Improvised Ornament Renas Music

Improvised Embellishment in the Performance of Renaissance Polyphonic Music Author(s): Imogene Horsley Source: Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Spring, 1951), pp. 3-19 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Musicological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/830116 . Accessed: 31/05/2011 13:49 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucal. . Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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in the Performance ImprovisedEmbellishment of RenaissancePolyphonicMusic BY IMOGENE HORSLEY ONE of the paradoxesof contemporary musical study is the fact that the student by his very desire for historically authentic performance has developedhabitsof thought which impede his gaining a proper understandingof the music of certain past periods. His strict training in accurateadherenceto the notes of a composition as written down by the composer has developed in him such a reverencefor those notes that it is hard for him to add to them, or subtract from them, without a feeling of guilt. While this attitude has produced exemplary results in the performanceof music written after 1750, it has also led to a complete misconception of the performance ideals of much of the music written in the Baroque and Renaissanceperiods. It is becoming general knowledge that the simple appearanceof much Baroquemusic is deceptive and that what is seen on the printedpage was often merely an outline to be amplified in performanceaccording to regularized patterns of improvised embellishment;but the fact that the music of the Renaissancewas often similarly changed in performanceis less frequently recognized. The Renaissance has often been called the "Age of Vocal Polyphony," but, while vocal polyphony was by far the predominanttype of composition, it was not the only type of performance.These compositions were performed in numerous ways: in different combinationsof melody instruments and voices; as 3

vocal or instrumental solos accompanied by keyboard instruments or lute; as pieces transcribed for keyboard or lute; or as solos for stringed instruments in which the single line was built up of fragments from the individual voice parts. The concept of the one authentic performance did not yet exist. Furthermore, whenever one of these compositions was performed by a soloist or group of soloists, it was not always performed simply as written but was usually made "elegant" and "ornate" by the addition of florid embellishments. The use of this technique in keyboard and lute transcriptions is well known,1 but it is not so generally recognized that it was also the accepted practice to ornament the individual lines in solo vocal or instrumental performance of these compositions. These florid embellishments, added by each soloist to his own part, often resulted in a complete transformation of the work. If present-day training in strictly reproductive performance makes it difficult to accept the idea of such free treatment of compositions, it must be remembered that in the Renaissance period both vocal and instrumental virtuosity were still based upon skill in improvisation. An expert performer was expected to produce music as well as reproduce it. In his book published in i553,2 Diego Ortiz describes the three ways in 1See Otto Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des z6. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, I9Io). 2Tratado de glosas, Book II.

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY 4 which a performer on the violone Although this Renaissance style may play with the cembalo: the first of improvised ornamentation has is the improvisation of a fantasia by been discussed by scholars,3 the deboth players together; the second, the tails of the practice have never been improvisation by the violone player fully described, nor has it been set of a melody above a plain chant apart as a practice stylistically displayed on the cembalo. Only the tinct from that of the Baroque era. third and last way is to play sobre It was not an embryonic art from cosas compuestas-"over" a com- which the elaborate ornamental sysposed piece of music. Virtuoso sing- tem of the Baroque period develers as well as instrumentalists were oped, but a mature technique adapted expected to be able to improvise; to the musical style to which it was ever since the practice of discantus applied. Just when and where this supra librum in the i4th century, practice originated is still a matter singers had been trained to improvise of conjecture.4 When the first mana counterpoint to a given melody ual teaching it was published in Italy at sight. in i535, it was already a highly orFrom the early I6th century, man- ganized technique. uals for teaching instrumental and Throughout the i6th century Italy vocal performance included sections was the center from which the pracon the technique of improvised em- tice radiated, and it was also firmly bellishment as a matter of course. established in musically progressive By diligent practice a performer ac- centers in Spain and Germany. It quired a vocabulary of melodic fig- was known but not generally acures which could be introduced be- cepted in France 5 during the i6th tween the melodic intervals making century, although in Italy it was apup the individual lines of a composi- plied as often to French chansons as tion. He developed a repertory of patterns, for example, which could 3The two principal treatments are found in be substituted for the skip of a third Max Kuhn, Die Verzierungs-Kunst in der des 16.-17. Jahrhunderts within the duration of a semibreve; Gesangs-Musik (Leipzig, 1902) and Robert Haas, Auffiihrand whenever he saw that interval ungspraxis der Musik (Leipzig, 1931). in the melodic line he was reading, The former has a complete list of sources and set of musical examples; the he could use one of these figures in latter,a agoodgood discussion but fewer explace of the simple interval skip. amples. Neither covers the period in full This technique was applied in Ortiz' detail. Our topic is also treated briefly in Arnold Schering, Auffiihrungspraxis alter third case-that of playing "over" a Musik (Berlin, 1931) and Ernst Ferand, Die Improvisation in der Musik (Ziirich, 1938). composition-since even when play- 'Kuhn (op. cit., pp. 32ff) thinks the use of ing a composed piece of music the diminution originated with the contrapuntal was not to reperformer style of the Netherlands schools and was expected produce the notes literally. A pro- spread by them. Schering (op. cit., pp. 12off) ficient soloist improvised embellish- considers the diminutions to be of oriental origin. Ferand thinks are the last ments upon the composed line, ex- remnant of a vital art oftheyimprovisation. I in dishibiting his own skill. Performance have found hints of a similar practice in singing techniques 9thwas to him a creative application of cussions of Arabian century Spain, but as yet have not been able his technique to a composition; the to trace these to their original sources. only I6th-century mention of this art in composition was the vehicle of, "The France that I have found is in Anthoine de rather than the motive for, his per- Bertrand's preface to the Premier lHvre des formance. Amours de Ronsard, 1578 (ed. H. Expert,

RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC

to Italian madrigals. Only in i6thcentury Englanddo we find no mention of its use. As far as we know, the English madrigals and fancies for viols were performedexactly as written.6

The general term for this improvised embellishment in Italy was diminutio (diminution),since it was, in effect, the breaking up of the longer note values into an aggregation of notes of shorter duration.In Spain the embellishments were known as glosas; in Germany and the Netherlands as coloriren; Latin treatises described the ornamented line as "ornatus,""coloratus,"etc.; but despite the difference in names, the technique itself was uniform. To say that the practice was uniform does not imply that there were commonly accepted musical clich6s everywhere in use, nor that there were universally accepted conventions as to the application of the principles. Not only were there widely divergent styles of ornamental figures, but there also were disagreementsboth as to the desirability of their use and as to the limits of their application.Nevertheless, certain broadmusicalcharacteristicsseparated Renaissanceusage from succeeding ornamentalpractices: I. The style of embellishmentwas very free. Neither the forms of the ornamentalfigures nor their placement within the phrase was stereotyped, nor were any signs placed in the music to indicate their use. Each manual contains a number of cadential patterns,apart from the genParis, 1926). De Bertrand objects to improvised ornamentation because it confuses the harmony, and makes a sad composition sound joyful. 6The term division is derived from diminutio, but this in itself is no proof that improvised diminutions were used in i6th-century England.

5

eralmelodicfigures,but the only unifying factor in these cadencesis the fact that they are all embellishments of the common melodic cadence formulasof the period. 2. The ornamental patterns, no matterhow ornatethey might be, always retainedthe balancedmelodic line and smoothly flowing rhythm characteristicof the composed music of the time. 3. Great care was taken to preserve all the importantvertical consonancesof the composition,no matter how free the linearand rhythmic detail might be between those consonances. 4. No difference was made between vocal and instrumentalmusic as far as the style of embellishment figureswas concerned.Writers were usually careful to state that their ornamentswere equally appropriate for voice and for wind and stringed instruments. The subject is treated in such a variety of ways by the theorists of the time, and with such diversity of styles and opinions, that it is useless to attempt to summarizethem all in one brief discussion. Some writers emphasizeone aspect, some another. On some questionsthere is complete disagreement.The detailsof the practice varied from time to time and from place to place, and even from performer to performer, since any really good virtuoso developed his own style of improvisationand embellishment.An attemptto synthesize these various ideas into one general statementof the practice as a whole could not but be misleading. The only way to give an accurate idea of the art of diminutionin its technical detailsis to give a summaryof each of the main sources describing it, including examples of the ornamental patternsand the instructions

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JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

given for applying these to actual musical compositions. To give some continuity to the musical examples as well as to furnish a logical basis for comparison, I have chosen from each writer examples of embellishments made upon the intervals of the ascending second and descending fifth, as well as samples of ornamented cadences from each manual that has included them. In these examples I have given first the unornamented form of the interval and then one or more florid versions. Wherever possible I have selected examples in which these embellishments are applied to actual musical compositions. The first published manual to teach the art of diminution is the Opera intitulata Fontegara by Sylvestro di Ganassi, published in Venice in The primary purpose of this I535.7 book is to teach the technique of flute playing, but it contains also a detailed description of the art of diminution. After discussing the basic problems of flute playing, including tonguing, Ganassi states firmly that skill in making diminutions is as essential to a good technique as tonguing-in fact that a skill in either one without the other is utterly useless. He then defines diminution as meaning simply to vary a thing (variare la cosa over processo).8 Ganassi's treatment of diminution is more intricate than that of the writers who follow him; and this, combined with the fact that he takes it for granted that this technique is 7Sylvestro di Ganassi dal Fontego, Opera inti-

tulata Fontegara La quale insegna a sonare di flauto ch5 tutta l'arte opportuna a esso instrumento massime il diminuire il quale sara utile ad ogni istrumento di fiato et chorde: et achora a chi si dileta di canto (Venice, facsimile reprint, Milan, 1934). 80P. cit., cap. ix.

1535;

an integral part of instrumental and vocal performance, would seem to indicate that it was an art thoroughly developed and taught orally before the publication of this book. His classification of the diminutions is very detailed, and although seemingly having little to do with the actual application of the diminutions to a composition, it does give a hint of the detail in which this art of improvised embellishment was worked out. To begin with, he finds three aspects from which to analyze every diminution: first, the individual note values it includes (minute); second, the melodic patterns used (vie); and third, the rhythmic proportions involved. In each of these aspects a diminution may be simple or composite." In Example 3a (p. 8), the diminutions are simple in minute (since they consist only of crome), simple in proportion (since the number of crome to a semibreve is constant), but composite in vie (because they are made up of different melodic motives). The diminutions in Example 3b are composite in all three ways. Ganassi is the only writer who uses proportions to any extent. His collection of ornamental patterns is divided into four large sections (Regola prima, Regola secunda, etc.) according to the rhythmic proportions involved. The first section has figures in the proportion of four semiminims to a semibreve; the second, five in the time of the preceding four; the third, six to the first four; and the fourth, seven to the four. He also explains how these proportions can be combined to make even more complicated relationships. In each of these sections he gives examples of patterns of ascending and descending seconds, thirds 9lbid., cap. ix-xii.

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fourths, and fifths on the various notes of the scale, with many different mannersof embellishingeach. He also includes in each section examples of the embellished unison and of several common cadence patterns together with their ornamental versions [Ex. I]. Ex. i

7

used in place of one semibreve note, it must begin and end on that note. Naturally the octave above or below any note may be substituted for it. In Example I, the diminution on the descending fifth from Regola terza, it will be seen that both the diminutions begin on g and pass through d Sylvestro di Ganassi from Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

tegoa Prima:A~ n - 1. endna

on

ZDA 8

a

%W2.8.

9.

2nd 6 egdla Secuntda :~Anding 7.pip" -,-• m-pr-• F-R-I•-3_. p•w p r,, Descending5th 6 Reola Tearza: fegola

Quarts:

Decen 1.

ing 5t

7 s.

.

6.

egol Prima: Cad ce

Reogla Terza:Cadence

-J

-

113W "..

Ganassi also gives definite rules for the application of these diminutions to a composition.1o The diminutions go beat by beat and mainly from semibreve to semibreve. It will be noticed in Example I that the interval is named according to the interval from semibreve to semibreve, regardless of the intervening notes, and that a new melodic pattern is chosen to fill in the semibreve unit. This new pattern does not necessarily follow the outline of the melodic unit for which it is being substituted. Whatever the pattern used, however, it must begin and end on the same notes as the pattern for which it is being substituted. If it is being 100p.

cit., cap. xiii, cap. xviii-xxii.

. i..I I I before going to the c, as does the pattern for which they are being used, although the intervening notes follow very different linear patterns. This is done to make sure that the counterpoint will still be correct as composed, and that the consonances placed on the beginning of the larger time units (in this case the semibreve) will be left intact. On the margin of the Regola prima section Ganassi sprinkles short musical quotations to which these diminutions can be fitted. They can be analyzed in different ways. In the one quoted in Example 2a, he finds five melodic intervals for which one of these diminutions can be substituted: I and z are ascending

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Ex. 2 a

1

Sylvestro di Ganassi from Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

3

,

bl

4 ?U% IV

.

S

bZ

lll

.

I~•

?sim~pl skips]

B •.

n,

I.•

ID

-•l

[with dimnimndiNsa]

seconds; 3 is a descending fourth; 4, a descending third; and 5 a descending fifth. Needless to say, other intervals also can be found in this example. Exceptions to the strict application of these embellishments are given. Ganassi approves of the filling in of a second, or a consonant skip, by stepwise motion, because it makes a smoother line [Ex. 2b]. In addition, any of the patterns may be altered by the use of syncopations. Ganassi comforts the performer who is afraid of making contrapuntal errors with his diminutions by the assurance that such errors will slip by unnoticed because of the speed of their passing. Ganassi also gives two examples of the application of these ornaments to a composed line [Ex. 3a, b]. In this case, one takes the interval from semibreve to semibreve as the clue for finding a suitable embellishment. Having determined the interval, one Ex. 3

should turn to the table of diminutions for this interval in the rhythmic proportion desired, and choose a suitable embellishment from those listed there. (For example, in Example 3a, the first interval from semibreve to semibreve is an ascending third; a pattern from the diminutions for the ascending third in Regola prima is chosen and substituted for the written notes.) Similarly, the other intervals making up the line are analyzed and diminutions applied, and a florid cadence pattern is substituted for that which appears in the written line. While Example 3a uses only the proportion of four semiminims to a semibreve, Example 3b includes patterns from all the proportions that Ganassi gives. It should be noted that in the fourth semibreve unit each minim has an embellishment of a different proportion, the first having seven crome to a minim and the Sylvestro di Ganassi from Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

[Composed

[wiih

line]

diminik.Anims]

b [Composedline]

5

6

7

5

RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC

second, five. Ganassi has carefully divided some of his diminutions into two units of a minim each, keeping the same proportions to a minim that the whole keeps to a semibreve, so that compound proportions like this may be constructed on minims as well as on semibreves. (See Example I, the first diminution for the ascending second from Regola secunda.) He explains, however, a more usual way of making diminutions upon notes of lesser or greater value than the semibreve. To make a diminution over a minim, a semibreve pattern is chosen and its time values halved. For making diminutions upon a breve, the time values in a semibreve pattern are doubled. It is easy to see how these diminutions would transform a composition not only melodically but also rhythmically. Most of the diminutions completely alter the direction of the melodic pattern for which they are substituted. Ganassi's practice of counting the interval from semibreve to semibreve and ignoring the intervening notes results in an even greater deviation from the written line than one would imagine to be possible, but by strictly keeping the beginning and the end of the interval written in the composition, the vertical consonances on the beginnings of the larger time units are kept intact. The rhythmic complexity of Ganassi's ornaments-a complexity involving not only changes in proportions but also intricate rhythmic patterns within these tempo changes -is amazing, and must have required a very accurate rhythmic sense on the part of the performer. It is difficult to say whether these examples are typical of a highly complicated general practice or whether they merely reflect Ganassi's own ingen-

9

uity in the creation of diminutions."1 Although none of the writers who follow him use proportions (except for the triple divisions of the beat) nor any such rhythmically elaborate ornamental patterns, Ganassi's influence must have been felt throughout the period; more than a century later the French theorist, Mersenne, mentions his book as a good source for diminutions. The next book discussing the art of improvised embellishment is the Compendium musices of Adrian Petit Coclicus, published in I552.12 In a chapter entitled De elegantia et ornatu, aut pronuntiatione in canendo, he gives a short summary of the art of coloratura ornamentation. Coclicus does not give a list of intervals with corresponding embellishments, but he does give a number of melodic phrases in simple and ornamented form. He also includes ornate versions of two two-part songs (without the simple versions) and simple and ornate versions of a fuga,13 but he does not give any specific rules as to the application of "Ganassi, in his Regola Rubertina (Venice, a 1542; facsimile reprint, Leipzig, 1924), manual for teaching the viola d'arco, mentions diminutions only briefly (cap. xviii). He fears that performers may avoid using them in cadences (where they are most common) because of technical difficulties, so he gives three examples in tablature showing how to make them without having to go from one string to another. The diminutions he gives here are very simple. 1"Adriano Petit Coclicus, Compendium musices descriptum ab Adriano Petit Coclico, discipulo Josquini des Pres (Nuremberg, See 1552). also M. van Crevel, Adrianus Petit Coclico, Leben und Beziehungen eines nach Deutschland emigrierten (The Hague, Josquinschiilers. 1940). Though Dr. van Crevel finds that many assertions made by Coclicus have no historical trustfoundation, the book is nevertheless worthy in all important particulars, and is still one of our sources of information on the music of the period. 13A transcription of the first six pages of the fuga may be found in Haas, Auffiihrungspraxis, p. 114.

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

IO

these embellishments to composed music. His ornaments have a much simpler plan that those of Ganassi and do not deviate so greatly from the unornamented line [Ex. 4]. Ex. 4

section of this book, which has already been mentioned, contains musical examples showing the different ways in which the violone may be played with the cembalo. The first Adrian Petit Coclicus from Compendium musices, 1552 -iE

Simplex

Etegans

Simplex canhiu

Eteganm

Coclicus claims to have been a pupil of Josquin des Prez, and prefaces his musical examples with the remark: Haec est prima clausula quam Josquinus docuit suos. He also states positively that the greatest masters of this type of florid singing come from the Netherlands, and he esteems no musician who is not a practitioner of coloratura singing. Whether or not his claims are true, his ornaments agree in style with those used in his time and his book undoubtedly had influence upon his contemporaries. Ex. 5

a

b

[simpe]

.

. . . . [with gloss]

[Eckfs

n-i

omitted

-in..g"t ._[simpe]

in origimAl]

Throughout the whole period we find great disagreement as to which voices in a polyphonic composition may be treated with free embellishments. Coclicus, the first to discuss this- question, firmly insists that the lowest voice must not be ornamented, since it is the fundamental upon which all the other parts rest. In I553, Diego Ortiz published his Tratado de glosas.14 The second uDiego

section, like Ganassi's Fontegara, gives examples and definite rules for the making of glosas upon a composition, and these rules are similar to those given by Ganassi. According to Ortiz there are three manners of making glosas,15 the first and best of which is to make a passage beginning and ending on the note to be embellished [Ex. 5a]. The second way, which allows more freedom, does not end the ornament on the note that is embellished, but approaches the next note stepwise [Ex. 5b]. Ortiz, like Ganassi, consolingly Diego Ortiz from Tratado de glosas, 1553

Ortiz,

Tratado

de

glosas

sobre

clausulas y otros generos de puntos en la

[with

!! glo's]

states that any resulting errors in counterpoint will not stand out because of the swiftness of their passing. The third way he lists is to leave the composition and go by ear, a method which he considers despicable because it distorts the original. Ortiz' ornamental patterns are much simpler than those of Ganassi. musica de violones (Rome, 1553; reprint, ed. Max Schneider, Berlin, 1913). "IOrtiz, op. cit., introduction to Book I.

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II

Except for a very few patterns with with several ornamental versions of six semiminims, his glosas all use four each [Ex. 6]. semiminims to a semibreve. His Ortiz' glosas tend to be composed rhythmic patterns are simple and his of a comparatively small number of melodic outlines more conventional stereotyped figures. In one importhan those of Ganassi. He gives many tant particular they differ from the more embellished cadences than orna- diminutions of Ganassi: they do not mented intervals, including many ignore intervening notes by going variations on all the cadence formulas from semibreve to semibreve but are commonly used in his time. Although made upon single notes (breve, seminone of the theorists give any defi- breve, and minim). Although the nite rules to the effect that cadences cadence formulas and glosas made are always to be ornamented, the upon scale passages are freer, this fact that all the manuals contain simplicity in the diminutions of cadence patterns set off from the melodic intervals would tend to other ornaments would suggest that make the performer hold more even at this date an ornamented closely to the composed line. Ortiz cadence was obligatory in correct gives no actual application of these solo performance. ornaments to polyphonic performAfter the cadences, Ortiz gives ance. The examples given in the several examples of seconds, thirds, second book, in which the violone fourths, and fifths, ascending and ornaments a line of a polyphonic descending in breves, semibreves, and composition while the composition is minims, as well as two scale patterns played complete on the cembalo, rising and falling through a fifth, show a freer application of the tech-

Ex. 6 Para

Diego Ortiz

$ubir Ia $econda de 2. 1.

from Tratado de glosas, 1553

inima 3.

4.

V

'[def arnikadin oriina1) ad Para b1rxar

tn

dyapente de Breve

Idefamilled inariminalj | H ~ore• dG " irre | ut I Clali~.as . mm.,.,; H' ,L ,b•

It

S6.,

CkuaS

npA

-

1D_ n "illla.sa

[#]

4.

h

12

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nique.16 As Ortiz himself says, when all parts are played on the cembalo the violone can be much more free than when an ensemble of stringed instruments is performing such a composition, for the cembalo insures that the harmonies will always be complete. The Practica musica of Hermann Finck17 contains a section entitled De arte eleganter et suaviter cantandi which discusses the technique of singing and its companion art of coloratura embellishment. Very sensibly Finck declares that in the final analysis the art of coloratura embellishment depends upon the aptitude and skill of the individual performer. He condemns those who pick up embellishments used by other performers and apply them indiscriminately to all parts of a composition. Ex. 7

Like Coclicus, Finck gives as examples only short melodic figures in simple and ornamented form, and common cadences with their florid versions. True to his convictions, he includes examples in clefs for all voices [Ex. 7]. Also included is a motet with all four voices embellished. Only the ornamented form, however, is given. The ornaments pass from voice to voice, and imitative entrances usually have similar coloratura passages. Of all the voices the bass has the fewest fast-moving ornaments, the soprano the most. There are dissonances that are not treated according to the common practice of Renaissance style, as well as parallel perfect consonances. (The latter are also present in the ornamented version of the fuga given by Coclicus.) That these are not careless Hermann Finck from Practica musica, 1556

38.

War

%wr

r

48.

?__ 51.

.

. !

Although he admits that opinions differ as to which voices should be ornamented, he is of the opinion that all should be-not simultaneously, but in turn, so that the embellishments can be heard distinctly. He also warns the musician that coloratura singing in choral performances (i.e., with more than one singer to a part) will always result in mistakes, since all will not sing the embellishments in the same way. 16Complete examples from Ortiz may be found in Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 94-99. 17Hermann Finck, Practica musica (Wittenberg, 1556). Liber quintus, De arte eleganter et suaviter cantandi (German translation with transcription of examples in Monatshefte fiir Musikgeschichte XI [1879], pp. 130-141, 151I64).

... I.,I-...

errors is shown by the fact that Finck admits their presence, stating that they occur only when their avoidance would result in an awkward vocal movement. Among the letters of Camillo Maffei of Solofra (1562) 18 is a long letter to the "Illustrissimo Conte d'Alta Villa" which contains an excellent discussion of the principles of voice production, naturally including instructions for making florid embellishments upon polyphonic vocal music. For these embellish"1Gio. Camillo Maffei da Solofra, Delle lettere del S. R. Gio. Camillo Maffei da Solofra. Libri due. Dove tra gli altri bellissimi pensieri . . . Raccolti per Don Valerio de' Paoli da Limosano (Naples, 1562).

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13

ments Maffei uses the term passaggio may be used before arriving at the -a term that becomes the usual cadence. In his madrigal the cadence designation for these added rapid in each voice is embellished when scale passages in the Baroque period the voices cadence at different times -but his passaggi differ not at all [Ex. 8b]. from the diminutions given by his 2. In one madrigal not more than contemporaries. Although the actual four or five passaggi should be used, number of these passaggi is very for the ear may become satiated with small, the author gives definite rules too much sweetness. Again, Maffei for their application to a polyphonic must mean this rule to apply only vocal composition and includes a to the individual voices. In his exfour-part madrigal with all voices ample the soprano and alto each ornamented to illustrate their proper make six passaggi, the tenor four, use. The unornamented form of the and the bass five. madrigal is not given, but the place3. Passaggi should be made on the ment of the passaggi can be clearly penultimate syllable of the word so seen, as they consist mainly of crome that the end of the passaggio will while the basic note values of the coincide with the end of the word. madrigal itself are obviously the This, however, is not always the case semibreve and minim [Ex. 8]. in his examples. Examples of passaggi

Ex. 8 a [claf omitted in original)

per

sal.

r

po

!.

Camillo Maffei, 1562

-

......:_

bra,nar o

o

per aol' o

per om - bra

Maffei's rules19 may be briefly summarized as follows: i. Passaggi should be used only at cadences, although some ornaments from one note to another (inserted within a definite melodic interval) 19Maffei,

op. cit., pp. 58-61.

bra,

Donper

am -

rao,Don.Don -

4. Passaggi sound best when made upon the vowel o. They are used predominantly on o in his examples, but are also found on other vowels. 5. In an ensemble of four or five soloists the passaggi must be made by each in turn. Otherwise, the

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harmony ceases to be clear. While these rules give an insight into some of the problems faced in embellished solo performance, they cannot be taken as absolute. Since exceptions to them occur in the author's own examples, it is not to be expected that they would apply Ex. 9 Essempio

compositions. Each of these diminutions consists of notes of the same rhythmic denomination, and there is little variety in the melodic figures used. Instead of the long ornamented cadence patterns presented by the preceding authors, Dalla Casa gives examples of what he calls tremoli Giralamo dalla Casa

from II vero modo di diminuir,1584 de semihreve de grado de semicrama

on precedingnote]

minima de quinta Essempio de [d.ininvAim.

Essempio de octave de minima

Essempio de tremoligroppizafi de minima

Ess•nipi

de groppo bthtuta de semibreve

strictly to vocal ensemble perform- groppizati and groppi battute on ance everywhere. ascending steps on both the semiIn 1584, Giralamo dalla Casa pub- breve and the minim [Ex. 9]. This lished his manual entitled II vero is the first suggestionwe find of the modo di diminuir,20 a book that stereotyping and naming of ornamarks the end of the purely Renais- mental patterns, a tendency that sance style of ornamentation. This hints at the coming Baroque pracmanual includes a list of ornamenta- tice. It is especially significant that tions of all the intervals of the scale these appearin place of the cadence within the time values of a semibreve patternsheretoforelisted in the manand a minim. Here for the first time uals, since I7th-century usage came appear diminutions on the skips of to regard the groppo, from which the sixth, the seventh, and the octave, came our modern trill, as obligatory which may imply that these were at the cadence. becoming more common in written Although he gives no definiterules 2Giralamo dalla Casa, II vero modo dt diminuir, con tutte le sorte di stromenti di fiato e corde e di voce humana (Venice, I584). 2 vols.

for the application of his diminutions, Dalla Casa includes numerous examples of Italian madrigals and French chansons to which he has

RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC

applied these diminutions. Compositions of well-known composers of the time, including Palestrina, de Rore, Jannequin, and Lasso, are presented with these ornamental figures added, so that by comparing them with the originals one can obtain a clear idea of the musical results of this practice. In his first examples of applied ornamentation, Dalla Casa uses crome, semicrome, treplicate (24 notes to a semibreve) and quadlatter ruplicate (biscrome)--these two appearing for the first time in his manual-in duple and triple divisions, each ornamental figure moving evenly in notes of the same denomination. At the end he gives a few in which the note values are varied, and this he considers the true style

15

of diminution. Even when the note values are mixed, however, each smaller figure consists of similar values. As in Maffei's examples, the basic contours of the composed lines are clearly preserved, the ornamentation being applied more obviously in that the regular rhythm and fast movement of the ornamental passages set them off from the composed line, which moves in slower and more varied time values. Nor are the words obscured, for the florid figures are used mainly on the long syllables. Although most of Dalla Casa's examples of diminutions are made upon the soprano parts, he includes in his work a version of Alla dolc' ombra by Cipriano de Rore, in which all the voices are ornamented in

MadrigalAlla dolc'ombra Ex.

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16

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

turn. Like Maffei, Dalla Casa does not discuss the suitability of this ornamentation of all voices, but takes its practice so much for granted that he includes a sample without any further explanation. A comparison of the original21 with Dalla Casa's ornamented version will show how greatly the general effect of the composition was changed in this type of solo performance [Ex. io]. In this presentation of the madrigal usually one voice at a time has the ornamental figures, and, while the different voices do not imitate each other's ornaments exactly, there is enough of a rhythmic and melodic similarity between the successive embellishments in the different voices to give a sense of balance and unity to the whole. Such solo performance must have demanded great cleverness in ensemble work as well as a facile imagination and improvisatory skill. An interesting aspect of the example (which cannot be given in its entirety here for lack of space) is the fact that when in the written version a section of the composition is repeated, the performers repeat it with different ornaments. At this time, as in later Baroque opera, the disguising of the structural elements of a composition rather than their emphasis was considered the earmark of a subtle and sophisticated performance. In these diminutions by Dalla Casa we see the end of the purely Renaissance style of ornamentation. Although there was no sudden change from Renaissance to Baroque style in the practice of improvised ornamentation during the period from I580 to I630, which Manfred Bukofzer designates as the early nThe original is taken from the Smith College Archives edition of the Madrigals of Cipriano de Rore for 3 and 4 voices, ed. Gertrude Parker Smith (Northampton, Mass., 1945).

Baroque period,22 the whole technique gradually became transformed. Manuals teaching the old style, manuals teaching the new style, and those containing a mixture of the two were all used simultaneously. In the new style of ornamentation, emotional expression was stressed. Vocal and instrumental practices became separated. Short ornamental patterns, used to stress certain notes in a phrase and accentuate their emotional effect, were introduced. The florid figures which had been used to spin out a line (passaggi) were retained, but they acquired a new musical character in keeping with the new style of composition. The rhythms became jerky and discontinuous, and the consonances no longer came at the point where they were written but were often replaced by a dissonance on the strong part of the beat.23And, finally, the tempo and emotional content of a composition, rather than the skill of the performer, were expected to govern the type of ornaments used. The vocal application of this new ornamental practice became known in Italy as gorgia and it was in the Italian monodic style that it had its first expression. But, although this new type takes precedence in Baroque music, the passaggi, which are the continuation of the old principle of diminution, are retained in the improvised cadenzas and free improvised embellishments of all Baroque solo work in both instrumental and vocal performance.24 2Manfred F. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York, I947),

p. 17.

"An interesting example of this applied to polyphonic music is G. M. Bovicelli's arrangement of the top voice of a madrigal by Palestrina, quoted in Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 122-125. "Putnam C. Aldrich, "Bach's Technique of Transcription and Improvised Ornamentation," The Musical Quarterly XXXV (1949), pp. 26-35.

RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC Although when taken in chronological order these sources seem to show a more or less direct line of evolution, it is dangerous to place them within any definite pattern of development. It must be remembered that these very few manuals were published for public consumption, while perhaps every great virtuoso and teacher had his own type of ornamentation and method of teaching. Also, older manuals were used along with the more recent ones. The one vital point, so seldom recognized, is the fact that in these discussions of the art of improvised embellishment each author takes it for granted that an understanding of this technique is essential for any type of respectable performance; it is probable that many of these manuals were intended to instruct the amateur musician in this art, which was an integral part of the professional's technique. There is disagreement among musical scholars today as to whether or not it is necessary to apply diminutions to a performance of Renaissance music to make it authentic. There can be no question but that throughout the Renaissance they were applied in all parts in instrumental and vocal solo performance, and that virtuoso performers both used them and taught their use. Ganassi and Dalla Casa were both town musicians of note in Venice, and their duties included playing instrumental arrangements of vocal compositions as well as instructing those citizens who desired to learn instrumental techniques.25 Ortiz was maestro de capilla to the Duke of Alba, the Viceroy of Naples. Their insistence that an understanding of 'Carl

Gustav

Anthon,

Music

and Musicians

in Northern Italy during the Sixteenth Century (Harvard University Dissertation, unpublished), pp. 237-240.

1943;

17

diminutions was an essential part of technique sprang from practical professional experience. On the other hand, Zarlino, who was a contemporary of Dalla Casa in Venice, disapproved of those who added anything to a composition when they performed it.26 Vicentino, another outstanding I6th-century theorist, approves of diminutions only when used in compositions of more than four parts-since the fifth part can fill in any harmony note which the diminution might pass by too quickly--or when the parts are played as written on instruments and the diminutions made only by the singers. He also warns against the use of diminutions in sad music such as lamentations, because their fast movement destroys the mood of the music by making it sound happy.27 Finck and Coclicus were both composers and teachers, and both approved heartily of coloratura performance of compositions. Zacconi, writing later in the century, admits that many composers avoid having their works performed by coloratura performers because they prefer to hear what they themselves have written.28 Dr. Alfred Einstein states that "the more the madrigal becomes expressive in detail, the more this mechanical ornamentation becomes destructive." 29 Certainly it is true that as composers became more concerned with the subjective expression shown in their works they were more careful to write in all the details, thereby leaving less freedom to the performer. It was not until "Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558), Lib. III, p. 46. 2Nicola Vicentino, L'antica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (Rome, 1555), cap. xxxxii; cf. also note 5, supra. 2sF. P. Ludovico Zacconi, Prattica di musica (Venice, i594), P. 6i. "Dr. Alfred Einstein in a letter to the author, Jan. 22, 1950.

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JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

late in the i8th century, however, that all authority was taken from the performer and placed in the hands of the composer. Whether the embellished forms of these compositions violated the composers' ideals or not, improvised embellishment was definitely a part of Renaissance performance practice. As such, it should be included in our present-day performances of Renaissance music,30 and should be included also in courses presenting Renaissance music. On the other hand, a ornaments performance without could not be considered incorrectespecially when, as is usually the case today, more than one person performs on one part. An instrumental performance of a motet or a madrigal with diminutions applied to the individual lines would give a good indication of the beginnings of instrumental chamber music. I feel that the diminutions are especially applicable to instrumental music in modern performance, because instrumentalists are, on the whole, better able than vocalists to cope with the technical difficulties. Few singers today, especially altos and basses, are capable of singing these I6th-century florid embellishments. A vocal performance, however, in which one or two soloists sang embellished lines while the chorus sang the other parts as written would be effective, and in keeping with I6th-century practice. In view of the great variety of opinions held even by teachers of the art, it is difficult to say to just what degree these diminutions should be applied when they are ?For an excellent discussion of modern performance of Renaissance music, see Manfred F. Bukofzer, "On the Performance of Renaissance Music," Proceedings of the Music Teachers National Association, series 36 (I941), PP. 225-235.

used. Dr. Alfred Einstein is of the opinion that the teaching manuals show an exaggerateduse of them,3" and this may well be true. It seems to me that there can be no doubt that cadences were always embellished when ornamentation was used. There really can be no sure rule as to the use of ornamentation, for freedom and variety are two of the main characteristics of I6thcentury improvised embellishment. From the many attempts made by theorists to curb their use, it is evident that diminutions were often too freely used by performers. A properly controlled use of diminutions does give a sense of beauty to a line-not, it is true, a beauty of subjective expression,but an objective sort of beauty produced by the accumulationof florid and ornate melodic movement. Equally importantwith the aestheticeffect is the historicalsignificanceof this art in the developmentof musicalstyle. Melodic motives common in the style of the whole Baroque era are found in these improvisedembellishments long before they appear in written compositions. The sudden changesfrom slow to fast note values which these ornamentsbring about in the course of a melodic line foreshadow the discontinuous rhythm that is a specialcharacteristicof early Baroque compositions. The freer dissonancetreatment found in these diminutions no doubt made composers aware of new musical possibilities. It is only throughthe study of these ornamentationmanualsthat we can become aware of the technical skills possessedby these I6thcentury performers,for little of the polyphonic music which comes down to us in written form gives 81Dr. Alfred Einstein, in the letter referred to above (note 29).

RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC

any hint of what the virtuosi of this period were capable of doing. Last, and perhaps most important, these manuals helped the average musician to develop a composition technique-a skill in making variations upon a given melodic line. For not only did the performer learn the ornaments and apply them by improvisation in performance, but also the less skilled players and singers prepared their parts in advance, writing out the diminutions and cadences and practicing them before trying them in public. Consciously or uncon-

19

sciously, such a practice, based on varying the ways in which a specific melodic interval can be embellished, leads to an awareness of the elements of which a melodic line is constructed and a technical skill in creating an ornate line from a few simple melodic skips. And any art that develops a sense, of musical construction along with a techhique for producing that construction cannot but be important in the development of musical style itself. Cambridge,Massachusetts