Indian Geography

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD Continent Asia Europe South America Africa North America Oceania

DEMOGRAPHY: Density person/sq. km 108 101 21 20 14 3

Urbanization by Continents: SN Continent 1. South America 2. Europe 3. North America

S.no 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Country Russia Canada United States China Brazil Australia India Argentina Kazakhstan Sudan

Urbanization 78 74 68

Top 20 Countries by Area Area (lakh sq km) S. N Country 170 11. Algeria 99 12. Dem. Rep of Congo 96 13. Mexico 95 14. Saudi Arabia 85 15. Indonesia 76 16. Libya 32 17. Iran 27 18. Mongolia 27 19. Peru 25 20. Chad

S.N

Country

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

China India United States Indonesia Brazil Pakistan Bangladesh Russia Nigeria Japan Mexico Philippines Vietnam

Worlds Most Populous Countries Population S.N Country in million 1,306 14 Germany 1,080 15 Egypt 295 16 Ethiopia 241 17 Turkey 186 18 Iran 162 19 Thailand 144 20 France 143 21 United Kingdom 128 22 Dem. Rep of Congo 127 23 Italy 106 24 Korea, South 87 25 Ukraine 83

1

Area (lakh sq km) 23 23 19 19 19 17 16 15 12 12

Population In Million 82 77 73 69 68 65 60 60 60 58 48 47

Ghanshyam Thori

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

Geography Notes

Contributions of Important Geographers Megalopolis concept Jean Gottman Conurbation Concept, Wrote ‘Cities in Evolution’ Patrick Geddes Polar Front Theory J. Bjerknes Anticyclone term Sir Francis Galton Equilibrium Theory of tides Issac Newton Dynamic Theory of Tides Laplace Progressive Wave Theory William Whewell Canal Theory G. B. Airy Stationary Wave Theory of Tides R. A. Harris Process of Precipitation Bergeron First used the term Ecology Tansley Father of Ecology Haeckel First used the term plate J. T Wilson Coined the term Antecedent Stream J. W. Powell Classification of clouds Luke Howard Ice crystal Theory Tor Bergeron Collision-Coalesce Theory George Simpson & Mason Glacial Control Theory of Coral reef formation Daly Subsidence Theory of Coral reef formation Darwin Stand Still Theory of Coral reef Murray Concept of grade G.K. Gilbert Law of Stream number/Length R. E. Horton Location Allocation Models P. Haggett Law of Retail Gravitation W.J. Reilly Concept of Threshold & Range B.J.L. Berry Introduced the concept of Possibilism Lucien Febvre Coined “Areal Differentiation” Hartshorne General System Theory Ludwig von Bertalanffy Developed Hythergraph G. Taylor Polyconic Projection Ferdinand Hessler Globular projection S.J. Fournier

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Graphite Gold Platinum Chromium Diamond Zinc Uranium Nickel Coal Steel Iron Ore

Minerals & Their Largest Producers Madagascar South Africa, Australia South Africa, Canada. South Africa, Russia South Africa, Republic of Congo & Australia Canada, Australia Canada, USA, Australia, Niger, France, South Africa Canada, Russia, Australia, USA. China, USA, India, Russia China China, Brazil, Australia.

2

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

Cement Manganese Paper Hydro Power Tungsten Asbestos Natural Gas Flax Tantalum Bauxite Lead Cadmium Antimony Uranium (Reser.) Zirconium Titanium (Rutile) Iron Copper Tin Silver Mercury Sulphur Rock Phosphate

China China, South Africa, Australia. Canada Canada, USA, (Norway highest %age User) China, Thailand, Korea Canada Russia, Zambia, Zimbabwe Russia, Canada, Algeria, Iran Russia Australia Australia, Guinea, Jamaica & Brazil. Australia, China, US Canada China Australia, Kazakhstan, Canada, South Africa Australia Brazil *Australia* China, Brazil, Australia Chile, United States, Canada, Armenia, Zambia, Zaire China, Indonesia, Peru, Brazil, Malaysia Mexico, Peru, Chile & Poland. Spain, China, Italy. Mexico, USA & Poland USA, Peru (Guano).

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Agricultural Commodities & Their Largest Producer Milk India Coffee Brazil, Vietnam Tobacco China, turkey Pork China Rice (export) Thailand, Vietnam Rice China, India Banana India, Brazil Banana (Export) Costa Rica, Jamaica, Honduras, Columbia Maize USA, China Wheat China Cork Portugal Palm Oil Malaysia Fresh Water Fish Russia Barley Germany, Canada, Russia, France Tea (Exporter) Sri Lanka Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia Paper USA Pulp (Export) Canada Paper (Export) Canada Sugar India, Brazil, Cuba Sugar (Export) Cuba

3

Ghanshyam Thori 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Oil Palm Oil Palm (import) Cotton Cotton (export) Mangoes Manila Hemp (Abaca) Raw Silk Tobacco Oranges Oats Millets Rye Sorghum Pulses Sugarcane Tea Dates Olives Wine (Exporter) Wine (Producer) Coconut Grapes Potato Soyabeens

Geography Notes Malaysia, Indonesia India China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan in that order. USA India Philippines (75%) China, Japan, India, Korea. China, USA, India USA, Brazil Russia India Russia USA India Brazil India, China Iran, Egypt Spain *Algeria* Italy, France Indonesia, Philippines, Italy, France China U.S.A, Brazil Sobriquets

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Island of Cloves Land of Lilies Land of Golden Fleece Port of Five Seas Island of Pearls Hermit Kingdom Land of Golden Pagoda City of Canals Holy Land Herring Pond City of Golden Gate City of dreaming Spires Land of Canals Empire city Land of Cakes Land of Eskimos Island of Pearls Granite City Garden of England Cockpit of Europe

Zanzibar Canada Australia Moscow Bahrain Korea Yangoon (Myanmar) Venice Palestine Atlantic Sand Francisco Oxford Netherlands New York Scotland Greenland Bahrain Aberdeen, Scotland Kent Belgium

4

Ghanshyam Thori 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Geography Notes

City of brotherly Love City of Magnificent Distances Gateway of tears Textile Capital of Russia Manchester of Japan Emerald City The pearl of the Antilles

Philadelphia Washington DC Bab-el-Mandab Ivanovo Osaka (Textile) Ireland Cuba

Highest Peaks In Various Regions/ Mountain Chain Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro North America Mt. McKinley Europe Mt. Elbrus Antarctica Mt. Vinson Asia Mt. Everest Oceania Mt. Carstensz South America Mt. Aconcagua Australia Mt. Kosciusko Urals Mt. Gora Naradnaya Alps Mt. Mont Blanc Andes Mt. Aconcagua Rockies Mt. Elbert Appalachians Mt. Mitchell South West Asia (Elbruz Chain) Mt. Demavand

Important Places/Regions & Their Locations Llanos Tropical Grasslands of Venezuela Campos Tropical grasslands of Brazil Iberian Peninsula Spain Katanga basin Democratic republic of Congo Canterbury Plain Largest lowland area of New Zealand Chaco / Gran Chaco Low, flat, arid region covering Argentina Paraguay & Bolivia. Kra Peninsula Malaysia Parana region Brazil –Largest producer of wheat, corn cotton Matto grosso Thick jungle in west central brazil north of Bolivia. Dogger bank Shallow fishing area in north sea, 100km off UK Grand bank Shallow fishing area off new foundland, Canada Georges bank Near bay of fundy & Gulf of Maine Nordic Countries Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark. Ob, Yenisey & Lena Major rivers of Russia Sarawak, Sabah, Labuan These three states make up east Malaysia. Yucatan Peninsula Mexico Ozark Plateau heavily forested upland region, between the Missouri and Arkansas rivers Sinai Peninsula In north eastern Egypt.

5

Ghanshyam Thori

S. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Geography Notes

Miscellaneous Data of Various Nations Country/ Urban Hydro Nuclear Thermal Region % Elect % % % Canada 75 60 USA 10 Britain 24 Italy 50 Norway 90 New Zealand 75 Switzerland 74 Japan 76 32 France 77 Lithuania 78 Germany 30 Australia 80 90 S. E. Asia 20 Russia 60

Forest % 25

Tribes of the World 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Kalmuks Kirghiz Gauchos Mestizos Ostyaks Pygmies Boro Semang Papuans Bushmen or San Bedouins Masai Kirghiz Saami or Lapps Yuti Chukchi Yakuts Aleut Yuit Inuit Samoyed Punan Afrikaner/Boer

Inhabit the Altai mountains & nearby areas - pastoral Occupy the Tien Shan & adjacent Pamirs Cowboys of the pampas of Argentina & Uruguay. People of mixed white & Indian parentage West Siberian tribe Congo basin – Zaire, Congo, Gabon. Amazon basin-sub group of red Indians. Malaysia New Guinea Kalahari – Namibia, Botswana, Angola Nomadic Arabs in Africa & Middle-East East Africa – Kenya, Uganda Central Asia. Muslim by faith Norway, Sweden, Finland – Also known as Laplanders Siberia Far Eastern Siberia Tundra region of Russia Aleutian Islands Siberia Greenland, Canada & Siberia West Siberia Borneo Dutch race in S. Africa

6

Ghanshyam Thori 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Geography Notes

Afridis Veddas Bantus Berbers Maori Bindibu Cossacks Magyar Croats Flemish Finns Hamites Hottentots/khoi khoi Kaffris Kikuyu Masuds Mestizos Amerinds Mulatto Moors Semites Tartar Zambas Zulus Akka Oromo or Galla Uygur Kubu Fulani/Fula Buryat Aeta Ainu Yanomamo

N. West Pakistan Racial stock of Sri Lanka Central & southern Africa – Swahili is Bantu derived language. Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia New Zealand Western Australia Russia around black & Caspian Sea Inhabitants of Hungary Croatia Belgium European Tundra N-W Africa – Dark skinned muslims Tropical Africa S. Africa – known as martial race Kenya’s most populous ethnic group Waziristan region, Pakistan People of mixed Indian & European blood in Latin America N. America – People of mixed European & Indian blood Mixed European & black blood in South America Mixed tribe of Arabs & Berber people of Morocco Jews & Ethiopians Turkic people of eastern Europe & central Asia People of African & Native American Indian in S. America People of Bantu family inhabiting South Africa Democratic republic of Congo African people of hamitic origin in Ethiopia & Kenya Turkic people inhabiting N-W china & Kazakhstan. Inhabitants of Sumatra Cattle herders of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea or Chad Largest ethnic minority in Siberia inhabiting buryat republic. Mongoloid racial stock found in Philippines (indigenous) Caucasoids of Japan. Indigenous people of Brazil & Venezuela

Largest Producers of Fish in the World, 2001 S.no

Country

Prod in Million tons

1.

China

16.5

2.

Peru

8

3.

USA

4.9

4.

Japan

4.7

5.

Indonesia

4.2

6.

WORLD

92.4

7

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Worst deforestation rate of primary forests, 2000-2005 S.N Country Deforestation Rate % 1.

Nigeria

55.7

2.

Vietnam

54.5

3.

Cambodia

29.4

4.

Sri Lanka

15.2

5.

Malawi

14.9

6.

Indonesia

12.9

Highest average annual deforestation of primary forests, 2000-2005 in hectares 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

- 3,466,000 - 1,447,800 - 532,200 - 395,000 - 250,200

Total forest cover in hectares - 2005 Russian Federation 808,790,000 Brazil 477,698,000 Canada 310,134,000 United States of America 303,089,000 China 197,290,000

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Brazil Indonesia Russian Federation Mexico Papua New Guinea

Highest total forest cover as a percentage of total land cover, 2005 Suriname 94.7 French Guiana 91.8 Micronesia (Federated States of) 90.6 American Samoa 89.4 Seychelles 88.9

Iron Nickel Manganese Antimony Titanium Chromium Uranium

Minerals & Their Ores Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe304), limonite & Siderite Millerite, Pentlandite Pyrolusite, Braunite, Psilomelane Stibnite Rutile Chromite Pitchblende (UO2) 8

Ghanshyam Thori 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Lead Thorium Zinc Mercury Beryllium Cobalt Lithium Magnesium Potassium Silver Sodium Tin

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Geography Notes Galena Thorianite, Monazite, Allanite, Ilemnite Calamine, Sphalerite Cinnabar Beryl, chrysoberyl Smalitite, Cobaltite Spodumene Magnesite, Dolomite, Kieserite, Carnallite. Carnallite (KCl.MgCl2.6H2O) Argentite Chile Saltpeter (NaNO3) Cassiterite

Major Discontinuities within the earth Conrad Discontinuity Between outer & inner crust Mohorovicic Discontinuity Between crust & mantle Repetti Discontinuity Between outer & inner mantle Weichart-Gutenberg Discontinuity Between mantle & core Lehmann Discontinuity Between outer & inner core.

Important Mining Centers Of The World Cleveland Iron Ore (U. K.) Ungava & Belle Island Iron Ore (Canada) Carajas Iron Ore (Brazil) Yampi Sound Iron Ore (Australia) Paraburdoo Iron Ore (Australia) Bilbao Iron Ore (Spain) Nikopol Largest manganese mines of world (Ukraine) Chuquicamata copper (Chile) Morenci Copper (Arizona - largest in US) El Chino copper (New Mexico) Katanga copper, cobalt, uranium, cadmium, tin, gold, silver (DMC) Mount Isa Silver, lead, zinc & copper (Australia) Broken Hill Silver, Lead & Zinc Witwatersrand Gold (S. Africa) Kalgoorlie Gold (Australia) Fushun Manchuria (Coal) Donetz Coal (Ukraine) Kuznetsk Coal (Russia) Karaganda Coal (Kazakhstan) Mesabi range Iron ore (Northern Minnesota) Pittsburg iron & steel capital of the world (Pennsylvania) Port Louis Sugar industry (Mauritius) Anshan iron & Steel (China) Lille Textiles (France) Yallourn Coal (Australia)

9

Ghanshyam Thori 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Ipoh Tula Chiatura Chilean desert Pilbara Bomi Hill Niger Montana Kra Peninsula Iron Knob Minas Gerais Jos Plateau Ozark Bingham Chihuahua

41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

Rum Jungle Krivoi Rog Sudbury Kinta Valley Weipa Gippsland Flin Flon Catavi Braden

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Isogones Isohel Isobront Isocheim Isothere Isanomal Isochrones Isohypse Isonif Isophene Isopotential Isorymes Isarithm Isonephs Co-seismal lines Isohypse Isopach Isotach Isotherombrose

Geography Notes Tin (Kinta Valley, Malaysia) Iron ore (near Moscow) Manganese (Georgia) Caliche (Chile Saltpeter-NaNO3) Iron ore (Australia) Liberia (Iron Ore Uranium accounts for 75 per cent mineral export Copper ( USA) Tin (Narrowest point of Malaysia) Iron ore (Australia- Now almost exhausted) Iron Ore (Brazil) Tin (Nigeria) Lead-Zinc Ores (USA) Copper (United States largest mine) Important mining town of Mexico – Iron, Lead, copper, silver. Uranium (Australia) Iron Ore (Ukraine) Nickel (Canada) Tin (Malaysia) Bauxite (Australia) Lignite(Australia) Mining centre in Manitoba, Canada Bolivia Chile (Copper) Important Isopleths Equal magnetic declination Equal amount of sunlight. Thunderstorm at the same time Same mean winter temperature Same mean summer temperature Isopleth of Anomaly Equal travel time from a common center. Or Contour lines Amount of Snow Isopleths of seasonal phenomena Surface to which artesian water can rise Equal frost A line representing continuous value on map Equal cloudiness Simultaneous seismic activity Or contours Equal thickness of geological strata Same wind speed Equal ratio of summer rainfall to annual rainfall

10

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

20. 21. 22. 23.

Isochasm Isodynamic Isogen Isokeraunic

Equal frequency of aurorae Equal magnetic intensity Equal birthrates Equal occurrence of thunderstorms

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Places & Their Importance Yorkshire woollen textile Lancashire cotton textile Glasgow ship building Sheffield Cutlery & steel works Lorraine Iron ore (France) Lyon Silk Industry (France) Silesia Coal (Poland) – high grade Lodz Manchester of Poland Hamburg Ship Building (Germany) Stuttgart Automobile (Germany) Munich Instruments (Germany) Karl Marx Stadt Textile (Germany) Sambre-Meuse Coal (Belgium) Marseilles Oil Refinery Baku Capital city of Azerbaijan & chief refining center. Chicago Biggest railway junction Detroit Automobile Seattle Aircraft Cadiz Cork (Spain) Changchun Automobile & machine tools (China) Chelyabinsk Iron & Steel (Russia) Dresden Optical, Photo & Graphic instruments (Germany) Dusseldorf Iron & Steel (Germany) Essen Iron & Steel (Germany) Essex Engineering works (England) Kharkov Machine building & Engineering (Ukraine) Kiev Engineering (Ukraine) Magnitogorsk Iron & Steel (Russia) Nagoya Cotton & Ship building (Japan) Nizhny Tagil Iron & Steel (Russia) Venice Glass Industry Vienna Glass Industry Philadelphia Locomotives (USA) Plymouth Shipbuilding (USA) Yenang Yang Oil Drilling (Myanmar) Gorky / Nizhny Novogorod Engineering Industry. Belfast Ship building (Ireland) Types of Delta 11

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

1.

Arcuate Delta

2. 3.

Digitate or Bird-Foot Delta Estuarine Delta

4.

Cuspate or Tooth-Shaped Delta

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

S. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Nile, Ganga, Rhine, Hwang Ho, Volga, Indus, Mekong, Rhone, Danube. Mississippi Elb, Ob, Seine, Narmada, Tapti, Mackenzie, Hudson, Amazon, Rhine Tiber in Italy, Ebro of Spain.

Major Natural Regions Equatorial Lowland Equatorial Highland Equatorial High Plateaus Tropical Eastern Margin Tropical Interiors Tropical Western Deserts Warm Temperate/Subtropical Western Margins Warm Temperate/Subtropical Eastern Margin Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Lowland Warm Temperate/Subtropical Interior Plateau Cool Temperate Western Margin Cool Temperate Eastern Margin Cool Temperate Interior Lowland Cool Temperate Interior Highland Cool Temperate High Plateau Polar Lowland Polar Highland

Desert Sahara Gobi Patagonian Rub‘ Al Khali Great Sandy Great Victoria Chihuahuan Takla Makan Sonoran Kalahari Kyzyl Kum Thar Simpson Mohave Nafud Desert Dasht-I-Kavir

1. Mars

Amazon Type Malay Type Ecuador Type Monsoon Type Sudan Type Sahara Type Mediterranean Type China Type Turan Type Iran Type European Type St. Lawrence Type Prairie Type Altai Type Tibet Type Tundra Type Ice Cap Type

Major Deserts Location Northern Africa Mongolia/Northeastern China Argentina Southern Arabian Peninsula Northwestern Australia Southwestern Australia Mexico/Southwestern United States Northern China Mexico/Southwestern United States Southwestern Africa Uzbekistan India/Pakistan Australia Southwestern United States Arabian Peninsula Iran Planets & satellites Deimos, Phobos 12

Ghanshyam Thori 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Geography Notes

Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Io Titan, Tethys, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione Oberon, Titania, Umbriel, Ariel Triton Charon

Gaseous Hypothesis Nebular Hypothesis Planetesimal Hypothesis Tidal Hypothesis Meteoric Hypothesis Binary Star Hypothesis Fission Hypothesis Cepheid Hypothesis Supernova Hypothesis Interstellar Dust Hypothesis Nebular Cloud Hypothesis Protoplanet Hypothesis

Hypothesis of the origin of Earth Kant Laplace T.C. Chamberlain & F. R. Moulten James Jeans & Harold Jeffreys Lockyer H.N. Russel Ross Gun A.C. Banerji F. Hoyle Otto Schmidt Von Weizsacker Gerald Kuiper Percentage Area of various bodies

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1.

1.

Pacific Ocean

2. 3.

Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean

Pacific Ocean Tokyo Canyon Bering Canyon Columbia Canyon Juan De Fucca Canyon Monterey Canyon Arguello Canyon Scripps Canyon Coronados Canyon

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean Land

35.4 % 18.4 % 14.5 % 29.2 %

Major Trenches in the Ocean Aleutian trench, Tonga trench, Philippine trench, Peru-Chile trench, Mariana Trench (near Micronesia) Puerto Rico trench, South sandwich trench, Romanche trench Java trench Submarine Canyons in various oceans Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean 1. Oceanographer Canyon 1. Indus Canyon 2. Hudson Canyon 2. Ganges Canyon 3. Wilmington Canyon 3. 4. Norfolk Canyon 4. 5. Congo Canyon 5. 6. San Francisco Canyon 6. 7. Mississippi Canyon 7. 8. 8. Basins of the Oceans South Antilles basin, Cape basin, Agulhas basin 13

Ghanshyam Thori 2. 3.

Indian Ocean Pacific Ocean

Geography Notes Mascarenes, Sulu, Celebes, Banda basin Caroline, Solomon, New Hebrides, Guatemala basin

Major Ridges & Rises in various Oceans Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Indian Ocean 1. Catham rise 1. Rio Grande rise 1. Carlsberg ridge 2. Galapagos rise 2. Walvis ridge 2. Laccadive-Chagos ridge 3. Nazca ridge 3. Reykjanes ridge (Iceland) 3. Chagos-St Paul ridge 4. South Tasman rise 4. Sierra Leone rise 4. Kerguelen-Gausberg ridge 5. Louisville ridge 5. Para rise 6. Juan de fuca ridge (N-E P) 6. New foundland rise 7. Gorda ridge ( N-E P) 7. Wyville Thomson ridge 8. Explorer ridge 8. Dolphin rise 9. Austral Marshall Gilbert 9. Challenger rise 10. Carneige ridge 11. Cocos ridge 12. Norfolk Island ridge 13. Caroline-Solomon ridge • Lomonsov ridge & Gakkel ridge is in arctic ocean. A B C D E H

Koppen’s Classification Tropical Climate Steppe Climate S Dry Climate W Desert Climate Mild Humid (Mesothermal) Climate Tundra climate T Snowy forest (Microthermal) climate Ice Cap climate F Polar Climate Precipitation in all months f Undifferentiated highland climate m Monsoon type Dry season in winter w Dry season in summer s Dry hot; mean ann. Temp >18 C (B only) h Dry cold; mean ann. temp < 18 C (B only) k

1.

a

2.

b

3.

c

4.

d

Third Letter Hot summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of above 22 C. Used in C & D climate Warm summers in which the warmest month has a mean temperature of below 22 C. Used in C & D climates Cool short summers with fewer than four months having a mean temperature above 10 C. Used in C & D climates Very cold winters in which the mean temperature of the coldest month is below -38 C. Used in D climate only. Types of Climate Under Koppen’s Scheme 14

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Tropical Rainforest Cs Mild humid climate with dry summer Tropical monsoon Df Snowy forest climate with on dry season Tropical savanna Dw Snowy forest climate with dry winter Steppe climate Ds Snowy forest climate with dry summer Desert climate ET Tundra climate.0114 B1’ – B4’ Mesothermal 57 to 114 C2’ Microthermal 42.7 to 57 C1’ Microthermal 28.5 to 42.7 D’ Tundra 14.2 to 28.5 E’ Frost < 14.2

15

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Composition of the Earth Earths Crust Whole Earth Oxygen 46.6 Iron 35 Silicon 27.7 Oxygen 30 Aluminium 8 Silicon 15 Iron 5 Magnesium 13 Calcium 3.6 Nickel 2.4 Sodium 2.8 Sulphur 1.9 Potassium 2.6 Calcium 1.1 Magnesium 2.1 Aluminium 1.1 Mountains & Geological Periods Feno-Scandian mountains, North west highlands

1.

Pre-Cambrian Mountains

2.

Caledonian Mountains

3.

Hercynian Mountains

4.

Alpine Mountains

1.

Block Mountain

2.

Fold Mountains

Mountain Types Ruwenzori Mountain range in Central Africa, Black forest, Vosges, bohemian massif and the Sierra Nevada in the south-western USA. Himalayas, Aravalli, Appalachians, Alps, Rockies, Andes.

3.

Relict Mountains

Aravalli, Rajmahal, Nilgiris, Satpuras, Western Ghats.

4.

Dome Mountain

Henry mountain, USA

Waterfall Angel Falls Yosemite Falls Mardalsfossen-South Thukela (Tugela) Falls Cuquenan Sutherland

Formed during Silurian & Devonian period. E.g. Scottish highlands, Appalachians, Aravallis Formed during Permian period. E.g. Spanish Messeta, mountains of Iberian peninsula, Brittany of France, Vosges, Black forest, Mendips, Harz (Germany). Formed during tertiary period. E.g. Rockies, Andes, alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Balkans, Himalayas , Sierra Nevada, Zagros & Elburz (Iran), Verkhoyansk mountains

Highest Waterfalls of the World Location Venezuela United States Norway South Africa Venezuela New Zealand 16

Total drop (m) 979 739 655 614 610 580

Ghanshyam Thori

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Geography Notes

Caspian Sea, Lake Superior Lake Victoria Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Tanganyika Great Bear Lake Lake Baikal Aral Sea Great Slave Lake

Worlds Largest Lakes Asia North America Africa North America North America Burundi (N), Zambia (S), DMC (W) North America Asia Asia North America

Lake Balkash Lake Titicaca Lake Nyasa Lake Ladoga Lake Onega Lake Rudolf Lake Torrens Lake Vanern Lake Urmia Lake Mobutu

Other Important Lakes Kazakhstan Bolivia-Peru Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania Russia (N-W) Russia (N-W) Kenya Just South of Lake Eyre in S. Australia Sweden Iran Uganda

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Principal Gases in the atmosphere Nitrogen 78.084 Oxygen 20.947 Argon .934 Carbon Dioxide .0314 Neon .0018 Helium .0005 Methane .0002 Krypton .00011 Hydrogen .00005 Xenon .0000087

1. 2. 3. 4.

Heterosphere Molecular Nitrogen layer Atomic Oxygen layer Helium layer Hydrogen layer

5. 6. 7.

Albedo of Some Surfaces Fresh Snow Cover 80 % Clouds 70-80% Sand 20-30 % 17

90-120 km 200-1100 km 11000-3500 km 3500-10000 km

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Grass 15-30 % Dry Ground 15-20% Wet Ground 10 % Forest 5-10% Water (Solar Elevation > 60) 3-5% Water (Solar Elevation 25-30 % Various Measuring Instruments Lysimeter Evapo-Transpiration Anemometer Wind Psychrometer Humidity Planimeter Area on Maps Pantograph Enlargement & Reduction of Maps Parallax Bar Measuring elevations from topographical maps. Abney level Measuring angles in a vertical plane Clinometer Angles in vertical plane Dumpy level Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane Theodolite Measure angles both in horizontal & vertical plane Spectroradiometer Measures spectral reflectance at different wavelengths. Stereoscope View photos in 3D view. Channelises one image to one eye. Opisometer/ Meilograph Measuring length of curved lines on a map. Eidograph Enlargement & Reduction of maps Alidade A sighting device or pointer for angular measurement used in plane table survey. Aneroid Barometer Used for measuring altitude as pressure decreases with height Sextant Used to measure angle of objects located on the field

Mistral Bora Blizzard Purga Bise Levanter Pampero Papagayo Haboob Friagem Buran Norther Etesian Surazo Norte Tehuantepecer

Important Local Winds of the World Cold Winds Blows in Spain & France from N-W to S-E. Common during winter Blows along the shores of the Adriatic sea. Snow laden wind in Snow laden wind in Russian tundra. Much like Buran. An extremely cold wind in France Blows in strait of Gibraltar between Spain & Morocco. Pampas of S. America Costa Rica, Mexico, Nicaragua. Sudan Amazon Valley Eastern Russia & central Siberia Texas, Gulf of Mexico & western carribean Eastern Mediterranean. Cold wind blowing from Argentinean pampas & Patagonia. A strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in Mexico. This is a violent, squally wind from north or north-east in S. Mexico. Hot winds

18

Ghanshyam Thori 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Fohn Chinook Harmattan Brickfielder Black Roller Shamal Norwester Sirocco

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Simoom Santa Ana Yamo Zonda Tramontane Samun Karaburan Berg Shamal Austru Almwind

Geography Notes Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Alps in Switzerland. Warm & dry local winds blowing on leeward side of Rockies in USA Blowing from east & northeast towards west in Sahara Victoria province of Australia Great plains of USA Mesopotamia & Persian Gulf New Zealand From Sahara over Mediterranean. Known as khamsin in Egypt, Chili in Tunisia, Gibli in Libya, Levech in Spain & Leste in Madiera & Morocco. Warm & dry dusty wind in the Arabian desert S. California – blowing out of Santa Ana canyon A warm & dry wind in Japan A warm & dry wind of the Andean valleys in Argentina A warm wind of central Europe. Warm wind in Iran Hot dusty wind in central Asia – Tarim basin, Mongolia. A hot dry wind blowing from interior in South Africa. A hot wind of Iraq and the Persian gulf Dry blows from the lee side of the mountains in Romania (much like fohn). Local name of fohn that blows in Hungary & Poland over Tatra mountains. Soil Classification

Soil Name Alfisol

Aridisols Entisols

Common Characteristics

Fertility

Moderately weathered, having a medium to high base saturation & have a subsoil accumulation of clay. Most develop under forest Desert soils with little or no organic content but significant calcium. Affected by salinization. Soil Type with little or no horizon development. Found in young formations (lava, sand-dunes etc)

High

Inceptisols More significant horizon development than entisols but less than others. Used for cultivation of sugarcane & coffee Histosols Mollisols

Organic soils found in bogs, swamps & wetlands Dark coloured with upper horizons rich in organic matter. Geographically associated with aridisols

Oxisols

Infertile, acidic, deeply weathered soils with contain clays of iron & aluminium oxide Sandy soils which develop under forests particularly in coniferous areas. They are acidic & have accumulation of organic matter & iron & aluminium oxides. These are acidic, deeply weathered soil of tropical &

Spodosols

Ultisols

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Typical Location Parts of Canada, U.S & Europe

Low

Deserts

Low to Moderate

River valleys, flood plains & deltas Mountain & other geologically young formation Swamps & bogs Great American plains. Pampas & Steppes Amazon basin & Congo basin Coniferous areas in cool climate.

Moderate to low

Very High

Low Good

Poor,

Temperate

Ghanshyam Thori

Vertisols Gelisols Andisols

S 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Geography Notes

subtropical areas with clay accumulation in the B horizon. Not as intensely weathered as oxisols Clay soils which expand when wet & crack when dry. Soil where permafrost lies within 2 m of the surface Contain ash & volcanic glass

require fertilizers Good Poor Poor

Changed Geographical Names Old Name New Name Old Name Abyssinia Ethiopia 29. Angora Aden Yemen 24. Basutoland Bechuanaland Botswana 25. Batavia British Honduras Belize 26. Constantinople Dahomey Benin 27. Cape Canaveral Formosa Taiwan 28. Christina Leningrad St. Petersburg 29. Congo Persia Iran 30. Constantinople Mesopotamia Iraq 31. Dutch East Indies Batavia Jakarta 32. Dutch Guiana South-West Africa Namibia 33. Japan Tanganyika/Zanzibar Tanzania 34. Malaya Upper Volta Burkina Faso 35. Manchukuo Gold Coast Ghana 36. Mesopotamia Stalingrad Volgograd 37. Nyasaland Azrak Azov 38. Rangoon Ister Danube 39. Rhodesia Paulus Meotus Volga 40. Salisbury Raha Blue Nile 41. Ascension Albion England 42. Bohemia Euxine Black Sea 43. Cilicia Mare Internum Mediterranean Sea 44. Ellice Islands Taprobana Sri Lanka 45. French Guinea Northern Rhodesia Zambia 46. Portuguese Guinea Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe 47. British Guinea Leopoldville Kinshasa 48. French West Africa New Hebrides Vanuatu 49. West French Africa Manchukuo Manchuria 50. Dutch Guyana Sea of Herkend Indian Ocean 51.

City Alexandria Amsterdam Antwerp Ankara Baghdad

River Nile Amsel Scheldt Kizil Tigris

Cities Located on Rivers Country City Egypt Lahore Netherlands Lisbon Belgium Liverpool Turkey London Iraq Montreal 20

River Ravi Tagus Mersey Thames Ottawa

humid & tropical regions. Seasonally dry Periglacial areas Near volcanoes

New Name Ankara Lesotho Djakarta Istanbul Cape Kennedy Oslo Zaire Istanbul Indonesia Surinam Nippon Malaysia Manchuria Iraq Malawi Yongon Zimbabwe Harare Saint Helena Czech Republic Turkey Tuvalu Guinea Guinea Bissau Guyana Mali Mauritania Surinam

Country Pakistan Portugal England England Canada

Ghanshyam Thori Bangkok Belgrade Berlin Bonn Bristol Budapest Cairo Canton Chittagong Chungking Cologne Glasgow Hull Hamburg Karachi Khartoum

Geography Notes Menam Danube Spree Rhine Avon Danube Nile Canton Karnaphuli Yang-tse-kiang Rhine Clyde Humber Elbe Indus Nile

Thailand Yugoslavia Germany Germany England Hungary Egypt China Bangladesh China Germany Scotland England Germany Pakistan Sudan

Moscow Nanking New Orleans New York Paris Philadelphia Quebec Rangoon Rome Shanghai Tokyo Vienna Warsaw Washington

21

Moskva Yang-tse-kiang Mississippi Hudson Seine Delaware St. Lawrence Irawadi Tiber Yangtze-kiang Sumida Danube Vistula Potomac

Russia China USA USA France USA Canada Burma Italy China Japan Austria Poland USA

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS—I 1. Netherlands is the most densely populated country of western Europe. 2. France is the second largest nuclear energy producer after USA 3. World Average of Urbanization is 43%. 4. Portugal is one of the least urbanized European countries – only 30 %. 5. Iceland, U.K., Belgium, Netherlands & Spain – 90% Urbanization 6. Latifundia – Europe, Haciendas – Latin America, Ranches – USA, Stations – Australia, Entancias in South America. 7. Primary sector – red collar; secondary sector – blue collar; tertiary sector – pink collar; quaternary sector – white collar; quinary services – gold collar. 18. Nigeria has the highest rate of deforestation in the world & brazil looses the maximum forest area. 19. Shifting cultivation is known as Ladang in Malaysia, Caingin in Philippines, Humah in Indonesia, Chena in Srilanka, Milpa in Africa & Central America & Taungya in Myanmar. 20. Santos is the major coffee port of Brazil accounting for 3/4th of the export handling. 21. Mocha coffee is from Yemen. 22. India is a net importer of copper. 23. The only area in the world where zinc is mined without lead is the Franklin Furnace area in New Jersey State of USA. 24. Republic of Congo is the largest producer of industrial diamonds. 25. Nearly three-fourths of the electric requirement needs of south American countries are met

through

hydroelectricity. 26. Benelux countries include Belgium, Netherlands & Luxembourg. 27. Atlanta is the busiest airport in the world, followed by Chicago airport. 28. Israel is the most urbanized country in the world with >90% urban population. 29. Orinoco river of Venezuela rises in the Guiana highlands & passes through llanos. 30. Shrublands – chaparral in California, macques in Mediterranean region, the caatinga of northeastern Brazil, and the mallee of Australia, which is dominated by low-growing eucalyptus.

22

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Geography Notes

31. South of the Great European Plain, a band of dissimilar geological structures sweeps across Europe, creating the most intricate landscapes of the continent—the Central European Uplands. Throughout this region the forces of folding (the Jura range), faulting (the Vosges and Black Forest mountains), volcanism (the Massif Central, or central highlands, of France), and uplift (the Meseta Central, or central plateau, of Spain) have interacted to create alternating mountains, plateaus, and valleys. 32. Islamabad is situated on Potwar plateau. 33. Period of rotation is the longest for the planet Venus & shortest for Jupiter. Venus takes longer time to complete one rotation on its axis than one revolution around the sun. Mercury & Venus do not have any satellites. Mars has two satellites & Pluto has one. 34. Venus is closest planet to earth. Venus is also the hottest planet in the solar system perhaps due to its slow rotation causing longer exposure of a particular area to sun. 35. The period of revolution of planets increases outwards without any exception. The linear distance of a degree of latitude on an average is 69 miles. The length of longitudes outside tropics varies widely. Vernal equinox is on March 22 & autumnal equinox on September 23. 36. Earth is the densest of all planets & Saturn has the least density. Earth is almost twice the radius of mars & roughly equal to Venus. Uranus is slightly bigger than Neptune. 37. Caledonian movement (e.g. Scottish highlands) & Hercynian movement (Harz mountain range in central Germany) took place during Devonian period & Permian period respectively. 38. Pleistocene epoch is best known for emergence of humans & Great Ice age. 39. Annual range of temperature is the difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the warmest & the coldest months. The difference is not between highest & lowest temperature. 40. In absolute humidity the denominator is dry air while in specific humidity it is moist air. The temperature at which an air parcel gets saturated at its present moisture level is called dew point. 41. Stratiform or layered clouds; Cumuliform or globular clouds. Cirrus or highest clouds & Alto or medium clouds. Nimbus or rain bearing clouds. Stratus clouds are very close to ground surface. 42. Cirrocumulus clouds form ‘mackerel clouds’ & cirrostratus clouds produce ‘haloes’. Alto-cumulus are called sheep clouds. Rain falling from nimbo-stratus but not reaching ground is called virga. Low clouds less than 2 km high are stratus, cumulus, stratocumulus & nimbostratus & these are the only ones which give precipitation. 43. Slope of the warm front is much gentler (1:100 or less) than cold front (~1:50). In the warm front precipitation is gradual but of long duration. In cold front precipitation is short but in the form of heavy downpour.

23

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

44. One fathom = 1.84 meters. The width of the continental shelf on the western coast of India is broader than the eastern coast as the former is coastline of submergence & latter is emergence. 45. Flat-topped seamounts are called guyots (pronounced “gee-o”). 46. Mariana trench, off the island of Guam, Emden Deep off Philippines, & kuril trench in which lies the famous Tuscarora Deep & Mindanao deep (Mindanao, island of the Philippines, the second largest, after Luzon and southernmost of the country's islands) are prominent in Pacific. 47. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge breaks the ocean's surface in several places, forming seven islands or groups of islands. From north to south, these islands include Iceland, the Azores, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Rocks, Ascension, Saint Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and Bouvet. 48. Strait of Hormuz, linking the Persian Gulf on the west, with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea on the east. Bab el Mandeb connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Aden. 49. Salinity is equatorial areas is lower than in the tropical areas. It’s lowest in polar areas. Great Salt lake in Utah has a salinity of 220 %, Dead Sea has 240 %, & Lake Van in Asia Minor has 330 %. 50. Lake Laguna De Bay (Philippines), Lake Biwa (Japan), Lake Tiberias (Israel & Syria), Lake Asad (Syria), Lake Sevan (Armenia) 51. From the equatorial region, water density tends to rise in the tropics. From the tropics to the middle latitudes there is a decline & it increases again in polar areas due to temperature decline. 52. Kuril Island - small volcanic islands in far eastern Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific Ocean. Faroe Island is under Denmark. Orkney Islands lie north of Scotland. 53. In 24 hours & 52 minutes every place will have two high tides & two low tides. Two successive high tides are about 12 hours & 26 minutes apart & the time difference between the high tide & the following low tide is about 6 hrs 13 minutes. The extra 52 minutes are caused due to revolution of the moon around the earth in the same direction i.e. west to east. The tidal magnitude at a given meridian will be more in the low latitudes & lesser in the higher latitudes due to the greater centrifugal force on the equator. 54. O, A, E, B & C & R are the soil horizons from top to bottom. The removal of soil minerals & colloids from the upper horizons is called Eluviation & deposition in lower horizons is Illuviaton. 55. Rich, dark soils called Chernozems. They lack the leached E horizon. Soils in cooler continental climates (coniferous forests) are known as Podzols, a soil type that is not very fertile but rich in humus due to cold climate. The leaching action of heavy rain and water runoff removes many of the nutrients from podzols. Lateritic soils, one of the least fertile soil types are found in wet & hot climate (Tropical Forests). Gleization is the pedogenic regime of warm water-logged areas. Glei soils are rich in organic material &

24

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

the soil changes to blue colour due to reduction of iron minerals. Calcimorphic soil develop in areas of seasonal drought. 56. Hydroponics, term applied to cultivation of plants in nutrient solutions without use of soil. 57. Pyramid of energy can never take an inverted form, the other two (biomass & number) can. 58. Boreal forest refers to the Taiga vegetation comprising coniferous trees. The Mediterranean type of vegetation is also called Sclerophyll forest (e.g. Chaparral). 59. Serengeti National Park is located in northern Tanzania. Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay & Montevideo is the capital of Uruguay. Paraguay is landlocked. 60. Elephant grass is found in Savanna & Buffalo grass is typical of Steppe grasslands. 61. The period of revolution & rotation of the moon is the same i.e. 27.3 days. The shortest route between two places on the surface of the earth is along the great circles i.e. longitude. 62. Orogenetic forces producing mountains are horizontal & epeirogenetic forces are vertical. 63. Block mountain – black forest, Old fold mountain – Appalachian, young fold mountain – rocky, relict mountain – Scottish highlands 64. Arenaceous rock (having sandy features) – Sandstone, Argillaceous rock (having clayey features) – Shale, Plutonic rock (intrusive igneous rock) - Gabbros & dolerite, Volcanic rock (extrusive igneous rock) – Andesite, Rhyolite, Basalt. Sedimentary rock – Ironstone. Slate results from the metamorphosis of shale or clay. Basaltic magma is fluid & granitic is viscous. 65. A basin-shaped depression surrounded by mountains is called bolson. In a karstic region, a steep natural shaft which emerges at the surface is called Ponor. A steep-sided hill, of roughly circular cross-section, characteristic of karst topography is called “hum”. 66. A broad slope of alluvial material at the foot of an escarpment is called Bajada. From the eroded angular peaks of more resistant rocks, alluvial fans lead away to deposit large slopes of debris, called bajadas, at the base. These slopes level off to form low basins called playas. Salt covered playa beds are called Salinas. 67. The deposition of sediment building up a sand bridge that connects the island to the mainland. The sand bridge is called a tombolo. 68. The inclination of a fault from the vertical is called hade & it is complimentary to dip. The horizontal displacement is called heave. Rake angle measures the slip. 69. Erosion of the ground beneath and at the sides of a snowbank, mainly as a result of alternate freezing and thawing is called nivation. 70. An area of shifting desert sand-dunes, esp. in the Sahara is called erg.

25

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

71. The trades are strongest in winter season. The primary divisions of koppen classification are based on mean monthly temperature & mean precipitation & evaporation. The secondary divisions are based on seasonality of rainfall. 72. Temperate cyclones generally develop over land. 73. Ninety East Ridge is situated in Indian Ocean. The mid Atlantic ridge comprises the Dolphin rise on the north & challenger rise to the south separated by Romanche deep. It is known as Wyville Thompson ridge between Iceland & Scotland. The ridge becomes quite extensive to the south of Greenland & Iceland & is called Telegraphic plateau. 74. Globigerina ooze is the most abundant in Atlantic Ocean. Warm Agulhas current flows in the Indian Ocean in southerly direction & Cold Falkland current in Atlantic Ocean towards north. 75. Azov Sea, inland sea, connected with the Black Sea by the Strait of Kerch. 76. Magnetic declination is the difference between true north (the axis around which the earth rotates) and magnetic north (the direction the needle of a compass will point). 77. A traveler crossing the International Date Line from west to east gains a day & from east to west loses a day. 78. Earth is the fifth largest planet & Pluto the smallest. Pulsars are sources of powerful, pulsating radio waves in space which are rapidly rotating neutron stars. Quasar stands for quasi-stellar object & is a compact object that looks like a point of light but emits more energy than a hundred super giant galaxies. 79. Earth’s history has two main divisions or eons: the Cryptozoic Eon & Phanerozoic Eon. The cryptozoic eon is divided into Hadean, the Archean & the Proterozoic eras. The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic eras. 80. Amphibolite is a metamorphic rock & is formed by metamorphosis of igneous rocks such as basalt & gabbro. Chert & flint are sedimentary rocks. Clastic rocks are mechanically formed. Hornblende is igneous while hornfel is metamorphic. 81. Cratons form the cores of most continents and consist of inactive geological areas more than 2 billion years old with thick crust and deep roots extending into the mantle beneath. 82. Because North America and Africa were connected, the Appalachians form part of the same mountain chain as the Atlas mountains in Morocco. 83. Inselbergs (bornhardts) eventually erode & degenerate into what are called Kopjes. 84. Isoclinal Fold is one in which both limbs are approximately parallel. Recumbent Fold: A fold with a nearly horizontal axial plane. Monocline: When folding takes place in very small magnitude or at a very small angle a monocline is formed. Here the limbs are almost horizontal producing simple flexure.

26

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

85. The Peru-Chile trench marks where the Nazca plate is being subducted beneath the South American plate. The volcanic activity and uplift of the Andes are a result of the subduction. 86. There are 26 oceanic trenches in the world: 3 in the Atlantic Ocean, 1 in the Indian Ocean, and 22 in the Pacific Ocean. 87. Examples of cinder or ash cones are Mt Jorullo of Mexico & Mt Izalco of San Salvador. Most of the famous volcanoes have composite cone. Mt. Etna of Sicily is an example of parasitic cone. Caldera (Lake Toba of Sumatra is most famous example). Maar is a broad, low relief crater that is caused by a phreatic eruption or explosion caused by groundwater contact with magma. 88. Kilauea, the world's most active volcanic crater, located on central Hawaii Island. 89. Mt Etna of Sicily, Mt. Vesuvius of Naples & Mt Stromboli, the northernmost & Mt Vulcano the southernmost of the seven Lipari Island are all located in Italy. 90. The classification of volcanoes in order of increasing intensity of explosion is: Hawaiian type, Stromblian type, Vulcanian type, Vesuvian type, Pelean type. 91. Fluid basaltic lava forms pahoehoe lava flow & viscous forms blocky aa lava flow. Mt Hood & Mt Rainier & Mt. Vesuvius are dormant volcanoes. Mt Meru (Tanzania) & Mt Elgon (Kenya-Uganda border) are extinct volcanoes. 92. Laccolith is mushroom shaped causing the crust over it to form a dome. Lopoliths are saucer shaped with concave side upwards & Phaccoliths are lens shaped deposits in anticlines & synclines. 93. Thawing of slopes in the summer may move soil downslope to produce solifluction, or “flowing soil” terraces. Rockfalls produce a deposit called talus at the base of the cliff. 94. Sequent Streams are those which are well adjusted to the geological structures & follow the regional slope. Insequent streams do not follow regional slopes. 95. Centrifugal drainage is also known as radial drainage (e.g. Sri Lanka). In barbed pattern the tributary flows in opposite direction to the master stream & such pattern usually develops due to river capture. Annular/Circular drainage pattern is different from centrifugal pattern.

27

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

Consequent

Resequent

Annular Drainage pattern

Obsequent

Subsequent

96. Abrasion or Corrasion is with the help of erosional tools. Attrition refers to the wear & tear of erosional tools in themselves. 97. Block disintegration is due to different material. Granular disintegration is due to different colour. Shattering is due to rain shower over heated rocks. Sheeting & cambering refers to the development of horizontal & vertical cracks due to unloading. Spalling is development of platy rock fragments due to unloading. Flaking results from differential heating of outer & inner layers of a rock. After flaking the wind peels off the layer & this is known as exfoliation. 98. Structural benches are formed due to differential erosion of soft & hard rocks while river terraces are produced due to valley-in-valley topography by rejuvenation. Victoria fall on Zambezi river is a result of faulting & Yosemite falls California is due to glaciated hanging valley. 99. Alluvial fans have a gentler slope as compared to cones. Sometimes neighboring cones & fans meet to form Piedmont alluvial plain or Bajada. 100. Yazoo Channel meets the original river at deferred junction.

Miscellaneous Facts - II 1. Davisian cycle ends in peneplain, Penck’s in endrumpf & kings in pediplain. Kings cycle basically deals with the evolution of landforms in arid & savanna regions.

28

Ghanshyam Thori

Geography Notes

2. Penck cycle has three stages. Aufsteigende Entwickelung means a phase of waxing (accelerating) rate of landform development where the slopes of the valley sides are convex in plan. Gleichformige Entwickelung means uniform development of landforms. Absteigende Entwickelung means wanning development & parallel retreat of slope continues 3. Boschungen is the upper steep part & haldenhang is the lower part with lesser inclination. Thus the intersection of boschungen & haldenhang produce a sharp knick. Ultimately the boschungen are reduced to inselbergs. 4. Monadnocks are also known as unakas & mosores. 5. Sinkholes < Swallow Holes < Dolines