INDIAN GARDENS.pdf

I s

Indian landscape design The  history  of  landscape  design  of  a  region  is  about  the  changing  rela5onship  of  human  beings  with  nature  over  a  period  of  5me,  a   rela5onship  which  then  manifests  itself  in  various  designs  forms.  It  is  less  about  dates  and  5me  spans  and  more  about  the  intrinsic   connec5ons  of  the  landscape  with  the  history  of  the  people  and  their  culture,  which  includes  their  science,  art  and  literature.       The  focus  is  to  emphasize  on  a  few  of  the  dominant  themes  and  percep5ons  towards  nature  that  shaped  the  Indian  landscape.     The   objec5ve   is   also   to   illustrate   how   history   is   a   tool   to   understand   the   manner   in   which   natural   and   cultural   ecology   worked   together  to  produce  a  very  dis5nc5ve  Indian  landscape  over  5me.       It  would  thus  be  erroneous  to  view  the  history  of  Indian  landscape  only  through  the  lens  of  religion  and  instead  to  understand  it  in   the  context  of  the  ancient  ,  medieval  and  colonial  periods  of  Indian  history.  

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION AND INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION ( 2600-1900 B.C.) The  first  urbaniza5on  took  place  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  region  of  northwest  India  in  the   valleys   of   the   Indus   and   the   Saraswa5   rivers.   This   urbaniza5on   is   known   as   the   Indus   or   Harappan  civiliza5on,  which  flourished  during  2600-­‐1900  B.C.  The  rest  of  India  during  this   period   was   inhabited   by   Neolithic   and   Chalcolithic   farmers   and   Mesolithic   hunter-­‐ gatherers.   Long   before   the   first   seOlements   associated   with   the   Harappan   complex   appeared,   the   plains  were  doOed  with  the  seOlements  of  sedentary  agriculturists.  By  at  least  3000  B.C.,   these  pre-­‐Harappan  peoples  cul5vated  wheat  and  barley,  and  had  developed  sophis5cated   agricultural   implements   and   cropping   techniques.   The   pre-­‐Harappan   peoples   knew   how   to   make   bronze   weapons,   tools,   and   mirrors,   and   they   had   mastered   the   art   of   poOery   making.  Probably  popula5on  increase  required  coloniza5on  of  nearby  areas.  Towards  the   east,   there   were   vast   tracts   of   fer5le   silt   brought   by   the   Indus   River   that   were   aOrac5ve   areas  to  colonize.   The   Indus   plains   were   made   fer5le   by   the   annual   inunda5on   of   the   river   Indus,   which   made   it   an   area   where,   bush   and   wild   grasses   could   grow.   Seals   from   the   Indus   civiliza5on   depict  a  variety  of  animals,  of  which  the  5ger,  rhinoceros,  and  the  elephant  are  the  most   frequent.   These   are   all   animals,   which   require   a   reasonable   forest   cover.   It   has   been   suggested  that  in  the  past  there  were  forest  galleries  where  these  animals  made  a  home   but   which   had   disappeared   in   the   last   couple   of   centuries.   Hence,   in   the   semi-­‐arid   Indus   valley   with   only   gallery   forests   and   pliable   fer5le   silts   to   tackle,   the   new   technologies   enabled  the  Neolithic  farmers  to  colonize  the  Indus  valley  to  generate  enough  agricultural   surplus  to  ini5ate  the  urbaniza5on  processes.     Fall  of  the  Indus  Valley  Civiliza5on   It  appears  that  towards  the  close  of  the  third  millennium  BC,  owing  to  various  pressures,   e.g.   environmental   and   invasions,   the   Harappans   moved   eastwards   into   the   Sarasva5   valley   in   Rajasthan.   Owing   to   neo-­‐tectonic   movements   the   lineaments   changed   the   courses  of  the  rivers  and,  as  a  result,  the  main  feeders  of  the  river  Sarasva5,  namely  the   palaeo-­‐Satluj   and   the   palaeo-­‐Yamuna,   changed   their   courses   and   leV   the   Sarasva5   high   and   dry.   Once   again   environmental   pressure   pushed   the   Harappans   further   east   5ll   they   reached   the   fringes   of   the   Gange5c   doab.   However,   the   doab   had   a   monsoonal   ecology   with   which   the   Harappans   couldnot   cope,   and   this   led   to   the   demise   of   the   Harappan   culture  in  this  area.

Ci5es  around  the  indus  plains     Mohenjo-­‐Daro   and   Harappa   were   sited   close   to   water   sources   to   enable   both   irriga5on   to   t h e   h i n t e r l a n d   a n d   a s   c h a n n e l s   o f   communica5on  facilita5ng  trade.    

 

ANCIENT PERIOD (1500 b.c. – 700 a.d.) At   about   the   same   5me,   semi-­‐nomadic   pastoralists   from   Central   Asia   made   their   appearance   in   India.   The   Indo-­‐Aryans   were   not   originally   agriculturalists.   They   were   pastoral   nomads.   They   have   brought   with   them   the   domes5c   horse   and   two   wheeled   chariots.     The  early  Aryans  seOled  in  the  northwestern  plains.  During  1500BC,  the  Aryans  moved  out   of   the   northwestern   plains   and   into   the   Punjab   and   the   Western   Gange5c   Valley,   the   loca5on  of  the  Mahabharata  epic.  From  the  Western  Gange5c  Valley,  about  the  year  1000,   they  shiVed  to  the  Middle  and  Eastern  Gange5c  Valley  which  witnessed  the  events  of  the   Ramayana   epic   and   rise   of   the   first   poli5cal   en55es   known   as   Mahajanapadas   as   also   of   Buddhism  and  Jainism.     During  these  periods,  their  society  changed  from  tribal  organiza5on  to  caste  organiza5on   and  their  polity  changed  from  tribes  ruled  by  elected  chiefs  to  liOle  kingdoms  ruled  for  the   most  part  by  semi-­‐divine  kings-­‐-­‐and  then  to  larger  monarchical  states.  

As   human   seOlements   expanded,   land   originally   under   tree   cover   was   c l e a r e d   t o   m a k e   w a y   f o r   cul5va5on.A   dis5nc5on   is   made   between   what   they   called   Grama   and  Aranya.     The   Vedic   tradi5ons   affirm   that   every   village   will   be   complete   only   when   certain   categories   of   forest   vegeta5on   or   trees   (e.g.,   mahavan,   shrivan,  and  tapovan)  are  preserved   in   and   around   its   territory.   Mahavan   adjoins   the   village,   p e r h a p s   e q u i v a l e n t   t o   t h e   “protected   areas’   of   today   and   provides   a   place   where   all   species   can   coexist.   Once   some   of   the   original   forest   was   cleared,   the   Vedic  culture  also  necessitated  that   a n o t h e r   k i n d   o f   f o r e s t   b e   established   in   its   place.   This   is   equivalent   to   today’s   “produc5on   forests”   and   it   provides   the   essen5al   goods   and   services   to   humans  and  livestock  (  e.g.,  fodder,   5mber,   roots,   and   herbs,   besides   maintaining   soil   fer5lity,   air   and   water   quality   as   well   as   providing   shelter),   tradi5onally   these   are   called   shrivan.   The   third   category   of   forests  is  tapovan,  or  the  ‘  forest  of   religion’  –  the  home  of  sages.  Being   sacred,  no  animal  or  trees  could  be   harmed   in   these   forests.   This   kind   of  forest  is  natural  and  untended.    

ANCIENT PERIOD (1500 b.c. – 700 a.d.) As  men5oned  earlier  the  Harappans  were  not  able  to  tame  the  monsoonal  dense  forests   of  the  Gange5c  plains.  As  a  result  the  urban  civiliza5on  declined.  Early  iron  technology  in   the   Gange5c   doab   (   land   between   the   two   rivers)   made   its   appearance   with   the   advent   of   the  first  millennium  BC.  Iron  is  not  much  superior  to  bronze,  but  its  mass-­‐abundance  made   it  a  powerful  tool  of  agricultural  transforma5on  of  the  swampy,  densely  forested  area  of   the  doab,  surfaced  by  a  soil  full  of  kankar,  into  a  fer5le  area.  During  this  5me  the  Aryans   shiVed   their   livelihood   from   nomad   pastoralism   to   a   combina5on   of   pastoralism   and   farming  by  1000,  and  then,  in  the  next  five  hundred  years  to  agriculture  and  trade.  This  last   transi5on   is   known   as   India's   second   urbaniza5on.   The   second   phase   of   urbaniza5on   of   India  (aVer  the  Indus  valley)  marked  by  trade,  coinage,  script  and  birth  of  the  first  Indian   empire,  namely  Magadha,  with  its  capital  at  Pataliputra  (modern  Patna)  also  took  place  in   this  region  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.     In   southern   India,   the   Tamils   were   emerging   as   the   dominant   group.   The   people   of   the   south  adopted  the  use  of  iron  implement.     Gardens       Gardens   were   an   indispensable   feature   in   house   and   town   planning   in   ancient   India   and   the  art  of  gardening  is  men5oned  as  one  of  the  64  arts  recognized  in  ancient  India.  There   are  innumerable  examples    of  gardening  in  ancient  India:  with  Megasthenes  describing  the   palace  of  Chandragupta  Maurya  :  the  Yenuvana,  Ambavana,  Mahavana  and  the  Jetavana  in   the   outskirts   of   saravas5,   all   royal   gardens   of   early   Buddhist   5mes   which   later   were   opened   to   public   and   converted   into   permanent   retreats   for   the   wanderers   of   different   orders;   the   Chinese   pilgrim   Hsieun   Tsang   describing   Nalanda   of   seventh   century   CE   with   streams   of   blue   water   winding   through   parks   and   blossoms   of   sandal   trees   and   mango   groves.      

In  late  Vedic  5mes  forests  began  to   serve   as   refuges   or   retreats   for   brahmanical   priests   (and   later   for   o t h e r   a s c e 5 c s   a s   w e l l )   t o   communicate   spiritual   specula5ons   and   secret   rituals   to   their   disciples   in   the   seclusion   thus   provided   to   them.   The   later   Vedic   period   also   merges   smoothly  with  the  period  of  middle   kingdoms.  By  Asoka’s  5me  (reigned   268-­‐241   BC),   forest   clearance,   especially   along   major   routes,   seems  to  have  progressed  so  much   that   the   highways   passed   in   long   stretches   through   open   or   tree   –   less   tracts;   otherwise   there   would   have   been   liOle   need   for   Asoka   to   have   referred   with   pride   to   his   effort  to  plant  the  banyan  and  other   trees   along   the   roads   in   order   to   provide  shade  to  ‘caOle  and  men  ‘.  

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) The   Gupta   Empire   ended   in   673   AD   and   the   country   was   again,   divided   into   small   states   which  perpetually  fought  among  them.  The  poli5cal  instability  caused  by  the  local  conflicts   was   aggravated   by   repeated   Muslim   invasions   from   the   west.   Various   muslim   invasions   resulted   in   establishment   of   the   Delhi   sultanate   in   early   13th   century.   Five   different   dynas5es  ruled  under  Delhi  sultanate  –  Slave,  Khaljis,  Tughlaq,  Sayyids  and  Lodis.  It  ruled   large  region  of  the  country,  mainly  northern  part  and  later  on  many  parts  of  southern  India   between   1206CE   to   1526CE.   The   Delhi   sultanate   was   absorbed   by   the   emerging   Mughal     empire   with   Babur   becoming   the   first   king.   For   the   next   two   centuries,   the   country   was   ruled  by  successive  Mughal  kings  –  Humayun,  Akbar,  Jahangir,  Shahjahan  and  Aurangzeb.   Meanwhile   in   the   south,   the   Vijaynagara   Empire     was   established   in   1336   by   the   Sangama   dynasty.     SULTANATE  LANDSCAPES     A   Turkish   slave   Mohammed   Gauri   established   his   kingdom   at   Delhi,   inaugura5ng   the   Slave   Dynasty,   (in   1206   A.D).   Qutb-­‐Din-­‐aibak   (1210   A.D.)   made   an   important   contribu5on   to   architecture   during   his   5me.   Very   liOle   informa5on   about   gardens   is   available.   We   have   some  informa5on  about  the  gardens  and  garden  pavilions  built  during  the  reign  of  queen   Razia   Begum   (1236   A.D.).   However,   her   rule   was   short   lived.   Perhaps,   the   king   best   known   for   his   love   of   gardens   before   Babar   would   be   King   Feroz   Shah   Tughlaq   (1351   A.   D.).   Feroz   Shah   Tughlaq   carried   out   extensive   opera5ons   to   establish   fruit   gardens   in   and   near   Delhi.     He   laid   out   as   many   as   1200   gardens   in   Delhi   area   and   43   in   ChiOor   and   restored   30   gardens   of   Allaudin   khilji.   True,   the   gardens   may   have   been   mainly   fruit   orchards,   but   recrea5on   was   no   small   part   of   it.   More   use   was   made   of   running   water   in   the   gardens   Most   of   the   gardens   had   irriga5on   channels,   and   some   had   fountains   also.   The   Lodhi   dynasty  which  ruled  from  1450  to  1526  A.D.,  contributed  greatly  to  architecture  and  to  the   art   of   gardens   in   India.   Their   contribu5on   to   the   art   of   Islamic   gardens   in   India   is   of   importance   to   us.   It   might   sound   surprising   but   some   of   these   gardens   were   more   advanced  for  their  5me  than  the  gardens  developed  by  Babar  in  India.      

Religion,   state   and   royalty   con5nued   to   be   the   three   key   players   managing   the   natural   r e s o u r c e s   a n d   m o u l d i n g   aqtudes   to   design   with   nature   through   the   mediaeval   period   too.  Trea5ses  such  as  kitab  –  al-­‐   hind   aOributed     to   the   year   1030CE   con5nued   to   try   and   understand    the  landscape  of  the   subcon5nent.   In   giving   detailed   informa5on     on   techniques   of   hor5culture,  these  trea5ses  lend   credence   to   the   fact   that   the   plan5ng   of   gardens   as   sites   of   intensive   botanical   inves5ga5on   a n d   t h e i r   f u n c 5 o n i n g   a s   distribu5on   centres   in   the   diffusion  of  plants  from  region  to   region   was   a   dis5nc5ve   feature   of  the  mediaeval  period.    

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) SULTANATE  LANDSCAPES     Gardens   ,   or   baghs   ,   were   an   important   part   of   the   urban   fabric   in   the   sultanate   era;   chroniclers  have  reported  the  existence  of  gardens  such  as  Bagh-­‐e-­‐jud,  Bagh-­‐e-­‐Khizrabad   and   Bagh-­‐e-­‐Qutlugh   Khan.   LiOle   is   known   of   their   exact   form,   however;   the   chronicles   describe  them  as  simply  beau5ful  gardens  surrounding  palaces.      

Feroz  shah  is  credited  with  first  aOempts  towards  afforesta5on  of  large  barren  areas  around  his  citadel,  and   the  building  of  a  number  of  hun5ng  lodges.  

The   Sultanate   and   Mughal   rulers   did  not  have  any  special  interest  in   the   conserva5on   of   forests;   they   cleared   them   either   for   strategic   reasons   or   for   other   purposes.   They   were,   however,   interested   in   forests   for   hun5ng   and   in   the   crea5on   and   maintenance   of   gardens   besides   plan5ng   of   trees   along  the  highways  and  canals.  The   Mughal   emperor,   Akbar,   who   evinced   interest   in   the   plan5ng   of   trees   along   canals,   directed   “   that   on  both  sides  of  the  canal  down  to   Hissar,   trees   of   every   descrip5on,   both   for   shade   and   blossom,   be   planted,  so  as  to  make  it  like  canal   under  the  tree  in  paradise.”  

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) MUGHAL  LANDSCAPES     Gardens,   par5cularly   in   the   form   of   orchards,   were   probably   valued   from   very   early   5mes,   both  for  their  produce  and  the  pleasant  micro  climate  they  created.  Gardens  as  pleasure   resorts  however  came  into  their  own  under  the  Mughals.     Site  and  surroundings   Sites  possessing  a  defined  iden5ty,  for  example,  “at  the  foot  of  the  hill”,  or  “overlooking   the  valley”  can  be  readily  recognized  as  types  of  places  where  Mughal  gardens  are  found.     Typically,   in   the   pleasure   gardens   of   Kashmir,   the   garden   site   is   at   the   lower   eleva5on   of   a   hill,   between   the   hill   and   the   lake.   It   is   not   accidental   that   this   par5cular   loca5on   is   the   perfect   place   from   which   spectacular   views   of   the   valley   are   revealed:   to   one   side   the   mountain   at   the   back,   on   the   other,   the   lake   view.   Towards   the   lake,   the   visual   link   between   garden   and   valley   is   marked   by   the   flow   of   water   in   that   direc5on   and   the   progression  of  terraces  downwards  with  the  grand  chenars  on  either  side.  These  direct  the   eye  away  from  the  details  of  the  garden  to  the  extended  lake  panorama  and  hills  beyond.   The   garden   celebrates   the   beauty   of   the   valley.   It   transcends   its   visible   physical   limits,   and   the  internal  space  engages  drama5cally  with  the  larger  seqng.      

LEGEND   1.  Entrance   2.  Public  garden   3.  Diwan-­‐e-­‐aam   4.  Diwan-­‐i-­‐khas   5.  Water  throne   6.  Pavilions   7.  Zenana  garden   8.  Black  marble  pavilion  

Shalimar  gardens  

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) MUGHAL  LANDSCAPES     In   the   gardens   of   Humayun’s   tomb   in   Delhi,   aOen5on   focusses   on   the   mausoleum   occupying   the   centre   of   the   garden   enclosure.   At   Taj   Mahal   in   Agra,   the   mausoleum   is   places  at  the  end  of  garden,  overlooking  the  river  overlooking  the  river  view,  the  base  of   the  tomb  func5ons  as  a  vast  plasorm  from  whch  to  experience  two  worlds:  the  exquisitely   sophis5cated,   enclosed   paradise   on   one   side,   the   robustly   rural,   dusty   expanse   of   the   Jumna  floodplain  on  the  other.   Within  forts  and  palaces  this  idea  is  demonstrated  in  the  planning  of  gardens  to  look  out   into  countryside  from  an  elevated  viewpoint  :  the  forts  of  Agra  and  Delhi      

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) MUGHAL  LANDSCAPES     Within  forts  and  palaces  this  idea  is  demonstrated  in  the  planning  of  gardens  to  look  out   into  countryside  from  an  elevated  viewpoint  :  the  forts  of  Agra  and  Delhi      

MEDIEVAL PERIOD (700 a.d.-1750A.D.) The  Char  Bagh   The  arrangement  of  the  Mughal  garden  is  decep5vely  simple  .An  orthogonal  grid  of  paths   divide  the  space,  four-­‐fold  or  otherwise;  the  plots  in  between  are  lush  with  the  foliage  of   freely   growing   orchard   trees,   the   whole   interlaced   with   a   network   of   water-­‐channels   punctuated   by   pools   and   cascades.   The   garden   is   territorially   defined   and   contained   in   a   walled  enclosure,  accessible  only  through  symmetrically  arranged  gates.  OVen,  one  side  of   the   enclosure,   usually   opposite   the   main   entry   gate,   opens   to   a   view   of   the   landscape   outside.   There  are,  of  course,  significant  departures.  Depending  on  func5on  and  usage:  the  spa5al   concept   in   the   Tomb   gardens   of   the   plains   is   dis5nct   from   that   of   the   pleasure   gardens.   The   Tomb   garden   is   almost   always   perfectly   square;   more   oVen   than   not,   the   pleasure   gardens   have   a   linear   axiality.   The   organiza5on   of   landscape   elements   in   the   laOer   suggests   a   strong   direc5onality   towards   a   prospect   or   view   -­‐   a   river   or   valley   panorama;   whereas  the  funerary  landscapes  focus  inward,  on  the  tomb  itself,  the  view  outwards  from   one  side  certainly  drama5c,  but  seemingly  incidental  to  the  main  theme.     Water   At   the   heart   of   the   design   is   the   idea   that   the   bagh   should   be   alive   with   the   con5nuous   flow  of  water,  whose  primary  purpose  is  to  irrigate  the  garden  and  maintain  its  health.  The   means   through   which   this   is   accomplished   is   the   supreme   achievement   of   the   Mughal   garden.   The   garden   contains   a   wide   array   of   water-­‐related   elements   and   structures   to   provide   a   considerable   ordinary   task,   by   enhancing   and   modula5ng   in   many   subtle   ways   the  movement,  appearance  and  sound  of  water.   Familiar   examples   include,   for   instance,   falls   nego5a5ng   large   differences   in   level,   from   one   terrace   to   the   next   in   thick   sheets,   their   sound   recalling   the   soothing   rumble   of   waterfalls   in   nature.   Or,   in   another   interes5ng   technique,   inclined   stone   cascades   engraved  with  paOerns  to  create  a  white  sheet  of  foaming  water  (the  chadar),  especially   effec5ve  when  viewed  by  moonlight.  Gravity-­‐fed  fountain  jets,  integrated  into  the  carefully   engineered  system  of  channels  and  ponds  complete  the  picture.  

Humayun  tomb  gardens  

colonial PERIOD (1750A.D.-1947a.d.) A   new   landscape   emerged   with   the   colonial   presence   from   the   early   nineteenth   century   onwards,   while   in   the   early   phase   Bri5sh   adapted   to   traits   and   paOerns   of   the     host   culture,   with   5me   they   sought   design   solu5ons,   including   interven5ons   in   gardens   ,   in   terms  of  concepts  exis5ng  in  contemporary  Britain.     The  basic  territorial  unit  of  the  colonial  culture  was  a  bungalow  siqng  in  an  open  space,  in   complete   contrast   to   the   more   introvertly   planned   havelis   of   the   indigenous   popula5on.     This   garden   space   came   to   have   unique   sociological   proper5es,   providing   both   isola5on   and  insula5on  from  the  ”  na5ve  “  culture.    

Bungalows  with  large  compounds  in  which  colonial  structure  was  retained.  In  form  they  were  a  reversal  of   char  bagh  of  the  havelis;  now  the  green  enveloped  the  building  instead  of  being  contained  within.  

With   the   advent   of   railway   construc5on   in   India,   demand   for   wood   increased   manifold.   Nearly   1,100   wooden   sleepers   were   required   for   each   kilometer   of   track,  needing  some  250  trees  to  be   felled  on  an  average.  Even  sleepers   of  good  Sal  5mber  could  not  last  for   over  eight  or  ten  years,  so  that  aVer   each   decade   or   so   an   equal   amount   of   5mber   would   be   needed   again.   Since   13,639   kilometers   of   railway   track   had   been   laid   by   1879,   one   can   imagine   that   for   the   ini5al   track   laying   alone   3.4   million   trees   must   have   been   cut,   with   another   2   million   cut   for   replacement   of   sleepers  on  tracks  laid  out  earlier.     In   1865   the   Indian   Forest   Act   was   issued,   to   be   superseded   by   another  Forest  Act  in  1878.   (1)  Reserved  forests,  which  were  to   be   totally   maintained   for   supplying   5mber   and   other   products   to   government   or   those   contrac5ng   with   it.   Here   rights   or   privileges   were   either   absolutely   prohibited   or   allowed   only   under   stringent   condi5ons.   (2)   Protected   forests,   where   the   government   permiOed   some   rights   of   the   local   popula5ons   or   private   persons   to   be   exercised,   e.g.,   for   woodcuqng,   grazing   or   firewood   collec5on.  

A  study  of  the  Indian  landscape  history  clearly  indicates  that  the  central  feature  of  the  pre-­‐colonial  Indian  landscape  design  was  its   complimentary  rela5onship  with  nature  and  an  experien5al  aesthe5cs,  which  encapsulated  the  metaphysical  and  the  physical  and  in     its  resultant  form    displayed  an  amazing  synergy  between  the  natural  and  cultural  ecology.  There  is  much  that  can  be  learnt  from   these  tradi5ons,  pre  colonial  paOerns  of  design  with  nature,  and  contemporary  Indian  landscape  design,    in  its  inspira5on  from  this   rich  legacy  can  and  should  give  us  more  culturally  responsive  landscape  designs.