Indigenous Architecture of Kerala | Vernacular Architecture Study

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE REPORT ON KERALA ARCHITECTURE SUBMITTED TO: AR. KAJAL ARSHI PREPARED BY : BHANU KHANNA (21008/2K10)

Kerala ..God’s own country.. vernacular architecture of Kerala

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I have completed this report for semester IX ,bachelor degree of architecture with the help of my faculty, my teachers, my dearest friend and family members, without their help this work was like to search water in the desert. First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my subject in-charge and guide, Ms. Kajal Arshi, who have guided me and supported me throughout my research over KERALA ARHITECTURE. I would like to extend my gratitude to the HOD of Architecture Department Ar. Bhupinder Pal Singh Dhot for his sharing his immense knowledge and Ar. Ranjit Kaur Johal for her valuable suggestion, precious time for the discussion over the topic. I would like to thank the students of NIT Calicut who helped me in the secondary data collection. I would like to express my gratitude to my friends and mates. Finally I offer my sincerest gratitude to my parents and family for their love and their support which helped me to cross all the hurdles coming in my successful education life.

Ms. Bhanu Khanna B.ARCH IX sem 21008/2k10

3 vernacular architecture of Kerala

ABSTRACT KERALA is often named as ‘GOD’S OWN COUNTRY’ this is not only because of its traditions but its history geography and mesmerizing scenic beauty makes it the place next to heaven. Kerala regionally referred to as Keralam, is a state in the south-west region of India on the Malabar coast separated by western ghats from top and side. Kerala architecture is a kind of architectural style that is mostly found in Indian state of Kerala and all the architectural wonders of kerala stands out to be ultimate testimonials for the ancient vishwakarma sthapathis of kerala. The architecture of Kerala has been influenced by Dravidian and Indian Vedic architectural science (Vastu Shastra) over two millennium. The Tantrasamuchaya, Thachu-Shastra, Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important architectural sciences, which have had a strong impact in Kerala Architecture style. The Manushyalaya-Chandrika, a work devoted to domestic architecture is one such science which has its strong roots in Kerala. The architectural style has evolved from Kerala’s peculiar climate and long history of influences of its major maritime trading partners like Chinese, Arabs and Europeans. The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture results from the geographical, climatic and historic factors. Geographically Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in between western seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the towering Western Ghats on its east and the vast Arabian sea on its west. A regional character in construction incorporating the Dravidian craft skills, unique forms of Buddhist buildings, design concepts of vedic times and canonical theories of Brahmanical Agamic practices in locally available materials and suited to the climatic conditions was finally evolved in Kerala. The climatic factors thus made its significant contributions in developing the architecture style, to counter wettest climatic conditions coupled with heavy humidity and harsh tropical summers. The architectural style of Kerala temples has an inherent simplicity. Kerala temples have a distinct style of their own by the lavish use of wood, stone and metals.

vernacular architecture of Kerala

1 2

INTRODUCTION - KERELA STATICAL DATA 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

3

CLIMATE GEOGRAPHY CULTURE RELIGION DEMOGRAPHY 2.5.1 POPULATION 2.5.2 ECONOMICS

ARCHITECTURE

CONTENTS

3.1 HISTORY 3.1.1 PREHISTORIC VESTIGES 3.2 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE CASE STUDY: PERUVANAM SHIV TEMPLE 3.3 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 3.3.1 THEORY 3.3.2 CONCEPT 3.3.3 CASE STUDY OF TYPICAL

….1- 2 ….3- 14 ….7 ….8 …11 …12 …13

….15- 45 ….16 ….20

….34

KERALITE HOUSE

4 5 6 7

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS CASE STUDY PADAMABHURAN PALACE CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY

….46- 47 ….48- 54 ….55 ….56

5 vernacular architecture of Kerala

INTRODUCTION The cultural heritage of any country is seen best exposed in its architectural monuments. The ways in which the buildings are designed, constructed and decorated speak not only the technical and artistic capabilities of the craftsmen, but also of the aspirations and visions of the perceptors, for whom the construction is only a medium for thematic expression. From the single dwellings to the magnificent edifices, architecture also reflects the human endeavour meeting the ever changing social needs. Kerala abounds with many such architectural monumentsprehistoric megaliths, tombs, caves, temples, mosques, churches, theatres, houses, palaces and public buildings, built and renovated over centuries representing a panorama of architectural development. None of these structures is very big; the aesthetic appeal of these buildings mainly arise from the simplicity of form and functional perfection.

Fig. 1.1_POLITICAL MAP OF KERELA

Fig. 1.3_STATE SEAL OF KERELA

The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture results from the geographical, climatic and historic factors. Geographically Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in between western seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the towering Western Ghats and the vast Arabian sea. Favoured by plentiful rains and bright sunshines, this land is lush green with vegetation and rich in animal life. In the uneven terrain of this region human habitation is distributed thickly in the fertile low-lands and sparsely towards the hostile highlands. Clustered houses are rarely seen in villages. Large cities are also absent in this landscape. The architecture of this region has been of a humble scale, merging with nature. The form of the buildings with low walls, sloping roof and projecting caves was mostly evolved from climatic considerations for protection from excessive rain and intense solar radiation. The setting of the building in the open garden plot was again necessitated by the requirement of wind for giving comfort in the humid climate. 6 vernacular architecture of Kerala

Kerala’s Fame

State symbols of Kerala Animal

Indian elephant

Bird

Great Hornbill

Fish

Pearl Spot

Flower

Golden Shower Tree Flower

Tree

Coconut tree

Fig. 1.3_TOURIST DESTINATIONS/FAMOUS THINGS TO DO/STATE SYMBLS OF KERELA

7 vernacular architecture of Kerala

STATICAL DATA 2.1 Climate of Kerala According to Bureau of Indian Standards, India has been divided into five different regions with distinct climates in which Kerala comes under the warm – humid region. The climate of Kerala is characterized by heavy rainfall and high relative humidity, and relatively moderate temperature. In effect, Kerala has only two predominant seasonsrainy and dry seasons. The rainy season lasts for about half of the year, which has greatly determined the character of built form with its characteristic sloping roof. Summer comes under the dry season with hot and humid days and nights and intense solar radiation during the day time. Wind speed and direction is determined by the season and the temperature differences between land and sea. Predominant wind direction during monsoon period, i.e., June to September is west to South west and the effect of land breeze is not dominant during this period. During October – November, wind direction changes from South West to North - East. Though predominantly south west, the wind is influenced by the presence of other topographical features including the presence of large water bodies.

FIG: 2.1 : ANNUAL RAILFALL CHART OF KERELA

With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon. Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to northeast monsoon. Southwest monsoon; The moisture-laden winds, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, become divided into two parts: the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats in Kerala, thus making the area the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest Monsoon. Northeast monsoon: The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed during this season and the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it in the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm (122 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During summer, the state is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. 8 vernacular architecture of Kerala

2.2 Geography of Kerala The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 km (22–75 miles). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. The state is located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent and lies near the center of the Indian tectonic plate; hence, it is subject to comparatively low seismic and volcanic activity. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbor for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. Forty-one of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft.) above sea level, while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 m (8200 ft.). Anamudi, the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 meters (8,842 ft.). The elevations of the eastern portions of the Nilgiri Hills and Palni Hills range from 250 and 1,000 m (820 and 3300 ft.).

FIG: 2.3 : MUNNAR- HILL STATION OF KERALA

FIG: 2.2 : VIEW OF ANAMUDI HILLS FIG: 2.4 : PARUVAR- BACKWATERS & BEACHES

FIG: 2.6 : PANAROMIC VIEW OF PERIYAR RIVER

FIG: 2.5 : PADDY FIELD IN KERALA

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Hill and Valleys- The narrow piece of land on the eastern border, close to the Western Ghats, encompasses precipitous hills, deep valleys and gorges which are covered with thick woods. Almost all the rivers of the state originate here.

Midland Plains- These plains which lie along central Kerala, are located in the west of the hills and mountains.

The topography and the geographical relief features are marked by distinct changes from east to west and consists of-The Western Ghats- The mighty Western Ghats, a sequence of Rocky Mountains, edges the eastern boundary of Kerala and ascends roughly upto 1,500 m above sea level with the lofty peaks rising upto 2,500 m. Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat to the eastern region, and is crisscrossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters.

FIG: 2.7: TOPOGRAPHICAL CHART OF KERALA

Coastal Belt-The narrow belt of coastal land along the Arabian Sea is characterized by paddy fields, rows of coconut trees and serene, and backwaters internally linked by rivers and inland waterways.

Backwaters and Rivers-The Backwaters consists of lakes and inlets of oceans which straggle out in the land. The largest backwater is the Vembanad Lake which stretches out into the Arabian Sea at Cochin Port. There are 49 river/lakes flowing in the state of Kerala among them 46 flows to the west and the other 3 flow to the east. They evolve from Western Ghats and rush towards the west into the Arabian Sea. 10 vernacular architecture of Kerala

Fig. 2.10_PHYSICAL MAP OF KERELA

FIG: 2.9_ IMAGERY OF TOPOGRAPGHY OF KERALA SHOWING BACKWATERS AND DELTAS FORMED WITH THE TROPICAL FORESTS

11 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG: 2.8 _TOPOGRAPHICAL CHART OF INDIA

2.3 Culture of Kerala Kerala offers a cultural kaleidoscope in it literature, language, music, dance, theatre and rituals; the pluralist basis of Kerala culture & architecture of Kerala 4 culture mosaic is reflected in its art forms. The culture of Kerala is distinct with an admixture of innumerable facets of various cultures. The tradition of classical arts which has been existed in Kerala for more than a thousand years Are: • Mohiniyattam (the dance of enchantress): It is one of the gracefully elegant classical dance forms with lasya as the predominant element. • Kathakali: The spectacular dance drama of Kerala integrates dance,music, poetry, and histrionics. • Koodiyattam: Sanskrit drama performed in Kerala-the oldest existing classical theatre form in the entire world, having originated much before Kathakali and most other theatrical forms. • Folk arts are: Theyyam, thira, Mudiyettu, kaduvakali , Velakali, kakkarissnataka kakkarissnatakam, Chavittunatakam, Bhadrakalipattu, pulluvanpattu and Thiruvathirakali are some of Kerala’s folk art forms. • Martial Arts: Kalaripayattu is an ancient tradition of martial training and Discipline. • Thullal: This art is characterized by simplicity of presentation, wit & humour. • Poorams : Temple festivals usually continue for a number of days. A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is then brought down only on the final day of the festival. Some festivals include Poorams, the most famous of these being the Thrissur Pooram. • Onam : It is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala, India. It is also the state festival of Kerala. Onam Festival falls during the Malayalam month of Chingam (Aug - Sep) and marks the commemoration of Vamana avatara of Vishnu . It is one of the festivals celebrated with most number of cultural elements. Some of them are Vallam Kali, Pulikkali, Pookkalam, Onatthappan, Thumbi Thullal, Onavillu, Kazhchakkula, Onapottan, Atthachamayam etc.

12 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 2.11_LEFT UP : THRISSUR POORUM / LEFT DN MOHINIYATTAM / CENTRE FOOD @ ONAM / RIGHT KATHAKALLI

2.4 Religion of Kerala In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism. According to 2001 Census of India figures, 56.2% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 24.7% are Muslims, 19% are Christians, and the remaining 0.1% follows other religions. The major Hindu castes are Dalit, Ezhava, Thiyya, Arayan, Nadars, Nair and Nambudiri. The rest of the Hindu castes, including those in the list of Other Backward Class (OBC), are minority communities.

FIG. 2.12_STATICAL DATA SHOWING DIFFERENT RELIGIONS FOLLOWED IN KERALA

FIG. 2.13_GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF 4 MAJOR RELIGIONS OF KERALA AND THEIR UNITY

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vernacular architecture of Kerala

2.5 Demographics 2.5.1 Population Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population; at 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 370 persons per km2. Trivandrum is the largest and most populous city in Kerala. In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.64%. Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population density of coastal districts being 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated. Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali. State's 321,000 indigenous tribal 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east. Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language. Kannada, Tulu, Hindi, Bengali, Mahl and various tribal languages are also spoken. As of early 2013, there are close to 2.5 million (7.5% of state population) migrant workers from other states of India in Kerala.

FIG. 2.14_GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF POPULATION DENSITY IN KERALA

FIG. 2.15_LIST OF POLUTAION DENSITY AND RANK WISE DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR CITIES OF KERALA

14 vernacular architecture of Kerala

2.5.2 Economics Prime economy of Kerala consists of three major industries : 1. Fisheries 2. Agriculture 3. Information Technology The tertiary source also consists of tourism department , transport, storage, communications, banking and insurance and real estate.

FISHERIES With 590 km of coastal belt, 400,000 hectares of inland water resources and about 220,000 active fishermen, Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India. According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04. This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, about 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from the state. During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank would be developed along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water and hence peak output from the fishery industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara. The fish landings consist of a large variety: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans and mollusks.

AGRICULTURE Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper and accounts for 85% of the area under natural rubber in the country. Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg—comprise a critical agricultural sector. The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields. Home gardens comprise a significant portion of the agricultural sector. Related animal husbandry is also important, and is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalized, and the landless. The state government promotes these activity via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the Sunandini.

FIG. 2.16_JUTE HANDLOOM INDUSTRY/MARKET PLACE IN KOCHI/PALM TREES AND PADDY FEILD

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vernacular architecture of Kerala

ARCHITECTURE The cultural heritage of any country is seen best exposed in its architectural monuments. The ways in which the buildings are designed, constructed and decorated speak not only the technical and artistic capabilities of the craftsmen, but also of the aspirations and visions of the preceptors, for whom the construction is only a medium for thematic expression. From the single dwellings to the magnificent edifices, architecture also reflects the human endeavor meeting the ever changing social needs. Kerala abounds with many such architectural monuments-prehistoric megaliths, tombs, caves, temples, mosques, churches, theatres, houses, palaces and public buildings, built and renovated over centuries representing a panorama of architectural development. None of these structures is very big; the aesthetic appeal of these buildings mainly arise from the simplicity of form and functional perfection. The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture results from the geographical, climatic and historic factors. Geographically Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in between western seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the towering Western Ghats and the vast Arabian sea. Favored by plentiful rains and bright sunshine's, this land is lush green with vegetation and rich in animal life. In the uneven terrain of this region human habitation is distributed thickly in the fertile low-lands and sparsely towards the hostile highlands. Clustered houses are rarely seen in villages. Large cities are also absent in this landscape. The architecture of this region has been of a humble scale, merging with nature. The form of the buildings with low walls, sloping roof and projecting caves was mostly evolved from climatic considerations - for protection from excessive rain and intense solar radiation. The setting of the building in the open garden plot was again necessitated by the requirement of wind for giving comfort in the humid climate. Kerala architecture is a kind of architectural style that is mostly found in Indian state of Kerala and all the architectural wonders of kerala stands out to be ultimate testmonials for the ancient vishwakarma sthapathis of kerala. Kerala's style of architecture is unique in India, in its striking contrast to Dravidian architecture which is normally practiced in other parts of South India. The architecture of Kerala has been influenced by Dravidian and Indian Vedic architectural science (Vastu Shastra) over two millennium. The Tantrasamuchaya, Thachu-Shastra, Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important architectural sciences, which have had a strong impact in Kerala Architecture style. The Manushyalaya-Chandrika, a work devoted to domestic architecture is one such science which has its strong roots in Kerala. The architectural style has evolved from Kerala’s peculiar climate and long history of influences of its major maritime trading partners like Chinese, Arabs and Europeans. The ARCHITECTURE of Kerala is divided into 2 basic categories : TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE & DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 16 vernacular architecture of Kerala

3.1 Pre-historic Vestiges The locational feature of Kerala has influenced the social development and indirectly the style of construction. In the ancient times the sea and the Ghats formed impenetrable barriers helping the evolution of an isolated culture of Proto Dravidians, contemporary to the Harappa civilization. The earliest vestiges of constructions in Kerala belongs to this period dated between 3000 B.C. to 300 B.C. They can be grouped into two types - tomb cells and megaliths. The rock cut tomb cells are generally located in the laterite zones of central Kerala, for example at Porkalam. Trissur district. The tombs are roughly oblong in plan with single or multiple bed chambers with a rectangular court in the east from where steps rise to the ground level. Another type of burial chamber is made of four slabs placed on edges and a fifth one covering them as a cap stone. One or more such dolmens are marked by a stone circle. Among the megaliths are the umbrella stones, (kudakkal) resembling handless palm leaf umbrellas used for covering pits enclosing burial urns. Two other types of megaliths, hat stones (thoppikkal) and menhirs (pulachikkal) however have no burial appendages. They appear to be rather memorial stones. The megaliths are not of much architectural significance, but they speak of the custom of the primitive tribes erecting memorials at sites of mortuary rites. These places later became the annual meeting grounds of the tribes and gave rise to occult temples of ancestral worship. While the custom of father worship can be seen in these cases, the protecting deities of the villages were always in female form, who were worshiped in open groves (kavu). These hypaethral temples had trees, stone symbols of Mother Goddesses or other naturalistic or animistic image as objects of worship. The continuity of this early culture is seen in the folk arts, cult rituals, worship of trees, serpents and mother images in kavus. Historic factors did not allow the continuance of the cultural isolation of Kerala from the remaining parts of India which was the arena of cultural invasions of Aryans and other races. Aryans had spread their culture all over north India by about 1000 B.C. Kerala also started experiencing a cultural invasion by the slow ethnic migration of Aryans in the beginnings of Christian era. In the second rock edict of Asoka dated third century B.C. Kerala is referred as one of the border kingdoms of the Maurya empire. It is possible that Buddhists and Jains were the first north Indian groups to cross the borders of Kerala and establish their monasteries. These religious groups were able to practice their faith and receive patronage from the local kings to build shrines and viharas. For nearly eight centuries Buddhism and Jainism seem to have co-existed in Kerala as an FIG. 3.1_ IDOL TO WORSHIP IN FEMALE FORM important faith, contributing in its own way to the social 17 and architectural development of the region.

vernacular architecture of Kerala

Influence of Buddhism The nature worship of the early inhabitants of Kerala has its parallel in Buddhism, in the tree worship owing to the association of Buddha's birth, revelation and preaching under a tree. Although sculptural relics of Buddhist images have been recovered from a few places of southern Kerala, there are, however, no extant Buddhist monuments in this region. But literary references such as Mushika vamsa, a Sanskrit epic of the eleventh century suggests the fact that Kerala had important Buddhist shrines. The most renowned of these was the Sreemulavasa vihara with a magnificent image of Bodhisatwa Lokanatha. This shrine is believed to have been washed away by coastal erosion. In their design features some of the temples such as Siva temple at Trissur and the Bhagavathi temple at Kodungallur are believed to be Buddhist viharas; but there is no irrefutable proof for such beliefs. The Jain monuments are more numerous in Kerala. They include rock shelters at Chitral near Nagercoil, a rock cut temple at Kahlil near Perumbavoor, and remains of structural temples at Alathoor near Palakkad and at Sultanbathery. Sculptured Jain figures of Mahavira, Parswanatha and other Tirthankara's have been recovered from these sites. Sultanbathery also has the remains of a Jain basti, known as Ganapati vattam, being an example of a cloistered temple built entirely of granite. Inspite of the absence of architectural monuments there is conclusive proof of the influence of the Buddhist school on Kerala architecture of later periods. The circular temples basically follow the shapes of the Buddhist stupas, the dome shaped mounds. The apsidal temples are modelled in the pattern of chaitya halls, the assembly halls of Buddhist monks. The chaitya window seen repeated in the decorative molding of the thorana around the temple shrine is clearly a Buddhist motif adopted in Hindu style, according to Percy Brown. Basically thorana is a gateway provided in the palisade seen in the vertical and horizontal members of thevilakkumadam, which is a feature seen only in Kerala temples of the post-Buddhist period. In its most primitive form this construction is seen in the hypaethral temples enshrining trees and later on the outer walls of the shrines proper. With the stylistic development of the Hindu temple this form of palisade is removed from the shrine structure (srikovil) and taken as a separate edifice beyond the temple cloister (chuttambalam). Historians are also of opinion that many rituals including the elephant procession during festivals are of Buddhist origin and adopted in Kerala temples.

FIG. 3.2_ BHAGAVATHI TEMPLE AT KODUNGALLUR

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vernacular architecture of Kerala

Vedic and Brahmanical Influences

FIG. 3.3_ MAP OF DECCAN SHOWING EARLY DYNASTIES PF INDIA – CHERA/CERA IN KERALA

Buddhism was co-existent with the indigenous religious and social practices of Kerala as well as the vedic religion of the early Aryan emigrants. The early Tamil Sangam literature shows that by the First century A.D. the Ceras ruled the central regions of Kerala and the Kongu lands (present Salem and Coimbatore region). Its capital was Vanchi, identified with the Thiruvanchikulam near Kodungallur. At this time the southern part of Kerala was ruled by the Ay chieftains and the northern parts by the Nannans of Ezhilmalai. The early period of Christian era - first to third century is also marked by the contact with Aryans and their vedic religion rooted in the fire sacrifices. Between fourth and seventh centuries A.D. Brahmanas appeared to have settled in Kerala and established their religion. The amalgamation of different cultures and religious philosophies helped to evolve the architectural styles of Kerala temples.

The early Aryan religion in Kerala and Brahmanical practices showed a tendency to adopt and adapt the native rituals and hence exhibit a dual nature. On the one hand there was emphasis on the pure Aryan practice of fire sacrifice or yagas; on the other hand there was also a practice of installing deities in temples and worshiping them by flowers. Traditionally only vedic Gods were invoked in fire sacrifices and all divinities adopted from the native religion were worshipped in temples called kottam, kovil etc. The most important of these divinities were Muruga, Bhagavathi and Sastha. With the bhakti movement of the sixth-seventh century, two main streams of Brahmanical religions _ saivism and vaishnavism _ eulogised by the nayanars and alwars respectively became the predominant religions patronized by the kings. Siva and Vishnu thus became the most important deities of worship. The two streams, however, were interwoven by Sankara in unified philosophical thought, and a cult synthesis. In ritualistic worship this is manifested in offering of sandal paste as well as vilva and thulasi to the devotees of both Siva and Vishnu temples. Examples of temples with two main shrines one for Siva and another for Vishnu in the common enclosure are also the result of this cult synthesis. The bhakti movement and the work of Sankara helped to firmly establish the Hindu religion and completely displace Jainism and Buddhism from Kerala by about eighth-tenth century.

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vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.4_ MAP OF INDIA SHOWING ARYANS AND DRAVIDIAN CULTURE IN INDIA

Under the rule of the second Cera Perumals (eighth-eleventh century) most of Kerala except the extreme north and south got unified. This was highly conducive of architectural development and renovation of a large number of temples. After the decline of the Ceras several small principalities developed all over Kerala. By fifteenth century, Kerala was broadly covered by the suzerainty of four principal chieftains Venad rulers in the south, Kochi Maharajas in the centre, samutiris of Kozhikode in the north and Kolathiri Rajas in the extreme north. They were rulers who patronized architectural activities. A regional character in construction incorporating the Dravidian craft skills, unique forms of Buddhist buildings, design concepts of vedic times and cannonical theories of Brahmanical Agamic practices in locally available materials and suited to the climatic conditions was finally evolved in Kerala. The theory and practice of architectural construction were also compiled during this period.

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3.2 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The variety of temples, numbering more than 2000 dotting the Kerala state has no match with any other regions of India. In its stylistic development, the temple architecture can be divided into three phases. The first phase is that of rock-cut temples. This earliest form is contemporary to Buddhist cave temples. Rock-cut temples are mainly located in southern Kerala - at Vizhinjam and Ayirurpara near Thiruvananthapuram, Kottukal near Kollam and Kaviyoor near Alappuzha. Of these the one at Kaviyoor is the best example. The Kaviyoor cave temple dedicated to Siva comprises of a shrine room and a spacious ardhamandapa arranged axially facing the west. On the pillared facade as well as on the walls inside the ardhamandapa are sculptured reliefs of the donor, a beared rishi, a seated four armed Ganesh and dwarapalas. The other cave temples also have this general pattern of a shrine and an ante-room and they are associated with Siva worship. In the north similar rock-cut temples of saiva cult are seen at Trikkur and Irunilamkode in Trissur district. Historically the cave architecture in India begins with Buddhism and the technique of rock-cut architecture in Kerala seems to be a continuation of similar works in Tamil Nadu under the Pandya. The rock-cut temples are all dated prior to the eighth century A.D. The structural temples appear in the second phase spanning the eighth to tenth centuries, and patronized by the Cera, Ay and Mushika chieftains. The earliest temples had a unitary shrine or a srikovil. In rare cases a porch or ardhamandapa is seen attached to the shrine. A detached namaskara mandapa is generally built in front of the srikovil. A quadrangular building _ nalambalam _ encloses the srikovil and the namaskara mandapa. At the entrance to the nalambalam is located the altar stone _ balikkal. This basic plan composition of the Kerala temple is seen emerging in this phase.

FIG. 3.5_ BASIC LAYOUT OF TEMPLES IN KERALA

21 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.6_ DIFF. TYPE OF PLANS OF TEMPLES

The srikovil may be built in different plan shapes - square, rectangular, circular or apsidal. Of these the square plan shows an even distribution throughout Kerala state. The square shape is basically the form of the vedic fire altar and strongly suggest the vedic mooring. It is categorized as the nagara style of temple in the architecutural texts. The rectangular plan is favored for the Ananthasai Vishnu and the Sapta matrikas. The circular plan and the apsidal plan are rare in other parts of India and unknown even in the civil architecture of Kerala, but they constitute an important group of temples. The circular plan shows a greater preponderance in the southern part of Kerala, in regions once under the influence of Buddhism. The apsidal plan is a combination of the semi-circle and the square and it is seen distributed sporadically all over the coastal region. The circular temples belong to the vasara category. A variation of circle-elipse is also seen as an exception in the Sivashrine at Vaikkom. Polygonal shapes belonging to the Dravida category are also adopted rarely in temple plans but they find use as a feature of shikhara. A temple having all these elements is referred as a Mahakshetra (great temple) or Perumthrukkovil (like Vaikom Perumthrukkovil Mahadeva Temple in Kottayam).

FIG. 3.7_TEMPLE LAYOUT

22 vernacular architecture of Kerala

The shape of the roof is in accordance with the plan of the sanctum below. With a circular plan, one sees a conical roof, while with a square plan the roof is pyramidal. The roof is constructed with wood and is covered with copper plates. Most of the temples seen in Kerala today, have undergone several phases of renovation, given the perishable nature of the construction materials. The central sanctum of a Keralite temple is referred to as the SriKovil. It is surrounded by a cloistered prakara, pierced at one or more cardinal points with a gopuradwara. The cloistered prakaram has a namaskara mandapam located directly in front of the sanctum. This prakaram also houses subsidiary shrines. A kitchen is located in the south eastern corner of ths cloistered prakaram. The mukha mandapam is integrated with the gopura entrance. The flagstaff or dwaja stambham is located outside of the dwajastambham. The balipitham may be located in the mukhamandapam or in the outer courtyard. The outer prakaram or courtyard houses other subshrines, and optionally a temple tank. The Kuttambalam or the theater hall of the Keralite temple is located either as a part of the inner prakara, on the south east corner facing north, or as a separate hall outside the innermost prakaram, either facing into the temple or facing north. This has a stage, raised from the rest of the floor, and a backstage area. This is the site of the performance of Kathakali or Chakkiyar koothu recitals. Thus the kuttambalam plays a role in educating visitors on the rich legends of the Indian cultural fabric. The major parts of a typical Kerala temple • Deva Prathishta or Idol Deva Prathishta or idol of the God or Goddess is the most important part of a Hindu temple. Idols made of Granite, Panchaloha, or Wood is usually installed inside the Garbhagriham or Sreekovil. Idols are made according to the Dhyana Slokams. Apart from the normal daily worship rituals for propitiating the deities, there are many Thaanthrik rituals aiming at increasing the glory and power of the deities and sometimes for atonement for any fading of such power. Image shows the idol of Kathyayani Devi in Kumaranalloor Devi Temple. •

Sreekovil or Sanctum Sanctorum:

Sreekovil may be in square, rectangular, elliptical or circular shape and may have one two or even three stories covered with copper or gold. The image shown are the gold covered rectangular sreekovil of Guruvayoor temple, Gaja prishta sreekovil of Madhur temple and copper covered circular sreekovil of Thrikkodithanam temple. The part of the temple where the idol of the God or Goddess is situated is referred to as the Sreekovil. Position of Sreekovil in the temple is equivalent to the position of Sahasrara Padmam in a human body. 23 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

Sopanam:

The holy steps in front of the sanctum sanctorum is called Sopanam. In many temples the sopanam has stone idols of guards of the God called as Dwarapalakas. Usually sopanam is covered with Gold or Bronze. Image shows the gold covered Sopanam and Dwarapalakas of Sabarimala Temple. Only temple priests are allowed to enter through this holy steps. •

Pradakshinavattam or Akathe balivattam:

It is located just outside the sanctum. The Ashta-Dik-paalakas (Indra, Agni, Yama, Nruryathi, Varuna, Vaayu, Soma and Isaana), Saptha Mathrukkal (Brahmani, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani and Chamundi) , Veerabhadra, Ganapathy, Sastha, Anantha, Durga, Subrahmanya, Kubera, Nirmalyadhari and Brahma the guards of the main deity are represented here by using stones of different shapes and are generally called Balikkallu. Usually these balikkallus are covered with bronze sheets. image show the Pradakshinavattam of kazhakuttom mahadeva Temple and Balikkallu representing Yama of Anandavalleeswaram Temple Kollam. •

Mathrusala:

Mathrusala is located in the South side of Sreekovil. It is an extended portion of Nalambalam towards Sreekovil to cover the Saptha Mathru balikkal. Hence the name Mathrusala. Usually the Utsavabali ritual is performed in the Mathrusala. The image shows the Mathrusala of Chengamanattu Mahadeva Temple near Aluva in Ernakulam district. •

Namaskara Mandapam:

Namaskara Mandapam is located in front of the sopanam facing the sanctum. It is used by the priests for Sashtanga Namaskara after poojas like Usha pooja, Pantheeradi pooja and Ucha pooja. Hence the name Namaskra manadapam. It is generally square in shape and has a roof hung by four pillars and usually has a Tazhikakkudam made of gold or copper. Usually Veda Japam and Kalasa Pooja is done at the Namaskara Mandapam and so it is also called Kalasa Mandapam. In Shiva temples it is called Nandi Mandapam because of the presence of Nandikesa and in Vishnu temples it is called Garuda Mandapam because of the presence of Garuda. Image shows the Namaskara mandapam of Kumaranalloor Devi Temple near Kottayam.

24 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

Nalambalam and Valiambalam :

Nalambalam is also called chuttambalam. Their function is to protect the temple as they cover the temple on all sides. They are less broad on the surrounding three sides and are called chuttambalam. The one facing the sanctum is very broad and is called valiambalam. Between the two valiambalams there is a passage for devotees to enter and exit.

•

Thidappally :

Thidappally is the kitchen of a temple. Thidappally is constructed to the left side of the Namaskara Mandapam as an enclosure in the south eastern corner of the Nalambalam. Nivedyams to be offered to the deity is prepared in the Thidappally. •

Well :

A well is a must in a temple. Its position is at the North-East, of the Nalambalam. Its water has to be exclusively used for abhisheka or preparation of nivedya. Image shows the well of Navayikkulam Shankaranarayana Temple near Kallambalam in Thiruvananthapuram district. •

Vilakkumaadam:

Another distictive feature of Keralite temples is the use of Vilakku maadam, or the multi-tiered brass lamps in front of temples. Lakshadeepam is a spectacular celebration of traditional lighting where tiers of small oil lamps lining the outer walls of the inner prakaram are lit. It is located outside the Nalambalam. In between the Nalambalam and Vilakkumaadam there may be an open areaImage shows the Temple of the King (Cobra) – Sri Peralassery Subrahmanya Temple •

Balikkalpura:

It faces the sanctum and is the extended portion of the passage in between the valiyambalams. The roof of the Balikkalpura may have the wooden sculptures of Ashtadikpalaka also in temples like Koodalmanikyam there is no Balikkalpura for Valiya Balikkallu. image show the Balikkalppura of Kollam Anandavalleeswaram Temple and Valiya Balikkallu of Irinjalakkuda Koodalmanikya Temple 25 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

Dwaja or Kodimaram:

This tall pillar is visible from a distance. It bears on the top the deity’s vahana as emblem and one can identify the deity of a temple by seeing it. For ex : Shiva temple has Nandi, Vishnu temple has Garuda, Durga temple has Lion, Kali temple has Vethala, Sastha temple has Horse, etc. Ashtadikpalaka idols were placed at the bottom part of the dwaja. Kodimaram is used for hoisting kodi or flag during festivals. It is located outside the balikkalpura and is usually made of wood and covered with copper, panchaloha, silver, bronze or gold. •

Anakkottil:

Anakottil facing balikkalpura is located in front of the Dwaja . It is the place where elephants stand during festivals. It is also used for functions like marriage, choroonu, parayeduppu, thulabharam and bhajans. •

Sheevelippura and Pradakshina Vazhi :

Sheevelippura or Shreebalippura is not so common in Kerala Temples. This is the place used for Kazcha Sreebali. Padmanabha Swami Temple and Guruvayoor Temple have beautiful Sheevelippuras. •

Oottupura:

Ootupura is the dining hall of a temple. In the past only Brahmins were allowed to take food from Ootupura. Now a days they are used for Annadanam and Varasadya. It will have a large kitchen. In some temples like Vaikom and Ambalappuzha the Ootupura is as sacred as the temple Sreekovil. Image shows the Oottupura of Vaikom Mahadeva Temple. •

Koothambalam:

The Koothambalam or the theater hall of the Keralite temple is located on the south east corner of Nalambalam. This is the site where the performance of Chakkiyarkoothu and Koodiyattom art forms is held. Koothambalams are usually in rectangular shape and has three parts. Ramgapeedam or stage raised from the rest of the floor,backstage area Nepadhyam or green room and a Prekshaka gruham for viewers. Koothambalams are often decorated with large number of wood sculptures. Thus the koothambalam plays a role in educating visitors on the rich legends of the Indian cultural fabric.

26 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

Gopuram :

Major temples will have four Gopurams in East, West, South and North. Thiruvanathapuram Sree Padmanabha Swami Temple is the only temple in Kerala having a huge Gopuram with stone works. The four Gopurams of Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple and Thrissur Sree Vadakkumnatha Temple are examples of typical Kerala style. The four Gopurams are connected to the outer compound wall of the temple. There is the typical Kerala style of architecture of temple towers and it varies from single to multistoried. •

Mathil or Outer walls:

These are the outermost protective coverings of the temple. Major temples are well protected with huge compound walls in Anappalla Mathil style if the temple compound is more than 4 acres. The image shows the Anappalla style compound wall of Thiruvegappura Temple in Palakkad district. •

Theerthakkulam:

Nearly every temple has a sacred pond or Theerthakkulam and kulappura outside the temple wall if there is no river nearby. Normaly the temple pond is located on the North East corner of the temple. The water of the temple pond is used for washing one’s hands and feet before going into the temple, bathing, and sometimes for the Arattu cerimonies. The image shows the Theerthakkulam of Sree Subrahmanya Swami Temple Harippad in Alappuzha district.

FIG. 3.8_KURUMBA BHAGAVATI TEMPLE ,KODUNGALLOOR, TRISOOR DIST.

27 vernacular architecture of Kerala

28 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.9_ TYPICAL LAYOUT OF A KERALITE TEMPLE

•

The Karalite temple is an amalgam of stonework, wood work, stucco work and painting - harmoniously blended into a structure vibrant with traditions of the region. The wood work here is of great importance, and it gives the essential verve and character to the Kerala temple silhouette. The inner skeletal framework of the temple is of wood, although the base and the structure above are of granite and laterite respectively. The roof projects out at several levels, in order to protect the inner skeletal framework from the vigorous monsoons that inundate the region.

FIG. 3.9/3.10_DETAILING OF THIRUVANCHIKULAM TEMPLE

• •

•

The Kerala temple walls are of coursed laterite stone masonry plastered in mud and lime. Murals are seen on several of these temple walls. Karalite temples is the use of vilakku maadam, or the multi-tiered brass lamps in front of temples. Lakshadeepam is a spectacular celebration of traditional lighting where tiers of small oil lamps lining the outer walls of the inner prakaram are lit. The natural building materials available for construction in Kerala are stones, timber, clay and palm leaves. Granite is a strong and durable building stone; however its availability is restricted mostly to the highlands and only marginally to other zones. Owing to this, the skill in quarrying, dressing and sculpturing of stone is scarce in Kerala.

FIG. 3.11/3.12_ROOFING AND OUTER WALL OF THIRUVANCHIKULAM TEMPLE

•

Laterite on the other hand is the most abundant stone found as outcrops in most zones. Soft laterite available at shallow depth can be easily cut, dressed and used as building blocks. It is a rare local stone which gets stronger and durable with exposure at atmospheric air. Laterite blocks may be bonded in mortars of shell lime, which have been the classic binding material used in traditional buildings. Lime mortar can be improved in strength and performance by admixtures of vegetable juices. Such enriched mortars were used for plastering or for serving as the base for mural painting and low relief work. FIG. 3.8_ DIFF. TYPE OF PLANS OF TEMPLES

29 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.13/3.14_WOODEN DETAILING FOUND IN KERAITE TEMPLE

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Timber is the prime structural material abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala – from bamboo to teak. Perhaps the skillful choice of timber, accurate joinery, artful assembly and delicate carving of wood work for columns, walls and roofs frames are the unique characteristics of Kerala architecture. Clay was used in many forms – for walling, in filling the timber floors and making bricks and tiles after pugging and tempering with admixtures. Palm leaves were used effectively for thatching the roofs and for making partition walls. From the limitations of the materials, a mixed mode of construction was evolved in Kerala architecture. The stone work was restricted to the plinth even in important buildings such as temples. Laterite was used for walls. The roof structure in timber was covered with palm leaf thatching for most buildings and rarely with tiles for palaces or temples. The exterior of the laterite walls were either left as such or plastered with lime mortar to serve as the base for mural painting. The sculpturing of the stone was mainly molding in horizontal bands in the plinth portion (adhistans) whereas the carving of timber covered all elements _ pillars, beams, ceiling, rafters and the supporting brackets. The Kerala murals are paintings with vegetable dyes on wet walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of the available raw materials and their transformation as enduring media for architectural expression thus became the dominant feature of the Kerala style

FIG. 3.15/3.16_STONE PLINTH IN KERAITE TEMPLE/ PALM TREES

30 vernacular architecture of Kerala

CASE STUDY : PERUVANAM TEMPLE 3.2.1 PROFILE The Peruvanam temple is at Cherpu comprised in Oorakam village of Thrissur taluk in Thrissur District. It is located about 10km south of Thrissur town on the Thrprayar route, near Thayamkulangara bus stop, at a distance of 100 meters south.

FIG. 3.17_THE SHIVA TEMPLE AT PERUVANAM, SINCE 12TH CENTURY. ONLY THE TOP OCTAGONAL ROOF (SHIKARA) IS COVERED WITH COPPER AND THE OTHERS ARE TILED. A TEMPLE PRECINCT (USUALLY RECTANGULAR) IS ENCLOSED WITH WALLS CALLED NALAMBALAM.

3.2.2 TEMPLE LAYOUT, STRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE

FIG. 3.18_WESTERN FAÇADE OF PERUVANAM

The temple stands on a sprawling 7 acre ground surrounded by a tall and hefty compound wall. The mathilakam (the bounding enclosure) is very extensive and has two dvarasalas, at west and east, the latter in ruins. Some 10-15 Aswatha trees punctuate the temple grounds with their wide spreading canopies.

31 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.19_BALIKKALS

As one enters the western dvarasala, the make-shift Koothambalam on an old foundation is seen in front of the Naalambalam. There are two Balikkals (of 2 mt height) in front of the naalambalam coinciding with the axis of the two shrikovils, that of Eratttayappan on the north and that of Maadathilappan on the south. Of these the Erattayappan shrine is raised on a circular base (14.33 mt diameter). It is an ekatala vimana built on a granite adhishtana .

FIG. 3.20/21_CIRCULAR SRIKOVIL AND DWARPALA ON SNAKE MOTIF

There are two dvarapalakas on either side of the Shrikovil entry, standing on the coils of a snake. One of the legs entwines the club and the other rests on the hood of the snake. The coil of the snake in turn is placed on a lotus seat. The garbha-grha is square in shape enclosed by the circular shrikovil. Two rows of pillars - the inner row having twelve and the outer row sixteen - have been arranged around the square sanctum.

FIG. 3.22_CARVINGS ON LATERITE STONE AT PERUVANAM

The superstructure (bhithi) is made of laterite blocks, duly plastered and decorated with Kudya stambhas, niches etc. A recessed mukhamandapa exists, at the top of the flight of steps in the Sopana, with a free-standing pillar facade and shrine door proper at the rear wall. The idol consists of two lingas, contributing to the concept of Erattayappan, the lord in the double, signifying Ardhanareeswara to some and Shankaranarayana to others. The Sopana is having lateral steps meeting at a common landing, screened by a carved phalaka in front of the western entrance to the Shrikovil. 32 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.23_VIEW OF TWO DOORS TO PERUVANAM FROM WESTERN FACADE

There are three functional openings and a ghanadvara (dummy door) in the circular ground plan. Apart from the Shrikovil entry on the west, those in the south and east accommodate Dakshinamoorthy and Parvathy respectively. The ghanadvara is on the north, just above the pranala, which is supported on a bhuta-gana figure in the pose of drinking lustra water from a bowl.

There is a spacious namaskara mandapa in front of the circular Shrikovil, built on a square plan. As in all traditional swastika mandapas, there are twelve pillars along the periphery with four numbers larger ornamented pillars inside the mandapa. Its pyramidal roof, like the conical roof of the main shrine, is covered with copper sheets. Beautiful wood carvings adorn the mandapa ceiling as well as the pillars.

FIG. 3.24/25_VIEW OF NAMASKARA MANDAPA ADJACENT TO CIRCULAR SRIKOVIL AND PRESERVED TREES WITHIN THE TEMPLE PREMISES

FIG. 3.26_WOODEN CARVINGS ON WALLS AND DOORS OF PERUVANAM

The southern side of the shrikovil has Kiratham katha engraved in wood, starting from Parvathi's shrine. Another woodwork which is worth mentioning is that of Garuda swallowing Jeemoothavahana and that of Dakshinamoorthy.

33 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 3.28_DETAIL OF TRI-TALA VIMANA

1ST TIER : TALA/MUKHMANDPPA 2ND TIER : DVI TALA/SQUARE SHRINE 3RD TIER : TRITALA/CIRCULAR SHRINE AND VIMANA

To the south of the Erattayappan shrine is the Maadathilappan shrine, facing west. It is a tritala-vimana (one of the earliest in Kerala, the others being the ruined one at Uliyannur and the one at Parambu Tali) built on a high podium and approached by long flight of steps. Two lateral flights of nine steps (one each in the north and south direction) meet at a common mid landing from where ascends the middle flight of fifteen steps in an easterly direction towards the shrikovil. The ground tala (floor) constitutes the plinth with the shrine on the upper tala (first floor). The ground as well as the upper tala are plastered over with pilasters and panjaras. Wall decorations include ghanadvaras in the centre, kudyastambhas (ornamental pilasters) and false niches with panjaras. Pilasters are tetragonal in the lower half and octogonal in the upper with potikas or bevelled projections on top. The pranala at the first floor level is a plain one without any ornamentation and FIG. 3.27_VIEW OF TRI-TALA-VIMANA – 3 FLOOR SHRINE issues out on the northern side. Axially, the plan of the first tala consists of a square shrine integrated with a narrow, pillared mukhamandapa in front. The garbha-grha, which is circular inside has a domical roof. Above the first story of the shrikovil, rise in succession the dvitala and tri-tala parts of the vimana. But for the octagonal shikhara with copper roofing, all the floors are made of tiles; in the upper talas, wood has been used profusely with shukanasa projections. There is no namaskara mandapa in front of the maadathilappan shrine. A small Nandi is seen placed on the midlanding.

34 vernacular architecture of Kerala

3.3 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 3.3.1 THEORY BREIF By tenth century, the theory and practice of domestic architecture were codified in books such as Manushyalaya Chandrika and Vastu vidya. This attempt standardized the house construction suited to different socio-economic groups and strengthens the construction tradition among the craftsmen. The traditional craftsman, specially carpenters, preserved the knowledge by rigidly following the canonical rules of proportions of different elements as well as the construction details to this day. Basically the domestic architecture of Kerala follows the style of detached building; row houses seen in other parts of India are neither mentioned in Kerala texts nor put up in practice except in settlements (sanketam) occupied by Tamil or Konkini Brahmans. In its most developed form the typical Kerala house is a courtyard type – NALUKETTU. The central courtyard is an outdoor living space which may house some object of cult worship such as a raised bed for tulssi or jasmine (mullathara). The four halls enclosing the courtyard, identical to the nalambalam of the temple, may be divided into several rooms for different activities such as cooking, dining, sleeping, studying, storage of grains etc. Depending on the size and importance of the household the building may have one or two upper storeys (malika) or further enclosed courtyard by repetition of the nalukettu to form ETTUKETTU (eight halled building) or a cluster of such courtyards. PHILOSPHY 'Sala' in Thatchusastra. (They face towards the East, the North, the West or the South) the edges of the house facing west such a construction is called South). 'Dhwamsyam‘ • The house that faces the East, may have extensions from the northern Dhwamsyam . Residents in 'dhwams' will suffer from loss of sons, torture from and southern edges, it becomes a house with three parts. This is called "Sukshetra'. enemies, and obstructions for everything such other ruins. • Prosperity will flourish if one lives in such a house. If a house is constructed facing the south and extensions are taken from the made it is called 'Hiranyanabhi'. • Living in such house bring in prosperity and wealth to the eastern and western edges, it becomes a house with three parts. This is called 'Chulli' as per Thatchusastra. inmates. Godliness will prevail always in such houses. Residents of such a house will suffer from loss of wealth, loss of children, diseases for kids increasing enemies etc kids, etc.

35 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

•

•

•

•

By tenth century, the theory and practice of domestic architecture were codified in books such as Manushyalaya Chandrika and Vastu vidya. This attempt standardized the house construction suited to different socio-economic groups and strengthen the construction tradition among the craftsmen. The traditional craftsman, carpenters, preserved the knowledge by rigidly following the rules of proportions of different elements as well as the construction details to this day. Basically the domestic architecture of Kerala follows the style of detached building; In its most developed form the typical kerala house is a courtyard type NALUKETTU. The central courtyard is an outdoor living space which may house some object of cult worship such as a raised bed for tulssi or jasmine (mullathara). The four halls enclosing the courtyard, identical to the nalambalam of the temple, may be divided into several rooms for different activities such as cooking, dinning, sleeping, studying, storage of grains etc. Depending on the size and importance of the household the building may have one or two upper storeys (malika) or further enclosed courtyard by repetition of the nalukettu to form ettukettu (eight halled building) or a cluster of such courtyards. The nalukettu is the principal structure of a garden compound. The garden may contain cattle sheds, bathing tanks, wells, farm buildings, grain stores etc., as ancillary structures, the whole being protected with a compound wall or fence. wherein the site (vastu) was divided into a number of grids (padam) occupied by different deities (devatha) and appropriate grids were chosen to house the suspicious structures. The site planning and building design was done by learned stapathis (master builders) who synthesized the technical matters with astrological and mystical sciences. Nalukettu type buildings are also seen in many villages and towns, occupied by prominent people. The humbler buildings of the population are however smaller and simpler in form but basically derived from the nalukettu. Nalukettu is a combination of four halls along four cardinal directions, centered around the courtyard oranganam one may build any one of the four halls (ekasala), a combination of two (dwisala) or a complex of three (thrisala) depending on the needs. The most commonly found type in Kerala is the ekasala facing east or north. Being located on the western and southern sides of the anganam they are referred as western hall (padinjattini) and southern hall (thekkini) respectively The core unit of ekasala consists of generally three rooms connected to a front passage. The central room is used as prayer room and grain store and the two side rooms are used as living rooms. The core unit may be raised to an upper storey with a steep stair located in the front passage. The building may also be extended horizontally on all the four sides adding alindams or side rooms for activities such as cooking, dining, additional sleeping rooms, front hall for receiving guests etc. If needed ekasala may also be provided with ancillary buildings for cattle keeping, barn, bathing rooms near tanks, outhouse for guests, gate house etc. By such extension the building may become much larger than a nalukettu in space, but it is still categorized as ekasala with reference to its core unit.

36 vernacular architecture of Kerala

There are numerous buildings of the nalukettu type in different parts of Kerala, though many of them are in a poor state of maintenance. Changing socio-economic conditions have split up the joint-family system centered around the large nalukettu. The Kailasa mandiram at Kottakkal belonging to the Arya Vaidyasala is a standing example of a three storeyed nalukettu complex. Of the best preserved examples of this type are Mattancherry palace at Kochi and the taikottaram of the Padmanabhapuram palace near Kanyakumari. The Mattancherry palace standing in the panorama of backwaters on the east was built in 1557 for the use of Kochi Maharajas, originally as a gift from Portuguese. Later it has undergone extensive repair by the Dutch. The double storeyed building follows the nalukettu plan with a courtyard in the centre housing a Bhagavathi temple. The different wings of the palace in the upper storey contain the coronation hall, council halls and bed chambers of kings and ladies. The lower storey has many small rooms apart from the kitchen and the dining hall. An important feature of the palace is the exquisite wood work of the ceiling and fine murals on the walls. The ceiling work include a grid of wooden joints well proportioned and precision moulded with beautifully carved panels. The murals in subdued brownish tints were executed on wet wall plaster depicting themes from Ramayana, Bhagavatham and Kumarasambhavam of Kalidasa.

FIG. 3.29_MODEL OF A TYPICAL OF NALAKETTU

The Padmanabhapuram palace consists of a complex of buildings including the entrance hall, council chambers, temple and dance halls done in various periods. But the earliest structure of this group is the taikottaram _ which is a fine example of the old nalukettu. Being of an earlier period, this shows the concept of the courtyard building in its purest traditional form.

37 vernacular architecture of Kerala

NALAKETTU Nālukettu is the traditional homestead of Tharavadu where many generations of a matrilineal family lived. These types of buildings are typically found in the Indian state of Kerala. The traditional architecture is typically a rectangular structure where four blocks are joined together with a central courtyard open to the sky. The four halls on the sides are named Vadakkini (northern block), Padinjattini (western block), Kizhakkini (eastern block) and Thekkini (southern block). The architecture was especially catered to large families of the traditional tharavadu, to live under one roof and enjoy the commonly owned facilities of the marumakkathayam homestead.

FIG. 3.29_PLAN AND ELEVATION OF NALAKETTU

If all the four structures above are joined as one house it is called a 'Nalukettu‘.  Among them at the middle of the padnijatini, there will be the pooja muri(place of worship) and 'nellara' (room for keeping paddy).  On both the sides there will be two bed rooms Thekkini and kizhakkini are meant receiving The guests.  Vadakkini is for cooking and dinning. (Kitchen and dining room)  In the middle of the structure there will be the central yard which wil be in a rectangular shape. 'Nadumuttam' (central yard) will be usefull for getting light and air into the house.  Moreover there will be an underground cave for flowing cut the rain water that falls in the 'Nadumuttam'.  An 'Ettukettu' is that which is joined by two 'nalukettu's. An 'Ettuketu' will have two nadumuttam‘s.

38 vernacular architecture of Kerala

3.3.2 CONCEPT Metaphysical aspects: Vaastu shashtra •The Vaastu shashtra is the ancient Indian treatise that sets forth principles on how the laws of nature impact human settlements. •The mandala was regarded as the representation of the cosmos and the house was also considered sacred. If its planning was in sync with the forces of nature it would result in overall harmony and prosperity. •The mandala is the graphical diagram on the basis of which the houses and even cities were planned. •The Vaastu Purusha Mandala It represents the metaphysical plan of a building; it incorporates the supernatural forces. The central space is always an open to sky courtyard providing the connect to outer space. Various deities/5 elements (air, water, earth etc.) govern different squares of the mandala and impart their characteristics to these spaces.

39 FIG. 3.30_VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA

vernacular architecture of Kerala

Thatchu Shasthra, or the Science of Carpentry and traditional Vasthu, was the governing science in this architectural form. This branch of knowledge was well developed in the traditional architecture of Kerala and has created its own branch of literature known under the names of Tantrasamuchaya, Vastuvidya, Manushyalaya Chandrika, and Silparatna.  Planning cities using the mandala: •The idea of planning based on the mandala was even extended to city planning. The city of Jaipur is also based upon a 9 squares mandala. •It was planned in the 1700s •However it encompassed the natural features, topography as well as other functional aspects like military needs, existing infrastructure etc. and modified the grid to respond to the topography.

 Mandala zones: •Functions are assigned to different spaces: •Corners: Northeast for the home shrine, southeast for the kitchen, southwest for the master bedroom and northwest for the cowshed, grain storage. •The spaces lying between the corners are for multi purpose use.

FIG. 3.30_VASTU PURUSHA MANDALA

Vastu shastra is an ancient concept & the laws of nature to affect human dwellings. • The designs are based on directional alignments. It is primarily applied in Hindu architecture, especially for Hindu temples. • The foundation of Vastu is traditionally ascribed to the mythical sage Mamuni Mayan in South and Vishvakarman in North India. • While Vastu had long been essentially restricted to temple architecture, there has been a revival of it in India, in recent decades, notably under the influence of late V. Ganapati Sthapati, who has been campaigning for a restoration of the tradition in modern Indian society since the 1960s. • While the fields are related, Shilpa Shastra explicitly deal with sculpture – forms, statues, icons, stone murals etc. • The doctrine of Vastu Shastra is concerned primarily with architecture – building 40 houses forts temples apartments and other houses, forts, temples, buildings. vernacular architecture of Kerala

VAASTU SHASTRA is an ancient science which helps to get the natural benefits freely offered by the five basic elements of the universe. These basic elements are Akash (SKY), Prithvi (EARTH), Paani (WATER), Agni (FIRE), and Vayu (WIND). Vastu Shastra can be applied by keeping in harmony with these basic five elements of nature..Vastu refers to 'abode' or mansion and Shastra or Vidya means science or knowledge. Vastu Vidya is the sacred holistic science pertaining to designing and building of houses.The principles of vastu have been derived from Sthapathya Veda- one of the ancient sacred books in Hinduism. VASTU SHASTRA texts prescribe the dimensions of different house types suitable for different classes. They also give the proportional system of measurements for different parts of the building all based on the perimeter (chuttu) of the core unit. The scientific basis of this dimensional system is yet to be enquired by modern studies; however the system appears to be well founded on traditional computational methods and rigidly adhered to all sizes of buildings. All over Kerala and specially in villages where the building activity is still carried out under the control of traditional stapathis, the system is still a living practice, though it has started disappearing under the impact of 'modern architecture'. The ancient relics say that Vaastu is based on two forces "positive“ and "negative" which are constantly interacting with each other on the surface of the land. These forces would get disturbed whenever any structure is erected on a vacant land, to maintain a balance. If there are more positive energies (forces) than the negative energies, the result of such a construction would yield more benefits to the inmates leading to a more successful, healthy, wealthy and peaceful life, contrary to this if the negative energies dominate the premises the effects could be negative. As per ‘Thatchusastra’ the Earth is called ‘Vasthu’.

FIG. 3.31_PARTS OF MANDALA AND THEIR ELEMENTS

41

vernacular architecture of Kerala

3.3.3 CASE STUDY OF TYPICAL KERALITE HOUSE SELECTION OF PLACE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSE Place where the house has to be built is first selected. In a larger plot, Plot has to be divided into four equal parts and the North eastern part of the divided parts is taken for construction of the house House is preferably built facing East and other options are considered only if there is no road or access to the plot from the east. Other options of front of the house are North, West and South in that order. PADIPPURA • part of Compound wall for the house with a tiled roof on top. • It is the formal entry to the compound with the house.

TRADITIOL PADIPPURA

POOMUKHAM

POOMUKHAM • It is the prime portico soon after steps to the house. Traditionally it has a slope tiled roof with pillars supporting roof. Sides are open. • In the earlier days, the Head of the family called Karanavar used to sit here in a reclining chair with thuppal kolambi (Spittoon) by the side of chair. CHUTTU VERANDAH • either side in front of the house through open passage called Chuttu Verandah. • It has hanging lights in equal distance hanging from its slope roof.

CHUTTU VERANDAH

CHARUPADY

CHARUPADY • By the side of Chuttu verandah and Poomukham, wooden benches with carved decorative resting wooden pieces for resting the back are provided. • This is called Charupady. Traditionally the family members or visitors used to sit 42 on these Charupady to talk. vernacular architecture of Kerala

AMBAL KULAM (POND) • At the end of Chuttu verandah there used to be a small pond built with rubble on sides where water living plant called Thamara (lotus) or Ambal used to be planted . BATHING TANKS(KULAM) • Almost every house has its own Bathing Tank (Kulam) and hall at the entrance of tank

POOJAMURI NADUKATTILA • The best spot for 'poojamuri' is in the east coner. • usually the position for poojamuri is fixed in the arapurra (central store house for paddy and other riches) or East must also face the East. closer to the arappura towards the centre. • The room for worship should not bloacated under any staircase as it is a bad omen & a call for misfortune

NADUKATTILA • The spot for the central door frame (Nadukattila) for a house facing the east. • Azhiyakam (the room with wooden ventilator) adds to the functional and architectural value NADUMUTTOM • Traditionally Nadumuttom or central open courtyard is the prime center • Nadumuttom will be normally open to sky, allowing sunshine and rains the Nalukettu. • There is an open area usually square shaped in the exact middle of the house to pour in. • This is to allow natural energies to circulate within the house and allow dividing the house in its four sides. • Due to this four side division of the house by having a Nadumuttom Houses positive vibrance within. • A thulsi or tree will be normally Nadumuttom, planted in center of Nadumuttom, which is used to worship. • Architecturally the logic is allow tree to act as a natural air purifier. 43 vernacular architecture of Kerala

•

Similarly there was Ettu kettu and Pathinaru kettu which are quite rare with two and four Nadumuttom a house with one Nadumuttom used to be called as Nalukettu house.

• •

The outer verandahs along the four sides of the Nalukettu are enclosed differently. While both the western and eastern verandahs are left open, the northern and southern verandahs are enclosed or semi-enclosed. The courtyard created at the centre by these four halls is auspicious and is called NADUMUTTOM/ANAKANAM. As the Ankanam is usually sunk it is also called Kuzhi(pit)-Ankanam The inner verandah around the Ankanam is open. The protruding roofs of the four halls formed shady verandas and protected the rooms from direct sunlight, keeping them cool even on the hottest of days.

• • • •

NADUMUTTAM WITH TULSI PLANT IN CENTRE JASMINE PLATFORM (MULLATHARA), AN INTEGRAL PART OF NADUMUTTAM

44 vernacular architecture of Kerala

SNAKE-MOUND PAAMBUMPUTTU) IN NADUMUTTAM

FIG. 3.32_PLAN OF KERALITE RESIDENCE

45 vernacular architecture of Kerala

Usual items of use in old Kerala houses a)

Aattu Kattil-It is a swinging piece of wood, wide and long enough for two or three persons to sit. Four corners of this wooden piece will be firmly fixed with thick coir to the roof. One or two people will sit and somebody will push it for swinging. It is used to be fixed in large living rooms in old houses In present day houses also, people who like this feature fix it mostly in family living area where family members can sit and swing in this as part of relaxation

b) Kindy-It is a brass utensil filled with water used to be kept at the steps of Poomukham for cleaning feet of those who enter the house. It has a side opening just like a tap so that a person can easily use it to clean his feet before entering the house In present day houses, probably you can see this as an antique item displayed and nothing more than that c) Montha-It is similar to Kindy made of brass. Only difference is that it has a wide opening at top and side tap like arrangement for pouring water is not there. It is not kept at the entry. It is kept inside the house for storage of drinking water; milk etc. While milking the cow by the house wife Montha was used to collect milk pressed out of the mammary of the cow d) Uruly-It is a larger vessel to cook food for large gatherings and to keep cooked food stored. Usually made of brass. e) Arakallu-Grinding stones-It is two pair of stones, one large with a level top and tne other round in cross section with length less than width of the base stone. It is used for manual grinding of spices and coconut for preparing curries with the main meal, rice f) Ural-This is a granite piece almost cylindrical in shape with an opening at top which has a central portion with slight depth to keep granules to be crushed with a long piece of wood normally that of coconut wood with two ends fixed with metallic crushing elements. This long piece of wood used to crush granules to powder by repeated crushing through forcing by hand up and down by women doing house hold work in olden days Kerala, is called Ulakka.It was a familiar sight in Kerala houses where many women used to chit chat and crush granules to powder in their respective Urals using Ulakka 46 vernacular architecture of Kerala

4.0 COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS • • • • •

vernacular construction in Kerala are mud, laterite and granite stone blocks, lime mortar, wood, bamboo, clay roofing tile and coconut palm leaves. Though granite stone is a strong and durable building material, due to its limited Availability mostly to the highlands, the use of granite is limited to the foundation of buildings. Clay was used in many forms - for walling, in filling the timber floors and making bricks and tiles. Palm leaves were used effectively for thatching the roofs and for making partition walls. Laterite stones and timber are the most common material.

LATERITE • Soft laterite stones are available in most parts of the state, at relatively low depths. These are quarried and dressed for building the walls. • Laterite stones, called 'Vettukallu' in local language, is abundant in the midlands of Kerala. These are relatively soft stones that could be dressed and cut with ease. • Laterite stones improve in strength as they are exposed to sun and moisture. This unique quality makes laterite a material of choice for construction. Timber • it is found so abundant in the state, is the other most important structural element used in kerala. • Large number of rivers and water bodies made it easy to transport huge trees from the hilly regions of the state to the plains. • The elements are dressed and accurately cut on the ground and joined to form the • wooden roof frame, on which then the tiles are spread. • The local artisans use elaborate systems to ensure absolute accuracy in woodwork without which framing the roof structure would be impossible. • Timber is the prime structural material abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala – from bamboo to teak. • Perhaps the skilful choice of timber, accurate joinery, artful assembly and delicate carving of wood work for columns, walls and roofs frames are the unique characteristics of Kerala architecture.

FIG. 4.1_CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS USED COMMONLY IN KERALA

47 vernacular architecture of Kerala

From the limitations of the materials, a mixed mode of construction was evolved in Kerala architecture. The stone work was restricted to the plinth even in important buildings such as temples. Laterite was used for walls. The roof structure in timber was covered with palm leaf thatching for most buildings and rarely with tiles for palaces or temples. The exterior of the laterite walls were either left as such or plastered with lime mortar to serve as the base for mural painting. The sculpturing of the stone was mainly molding in horizontal bands in the plinth portion (adhistans) whereas the carving of timber covered all elements _ pillars, beams, ceiling, rafters and the supporting brackets. The Kerala murals are paintings with vegetable dyes on wet walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of the available raw materials and their transformation as enduring media for architectural expression thus became the dominant feature of the Kerala style.

FIG. 4.2- COLOR FUL MURALS / USES OF TIMBER/METAL/CLAY IN KERALITE RESIDENCE

Even today this wood work and carving work is used in high cost houses being built in Kerala with all the beauty and splendor of yester years. Some of the wood work now being used can be classified into following types: • Charupady for sit out and balcony. • Wood paneling of wall on either side of main door which can be opened as two parts to either side with carving work and possibly with pictorial lock like manichitrathazhu. • Wood paneling for round pillars inside the house • Wooden flooring • Wood paneling with top carving work • Stair case posts with carving • Wood carved Mukhappu above tiled sloperoof • Wood carved Thoomanam • Aattu Kattil

48 vernacular architecture of Kerala

5.0

CASE STUDY

PADMANABHAPURAM PALACE The quite essential example of the vernacular architecture of Kerala is the Padmanabhapuram palace complex, located in Thuckalay of Tamilnadu, very adjacent to the Kerala border. Founded by the royal family of Travancore, the initial structures of the complex date from 1400s, with other buildings added incrementally over time. It is one of the best examples of wooden architecture that has come to symbolise the vernacular architecture of Kerala. The palace complex is a masterpiece - an intriguing play of volumes, scale, spatial planning & courtyards, all of which have a strong underlying cohesiveness. The spaces move from the public spaces on the periphery to the more private spaces as one moves towards the core, reflected through variations in scale & proportion, producing very interesting spaces

FIG. 5.1/5.2_VIEW OF PADAMNABHAPURAM PALACE / PADIPURAM OF PALACE

The entrance to the complex is from the west, through a formal version of the ‘Padipura’ or the entrance gate, which is common in all the traditional dwellings of Kerala. The central locus of the entire composition is the Mother’s palace or the ‘Thai Kottaram’, around which all the other spaces are organised. There are separate halls for audiences & gatherings, a large dance hall, feeding halls of various sizes, kitchen, residences for the king & other dignitaries, weapons store, bath houses, offices and even a temple. There is also a 4 storeyed ‘Upprika Malika’ in the complex, constructed in the 1740s, which is a testament to the technological progress at that time. A 300 year old clock tower in the palace stands witness to the march of time and is still now in good working condition. Though there is no formal symmetrical spatial layout to be found as such, there lies a strong organisation principle, which creates a very coherent & unifying whole. The various built spaces are interlinked & accessed through a series of courtyards & open spaces which vary volumetrically & in scale depending upon the level of privacy required, most often, being very intimate in nature. 49 vernacular architecture of Kerala

The roof forms are the most dominating element in the whole complex, which through their wonderful juxtaposition creates an impressive visual composition – an ever changing play of light, shadow & mass. The columns are mainly in wood & stone and support the wooden roof structure, which has been designed very creatively to be functional as well as aesthetic. There are strict rules & canons laid down in the ancient building science of Vastu Shastra, regarding the use of wood, techniques of joints, angles of roof forms etc, which have been religiously followed over the various periods during which the complex was built. The overall effect of this being that there exist cohesiveness throughout the structures, rendering them timeless.

FIG. 5.3_ VIEW OF TILED ROOF FROM INSIDE WITH WOODEN RAFTERS AND JAALIS AND OUTSIDE WITH CLAY TILES

The walls are usually made in laterite or brick & plastered over with lime. There are non-structural wooden screens called jaalis, which have the function of allowing in light & ventilation while ensuring the privacy of the person inside. The filtered light creates a dramatic play of light & shadow in the interiors and ensures a very cool & comfortable ambience inside, away from the blazing sun. The shaded interiors are cool, which is a direct derivative of the climatological need to counter the warm humid tropical climate. 50

vernacular architecture of Kerala

Indeed, one of the most significant aspects of the design is the sensitive handling of the light & shadows to create a wholesome comfortable ambience inside, one that focuses inside, calming, soothing & contemplating The flooring is unique and is black in colour, retaining a mirror like polish even now after so many centuries. It is said that the flooring was done using a mixture of different structures like burnt coconut shells, egg whites, plant juices etc.

FIG. 5.4_ VIEW OF BLACK MIRROR LIKE FLOOR, WOODEN JALLIS AND NATAKSHALA OR NAVRATRI MANDAPPAM

The walls are usually made in laterite or brick & plastered over with lime. There are non-structural wooden screens called jaalis, which have the function of allowing in light & ventilation while ensuring the privacy of the person inside. The filtered light creates a dramatic play of light & shadow in the interiors and ensures a very cool & comfortable ambience inside, away from the blazing sun. The shaded interiors are cool, which is a direct derivative of the climatological need to counter the warm humid tropical climate. Indeed, one of the most significant aspects of the design is the sensitive handling of the light & shadows to create a wholesome comfortable ambience inside, one that focuses inside, calming, soothing & contemplating. 51 vernacular architecture of Kerala

Important buildings in the palace include: MANTRASALA THAI KOTTARAM

– King’s Council Chamber – Mother Palace (also known as Darbha Kulangara Kottaram) The Thai Kottaram is the oldest part of the palace.It was built during the reign of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara perumal, 1592 – 1620 CE.A secret tunnel over one kilometer long from this building provided the royal family with an escape route in times of war. NATAKSALA – The Hall of Performance, or of Performing Arts. UPPARIKA MALIKA – The King’s Quarters — a four-story building at the center of the palace complex containing the King’s Treasury, sleeping quarters, resting and study rooms, and the top floor serving as the worship chamber of the royal household. Martanda Verma built the King’s Quarters in 1744 A.D. THEKE KOTTARAM – The Southern Palace, A ceremonial feasting hall, which can host around 1000 guests.

FIG. 5.4_ INTRICATE WOODEN CARVINGS ON CEILING AND COLUMNS / KING’S PALKI

52 vernacular architecture of Kerala

FIG. 5.5_ VIEW OF BLACK MIRROR LIKE FLOOR, WOODEN JALLIS AND NATAKSHALA OR NAVRATRI MANDAPPAM

• •

PADAMANABHAPURAM PALACE Represents the most classic Kerala domestic architecture. It is also the world's largest wooden palace made on sloping roofs, granite and rosewood teak wood work combinations.

FIG. 5.6_ 1.VIEW OF UPMALIKAS/2.VIEW OF MANTRISHALA/3. VIEW OF EKANTA MANDAPAM/4. INTERIOR OF UPMALIKA-THE SMALL LATTICE WINDOWS/ 5. NATAKSHALA/ 6. NAVRATRA MANDAPAM / 7. CEREMONIAL DINING HALL- OOTAPURA / 7. WOODEN ORNAMENTATION ON STRUCTURAL WOOD : TEAK , SANDAL AND ROSE WOOD.

53 vernacular architecture of Kerala

Indeed, the Padmanabhapuram palace, with its amazing vocabulary of sloped tiled roofs, intricate jaali works, mysterious corridors, intimate courtyards, amazing woodwork, play of light and shadow, comfortable interior spaces etc, is a timeless architectural marvel and is a stark reminder to us of our rich tradition of innovativeness, respect to nature and search for perfection. The graceful simplicity of the complex stands as a dignified beacon, a reminder of what we should strive for in these times of mindless architectural gimmicks.

FIG. 5.7_DETAILED PLAN OF PADAMANABHAPURAM PALACE/ SITE SECTION/ SITE PLAN/ TERRACE PLAN SHWING SLOPING ROOFS

54 vernacular architecture of Kerala

55 FIG. 5.8_AXONOMETRIC OF PADAMANABHAPURAM PALACE

vernacular architecture of Kerala

6.0

CONCLUSION

Socio-cultural aspects of Kerala with is impact of climate and geography developed its architecture. The art which is close to its tradition. GOD’S OWN COUNTRY!!.... • The evolution of domestic architecture of Kerala followed closely the trend of development in temple architecture. The primitive models were huts made of bamboo frame thatched with leaves in circular, square or rectangular plain shapes. • The rectangular shape with a hipped roof appears to have been finally evolved from functional consideration. • Structurally the roof frame was supported on the pillars on walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground for protection against dampness and insects in the tropical climate. • Often the walls were also of timbers abundantly available in the land. The roof frame consisted of the Bessemer or wall plate which supported lower ends of the rafters, the upper ends being connected to the ridge. The weight of the rafters and the roof covering created a sage in the ridge when the ridge piece was made of flexible materials like bamboo. This sage however remained as the hall-mark of roof construction even when strong timber was used for the roof frame. • Further gable windows were evolved at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when ceiling was incorporated for the room spaces. This ensured air circulation and thermal control for the roof. • The lower ends of the rafters projected much beyond the walls to shade the walls from the sun and driving rain. This gives an intense feel to house being shorter in ht. and close to earth or vaastu /site. The closed form of the Kerala houses was thus gradually evolved from technical considerations. One can see the striking similarity of this form with the temple structure. • The plinth, the lower most part is still called adisthana, though it is plain or less ornate. The sthambas or pillars and bhithis or walls are again of simple shape with no projection or recesses. The main door faces only in one cardinal direction and the windows are small and are made like pierced screens of wood. • The rectangular plan is usually divided into two or three activity rooms with access from a front passage. This passage opens to a highly ornamented opening called as POOMUKHAM which can be related to gopurams of temple architecture-the main entrance to house. • The projecting caves cover a verandah all round. Since people had larger families in older times so they planned and informal seating for people to gather and celebrate times together in the outer verandah as CHUTTUPADY. • An entrance structure PADIPPURA may also be constructed like the gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or occasional visitors who are not entertained in the main house. The position and sizes of various buildings, including the location of trees and paths within the compound wall were to be decided from the analysis of the site according to the prescriptions in the classic 56 texts. This analysis involved the concept of vastupurusha mandala. vernacular architecture of Kerala

7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY www.KERALA/Architecture.htm www.Architecture/Kerala/Wikipedia/encyclopedia.htm www.vernacular/KeralaWikipedia.encyclopedia.htm www.vernacular/ArchitectureKeralaTemples.htm www.vernacular/PradakshinaPeruvanam.htm www.vernacular/KERALAArchitecture.htm PDF-264 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 03, July 2009, pp. 264-271

57 vernacular architecture of Kerala