2 Germination (%) The data on germination percentage influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 18. Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest germination percent (67.67 %) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 2000 which recorded 66.33 and 66.00 %, respectively followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 65.33, 65.00 and 64.67 %, respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 1000 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other. CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm recorded less germination 64.33 and 64.00 %, respectively among the chemicals and the least with control (62.33). 4.2.3.3 Seedling length (cm) The data on seedling length influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 18. Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest germination percent (10.60 cm) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm (10.45 cm) followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm (10.26 cm). The later tricontanol at 1000 ppm was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm followed tricontanol 500 ppm () 10.18 cm by mepiquat chloride at 1000 (10.17 cm) and lowest among growth regulators was recorded with mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 9.80, 9.69 and 9.67 cm, respectively. The later, mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and the least was recorded with control (9.67 cm). 4.2.3.4 Seedling dry weight (mg) The data on seedling dry weight as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 19. All the treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest seedling dry weight (36.67 g) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 35.34 and 35.33 g respectively followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 which recorded 34.33 and 34.00 respectively. The later two treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 were on par with each other but significant compared to mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 33.34 and 33.00 g, respectively and less with CCC 2000 ppm (32.00 g) among chemicals and the least with control (31.00 g). 4.2.3.5 Vigour index The data on vigour index as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 19. All treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest vigour index (717) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm (699) followed by tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 664 and 656, respectively. The later two treatments, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm were on par with each other and with mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm and 2000 ppm 654 and 638, respectively. The treatments CCC at 1000 ppm and 2000 ppm recorded lower vigour index 636 and 626, respectively among the growth regulators and least with control (602). 4.2.3.6 Electrical conductivity (dSm-1) The data on electrical conductivity of seed leachate as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 19. Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded -1 the lowest (0.662 dSm ) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 500 and 1000

Table 18: Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) and seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

Treatment

1000 seed weight (g)

Germination (%)

Seedling length (cm)

G0- Control

1.90

62.33 (52.12)*

9.67

G1- GA3 @ 100ppm

2.11

66.33 (54.51)

10.45

G2- GA3 @ 200 ppm

2.14

67.67 (55.33)

10.60

G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm

2.04

65.33 (53.91)

10.18

G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm

2.08

66.00 (54.31)

10.26

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

1.99

64.33 (53.31)

9.69

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

1.97

64.00 (53.11)

9.67

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

2.03

65.00 (53.71)

9.80

G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm

2.00

64.67 (53.51)

10.17

SEM±

0.03

0.42

0.07

CD at 5%

0.10

1.26

0.22

NOTE: Figures in parenthesis are arcsine transformed values

Table 19: Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index, and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm-1) in annual chrysanthemum

Seedling dry weight (mg)

Seedling vigour index

Electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm-1)

G0- Control

31.00

602

0.849

G1- GA3 @ 100ppm

35.34

699

0.695

G2- GA3 @ 200 ppm

36.67

717

0.662

G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm

34.33

656

0.700

G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm

35.33

664

0.667

G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm

33.00

636

0.782

G6-Cycocel @ 2000 ppm

32.00

626

0.797

G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm

34.00

654

0.729

G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm

33.34

638

0.744

SEM±

0.52

7.51

0.03

CD at 5%

1.55

22.52

0.08

Treatment

ppm which recorded 0.695, 0.667 and 0.700, dSm-1 respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 0.729, 0.744, -1 0.782 and 0.797 dSm , respectively. The later two treatments,CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with control (0.849 dSm-1) which recorded the highest electrical conductivity. 4.2.4 Cost benefit ratio The total cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns, cost benefit ratio and increase of cost benefit ratio over control due to growth regulator spray are presented in Table 20. The economic analysis revealed that the maximum cost of cultivation with GA3 at 200 ppm (61100.0 Rs. ha-1) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (58151.3 Rs. ha-1) and lowest with control (44479.1 Rs. ha-1). The gross returns was maximum with GA3 at 200 ppm (1000000 Rs. ha-1) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (970380 Rs. ha-1) and lowest with control (644940 Rs. -1 -1 ha ). The net return was maximum with GA3 at 200 ppm (938900.0 Rs. ha ) followed by GA3 -1 -1 at 100 ppm (912228.7 Rs. ha ) and lowest with control (600460.9 Rs. ha ). The cost benefit ratio was maximum with tricontanol at 1000 ppm (15.92) followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm (15.76) and GA3 at 100 ppm (15.69) and lowest in control (13.50).

Table 20: Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different growth regulator spray Total seed yield (kg/ha)

Total cost of cultivation (Rs./ha)

Gross returns (Rs./ha)

Net returns(Rs./ha)

Cost-benefit ratio

Control

322.47

44479.1

644940

600460.9

13.50

GA3 @ 100 ppm

485.19

58151.3

970380

912228.7

15.69

GA3 @ 200 ppm

500.00

61100.0

1000000

938900.0

15.37

TRIA @ 500 ppm

457.28

54571.7

914560

859988.3

15.76

TRIA @ 1000 ppm

475.56

56215.9

951120

894904.1

15.92

CCC @ 1000 ppm

420.00

51802.5

840000

788197.5

15.22

CCC @ 2000 ppm

401.73

50730.5

803460

752729.5

14.84

MC @ 1000 ppm

447.16

54412.0

894320

839908

15.44

MC @2000 ppm

432.35

54231.1

864700

810468.9

14.94

Treatments

5. DISCUSSION In seed production programme, the seed yield and quality are directly or indirectly controlled by the environment under which crops are grown. In addition, genotype, soil, cultural practices and their interactions also have profound influence on productivity of crops. However, it is not possible to manipulate the environment for better crop growth, but one can manipulate the micro climate of the field to certain extent by adopting suitable cultural practices. Hence, an attempt has been made to increase the yield and quality of seed by the way of manipulating cultivation practices like, spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulator spray to study its impact on yield and quality of seed in annual chrysanthemum. The results obtained in the present investigation have been discussed in this chapter.

5.1

Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum

5.1.1 Influence of spacing Spacing plays an important role in manipulating the micro climate which means better crop growth and response to inputs. Proper spacing improves the availability of nutrients, aeration and light intensity by which the genetic potential of the variety can be properly expressed in terms of quantity and enhanced quality.

5.1.2 Influence of spacing on growth parameters Significant reduction in plant height was noticed with increase in spacing S1 (30x30 cm) recorded maximum plant height (41.94, 81.72 and 92.58 cm, respectively) compared to wider spacing of S3 (60x30 cm) which recorded (38.12, 75.94 and 85.86 cm, respectively). The closer spacing S1 (30x30 cm) recorded significantly more plant height. The more plant height might be due to heavy competition between plants for light resulted in elongation of main stem and also might be due to the fact that the plants tend to grow vertically when they are crowded owing to shadowing effect of the plants on one another (Ramchandrudu and Thangam, 2007). Similar observations were also recorded by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Dalvi et al. (2008) in gladiolus, Anju and Pandey (2007), Srivastava et al. (2002) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold, Mane et al (2006), Balanchandra et al. (2004) in ageratum. The number of branches per plant decreased with the decrease in level of spacing at all stages of plant growth. Closer spacing of S1 produced significantly less number of branches per plant (3.72, 16.21 and 19.18) compared to more branches per plant (5.00, 22.36 and 24.62) with wider spacing of S3. The lesser number of branches at closer spacing may be due to more competition for light, space and nutrients among the plants resulted in vertical growth of the plant rather than horizontal (branching). The results are in conformity with the findings of Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Srivastava et al. (2002), Balanchandra et al. (2004) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Hugar (1997) in gaillardia. The number of leaves per plant increased with the increase in level of spacing at all stages of plant growth. Closer spacing S1 produced significantly less number of leaves per plant (70.20, 368.78 and 617.97) compared to more leaves per plant (81.52, 412.44 and 666.25) in wider spacing S3. The results are in conformation with Sodha and Dhahuk (2000) in golden rod, Dalvi et al. (2008) in gladiolus and Anju and Pandey (2007) in African marigold. The leaf area per plant increased with the increase in level of spacing at all stages of plant growth. Closer spacing S1 produced significantly less leaf area per plant (256.06, 1823.44 and 2703.02 cm2) compared to more leaf area per plant (395.72, 2466.03 and 3658.83 cm2) in wider spacing S3. Days to 50 per cent flowering was early (58.89 days) with spacing S1 compared to spacing of (62.45) S3. These results are in agreement with Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Sunita et al., 2006 in marigold.

Similarly, flower dry weight increased significantly as spacing increased from S1 to S3. The wider spacing S3 recorded maximum (0.620 g) flower dry weight compared S1 (0.496 g) and S2 (0.550 g).

5.1.3 Influence of spacing on seed yield and yield parameters The differences in spacing levels brought significant variation in number of flowers per plant. Significantly more number of flowers per plant were observed with wider spacing of S3 (81.14) followed by S2 (73.47) and S1 (68.85). Maximum number of flowers per plant in S3 seems to be mainly due to more number of branches per plant and also less competition among the plants. The results are in agreement with the findings of Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual chrysanthemum, Srivastava et al. (2002) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold, Poonam et al. (2002) in zinnia, John and Paul (1995) in chrysanthemum, Venugopal (1991) in everlasting flower. As spacing levels increased from S1 to S3 the number of flowers harvested per plant and number of seeds per capitulum were also increased significantly, S3 (252.12) recorded maximum seeds per capitulum followed by S2 (245.12) and S1 (240.09).. The reasons for increased yield components in wider spacing may be attributed to less competition among the plants and more uptake of NPK by plant which facilitated better growth of plant which ultimately resulted in production of good number of seeds per capitulum. Similar results were reported by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold. 1000 seed weight differed significantly by spacing levels, maximum test weight was recorded with wider spacing S3 (1.97) followed by S2 (1.90) and S1 (1.83). The results are in agreement with Kanna Babu et al. (1993) in sunflower. Significantly higher seed yield per plant was noticed with wider spacing of S3 (5.55) and was lowest in closer spacing of S1 (3.39). Though the seed yield per plant was highest at S3 it was not able to compensate higher yield on hectare basis owing to lesser plant population per unit area. The higher seed yield with S3 may be attributed to higher number of flowers per plant as compared to other spacing levels which produced lower values of seed yield components. Similar results were also noticed by Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Rupindra Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) in pansy, Hugar (1997) in gaillardia. The seed yield per hectare was significantly high with S1 (377.04 kg) compared to S2 (331.85 kg) and S3 (308.15 kg). Even though, seed yield per plant was significantly maximum with S3 but it failed to result in more seed yield per hectare because of less number of plants per unit area, but it also failed to compensate the higher seed yield per plant, it was mainly because too much closer spacing resulted in less branching of plant and which resulted lower values of yield components. Hence S1 was optimum spacing, where the plants per unit was optimum which facilitated better growth of the plants which resulted in higher seed yield per hectare as compared to other spacing levels .Similar results were also recorded by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) in safflower, Balachandra et al. (2004) in ageratum, Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) and Srivastava et al. (2002) in marigold.

5.1.4 Influence of spacing on quality parameters Observations of the present investigations indicated that wider spacing S3 recorded significantly higher germination percentage (64.56 %), seedling length (10.04 cm), seedling vigour index (648) and seedling dry weight (32.78 mg) with lower electrical conductivity (0.822 dSm-1) over closer S2 and S1. The highest seed quality attributes noticed with wider spacing S3 might be due to proper development of seed and also higher number of filled seeds per flower which in turn might have supplied adequate food reserves during germination. This kind of improvement in seed quality attributes with increase in fertilizer levels was also reported by Kanna Babu et al. (1993) in sunflower, Balachandra et al. (2004) in ageratum and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold.

5.2

Influence of fertilizer

Application of adequate quantity of fertilizer to seed crop is most essential for better crop growth and to obtain desired benefits in terms of higher seed yield and quality. Generally, nitrogen enhances vegetative growth. While, phosphorous is a key nutrient involved in various physiological processes, such as flowering and seed development. Similarly, potassium is also involved in seed development.

5.2.1 Growth parameters All the growth parameters differed significantly among various fertilizer levels. The plant height was significantly increased with the application of increased level of fertilizer from F1 (75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha) to F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ha) at all the stages of crop growth. Significantly, higher plant height of 41.28, 80.64 and 91.02 cm at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest stage respectively was recorded at higher level of fertilizer F3 application. This increase in plant height might be due to greater uptake of nutrients into the plant system which involved in cell division, cell elongation as well as protein synthesis which ultimately enhanced the stem length and vegetative growth. Similar observations on increase in plant height with higher fertilizer levels was also noticed by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Singh and Sangma, 2000, Doddagoudar et al., 2002, Kumar et al. (2003) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Singh and Baboo (2003) in chrysanthemum, Mohanty et al. (2002), Baboo and Singh (2003), Saud and Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and Dashora (2004) in marigold. Similarly, the number of branches per plant increased significantly as fertilizer levels increased from F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum number of branches (4.76, 20.95 and 23.84) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest, respectively compared to lower levels of fertilizer F1 (4.02, 16.97 and 20.37) and F2 (4.41, 19.14 and 21.96). Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are the major nutrients known to have a role in synthesis of amino acids and protein which could increase vertical growth (plant height) and lateral growth in terms of branches. The above results are in conformity with findings of Doddagoudar et al. (2002), Kumar et al. (2003) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Shivakumar (2000), Mohanty et al. (2002), Agarwal et al. (2002), Baboo and Singh (2003), Acharya and Dashora (2004) in marigold, Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum, Ajay and Vijay (2007) in calendula, Saud and Ramchandra (2004) in French marigold. Number of leaves per plant were also more in F3 (78.89, 403.12 and 657.12) compared to F1 (72.56, 378.16 and 627.02) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest, respectively. This increase in number of leaves per plant with F3 level might be due to greater availability of nutrients for growth of plants. These results were in accordance with the findings of Singh and Sangma (2000) and Doddagoudar (2002) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Saud and Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and Dashora (2004) in marigold, Jana and Pal (1991) in cosmos, Sigedar et al. (1991) in calendula and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum, Ajay and Vijay (2007) in calendula. Similarly, the leaf area per plant also increased significantly as fertilizer levels increased from F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum leaf area per plant (352.87, 2324.01 and 3479.56 cm2) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest respectively compared 2 to lower levels of fertilizer F1 (299.42, 1853.13 and 2874.89 cm ) and F2 (323.59, 2175.70 and 2 3174.79 cm ). Days to 50 per cent flowering was enhanced with the increase in levels of fertilizer F3 (60.00) to F1 (61.56). This might be attributed to the fact of more availability of phosphorus. This is in agreement with Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual chrysanthemum and Anuradha et al. (1990) in marigold. Similarly, flower dry weight increased significantly as fertilizer levels increased from F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum flower dry weight (0.598 g) compared to lower levels of fertilizer F1 (0.511 g) and F2 (0.556 g). These results are in conformation with the findings of Sodha and Dhaduk (2002) in golden rod and Venkatesh (1983) in chrysanthemum.

5.2.2 Influence of fertilizer on seed yield and yield parameters In many crops it is evident that yield is a function of number of flowers per plant, number of seeds per flower and test weight. The highest number of flowers per plant was recorded in F3 (78.54) followed by F2 (74.96) and F1 (69.96). This showed that F3 is optimum level to obtain maximum number of flowers per plant. The increased number of flowers under higher dose of NPK may be attributed to more number of flower bearing branches per plant. There is similar increase in flower number with higher fertilizer levels was also noticed by Ravindra (1998), Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and Kumar et al. (2003) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Anuradha et al. (1990), Shivakumar (2000), Agarwal (2002), Saud and Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and Dashera (2004) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum. The flower diameter differed significantly among fertilizer levels. Maximum flower diameter (5.42 cm) was recorded at higher level of fertilizer (F3). Similar observations were also made by Baboo and Singh (2003) in marigold and Kumar et al. (2003), Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Ajay and Vijay (2007) in calendula, Singh et al. (2008) in Asiatic hybrid lily. The number of seeds per flower were significantly higher in F3 (249.83) compared to F2 (245.98) and F1 (241.52). Gnyandev (2006) and (Doddagoudar et al., 2004) in china aster, 1000 seed weight is also one of the yield contributing component which differed significantly among the fertilizer levels in the present study. It was maximum (1.94 g) with F3 followed by F2 (1.90 g) and F1 (1.87 g). The results are in conformity with Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, In the present investigation, significantly higher seed yield per plant (5.20 g) and per hectare (401.17 kg) was recorded with F3 over F2 and F1. The higher seed yield at higher fertilizer level (F3) may be attributed to more number of flowers, more number of seeds and 1000 seed weight. This was mainly due to availability of adequate quantity of nutrients for better filling up of seeds which resulted in increased seed weight. These findings are also in agreement with the findings of Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Hugar (1997) in gaillardia, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum.

5.2.3 Influence of fertilizer on seed quality parameters Results of the present investigations indicated that, the higher dose of fertilizer F3 recorded significantly higher germination (64.11 %), seedling length (9.95 cm), seedling vigour index (639) and seedling dry weight (32.11 mg) with lower electrical conductivity (0.822 -1 dSm ) over lower doses of fertilizer levels (F2 and F1). The highest seed quality attributes noticed at higher fertilizer levels (F3) might be due to proper development of seed, which in turn might have supplied adequate food reserves during germination. This kind of improvement in seed quality attributes with increase in fertilizer levels was also reported by Mantur (1988) and Doddagoudar et al. (2004) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Hugar (1997) in gaillardia, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum.

5.3

Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant growth parameters

The plant growth and development is a complex phenomenon resulting from interactions with several factors. Thus plant growth can be improved to certain extent by taking an advantage of combination of some of these factors.

5.3.1 Interaction effect on growth parameters It was interesting to note that annual chrysanthemum responds to spacing and fertilizer interactions. The plant height and number of branches per plant did not differ significantly among the treatment combinations. However treatment combination of S1F3 recorded relatively more height (43.70, 82.96 and 93.69, respectively). The higher plant height at higher fertilizer and closer spacing might be due to heavy competition among the

plants for light and space which resulted in vertical growth of plant rather than horizontal growth (branching). The results are in line with Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual chrysanthemum and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold. The number of branches did not differ significantly however, relatively more with S3F3 at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest (5.00, 22.36 and 24.62, respectively) was recorded. The number of leaves per plant differed significantly only at harvest. However, S3F3 recorded maximum leaves per plant (84.67, 428.23 and 681.24). The leaf area per plant differed significantly at 30, 60 DAT and non significant at harvest. However, maximum leaf area 30, 60 DAT and at harvest (432.13, 2620.68 and 3924.73 cm2) was recorded with the treatment S3F3. This increase in leaf area might be due to lesser competition for light water and nutrients in wider spacing and higher level of fertilizer which has played an important role for better vegetative growth. Similar results were also reported by Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual chrysanthemum, Sodha and Dhahuk (2002) in golden rod, Rao et al. (1992) in chrysanthemum and Jinendra (1997) in daisy. Days to 50 percent flowering differed significantly and the treatment combination of S3F3 recorded minimum days (58.33) to 50 per cent flowering. Maximum flower diameter (5.58 cm) was recorded with treatment combination of S3F3. The flower dry weight did not differed significantly, however maximum (0.660) flower dry weight was recorded with the treatment combination of S3F3. 5.3.2 Interaction effect on seed yield and yield components The number of flowers per plant is one of the important yield deciding component which differed significantly by interaction of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly more number of flowers in S3F3 (85.28) may be attributed to more branching of plant at which bears more flowers. Similar results were also reported by Vijay kumar (1998) in china aster, Rao et al. (1992) in chrysanthemum and Jitendra (1997) in daisy. Other yield components like the number of seeds per capitulum differed significantly and 1000 seed weight also differed due to interaction of spacing and fertilizer levels. The number of seeds (256.97) per capitulum and 1000 seed weight (2.00 g) were higher in treatment combination of S3F3 followed by S3F2 treatment combination. The seed yield per plant increased linearly with the increased level of spacing from S1 to S3 in all the three fertilizer levels. Significantly more seed yield per plant (6.07 g) was recorded in the treatment combination of S3F3. While lowest was with S1F1. The higher seed yield was mainly due to higher number of flowers per plant, higher number of seeds per capitulum and more 1000 seed weight. Similar observations were also reported by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in china aster. The seed yield per hectare was significantly differed due to interaction of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly higher seed yield (478.89 kg) was recorded in the combination of S1F3. Higher seed yield was due to optimum plant population per unit area and optimum fertilizer levels might have resulted in better growth of the plant. Thus it indicated that S1F3 is the best treatment combination for getting higher seed yield as compared to any other combination. Similar results were also recorded by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in china aster.

5.3.3 Interaction effect on seed quality parameters All the seed quality attributes did not differ significantly due to interactions of spacing and fertilizer levels. However S3 spacing recorded higher values for all the seed quality parameters (viz., germination, seedling length, vigour index and seedling dry weight) in the highest fertilizer level of F3. Therefore the best treatment combination is S3F3 for getting higher seed quality parameters as compared to any other combination. Similar results were also recorded by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in china aster.

5.4

Benefit cost ratio

The economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by spacing and fertilizer interaction revealed that the treatment combination of S1F3 recorded

higher gross returns (9,58,520 Rs. ha-1) and net returns (9,01,351.2 Rs. ha-1) with cost benefit ratio of (1:15.77). The least ratio was in S2F1 (1:11.89).

5.5

Effect of different growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum

5.5.1 Effect of chemical spray on growth parameters GA3 and tricontanol significantly increased the plant height at 60 DAT and at harvest. Whereas CCC and mepiquat chloride significantly decreased the plant height at 60 DAT and at harvest compared to control (77.30 and 89.70 cm, respectively). Among the growth retardants, CCC at 2000 ppm recorded the minimum height at 60 DAT (71.94) and at harvest (83.17 cm). However GA3 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height at 60 DAT (84.93) and at harvest (97.28 cm) among the growth regulators. Increase in plant height with GA3 and tricontanol may be attributed to increase in cell elongation in apical meristem leading to increased length of internodes. The increase in plant height due to GA3 is in conformity with the reports of Syamal et al. (1990) in marigold and china aster, Das and Das (1992) in day lily, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995), Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003), Pawar et al. (2008) in gaillardia and china aster; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion and Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in tomato with tricontanol spray. On the contrary the growth retardants are known to reduce auxin content in growing tissues by antagonizing them. Thus they exert an inhibitory effect by suppressing the cell elongation in the meristematic region of the growing point. The reduction in plant height is in agreement with the reports of Rajesh (1995) in calendula with mepiquat chloride spray; Pawar et al. (2008) in gaillardia and Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold with cycocel spray. The number of branches per plant at 60 DAT and at harvest were significantly increased due to chemicals as compared to control (17.13 and 19.43, respectively). Among the growth regulators, GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more number of branches per plant at 60 DAT and at harvest (25.80 and 27.32, respectively) followed by tricontanol. The increase in number of branches might be due to the promotion of horizontal growth (branching) apart from vertical growth. The increase in number of branches due to growth retardants (CCC and mepiquat chloride) might be due to antagonizing action of auxins responsible for the apical dominance and there by suppressed terminal bud growth, so the accumulated metabolites get translocated towards the auxillary buds and these in turn resulted in stimulation of laterals. Similar results were noticed by Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold, Syamal et al. (1990) in marigold and china aster with GA3 spray; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion and Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in tomato with tricontanol spray; Rajesh (1995) in calendula with mepiquat chloride spray; Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) and Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold. The number of leaves per plant was significantly influenced by chemicals spray at 60 DAT and at harvest compared to control (365.00 and 620.33, respectively). Among the growth regulators, GA3 at 200 ppm sprayed at 60 DAT and at harvest recorded the maximum number of leaves per plant (445.33 and 702.43, respectively) and minimum number in CCC 2000 ppm (376.97 and 639.33, respectively). The increase number of leaves in chemical spray might be due to increase in number of branches per plant. Such increase in number of leaves per plant due to growth regulators was reported by Leena Ravidas et al. (1992) and Umrao et al. (2007) in gladiolus, Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium, Sujatha et al. (2002) in gerbera and Singh and Bijimol (2001) in tuberose due to GA3 spray; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion with tricontanol spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2002) in china aster with mepiquat chloride spray; Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold and Shreedhar (1993) in gaillardia with cycocel spray. The leaf area per plant differed significantly due to growth regulator spray at 60 DAT and at harvest. Among the chemicals GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more leaf area (3742.67 and 4497.24 cm2, respectively) compared to all other chemicals and control and less with CCC 2000 ppm (2693.09 and 3562.09 cm2, respectively). The increase in leaf area due to growth regulators can be attributed to more number of leaves per plant (Prabhat kumar et al., 2003)

in china aster with GA3 spray; Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in radish due to tricontanol spray; Samruban and Karuppaih, (2007) due to cycocel spray. GA3 at 200 ppm spray recorded significantly less number of days (54.00) to 50 per cent flowering while growth retardants took more number of days among chemicals cycocel at 2000 ppm (59.67) recorded maximum days to 50 per cent flowering followed by control (70.81). Early flowering with GA3 spray may be due to increase in the endogenous gibberellins levels in the plant, as gibberellins are well known for inducing early flowering in several crop plants. The delayed flowering in the plants sprayed with growth retardants spray may be due to reduced availability and synthesis of endogenous gibberellins. As the growth retardants effectively reduce the availability of endogenous gibberellins by blocking their synthesis (Dicks, 1976). Early flowering was reported by Sunita et al. (2007), Singh et al. (1991) in African marigold with GA3 spray; The delay in flowering due to mepiquat chloride and CCC compared to control which may be due to suppression of vegetative growth with subsequent increase in number of flower bearing branches which perhaps need more days for development and initiation of flowering. Similar results were noticed by Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster due to mepiquat chloride spray; Sanjeev kumar (2004) in china aster due to cycocel spray.

5.5.2 Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and yield attributes Number of capitula per plant were significantly increased by growth regulators as compared to control (70.81). Among the growth regulators, maximum number of capitula per plant were recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (91.60) and minimum with CCC at 2000 ppm (74.80). This increase in number of capitula per plant could be attributed to the increase in the number of branches per plant. The above results are in conformity with the findings of Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold, Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold, Singh and Bijimol (2001) in tuberose, Sujatha et al., 2002 in gerbera with GA3 spray; Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1997) in chilli due to tricontanol spray; Rajesh (1995) in calendula by mepiquat spray; Pawar (2008) in gaillardia due to cycocel spray. The flower dry weight differed significantly due to growth regulator spray. However, GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum flower dry weight (0.747 g). Improvement in flower dry weight as a result of GA3 spray might be due to better overall plant growth which resulted in net increase in photosynthates. This finding is in line with those of Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) in china aster, Nagarjuna et al. (1988) in chrysanthemum and Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) in African marigold. The flower diameter differed significantly due to growth regulators spray. However, GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum diameter (6.15 cm). Increase in flower diameter might be due to active cell elongation in the flower which increased the flower diameter. GA3 is also known to increase strength of the actively growing parts. The findings are in line with those of Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) in china aster, Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in French marigold and Sujatha et al. (2002) in gerbera. Thousand seed weight was significantly increased by all growth regulators compared to control (1.90 g). The maximum thousand seed weight was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (2.11 g) and minimum in CCC at 2000 ppm (1.97 g). Increase in thousand seed weight might be due to increase in individual seed weight. Similar findings on increase in thousand seed weight due to chemicals spray were reported by Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold with GA3, Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster due to GA3 spray and mepiquat chloride spray and Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with cycocel spray. The seed yield per plant was significantly higher by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (6.75 g) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (6.55 g). Increase in seed yield per plant can be attributed to increase in number of branches per plant, number of capitulum per plant and thousand seed weight. The results are in conformity with the reports of Shivaprasad shetty (1995) in china aster, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold by GA3 spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster due to GA3 and mepiquat chloride spray, Kareekatti (1996) in safflower due to mepiquat chloride spray and Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with cycocel spray.

In the present study, significantly higher seed yield per ha (500 kg) was recorded in GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control (322.47 kg). This increase in seed yield per ha could be attributed to increase in yield attributes such as seed yield per plant, number of capitulum, thousand seed weight and increase in growth parameters like number of branches per plant. The above results are in conformity with the findings of Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold, Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) in African marigold with GA3 spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster due to GA3 and mepiquat chloride spray; Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with CCC spray.

5.5.3 Effect of growth regulators on seed quality attributes The growth regulators significantly increased the germination percentage as compared to control (62.33 %). The maximum germination was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (67.67 %) and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (64.00 %). Increase in germination percentage with GA3 spay may be due to increased 1000 seed weight, which might have supplied adequate food reserves to resume embryo macromolecules to be utilized in growth promoting processes. Such increase in germination percentage due to growth regulators spray are reported by Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold. Seedling length was significantly influenced by all the growth regulators compared to control (9.67 cm). The maximum seedling vigour index was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (10.60 cm) and minimum with CCC at 2000 ppm (9.67 cm). The results are in conformation with Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold. Seedling vigour index was significantly influenced by all the growth regulators compared to control (602). The maximum SVI was recorded with GA3 200 ppm (717) due to chemicals and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (626). Increase in SVI due to growth regulators is in agreement with the results of Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) and Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold. Seedling dry weight was significantly influenced by all the chemicals compared to control. The maximum seedling dry weight recorded with GA3 200 ppm (36.67 mg) due to chemicals and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (32.00 mg). The increase in seedling dry weight might be due to higher seedling length. The results are in line with the findings of Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold. Electrical conductivity of seed leachate differed significantly by all the growth regulators compared to control. The minimum EC was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (0.662 -1 -1 -1 dSm ) treatment and maximum in CCC at 2000 ppm (0.797 dSm ) and control (0.849 dSm ) respectively. The results are in line with the findings of Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) and Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster.

5.6

Benefit cost ratio

The economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by growth regulator spray revealed that GA3 at 200 ppm recorded higher gross returns (1000000 Rs. ha-1) and net returns (938900.0 Rs. ha-1). Whereas cost benefit ratio was higher in tricontanol at 1000 ppm (15.92). Even though GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more gross and net returns per ha but it failed to meet higher cost benefit ratio because of higher cost of chemical (GA3). The least ratio noticed in control (13.50). Practical application of the results 1. Based on the results of field and laboratory investigations carried out during the course of study, the following few conclusions are made 2. The spacing of (30x30) cm would be beneficial to get economically viable seed yield in annul chrysanthemum. 3. The optimum dose of fertilizer for seed production for Dharwad region found to be 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK per ha.

4. The combination of 30x30 cm spacing coupled with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK per ha gave higher seed yield with good quality and returns per rupee investment. Thus, it would be economically beneficial for profitable seed production in annual chrysanthemum. 5. In order to get higher seed yield GA3 at 200 ppm spray at 30 and 45 days after transplanting can be taken up. Also other growth regulators GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000, 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 or 2000 ppm and cycocel at 1000 or 2000 ppm also gave higher seed yield with good quality. 6. Spraying with tricontanol at 1000 ppm, 500 ppm, GA3 at 100 ppm or 200 ppm gave higher returns per rupee investment during annual chrysanthemum seed production.

Future line of work Following future line of work is suggested for obtaining higher seed yield and quality for the benefit of seed growers and traders. 1. The effects of dates of planting on seed yield and quality to be studied. 2. In addition to NPK, secondary nutrients and micro nutrients effect may be tried for achieving higher seed yield and quality. 3. Possible methods of seed processing may be tried in order to improve the seed quality. 4. The seed storability studies may be taken up with different containers. 5. The influence of other low cost inputs like organic fertilizers and plant protection measures needs to be studied. 6. There is scope for seed enhancement studies like seed invigoration, seed colouring and pelleting.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The present study on the influence of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum was carried out at Agriculture College Farm, Dharwad during kharif season of 2008. The summary of the results of investigation are presented in this chapter.

6.1

Spacing and Fertilizer

The plant height decreased with the increase in spacing levels, while it increased with the increase in fertilizer levels. The interaction of S1 (30x30 cm) at F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded higher plant height. Number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant were maximum at S3 (30x60 cm) and these were also maximum at higher fertilizer level F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ha). The number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant were higher at S3F3 (30x60 cm with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) treatment combination. 50 per cent flowering was early in narrow spacing of S1 (30x60 cm) and also at F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) level of fertilizer. Among the spacing and fertilizer interaction S1F3 (30x60 cm with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded less number of days to 50 per cent flowering. The number of flowers per plant and flower diameter increased significantly. Wider spacing of S3 (30x60 cm) recorded maximum number of flowers per plant and diameter followed by S2 (30x45). While, fertilizer level F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded maximum number of flowers per plant and diameter. The interaction of S3 F3 recorded higher number of flowers per plant and diameter followed by S3F2 and S2F3. The seed yield attributes were markedly more and seed yield per plant was significantly more with wider spacing of S3 (30x60 cm). It was also highest at fertilizer level F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha). The treatment combination of S3F3 recorded maximum seed attributes and seed yield per plant followed by S3F2. The seed yield per hectare was significantly more with S1 (30x30 cm). Among the fertilizer levels F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded higher seed yield per hectare and the interaction of S1F3 recorded higher seed yield followed by S1F2. The seed quality parameters like germination, seedling length, seedling vigour index, seedling dry weight and lower electrical conductivity was recorded in wider spacing of S3 (30x60 cm). Among the fertilizer levels F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded maximum values for the seed quality parameters with lower electrical conductivity. The treatment combination of S3F3 recorded maximum seed quality parameters with lower electrical conductivity followed by S3F2. In terms of cost benefit ratio the spacing 30x30 cm spacing coupled with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha recorded more cost of cultivation, gross and net returns and cost benefit ratio as compared to any other treatment.

6.2

Growth regulators

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased plant height followed by GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm spray. On the contrary growth retardants mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm decreased plant height. Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased the number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant followed by GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm. Among the growth retardants mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm recorded more

number number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant followed by mepiquat chloride 2000 ppm, CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm compared to control. Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm induced early flowering followed by GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm. On the contrary the growth retardants mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm delayed flowering compared to the growth GA3 and tricontanol. Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased the number of capitulum per plant, capitulum diameter, number of seed per capitulum, dry weight of capitulum, 1000 seed weight and seed yield (per plant and per ha) compared to control. Similarly tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm also significantly improved the number of capitulum per plant, capitulum diameter, dry weight of capitulum, 1000 seed weight and seed yield (per plant and per ha) compared to control. The seed quality parameters such as germination percentage, seedling length and vigour index and seedling dry weight were higher with lower electrical conductivity was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm followed by GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm and 500 ppm. Among the growth retardants, mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm recorded significantly more germination percentage, seedling length and vigour index and seedling dry weight with lower electrical conductivity followed by mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm, cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm. The cost of cultivation, gross returns and net returns were higher with GA3 at 200 ppm, where as higher cost benefit ratio was recorded with tricontanol 1000 ppm followed by tricontanol 500 ppm.

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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.) SAINATH

2009

Dr. D. S. UPPAR Major Advisor

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during kharif 2008 to study the influence of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.) The experiment consisted of three spacing (S1-30x30, S230x45, S3-30x60) and fertilizer levels (F1-75:112.5:75, F2-100:150:100, F3-125:187.5:125 NPK kg/ha). It was laidout in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with factorial concept having three replications. The results indicated significantly higher plant height, number of branches, leaf area/plant, flower diameter and dry weight, number of seeds/flower and seed yield/plant at S3 with F3. The seed quality parameters like thousand seed weight, germination percentage, seedling length, vigour index and dry weight were also higher. However, seed yield ha-1, cost -1 of cultivation, gross and net returns ha and cost benefit ratio were higher with S1 with F3. The other experiment consisted of nine treatments viz., control, GA3 @ 100 ppm, GA3 @ 200 ppm, Tricontanol @ 500 ppm, Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm, Cycocel @ 1000 ppm, Cycocel @ 2000 ppm, Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm and Mepiquat chloride @ 2000 ppm and was laidout in RBD with three replications. Foliar application of GA3 @ 200 ppm spray recorded significantly higher plant height, number of branches, leaf area/plant, flower diameter and dry weight, number of seeds/flower, seed yield/plant and ha-1. Among seed quality parameters, thousand seed weight, germination percentage, seedling length, vigour index and dry weight were also higher, it also recorded higher cost of cultivation, gross and -1 net returns ha , but the cost benefit ratio was highest in Tricontanol 1000 ppm. Based on the results it can be concluded that the combination of 30x60 cm with 125:187.5:125 NPK kg and GA3 200 ppm is optimum for getting higher seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum.