Immigrant representation in Korean Cinema

Thesis for the Degree of Master of Arts in Korean Studies

Representation of Immigrants and their Relations with Korean Host Nationals in Korean Cinema

Ines Miranda de Dios

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Table of Contents Table of Contents..................................................................................................2 Chapter 1: Introduction.........................................................................................3 Aims and Objectives.........................................................................................4 Concepts and Definitions..................................................................................5 Theoretical Framework and Methodology........................................................6 Power, Social Hierarchies and Inequality in Korea...........................................9 Organization of the Thesis..............................................................................10 Significance of the Study................................................................................10 Chapter II: Literature Review.............................................................................11 South Korean Transition towards a Migrant Country......................................11 Media Representation......................................................................................11 Representations of Immigrant Minorities in Media.........................................12 Representation of Immigrants in South Korean Media...................................13 Chapter III: Marriage Migration Discourse in South Korean Cinema................14 Story and Narrative of the Films.....................................................................14 Film Analysis..................................................................................................15 Framing narratives about migrant marriage women....................................15 Intercultural relations in the film discourse.................................................17 Representation of the Korean ‘host’ nationals.............................................19 Chapter IV: Discourse on Migrant Workers in South Korean Cinema.................19 Story and Narrative of the Films.....................................................................20 Film Analysis..................................................................................................20 Framing narratives about migrant workers.................................................20 Intercultural relations in the film discourse.................................................21 Representation of the Korean ‘host’ nationals.............................................22 Chapter V: Conclusion........................................................................................23 Bibliography........................................................................................................26

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Chapter 1: Introduction Korea has faced in the last decades a strong influx of foreigners. It has become one of the most significant immigrant destinations in East Asia. The number of foreigners in Korea 1 has augmented considerably in the last two decades. In 2013, number of immigrants registered reached 1,486,367 what constituted 2.96% of the whole population. 2 This phenomenon has become especially relevant not just for the academia but also for the media. Images and stories in the media depicting immigrants have become more frequent. Korean Cinema has not been less. In the recent years, many films dealing with the issue of migration in Korea have been released. The films that talk about immigration can clearly be divided thematically in two types of migrant narratives: manual workers and migrant brides. This factor has influenced the structure of my thesis. Acknowledging the role of media as a ‘social practice’ (Wodak, 2001) 3, this thesis is concerned with studying the representation of immigrants and their relationship with the Korean national community in Korean films. If we accept that, then, media representations about migration phenomenon in Korea reflect also the dominant beliefs in Korean society about the issue. Therefore, it is worth questioning: “What is behind these films? What is the knowledge hidden behind those films?” From my observation after watching the films 4, I suggest that these films reveal and reinforce hierarchies of power that are presented in Korean society where immigrants are situated in the bottom of the hierarchy. And consequently, many of the relations that the immigrants establish with the host community (in the films) are represented in terms of power

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In this thesis I use Korea in reference to South Korea.

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Statistical data obtained from http://kosis.kr and the Monthly Statistical Report from the Korea

Immigration Information Service (April 2013) from http://www.immigration.go.kr 3

Media can influence, shape or determine social knowledge (set of beliefs, cognitions, attitudes

and values shared by the member of a community) and, at the same time, it is influenced by it. 4

I am referring to the films used as sample in my research.

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relations. Moreover, those nationals that establish close relationships (romance, friendship, etc.) with immigrants are also alienated within the Korean society.

Aims and Objectives The main purpose of the present thesis is to analyze Korean response to the recent immigration phenomena through the analysis of fictional representations of ethnic minorities in cinema. I divided focus of this thesis in three main streams of interest: the immigrants, the host community and their intercultural relations. And, consequently, I have established four main research questions to guide my study. I will proceed to enumerate them. 1. How are ethnic minorities represented in recent Korean cinema? Through the first research question the study will try to focus on what kind of images and discourses does Korean cinema use to portray immigrants and to address the issue of immigration. It will explore which themes and images are repeated. 2. What kind of relationships do Koreans establish with the immigrant community? This second area of interest is the representation of the relationships established between the host community and the immigrant counterpart. And what kind of response we can extract from the relations between host and stranger. 3. How are ‘host’ Koreans that establish close relationships with the immigrants represented in these films? I am interested in the characteristics that Koreans have when they establish close relationships with the immigrants (romance, friendship, marital union). I focus in this kind of relationships because they are recognized to have a higher level of interdependency and stronger influence (Kelley 1983 cited in Kollock, P. and Blumstein, P. 1988). Therefore I consider them a much more interesting relationship in order to understand the social ideologies about intercultural relations.

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4. Finally, what kind of meanings do filmic discourses express? This is my last enquiry. It is concern to discover social ideologies about hierarchies of power in the films. It is thought as a compounding question that tries to recapitulate the more important aspects of the portrayal of immigrants in the films.

Objectives: 

Study the importance of cinema as a medium to transmit, reinforce, and create social ideologies (Knowledge) about a social phenomenon.

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Discover dominant ideologies about migration and multiculturalism in Korea.

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Describe how immigrants (migrant brides and manual workers) are portrayed in the cinema and analyze the stereotypes that they create or sustain.

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Analyze the representation of the intercultural relations (relationships between Korean nationals and immigrants) and also the self-imagination of Korean national when those relationships are close in matter.

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Explore the relationships between a particular form of popular culture, cinema, and wider issues such as power, inequality and hierarchies.

Theoretical Framework and Methodology Theoretical Framework In this section I am concerned with explaining the theoretical framework that I will be using develop my thesis which lies in the field of Cultural Studies, an interdisciplinary field “concerned with the analysis of cultural forms and activities in the context of the relations of power which condition their production, circulation, deployment and effects” (Bennet, 1998:60). I will take Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as the theoretical framework of my thesis. CDA focuses on studying how discourse (language) reproduces power, dominance and inequality in society. The discourses analyzed in this research are South Korean film dealing

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with the portrayal of immigrants. This ‘critical’ framework looks at these texts from a “skeptical” perspective by “not taking things as granted, opening up to complexity [and] self reflection” to manifest hidden structures of power and ideology. 5 Therefore, I analyze these films to uncover power relations, social hierarchies as well as means of oppression and inequality. Van Dijk’s framework establishes CDA as divided in three dimensions: Social Analysis, Discourse Analysis and Social Cognition. And all of them are necessary to take in account to understand the meaning in the discourse.

Figure 1 : Schema of Teun A. van Dijk framework for the discourse analysis as composed of three dimensions: social analysis, discourse analysis and social cognition.

Teun A. van Dijk states that “discourse, communication and other forms of action are monitored by social cognitions” that, at the same time, “are share and presupposed by group members” (van Dijk, 1993: 257). Those cognitions or ‘mental representations’ are shaped by shared knowledge, attitudes and ideologies of a group and they are decisive factors in the production and interpretation of the text (1993). 5

It refers to Wodak’s concept of critical in an interview. What is Critical Discourse Analysis?

Ruth Wodak in Conversation with Gavin Kendall. Forum: Qualitative Social Research. Volume 8, No.2, Art.29 – May 2007

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Therefore, the purpose of approaching South Korean films about immigrants from the CDA analytical point of view is to understand how Koreans act, speak, write about or understand ‘Others’ and their relation with them. And, it also intends to study how does these films reveal, produce and reproduce social hierarchies of power and inequality presented in the society. Film Analysis Framework For my analysis of the films, I will take into account Chatman’s ideas of film narrative structure (in Peña Timon, V., 2006), combined with ideas of ‘Bull’s eye schema’ (Bordwell, D., 1991) and the concept of media framing (Entman, R., 1993, Scheufele, D. A., 1999). Seymour Chatman’s narrative theory divides the narrative structure in two: the story (‘what’ or macro-elements) and the discourse (‘how’, the way in which the story is told, the micro-elements). In order to discover what the narration means, it is required to analyze both aspects of the narrative (in its totality). Therefore, a better understanding of the film meaning is achieved by both, the content (events, plot types, characters, settings…) and the expressive (the elements of the image) spheres of the films (Peña Timon, V., 2006). Although I take both aspects in account I will give much weight to the first one. I depart my analysis from a ‘Bull’s-Eye text schemata’ (Bordwell, D., 1999). This schema “[puts] characters at the center and makes their traits, actions, and relationships the most important interpretative cues. Less salient […] are the characters’ surroundings […] the diegetic world they inhabit” (Idem) and the last one as is represented in the figure 2, it would be the ‘cinematography’ 6. Following that, my analysis of the films will be focused primarily on the characters, their traits and actions, their dialogues. I will also take into account what are their surroundings. This schema reflects the viewer’s interpretation process that considers characters as a meaningful referential point (Bordwell, D., 1998). The third level will receive less importance.

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For ‘cinematography’ I understand David Bordwell conception that includes the camerawork,

editing process and use of music.

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For structuring the analysis of the representation of the immigrants, I will use Robert Entman’s concept of frame (Entman, R., 1993). Films “select some aspects of the [immigrant] reality and make them more salient in a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation and/or treatment recommendation” (Entman, R., 1993). Methodology This thesis is based in a qualitative methodology through critical analysis. It is based mainly on the analysis of primary sources (mainly films and films scripts). The selected films treat in their narratives issues of migration or that depicts immigrant within their major characters. I scope the films within a frame time between 2000 and 2012. The main reason why I chose this time framing is the fact that migration to South Korea grew more rapidly after 2000s. Therefore, I assumed that during that time a major media concern about the figure of the immigrant can be observed. I also depend much on reviewing secondary sources to achieve a better understanding of the film text as discourse and about the representation of immigrants and intercultural relations in South Korean cinema.

Power, Social Hierarchies and Inequality in Korea I argued that the representation of immigrants in the selected films reveals hierarchical structures presented in South Korean society where immigrant minorities seem to occupy the bottom of this hierarchic system. In this part I discuss the formation of group-based hierarchical system and inequality in the society. The purpose is to understand this hierarchy system, how it is ordered, and also, to expound upon the ideologies in Korean society that enhance this hierarchical structure of the society. Social Domination Theory (SDT) provides an explanation to the group-based inequalities (especially in terms of power) presented in the society and, cogently, reflected in the

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films. Forms of oppression, discrimination, isolation and abuse toward members of selected groups on base of social characteristics –race, ethnicity, gender, class, and status- are vivid in many societies. SDT argues that “human societies organize themselves as group-based hierarchies” (Sidanius and Pratto, 2012: 1). In this part I discuss SDT establishes that there are three systems of stratification: agebased system, gender-based system, and arbitrary-based system. So, society do a unequal distribution of social resources (power) depending on age, gender or a different “socially constructed category”-race, ethnicity, class, status, religion (2012). These hierarchies are influenced by hierarchy-enhancing ideologies 7 and they are called Legitimizing Myths (LMs) (Sidanius and Pratto, 1999, 2012). I will expound upon the ideologies (or LMs) that I consider affect the enhancement of hierarchies of power in Korean society. Korea is a highly stratified society (age, gender, class, status, and ethnicity). I consider Confucianism and Korean nationalism have affected hierarchical relations in the society.

Organization of the Thesis [In this section, I provide a description of how the thesis is structured. And also provide a brief description of each of the six chapters.]

Significance of the Study This paper aims contribute to the field of international and Korean cultural studies by the study of minority representations in recent South Korean cinema. It seeks to increase the increase the literature in English of a field that has not been widely developed.

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SDT defines legitimizing myths as consensually shared ideologies (including stereotypes,

attributions, cosmologies, predominant values or discourses, shared representations, etc.) that organize and justify social relations.” (Idem, 2012)

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It analyzes popular social issues such as migration and multiculturalism through media representation of immigrants in the S. Korean context. It does not just explore the image of immigrants but also the representation of intercultural relations between host community and immigrants. It offers a different perspective in the study of immigrant portrayal in Korea written by a sojourner. It pretends to aware the readers about the role of media, concretely cinema, in reinforcing pre-existing views, dominant beliefs and ideologies.

Chapter II: Literature Review This chapter will provide a general background of three dimensions related with the thesis and that I considered essential in order to pave the way for a clearer understanding of this thesis.

South Korean Transition towards a Migrant Country I will approach here the immigration phenomena in South Korea. I provide an historical background of the incoming migratory flows to South Korea, and what are the most remarkable tendencies in terms of migration in the country and South Korean transformation in a multiethnic society. I explore first the phenomenon of labor migration. I focus more attention in the figure of manual workers as they compound the bigger number. I explore the factors influencing the origin of labor migration in South Korea and the change in the work permit system for foreigners. I also talk about the major demographic factors affecting the phenomenon of migration in SK: aging society and low fertility rate. Due to this, migrant settlement in Korea will be soon a requirement “in order to secure a stable supply of labor” (Kim, 2009: 7). Then, I explain about the phenomenon of marriage migration in South Korea and the impact that is having in the ethnic landscape of South Korea.

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Media Representation This second part provides a background of the previous studies accomplished in the field of cultural studies and the role of visual representations as ideological meanings. I review authors influencing the field of cultural studies (Foucault, Gramscy, Teun Van Dijk and Stuart Hall among others). This part tries to explain the role of media and popular culture as mediator of meanings, dominant ideologies, beliefs and practices and as edifier of ideas and experience for the audience (Sturken and Cartwright, 2000; Silverstone, 1999; Potter, 2008). I discuss also the role of image and cinema as language, as a mediator of meaning and therefore as a discursive tool (Zunzunegui, 2003). Consequently, I refer to the concept of representation in Stuart Hall work (1997). The concepts and theoretical aspects of representation, language, discourse and knowledge (ideologies) constitute the essential foundation of this thesis.

Representations of Immigrant Minorities in Media The following section reviews some of the previous works done about the representation of immigrants in media mainly focusing in European and American settings (Hartmann and Husband, 1974; Twitchin, 1988; Mastro and Greenberg, 2000; Van dijk, 2000; Reislig and Wodak, 2001; Henry and Tator, 2002; Monk-Turner et al., 2010). These works had special importance under covering under-representation of ethnic minorities in media, as well as, the way in which media produces negative stereotypes of those groups. There has being done many research about the representation of immigrant minorities in European Cinema (Berghahn and Sternberg, 2010; Betts, 2009; Likidis, 2009; Loshitzky, 2010; King and Wood, 2001; Gorturk, 2003; Rings, 2008; Van Liew, 2010; Rings, 2012). The immigration cinema in Europe differs from one country to another depending on the country’s experience with immigration. While some countries in Europe has an old history of migration in relation with their colonies (France, Britain or Germany), there are other countries where migration is a modern phenomena (Spain, Greece or Italy). Countries with

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older migrant tradition have second generation and third generation immigrant directors and screenwriters that center their preoccupations in problems of identity and definitions of the ‘third space’ (Betts, 2009; Gokturk, 2003). The field has been widely studied in Spain due to the numerous filmic discourses constructed in the last decade around the figure of the immigrant (Davies, 2006; Ballesteros, 2001, 2005, 2006, 2009; Santolalla, 2005; Gordillo, 2007; Basu, 2010, 2011; Oliver, 2011). They are important for my thesis as many of them concern about the representation of intercultural relations between immigrants and Spaniards. Swagata Basu (2010) argues that relations between Spaniards and immigrants are constructed upon similarities within the diverse (similar experience or similar social positions). Inmaculada Gordillo (2007) discuss that most of the relations are unsuccessful due to the ethnocentric view, the unequal position of the characters, and the cultural and social prejudices. Amy Dolin Oliver (2011) these relations shows us “level of inequality and/or hierarchy” and that can discover “social structure in use by the dominant culture”.

Representation of Immigrants in South Korean Media This section of the chapter discuss the research done till the date about migrant representation in Korean media and Korean cinema. It remains as a highly unexplored issue in Asian countries. The literature regarding this area is much more reduced in the case of Asia and more specifically South Korea. Furthermore, most of the undergone researches have been done in Korean while very few academic papers are available in English language (Joo, 2012; Sumi Kim, 2009; Epstein, 2008). Jaewoo Joo (2012)’s PhD dissertation titled as “The discursive construction of discrimination” is an in-depth study of the representation of ethnic migrant minorities in South Korean Public Service Broadcasting (PBS).

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Stephen Epstein (2008) decides to center in the representation of ethnic minorities in entertainment media, more specifically in the encounter with Vietnamese minority through recent produced television dramas and talk-shows. Sumi Kim’s (2009) research in two South Korean films Failan (Dir. Hae-sung Song, 2001) and Wedding Campaign (Dir. Byeong-guk Hwang, 2005). Jin Hui Cho (2012) decides to make an overview of the representation of migrant women in South Korean cinema. She center her research in four films Failan (Dir. Hae-sung Song, 2001); Wedding Campaign (Dir. Byeong-guk Hwang, 2005); Delighted? Delighted! (Dir. Sang-ho Yuk, 2010); and Punch (Dir. Han Lee, 2011). Films dealing directly with the issue of foreign workers in Korea have also attracted the attention of media researchers (Chan-Youl Ryu, 2010; Hyeon-gyeong Jeong, 2011; Myeong-Jin Park, 2011).

Chapter III: Marriage Migration Discourse in South Korean Cinema This chapter will mark the beginning of the analysis that will continue in the next chapter. The present section deal with one of the migration phenomena that are shaping South Korea from a mono-ethnic society to a multicultural one: international marriage migration. Thus, this part of the chapter will pursue to analyze how international marriage and marriage migration has been represented in national cinema. ‘How are migrant wives represented in recent South Korean cinema? What kind of frames do filmic discourses express? How are their relations with the host community? How are Koreans imagined in their dialogue with the immigrant?’ are the main research questions motivating this section.

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Story and Narrative of the Films In this section, I will provide a brief description of the film to contextualize the stories before starting to analyze migrant representation and their relations with Korean nationals to which I proceed in the next part. I chose five films released between 2000 and 2013 that approach the topic of marriage migration: Failan (Dir. Hae-sung Song, 2001), Innocent Steps (Dir. Young-hoon Park, 2005), Wedding Campaign (Dir. Byeong-guk Hwang, 2005), Punch (Dir. Han Lee, 2011) and Mai Ratima (Dir. Ji-tae Yu, 2012). I chose these films because they deal with the topic as a central theme of the narrative or they include portrayals of marriage migrant women as relevant characters in the story. [I did not include the plot description for this summarize version of the thesis]

Film Analysis Framing narratives about migrant marriage women In this part of the chapter I discuss the representation of immigrants. I describe six frames through which migrant women are portrayed in the selected films: as powerless and subjects of male/state power, as mothers/daughters-in-law/wives, as ethnic other, as sexualized other, as commodity, and as runaway brides. 1) Migrant brides: powerless and ‘subjects’ of male/state power One of the most significant aspects of the representation of immigrant brides in these films is their position as subordinates. They are depicted as powerless characters that suffer in many occasions the dominant power of Korean males. They are discriminated and disempowered not just as non-nationals but also as females. Their powerlessness is also asserted through their position as ‘power subject’ 8. In many occasions they suffer from different kinds of power and authority (coercive, legitimate, 8

‘Power subject’ is referred to the person whose actions/decisions/life is being

influenced/controlled by other person/organization who is the ‘power holder’. (Wrong, 2009)

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authority…). Whether it is the fear of punishment (coercion) or the legitimacy of the power source, migrant women are mostly represented as submissive, dependant and lacking of power in contrast to Korean national males. 2) Feminization of Migration: Mothers/ Daughters-in-law/ Wives Another of the frames used in representing migrant women is through the role of mothers, daughters in law and wives. Those frames support what is called ‘feminization of migration’, major discourse in the representation of migrant women. In the case of these films, immigrant women are represented frequently in gendered role positions such as wives, daughters-in-law or mothers. In South Korea, women migration is seen primary in terms of marriage migration. Whether is fake (Failan, Innocent Steps) or legitimate (Wedding Campaign, Punch or Mai Ratima), in film discourse marriage appears to be the only way to migrate to Korea for women. Those women are “talked about as meeting the need for specific (gender) roles that contemporary South Korean women have fought and refuse to accept” (Kim, Sumi 2009). Migrant brides, besides their role as family reproduction, also work. A woman who marries across national borders may enter labor market. All of them are portrayed as assimilable labor force. 3) The ethnic ‘Other’ In most of the films, their ethnic ‘otherness’ is ascribed to language. Although ethnic distinctiveness is not solely attached to one characteristic, when the physical differences are not so evident, language became an important factor in making difference. Therefore, the language is used in these films to make a distinction of who is and who is not Korean, a distinction from them “the other”. Absences of knowledge of Korean, different accent, strange and slow pronunciation, talking in different language are characteristics used to stress their stranger hood. 4) Sexualized ‘Other’ In most of the films, migrant women are seen as a represented as objects of male sexual desires. Qualities of beauty and sexual attractiveness are emphasized.

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5) Migrant brides as a commodity In many of the films migrant women are treated as a commodity rather than a person. They are treated as object with price, they are told in terms of money. Migrant women are usually being extorted by brokers or commercialized.

Intercultural relations in the film discourse This section deals with the second research question: How are represented the relations between the migrant brides and the host community? The expression intercultural relations to refer to the relations established between individuals from different cultures or ethnicities. More specifically in this case, the relations established between the migrant brides and Korean nationals (in the films). I will first describe what kinds of relations do immigrant women establish with Korean nationals. I analyze the migrant and host relations in a broad sense in negative and positive relations. Negative relations are considered here as those that involve conflictive, hostile or abusive attitudes and actions while positive relations are conceptualize as those that have a friendly, understanding or favorable attitude. After, I discuss what kind of patterns the stranger-host relations follow exclusionist, assimilationist or pluralist. In the case of migrant women, the pattern of the relations tends to assimilation. I also review the concept of social action and social relations for a better understanding of the topic. Social relations (relationship) occur when the individual’s actions (that have attached a meaning and an intention) of a plurality have effects on each others’ actions. The typology of ‘social relationships’ can be very diverse: conflict, hostility, sexual attraction, friendship, loyalty, economic exchange (and other not included like romance, institutional…) (Znaniecki and Weber, in Mucha, Janusz 2006) Failan (2001): Failan spends her life in Korea as a solitary character. She does not establish many relations. There are four people who she develops relationship with/ or interacts: Kanseong Sojang, Gyeong-su, the laundry Lady and Lee Kang-jae. I classify them as negative

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(Kanseong Sojang,) and positive (laundry Lady and Lee Kang-jae). However, it is important to note that some of the relationships fluctuate between positive and negative (from positive to negative or from negative to positive). All the relations are influenced by hierarchies of power. I pay special attention to her relation with Kang-jae. Their relation can be considered as close relationship, therefore, implicating a intimate, stronger bond and higher interdependence (Kollock, P. and Blumstein, P. 1988) Innocent Steps (2005): I describe here three relationships established between Chaerin and Korean nationals. Two of them are negatives (with Ma Sang-doo and Hyun-soo) and the other one is positive and close (with Na Young-sae). Wedding Campaign (2005) In the film, the relations of migrant brides and host nationals are represented as positives. The relations are developed within the familiar nucleus. Immigrant women are represented interacting with their new husband and their mother-in-law. Their relations are friendly and have no conflict. In both cases, interactions are influenced by power positions where husband and mother-in-law have more power authority. Punch (2011) In Punch, Suk-gi, wandeuki’s mother establishes relations that are mainly positive. One is with Wandeuki’s teacher that helps immigrant. The other person who she establish relation is Wandeuki’s father, her husband. I describe both relations. I discharged the relationship with wandeuki as it is not freely established. Their relation as consanguineous is less unavoidable relation (whether if it is conflictive or not). Mai Ratima (2012) Mai Ratima’s negatives relations are mainly in her new familiar nucleus with her inlaws (mother, sister and brother-in-law). Other negative interaction that she has is the one with the broker. I also describe her relations with Sang-pil, Soo-young, the old woman that pick up paper, and the middle-aged woman in the subway. The last two ones although included, they are mere interactions and not fully relations.

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Representation of the Korean ‘host’ nationals In this section I am concerned with how Korean nationals that establish close relationships (and so friendly relations) are represented in the films. One of the premises of my thesis sustains that those Koreans who establish a positive and close interpersonal relationship with the migrant brides are alienated subalterns within their own society. To support my argument I rely on the film narratives. They depict Koreans that develop interpersonal relations with migrant brides as living in the margins of the society or assuming the role of outsiders. That, I argue, rather than favor the acceptance of the immigrant it segregates them in the margins of the society along with other minority groups. I describe six main characters for each of the five films: Lee Kang-jae (Failan, 2001); Na Young-sae (Innocent Steps, 2005); Rural men [in this case analyze two characters Hong Mantaek and Hee-chul at the same time as representing the same role] (Wedding Campaign, 2005); Wandeuki’s father (Punch, 2011); Soo-young and Sang-pil (Mai Ratima, 2012).

Chapter IV: Discourse on Migrant Workers in South Korean Cinema This chapter will expound upon the narratives of migrant workers reflected in four South Korean films. Manual labor migration is an important phenomenon affecting Korean society. This chapter is merely a reflection of the previous chapter. The only element changing is the substance of the analysis (this time migrant workers) and the films analyzed. The research questions motivating the chapter are the same. ‘How are migrant workers represented in recent South Korean cinema? What kind of frames do filmic discourses express? How are their relations with the host community? How are Koreans imagined in their dialogue with the immigrant?’ are the main research questions motivating this section.

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Story and Narrative of the Films In this section, I will provide a brief description of the film to contextualize the stories before starting to analyze migrant representation and their relations with Korean nationals to which I proceed in the next part. I chose four films that approach the topic of manual labor workers: Hello, stranger (Dir. Dong-hyun Kim, 2007); Bandhobi (Dir. Dong-il Shin, 2009); where is Rony? (Dir. Sang-kook Sim, 2009); and He is on duty (Dir. Sang-ho Yuk, 2010)

Film Analysis Framing narratives about migrant workers In this part of the chapter I discuss the representation of immigrant workers. I describe six frames through which migrant workers are portrayed in the selected films: as exploitable, powerless and subjects of power, as undocumented immigrants, as ethnic other and as possible threat. Another characteristic of these films is the masculinization of labor migration. To justify each of these frames I provide examples of the films. I analyze de actions, events and dialogues of the relevant scenes and the particular iconographic aspect that accentuate these ideas. 1) Exploitable, powerless and ‘subjects’ of power One of the most significant aspects of the representation of immigrant workers in these films is their position as subordinates and exploited labor force. They are depicted as powerless characters that suffer in many occasions the dominant power of Korean nationals. They are discriminated and disempowered because of their condition as non-nationals. In many occasions they suffer from different kinds of power and authority (coercive, legitimate, authority…). Whether it is the fear of punishment (coercion) or the legitimacy of the power source, migrant workers are mostly represented as lacking of power to overcome their exploited situation. They are also much more active than migrant brides trying to change their situation. However, their actions do not produce a beneficial result in their situation. When their resistance has a positive outcome it has been influenced by the Korean characters.

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2) Undocumented immigrants (Illegal status) Another of the frames used to describe immigrant workers in these films is their status as undocumented migrants. All of them have illegal status in South Korea in many cases because they exceed the period of stay. They are presented in many occasions as running away from the Korean immigration authorities or pursued by the police. Their major punishment is facing deportation. 3) Immigrant as a possible criminal threat Migrant Workers are also represented as possible threats and so they become persecuted. They are seen as a disturbance for the life of the Koreans nationals. 4) The ethnic ‘Other’ As in the case of migrant brides language becomes a factor of differentiation. However, in the case of migrant workers it is the use of their own language where the main differentiation takes place. In its big majority, migrant workers are represented as fluent in Korean language, without many problems for understanding or communicating. Their status as other become emphasized when they are represented speaking in their own mother language. Physical appearance and cultural characteristics (food, religion, music…) also become points of differentiation. 5) Masculinization of labor migration Labor migration is represented in South Korean cinema as mainly a male phenomenon. The majority of migrant workers are male characters. The only female migrant worker in the films is Changmi (He is on duty, 2010) and she is represented as a possible mate for marriage.

Intercultural relations in the film discourse This section deals with the representation of intercultural relations in the films. I am referring to the relations established between immigrant workers and Korean nationals.

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I will first describe what kinds of relations they establish. As well as in the previous chapter, I analyze migrants and host national’s relations in a broad sense in negative (deriving in conflictive, hostile and abusive attitudes or actions) and positive relations (Friendly, understanding or favorable attitudes). After, I discuss what kind of patterns the immigrant-host relations follow exclusionist, assimilationist or pluralist. In the case of migrant workers, immigrant-host relations tend to derive into exclusionist outcomes (such as segregation, deportation, detention). I also review the concept of social action and social relations for a better understanding of the topic. Social relations (relationship) occur when the individual’s actions (that have attached a meaning and an intention) of a plurality have effects on each others’ actions. The typology of ‘social relationships’ can be very diverse: conflict, hostility, sexual attraction, friendship, loyalty, economic exchange (and other not included like romance, institutional…) (Znaniecki and Weber, in Mucha, Janusz 2006)

Representation of the Korean ‘host’ nationals In this section, as I did in the previous chapter, I am focus on discussing the representation of Korean nationals that establish close relationships (and so friendly relations) with the migrant workers. One of the premises of my thesis sustains that those Koreans who establish a positive and close interpersonal relationship with migrant workers are alienated subalterns within their own society. To support my argument I rely on the film narratives. The Koreans that develop interpersonal relations with migrant workers are depicted as isolated, alienated or living in the margins of the society. They are in a lower position of the hierarchy system. I describe four main characters for each of the five films: Jin wook (Hello, Stranger, 2007); Minso (Bandhobi, 2009); Inho (Where is Rony? 2009); and Bang Tae-sik (He is on Duty, 2010)

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Chapter V: Conclusion This thesis has examined the representation of immigrants and their relation with Korean nationals in order to uncover hierarchies of power and inequalities. It has explored the filmic discourse about migration and intercultural relations to understand dominant ideologies about migration and multiculturalism in Korea. To do so, I have explored the depiction of migrants (migrant brides and manual workers), the representation of intercultural relations and the self-image of Koreans when they establish close relations with the immigrants. One of the first findings of the research is the well-established genderization of the process of migration where labour migration (moving to a different country with the purpose of working) is practically consider only for males and women had only ‘marriage’ option in order to migrate. Another significant difference in terms of gender is the outcome of the stranger-host relations, in this case the immigrant and the Korean (Bauman, 1993). While migrant women interactions with the Koreans nationals tend to flow towards ‘assimilation’, the relations toward migrant workers tend to derive in ‘exclusion’ (whether is through segregation or deportation). Both are different ways to overcome difference of the stranger (Bauman, 1993). Immigrants (both marriage migrant women and migrant workers) appear represented as powerless, as subjects of power and as inferiors. Their relations with the Korean nationals are most of the times hierarchically established in which the Korean nationals have more power than immigrants. These films represent a hierarchical social system in which immigrant brides and immigrant workers occupy the bottom strata of the hierarchy.

Shortcomings of the Study and Future Study Suggestions The main shortcoming of using CDA as a framework for the thesis is its criticism as a subjective interpretation. As Wodak suggests there is no absolute true within it. The interpretation might be considered plausible or adequate but there is no right or wrong. Wodak also mentions the fact that is a self-reflective method as the researcher is reacting toward a social problem observed in the society he/she is living in. In the same way that the discourse is

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ideologically constructed, the interpretation of the researcher is influenced by his/her “own values and beliefs” as they are not able to ‘not’ attach them to the research he/she is doing (WODAK, 1999). Moreover, as a communicative process, films are connected to what Stuart Hall called encoding/decoding process (Hall, 1993; Sturken and Cartwright, 2009). The meaning in the films is influenced by both sender and receiver. The films go through a meaning constructing process, what we would refer as ‘encoding’, but it does not stop there. The viewer also takes an active role in deciphering the meaning of the text. They involve in a process of ‘decoding’ bias by their own experience, knowledge, culture and memories. It is a subjective process and therefore the outcome can be different from one person to another. The viewers can take three different positions in their interaction with a text: (1) Dominant-hegemonic reading, (2) Negotiated reading and (3) Oppositional reading (Hall, S. 1993). Therefore, in order to drawn better conclusions about whether these way of representation actually collaborate to maintain inequality or, on the contrary, makes them disagree (with what they see) and take an active position (to change it an reject the system), it would be interesting to study more closely the reception process through spectatorship.

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Bibliography Books Abelmann, N. and Kim, H. (2004) “A Failed Attempt at Transnational Marriage: Maternal Citizenship in a Globalizing South Korea” in Cross-Border Marriages Gender and Mobility in Transnational Asia, edited by Nicole Constable, pp. 101-123 Bennett, Tony (1998): Culture: A Reformer's Science. Sydney: Sage. Berghahm, D. and Sternberg, C. (2010) European Cinema in Motion: Migrant and Diasporic Film in Contemporary Europe. New York and London: Palgrave Macmillan Castles, S. and Miller, M.J. (2003). The age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 3rd ed., New York: Guilford Press. Foucault, Michael (1980) Power/Knowledge Selected Interviews and Other Writtings 19721977 Gordon, Colin ed., New York: Pantheon Books Freeman, C. (2004) “Marrying Up and Down: The Paradoxes of Marital Mobility for Chosonjok Brides in South Korea” in Cross-Border Marriages Gender and Mobility in Transnational Asia, edited by Nicole Constable, pp. 80-100 Gray, G. (2010) Cinema, A visual Anthropology. New York: Berg. Hall, Stuart. (1997) Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. London: Sage Henry, F. and Tator, C. (2002) Discourses of Domination Racial Bias in the Canadian EnglishLanguage Press, Toronto: University of Toronto Press Loshitzky, Y., (2010) Screening Strangers. Migration and Diaspora in Contemporary European Cinema, Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press Peña Timón, V. (2006) Narración Audiovisual. Investigaciones. Madrid: Ediciones del Laberinto Silverstone, R. (1999) Why Study the Media? London: Sage. Sturken, M. and Cartwright, L. (2009). Practices of Looking: An introduction to Visual Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Van Dijk, Teun A. (2008), Discourse and Power, New York: Palgrave Macmillan Zunzunegui, Santos. (2003) Pensar la Imagen. Madrid: Catedra/ Universidad del Pais Vasco.

Publications

English Ha, Jiwoo (2011), “A Striking Similarity: The stereotyping of Asian Americans in the U.S. Media and the Stereotyping of Foreigners in the Korean Media”, Situations, Vol.5 (Winter) South Korea: Yonsei University, Seoul. Joo, Jaewon (2012), The Discursive Construction of Discrimination: the Representation of Ethnic Diversity in the Korean Public Service Broadcasting News, UK: PhD thesis, The London School of Economics and Political Science Kim, Andrew Eungi (2009), “Demography, Migration and Multiculturalism in South Korea”, The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 6-2-09, February 1 Kim, Sumi (2009), “Politics of representation in the era of globalization: discourse about marriage migrant women in two South Korean films”, Asian Journal of Communication, Vol. 19: 2, pp. 210-226 Lewis, Herbert S. (2007), “The Influence of Edward Said and Orientalism on Anthropology, or: Can the Anthropologist speak?” Israel Affairs, Vol. 13, no. 4, October 2007, pp. 774785 Lykidis, A., (2009) “Minority and Immigrant Representation in Recent European Cinema”, Spectator 29:1 (Spring 2009): 37-45 Mastro, D. and Greenberg, B. (2000) “The Portrayal of Racial Minorities on Prime Time Television” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, Fall, 690-703 Monk-Turner, E. et al (2010) “The Portrayal of Racial Minorities on Prime Time Television: A Replication of the Mastro and Greenberg Study a Decade Later”, Studies in Popular Culture, 32.2 Spring, 101-114

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(2007) “What is Critical Discourse Analysis? Ruth Wodak in Conversation with Gavin Kendall” Forum: Qualitative Social Research, Volume 8, No.2, Art.29 – May 2007 Said, Edward W. (1989), “Representing the Colonized: Anthropology’s Interlocutors”, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 15 (Winter 1989), The University of Chicago Seol, Dong-hoon (2000), “Foreign Workers in Korea: 1987-2000: Issues and Discussions” Sidanius, J. and Pratto, F. (2012) “Social Dominance Theory” In Van Lange, P., Kruglanski, A., and Higgins (Eds.) Handbook of theories of social psychology. (pp. 418-439) London: SAGE Publications Sidanius, J. and Pratto, F. and Levin, S. (2006) “Social Dominance theory and the dynamics of intergroup relations: Tacking stock and looking forward” European Review of Social Psychology, 2006, no. 17, (pp. 271-320) Psychology Press Van Dijk, Teun A. (1993), “Principles of critical discourse analysis”, Discourse and Society, 1993 SAGE (London), vol. 4(2): 249-283 Virley, Mikala (2013) “Social Dominance Theory: The explanation behind Social Hierarchy and Opression?” Sociological Imagination: Western’s Undergraduate Sociology Student Journal, Vol. 2: Iss. 1, Article 4 Wodak, Ruth (2001), Aspects of Critical Discourse Analysis. Edited in: MEYER, Michael., Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis, Sage, 2001 Yarem, Özgür (2011),

“Die Fremde: European Space and Women Victims in Migrant Films”

Kosmorama 247, pp. 55-64 Spanish Basu, S., (2011) “La inmigración y su representación: un vistazo al cine español de inmigración”, Hispanic Horizon, No. 28 (2011): 26-47

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Korean Cho, Jin-hee (2012), 한국영화, 이주여성을 들여다보다: 에서 에 이르기까 지 이주여성 재현 양상 분석 [Representing Migrated Women in Korean Popular Films, From to ], 언론학연구, Vol. 16: 1, (February), pp. 379-404 Jeong, Hyeong-gyeong (2011), 영화로 재현된 디아스포라 연구 - 와 를 중심으로 [A Study of the Diaspora Realized in Movies –Focused on Where is Ronny and Bandhobi –], 어문연구, Vol.67 No.- (2011), pp. 231-256. Kim, Soo-jung and Kim, Eun-yi (2008), 아시아 여성의 극제결혼에 대한 미디어 담론: 한국미 디어의 재현방식을 통해 [Media Discourse on Asian Women’s International Marriage, The Korean case] , 한국언론정보학보, Vol. 43, Autumn 2008, 한국언론정보학회 Shin, Jin-sook (2011), 환동해 디아스포라: 국경을 넘는 사람들 – 2000 년대 독립영화를 중심 으로 – [A Study on “Diaspora of East-Sea Rim” – Focusing on the independent film of 2000’s –], 아태연구 [Asia Research], Vol. 18: 2, pp. 125-144 Ryu, Chan-Youl (2010), 2000 년대 한국영화에 나타난 이주노동자의 재현 양상 연구 - 와 를 중심으로- [A study on the representacional images of immigrant workers in the Korean films in the 2000’s – focusing on Searching for Ronny and Bandhobi- ] (2010) Moon, So-young (2007) 한국영화에 나타난 오리엔탈리즘 연구: 영화 을 중심으로, 석사 논문 부산대학교 [Orientalism in Korean cinema: Case study of the film ] MA Thesis, Busan University

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Filmography Failan. [파이란] (2001). Film. Directed by Hae-sung Song. South Korea Innocent Steps [덴서의 순정] (2005). Film. Directed by Young-hoon Park. South Korea

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Wedding Campaign [나의 결혼 원정기] (2005). Film. Directed by Byeong-guk Hwang. South Korea Punch. [완득이] (2011) Film. Directed by Han Lee. South Korea Mai Ratima [마이 라띠마](2012). Film. Directed by Ji-tae Yu. South Korea Bandhobi [반두비] (2009). Film. Directed by Dong-il Shin. South Korea Where is Rony? [로니를 찾아서] (2009). Film. Directed by Sang-kook Sim. South Korea He is on duty [방가 방가] (2010). Film. Directed by Sang-ho Yuk. South Korea Hello, stranger [처움 만난 사람들] (2007). Film. Directed by Dong-hyun Kim South Korea

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