Immersion vs. Interactivity: Virtual Reality and Literary Theory

Immersion vs. Interactivity: Virtual Reality and Literary Theory Author(s): Marie-Laure Ryan Source: SubStance, Vol. 28, No. 2, Issue 89: Special Section: Marcel Bénabou (1999), pp. 110-137 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3685793 . Accessed: 10/07/2013 10:16 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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Immersionvs.Interactivity: VirtualRealityand LiteraryTheory1 Marie-LaureRyan

Few of us have actuallydonned a HMD (head-mounteddisplay)and DGs (data-gloves),and entereda computer-generated, three-dimensional in wishessuch as experilandscape whichall ofourwishescan be fulfilled: an of our and encing expansion physical sensorypowers;gettingout ofthe and ourselves from the outside; seeing body adoptinga new identity;apimmaterial with most of our senses,includingtouch; prehending objects beingable to modifytheenvironment througheitherverbalcommandsor physicalgestures;seeingcreativethoughtsinstantlyrealizedwithoutgoing throughtheprocessofhavingthemphysicallymaterialized. Yetdespitethefactthatvirtualrealityas describedabove is stilllargely stilllargelywhatitis called-a virtualreality- thereis hardly sciencefiction, anybodywho does not have a passionateopinionabout the technology: some day VR will replacereality;VR will neverreplacereality;VR challenges theconceptof reality;VR will enable us to rediscoverand explore to drugsand sex;VR is pleasurewithoutrisk reality;VR is a safesubstitute and therefore immoral;VR willenhancethemind,leadingmankindto new powers;VR is addictiveand will enslaveus; VR is a radicallynew experience;VR is as old as Paleolithicart;VR is basicallya computertechnology; all formsof representation createa VR experience;VR challengesthedistinctionfiction-reality; VR is thetriumphoffictionoverreality. We may have to wait untilthenextmillenniumto see whetherthese promisesand threatswill be materialized,but since VR technologyis depictedso realistically by its prophets,and sinceit existsverymuchin the we don'thave towaitthatlongto submittheclaimsof popularimagination, its developersto a criticalinvestigation. In thispaper I proposeto analyze VR as a semioticphenomenonand to exploreits implicationsforliterary theoryand thequestionoftextuality.

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The Two Componentsof VR by Pimenteland Texeira:"In My pointof departureis thisdefinition virtual refers to an interactiveexperithe term immersive, reality general, a While ence generatedby computer"(11). "computergenerated"accounts forthevirtualcharacterofthedata,"immersive"and "interactive" explain To what makes thecomputer-assistedexperiencean experienceof reality. interact real to be able to a as is to feel surrounded world by it, apprehend The physicallywithit,and to have thepower to modifythisenvironment. leads to an effectknown as conjunctionof immersionand interactivity : "A virtualrealityis definedas a realor simulatedenvironment telepresence in whichtheperceiverexperiencestelepresence"(Steuer76). Telepresence relatesto presenceas virtualrealityrelatesto reality: towhich inthemediated istheextent onefeels enviTelepresence present

ronment,ratherthanin theimmediatephysicalenvironment... This [mediated environment]can be eithera temporallyor spatially distant real environment... or an animatedbut nonexistentvirtualworldsynthesized by a computer.(ibid)

Steuer(78) proposesa combinaAnalyzingthedimensionsoftelepresence, tionof factorsthatcome veryclose to Pimenteland Texeira'sformula:the sense oftelepresenceis a functionof thevividnessoftherepresentationwhichleads to immersion-and of interactive involvementwiththeelectronicdisplay. I am primarily As a literarytheorist, in thetwo components interested oftheVR experienceas a novelway todescribethetypesofreaderresponse thatmay be elicitedby a literarytext.I propose therefore to transferthe notionsofimmersionand interactivity fromthetechnologicalto theliterary domainand todiscusstheconditionsoftheirtextualimplementation. While has been extolledby postmoderntheoryas thetriumphofits interactivity own aestheticideals ofa creativereader,an open text,and a ludicrelationto language,immersionhas been eitherignoredor dismissedas theholdover ofa now-discredited aestheticsofillusionthatsubordinateslanguageto its and over therealityit is supreferent, ignoresits power of configuration to this posed represent.Through comparativestudyoftheimmersiveand interactive I hope topave theway potentialofliteratureand VR technology, fora more criticalinvestigationof the conceptof interactivity in literary Substance#89, 1999

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and a greaterawarea rehabilitation oftheexperienceofimmersion, theory, ness oftheexpressivepropertiesofthemediumthatsupportsliterature. Immersion Sinceimmersiondependson vividness,itsfactorsare closelyrelatedto A factorthatcomesimmethedevicesthatlead to realismin representation. a display. The introdiatelyto mindis theprojectionof three-dimensional ductionof perspectivein paintingtook a firststep towardimmersionby creatinga sense of depth thatintegratedthe spectatorinto the pictorial space. In a work like "Chair" by van Gogh, forinstance,the spectatoris situatedabove and to the leftof the depictedobject.But because the medium of painting simulatesdepth on a flatsurfacethe spectatorcannot break throughthe canvas and walk intothepictorialspace. In the visual displaysof VR the barrier disappears-thereis no plane of projectionand the user feelssurroundedby a virtualworld thatcan be freelyexplored and "navigated,"as a standardmetaphordescribesmovementin cyberspace. The creationof a 3D effectfallsunder a more generalcategorythat Steuer(81) calls "depthofinformation." Thisdepthis a function oftheresolution ofthedisplay,i. e. oftheamountofdata encodedin thetransmission channel. As the othermain source of immersion,Steuer mentionsthe "breadthof information," a categorydefined as "thenumberof sensory dimensionssimultaneously is achieved presented."Breadthofinformation throughthecollaborationof multiplemedia: image,sound, olfactory signals,as well as throughtheuse oftechnicaldevicesallowingtactilesensations(bodysuit).VR is notso mucha mediumin itself,as a technologyfor thesynthesisofall media towarda totalexperience. Sheridan(58) proposesanotherfactoroftelepresencethatstandshalfthecontroloftherelationofsenway betweenimmersionand interactivity: sorsto theenvironment. In orderto feelimmersed,theusermustbe able to move aroundthevirtualspace and to apprehenditundervariouspointsof view.The computertrackshis movementsand generatesthe sensorydata tohispositionin a continuously corresponding shifting display.The control of sensorscan go as faras a leavingthebody,relocatingthecenterof consciousnessintoforeignobjectsand exploringin thisway places and objects normallyinaccessibleto humans,such as the inside of a molecule,or the geographyofa distantplanet.

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is "theblockingoutofthephysicalworld" (Biocca Insofaras immersion it be cannot 25), experiencediftheuserremainsawareofthephysicalgeneratorofthedata, namelythecomputer.The "virtualrealityeffect"is the denial oftheroleofsigns(bits,pixels,and binarycodes) in theproduction that of what theuser experiencesas unmediatedpresence.It is significant Pimenteland Texeiratitletheirfirstchapter"The DisappearingComputer;" as in thetrompe-l'oeil ofillusionistart,themediummustbecometransparent fortherepresentedworld to emergeas real. VR representsin thisrespect therefutation ofthecomputeras an ofa popularmyth:thepersonification artificial and itsattempt autonomousmind(a mythfostered intelligence by to endow machineswith creativethinking).As Brenda Laurel declares, as Theater] I have notarguedfortheper"Throughoutthisbook [Computers sonificationof the computerbut forits invisibility"(143). JaronLanier,a leadingdeveloperofVR systems,echoes:"Witha VR systemyou don'tsee thecomputeranymore-it'sgone.All that'sthereis you" (Lanierand Biocca theculmina166). The disappearanceofthecomputer- whichconstitutes tionofthetrendtowardincreasinguser-friendliness in computerdesigncodes withnaturalmodes ofcommurequiresthereplacementofarbitrary nication.Binarycoded machineinstruction oncegave way tothemnemonic ofassemblylanguages;assemblylanguageswerein turntransletter-codes latedintohigh-levellanguageswitha syntaxresemblingthatofnaturallanwordswere supplantedby themotivatedsignsof guages. Then arbitrary iconson thescreen.In theforeseeablefuture, themachinewillbe enabledto to and the respond spokencommands, keyboardwill becomesuperfluous. Next to go will be thescreenand thesightof themachine:visual displays should occupy the entirefieldof the user's vision,ratherthan forminga world-within-the world,separatedfromrealityby theframeof themonitor.As GabrielD. Ofeischobserves,"as longas you can see thescreen,you're not in VR. When the screendisappears, and you can see an imaginary scene...thenyou arein VR" (quotedin Pimenteland Texeira,7). Lastbutnot least,languageitselfmustdisappear,at least in thoseareas whereitcan be more efficiently replacedby physicalactions.Accordingto JaronLanier, withoutcodes...I'mtalkingabout "There'salso theabilityofcommunicating people usingtheirhands and theirmouth,whatever,to createvirtualtools to changethecontentofa virtualworldveryquicklyand in an improvisationalway" (160). "So, ifyou make a house in virtualreality,and there's anotherpersontherein thevirtualspace withyou,you have not createda symbolfora house or a code fora house.You've actuallymade a house.It's thatdirectcreationof reality;that'swhat I call post-symbolic communicaSubstance#89, 1999

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tion" (161). For Michael Benedikt,thispost-symbolic communicationsiga era in nals thebeginningof "postliterate" which "language-bounddescriptionsand semanticgameswill no longerbe requiredto communicate We will personalviewpoints,historicalevents,or technicalinformation... becomeagain'as children'butthistimewiththepowerofsummoning worlds at will and impressingspeedilyupon otherstheparticularsofour experience" (12). In thislanguagewithoutsymbols,mindswill become transparentto each other: virtualreality, likewriting andmathematics, is a waytorepresent Simply, and communicate whatyoucan imaginewithyourmind. Butit canbe morepowerful becauseitdoesn'trequireyoutoconvert yourideasinto abstract and syntactic semantic rules,and itcan symbolswithrestrictive be sharedbyotherpeople.(Pimentel andTexeira, 17)

The mysticsofages past (suchas Swedenborg,an esotericphilosopher oftheeighteenth mode century)had a termforthisradicallyanti-semiotic ofcommunication. called it "the of the They language angels."2 Immersionand LiteraryTheory Throughitsimmersivedimension,VR inauguratesa new relationbetweencomputersand art.Computershave alwaysbeeninteractive; butuntil now thepower to createa sense ofimmersionwas a prerogativeofart.VR in thisrespectan attemptto put artintocomputerdesign.It is constitutes that to describetheimmersivequalityof the significant when attempting VR experience,theproselytizers ofthetechnology repeatedlyturntowarda metaphorborrowedfromtheliterarydomain: As [users]enterthevirtualworld,theirdepthofengagement gradually meandersawayfromhereuntiltheycrossthethreshold ofinvolvement. Now theyare absorbedin thevirtualworld,similarto beingin an enbook. grossing The questionisn'twhether thecreatedworldis as realas thephysical thecreatedworldis realenoughforyouto suspend world,butwhether yourdisbelieffora periodoftime. Thisis thesame mentalshiftthat happenswhenyougetwrappedup ina goodnovelorbecomeabsorbed inplayinga computer and Texeira, 15) game.(Pimentel

If developersofVR comparetheirtechnologyto beingcaughtup in a returnthe favorby regardingthe story,literarytheoristscould profitably textas a virtualreality.Even beforetheterm"virtualreality"became fashionable,thisapproachhas been takenby a schoolofliterary theoryinspired #89,1999 Substance

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include bythephilosophicalconceptofpossibleworlds.(Itsrepresentatives Eco, Pavel, Dolezel, Ryanand Ronen.)Possible worlds theoryrelieson a semanticmodel includinga pluralityofworlds,and regardingone ofthese worlds as theone and onlyactualworld. The distinction actual/non-actual can be characterizedabsolutely, in termsoforigin,or relatively, in termsof theactualworld is theonly pointofview.In theabsolutecharacterization, one thatexistsindependentlyof thehumanmind;merelypossibleworlds are productsof mentalactivitiessuch as dreaming,wishing,forminghypotheses,imagining,and writingdown theproductsoftheimaginationin the formof fictions.VR adds to thiscatalog of "accessibilityrelations"a mode of apprehensionthatinvolvesnot onlythemind,but also thebody. Forthefirsttimein history, thepossibleworldscreatedby themindbecome their lack ofmateriality. The relativecharacterizaentities, palpable despite tionof theconceptof actuality-advocatedby David Lewis-regards "actual" as an indexicalpredicate:theactualworldis theworldfromwhichI speak and in whichI am immersed,while thenon-actualpossible worlds are thosethatI look at fromtheoutside.These worldsare actual fromthe This indexicaldefinitionexplains why pointof view of theirinhabitants. fictionalcharactersregardthemselvesas realhumanbeings,and notas the productsofa writer'simagination. Amongthemodes ofapprehensionthatenableus to contemplatenonactualpossibleworlds,some functionas space-travelvehicleswhile others functionas telescopes.In thetelescopemode -represented by expressing wishes or formingconjecturesabout what mighthave been-consciousness remainsanchoredin itsnativereality, and possibleworldsare contemfrom the In outside. the plated space-travelmode, representedby fiction and now by VR technology, consciousnessrelocatesitselfto anotherworld, and recentersthe universearound this virtualreality. This gestureof involvesno illusion,no forgetting ofwhatconstitutes thereader's recentering nativereality.Non-actualpossible worlds can onlybe regardedas actual throughColeridge'smuch quoted "willingsuspensionof disbelief." The readerof a fictionknowsthattheworld displayedby the textis virtual,a but she pretendsthatthereis an indeproductoftheauthor'simagination, as referent to thenarrator'sdeclarations. pendentlyexistingrealityserving The notionof pretenseand therelatedconceptof games of make-believeis at thecoreofKendallWalton'stheoryoffiction. AccordingtoWalton, a fictionaltext(as well as a painting)is a "propin a game ofmake-believe" (Mimesis,11).The game consistsofselectingan objectand ofregardingitas somethingelse, usually in agreementwithotherplayers.Justas a stump Substance#89, 1999

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maystandfora bear in a children'sgame,thepictureofa shipis takenfora ship,and thetextofa novelis takenforan accountofrealfacts(an account thatmayormaynotbe regardedas accurate,as thecase ofunreliablenarrationdemonstrates). Playersprojectthemselvesas membersoftheworld in which thepropis a bear,a ship ora textabouttherealworld,and theyplay thegame by "generatingfictionaltruths."This activityconsistsofimaginencodedintheprop.Some world,accordingtothedirectives ingthefictional of the fictionaltruthsconcernthe playersthemselves,or rathertheirfictionalalterego. The readerofa fictiondoes notsimplygeneratestruthsof the type"p is fictional"but also "it is fictionalthatI believe p." And ifp itwillbe fictionalthatthereader'salter relatesthepitifulfateofa character, ego pitiesthecharacter.The emotionsexperiencedin make-believein the fictionalworldmaycarryoverto therealworld,causingphysicalreactions ofWalton'stheoryoffiction suchas cryingor tensingup in fear.The affinity withvirtualrealityand itsconceptofimmersionresidesin his insistenceon world.It is trulya theory theparticipation oftheappreciatorin thefictional of"beingcaughtup in a story." An immersiveapproachtofictionhas also been favoredbyrecentstudies in cognitivepsychology. VictorNell titleshisbook on thepsychologyof in a Book.Anotherpsychologist,RichardGerrig, for Lost reading pleasure proposesa phenomenologyofreadingbased on two metaphors,bothsupthe metaphorsof transportaportedby concretereader-text experiments: tionand ofperformance. Gerrigmeans an experienceof By transportation, and losingoneself movingaway fromtheimmediatephysicalenvironment in a story.Performance in thefictionalworld is theactivityofparticipating "like an actoron a stage." In orderto achieveparticipation, readersmust "use theirown experienceof the world to bridge gaps in the text"(i. e. generatefictionaltruths,in Walton'sterminology); "bringboth factsand of theworld of the text";and "give emotionsto bear on the construction substanceto thepsychologicallive of characters"like "actorsperforming roles" (17). authors Anticipatingthe workofthephenomenologists, manyliterary have giventhoughtsto thephenomenonofimmersion.JosephConrad advocates theparticipationof an extendedsensoriumin thefictionalworld: "My taskwhichI am tryingto achieveis,by thepowerofthewrittenword, to make you hear,to make you feel-it is, beforeall, to make you see. (Joseph Conrad in thePrefaceto TheNiggeroftheNarcissus,xxvi.) Charlotte Brontidramatizesimmersionby invitingthe readerto performphysical actionsin thefictional world:"You shallsee them,reader.Stepintothisneat Substance#89, 1999

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walk forwardin thelittleparlorgarden-houseon theskirtsofWhinbury, and I willjoin theparty,see whatis tobe seen, theyare thereat dinner...You and hearwhat is to be heard" (Shirley, 9). In thispassage, immersivereada further than the relocationofthereader's inggoes step customaryfictional consciousnessin thattherelocatedconsciousnessgrowsan imaginary body thattakes up residencein the fictionalworld. For Bronti,fullimmersion thusrequiresthe presenceintheimagination ofa physicalworldtoa physical of this sense is not a body.Reaching presence passive subjectionto thetext, but the resultof a demandingmentalactivity. Nowhere is thisdiscipline moreeloquentlydescribedthanin thespiritualexercisesprescribedto the readeroftheBibleby Ignatiusde Loyola: Atthesimplest theexercise wouldcalltomindthe level,thosepracticing inwhicha giveneventtookplace,orwhatIgnatiuscalled physicalsetting of theplace: forinstance,theroad from representation' 'an imaginary on whichChristtraveledtowardhis passion,the Bethanyto Jerusalem roomin whichhe heldhis lastsupper,thegardenin whichhe was bethehouseinwhichMaryhismother waitedaftertheCrucifixion. trayed, Within thesecontexts, said Ignatius, onecouldmoveto a sharperpicture "listentowhatisbeingsaidbythepeopleon byaddinga senseofhearing: theearth'ssurface,talkingto each other,swearingand blaspheming." Contrast withthewordsofthethreedivinepersonsof theTrinity, and listento themas theysay: "Letus bringabouttheredemption ofmankind."Afterseeingand listening, one can proceedto involvetherestof

thefivesensesintheactofmemory: "Smelltheindescriptible fragrance

and tastetheboundlesssweetnessofthedivinity. Touchby kissingand to clingingtotheplaceswherethesepersonswalkand sit,alwaystrying profit thereby." (Spence,15)

In thisreadingdiscipline,no mentionis made of the actualwords of theBiblicaltext.Like computer-generated VR, immersivetheoriesofreada relative of ing presupposes transparency themedium.When readersare in a turn thepages withoutpayingtoo muchattention caughtup story, they to theletterof thetext: what theywant is theplot,theleast language-dependent dimensionof narrativecommunication.When theyexperience emotionsforthecharacters, theydo notrelateto thesecharactersas literary creationsnoras "semioticconstructs," but as possiblehumanbeings. Theliterary thatcreatea senseofparticipation features infictional worlds presentmanyparallelswiththefactorsleadingto telepresence.One ofthe factorsmentionedabove is theprojectionof a three-dimensional environment.Theliterary of a is narrative universe equivalent three-dimensionality possessingsome hidden depth,and populatedby charactersperceivedas round ratherthanflat.By hidden depthI mean thatthe sum of fictional Substance #89,1999

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truthslargelyexceedsthesum ofthepropositionsdirectlystatedin thetext. the user knows that In a virtualworld experiencedas three-dimensional, a theoutside what be seen from not limited to can is position: given reality concealstheinside,thefrontconcealstheback,and smallobjectsin theforein a narrative groundconceal large objectsin the background.Similarly, worldpresentingsome "hiddendepth"thereis somethingbehindthenarrated:the charactershave minds,intents,desires,and emotions,and the the contentoftheirmind,eitherforits readeris encouragedto reconstruct own sake, or in orderto evaluate theirbehavior.The proceduresof inferof ence relatingto innerlifewould be inhibitedin thecase of thereferents humannames in lyricpoetryor in some postmodernnovelswherecharacactantialrolesorallegories.Whenthereader tersarereducedtostereotypes, feelsthereis nothingbeyondlanguage,inference proceduresbecomelargely pointless. As is the case in VR systems,the reader's sense of immersionand Itis obviousthatdetailed ofthedepthofinformation. empathyis a function a of lead to sense descriptions greater belongingthan sketchynarration. This explains why it is easier be caughtup in a fictionalstorythan in a newspaperreport.Butin purelyverbalcommunication-incontrastto the visual or auditorydomains-depth of information may reachthepointof thelengthand minuteprecision saturationand createan alienatingeffect: as well as theirrestriction to purely of thedescriptionsof a Robbe-Grillet, a greaterdeterrent visualinformation, constitute toimmersionthanthemost is notliterally laconicprose.Breadthofinformation since possiblein fiction, we are talkingabout writingand not about multi-mediacommunication. Butinsofaras itrelayssensationsthroughtheimagination, literary language can offerdata to all ofthesenses,thusincreasingthevividnessoftherepresentation.It has been said thata book is "cinemain yourhead" (Fischlin and Taylor13). It is in factmuchmorethanthat: languagecan representto theimaginationtheentirespectrumofhumanexperience. Anotherfactorof immersionthatseems at firstglance impossiblein textualcommunicationis the controlof the sensors.The readeronly sees (hears,smells,etc.) what the narratorshows. But to the extentthatthe narrator'ssensationsbecomethereader's,fictionoffersa mobilityofpoint of view at least as extensiveas thatof VR systems.The developmentof a impersonalnarratortypeofnarratorspecificto fiction-theomniscient, of pragmatically has freedfictionaldiscoursefromtheconstraints possible The disembodiedconsciousnessoftheimpersonal humancommunication. worldfromanyperspective, narratorcan apprehendthefictional adoptany Substance#89, 1999

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worldas focalizer, memberofthefictional selectanyspatiallocationas post of observation,narratein everytemporaldirection(retrospectively, simuland switchbackand forthamongthesevarievenprospectively), taneously, ous narrativemodes. Fiction,likeVR, allows an experienceofitsreference worldthatwould be impossibleifthisreference worldwere an objectively material existing, reality. The ultimatefreedomin themovementofthesensorsis theadoptionof a foreignidentity. As Lasko-Harvillobserves,"invirtualrealitywe can,with ease, disconcerting exchangeeyes withanotherperson and see ourselves and theworldfromtheirvantagepoint"(277).This "exchangingeyes with anotherperson"is paralleledin fictionby thepossibilityofspeakingabout oneselfin the thirdperson,or of switchingbetweenfirstand thirdwhen speakingabout thesame referent.But thereis an even morefundamental betweenthe role-playingof VR and the natureof narrativeficsimilarity As authors tion. stripthemselvesof theirreal world identityto enterthe fictionalworld,theyhave at theirdisposal thecompletespectrumof conceivable roles,fromthe stronglyindividuatedfirstperson narrator(who can be any memberofthefictionalworld)to thepure consciousnessofthe thirdpersonomniscientnarrator. BothVR and fictionpresenttheabilityto transcendtheboundariesof humanperception. Justas VR systemsenabletheusertopenetrateintoplaces inaccessible tohumans(theinterior ofa cellorthesurfaceofMars), normally fictionlegitimatestherepresentation ofwhatcannotbe known:a storycan be toldeven when "nobodylived to tellthetale."Of all thedomainsrepresentedin fiction, no one transcendsmoreblatantlythelimitsof theknowable thanforeignconsciousness.As DorritCohn observes:"But thismeans thatthespecial life-likeness ofnarrativefiction-as comparedto dramatic and cinematicfiction-dependson whatwritersand readersknow leastin life:how anothermindworks,how anotherbody feels"(5-6). The effacement of theimpersonalnarratorand his freedomto relocate his consciousnessanywhere,at any timeand in whateverbody or mind conveystheimpressionofunmediatedpresence: mindsbecometransparent,and eventsseem to be "tellingthemselves."The mobilityof the "sensors" thatapprehendfictionalworldsallow a degreeof intimacybetween the readerand the textualworld thatremainunparalleledin nonfiction. Paradoxically,the realityof whichwe are nativeis the least amenableto immersivenarration,and reportsofreal eventsare theleast likelyto produce a feelingof being on the scene. New Journalism, to the scandal of tried to overcome this textual alienation from nonvirtual many, realityby Substance#89, 1999

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techniques.The strainofcreddescribingreal-worldeventsthroughfictional this that from could ensued practice onlybe forgivenby isolating ibility the traditional brand of from New Journalism reportingthroughthecompromiseofa genericlabel: TrueFiction,or NonfictionNovel. In thetelevision domain,theproliferation ofthe"docu-drama"bears testimonyto the and to enjoyfiction-like "be there" not need to participation, voyeuristic in but also in historical events. only imaginaryworlds, AgainstImmersion The themeof thedangerof immersionhas not awaited theadventof theelectronicage tobe thematizedin Westernliterature. Itsmostcelebrated victimis probablyDon Quixote.As Cervanteswrites:"In short,he so immersedhimselfin thoseromancesthathe spentwhole days and nightsover his books; and thuswithlittlesleepingand muchreading,his brainsdried in up to such a degreethathe losttheuse ofhis reason"(58). Morerecently, JulioCorttizar'sshortstory"Continuityof Parks,"a readerimmersedin a thriller becomesthevictimofthenarratedmurder,thuspayingwithhis life thedisappearanceoftheboundarybetweenfictionand reality. Theoriesoffictionemphasizingparticipation in fictionalworldsrepresenta somewhatreactionary trendon thecontemporary culturalscene.Immersionin a virtualworldis viewedbymosttheorists ofpostmodernism as a passive subjectionto theauthority oftheworld-designer, a subjectionexoftouristsin theself-enclosed virtualrealities emplifiedby theentrapment ofthemeparksorvacationresorts.According toBolter, immersionis a trademarkofpopular culture:"Losing oneselfin a fictionalworld is the goal of thenaive readeror one who readsas entertainment. It is particularly a featureof genrefiction, such as romanceor sciencefiction"(155). Thereis no textsofpopularculture pointin denyingthattheworldsofthestereotyped are themostfavorableto immersion:thereadercan bringin moreknowledge and sees more expectationsfulfilledthan in a textthatcultivatesa sense of estrangement. But immersioncan also be the resultof a process involvingan elementof struggleand discovery.A literarytextis themost when it luresthereaderintowhatappears at firsta hostileenvisatisfying ronment. The hostility ofcontemporary literary theorytowardimmersionis due inlargepartto thedependencyofthephenomenonon thedisappearanceof mediumis hereticin an age thatresigns. The VR ideal of a transparent whatgards signs as the substanceof all realities.For postmoderntheory, Substance#89, 1999

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ever"freedomfromsigns"themindcan reachis notachievedthroughtheir as well as disappearance,butthroughtheawarenessoftheiromnipresence, character.The throughtherecognitionof theirconventionaland arbitrary aestheticsofimmersionis currently beingreplaced-primarilyin "highculture"but the tendencyis now stretching towardpopular culture-by an aestheticsoftextuality. must made be visible,fortheirrolein theconSigns structionofrealitytobe recognized.A mode ofcommunication thatstrives towardtransparency of themediumbereavestheuser of his criticalfaculties.The semioticblindnesscaused by immersionis illustratedby an anecdote involvingDiderot.As WilliamMartinreports,"he tellsus how he began reading Clarissa several times in order to learn somethingabout Richardson'stechniques,but neversucceeded in doing so because he became personallyinvolvedin the work,thus losing his criticalconsciousness" (Martin58). Accordingto Bolter,thisloss of criticalconsciousnessis the trademarkof theVR experience:"But it is obvious thatvirtualreality cannotin itselfsustainintellectualor culturaldevelopment....Theproblem is thatvirtualreality,at least as it is now envisioned,is a mediumof perceptsratherthansigns.It is virtualtelevision"(230)."Whatis notappropriate is theabsenceofsemiosis"(231). In reducingVR to passive immersion, however,Bolterignoresthesecond componentoftheVR experience.Ifcontemporary artand literature are to achieve an enhancementof thereader's creativity, it should be through theemulationoftheinteractive aspectofVR,and notthroughthesummary condemnationofitsimmersivepower. Interactivity is notmerelytheabilityto navigatethevirtualworld,itis Interactivity thepower oftheuserto modifythisenvironment. Movingthesensorsand freedom of movement in do not themselves ensurean interactive enjoying relationbetweena user and an environment: theuser could deriveherentiresatisfaction fromtheexplorationofthesurrounding domain.She would be activelyinvolved in the virtualworld,but her actionswould bear no lastingconsequences.In a trulyinteractive system,thevirtualworldmust to the user's actions. respond While thestandardcomparisonforimmersionderivesfromnarrative themostfrequently used metaphorofinteractivity invokestheatrifiction, cal performance.The similecapturesa largelyutopiandreamof dramatic art:puttingspectatorson stageand turningthemintocharacters: Substance#89, 1999

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intheworldofcomAs researchers grapplewiththenotionofinteraction usersto theatrical audiences: puting,theysometimes comparecomputer whoareabletohavea greater Usersarelikeaudiencemembers influence on theunfolding oftheactionthansimplythefine-tuning providedby audienceresponse... Theusersofsucha systemarelikeauconventional diencemembers who can marchup ontothestageand becomevarious theactionbywhattheysayanddo intheirroles.(Laucharacters, altering rel,Computers, 16)

The interactivity of a VR systemresidesin a formof representation knownas simulation.As Woolleyobserves(44),thedifference betweenrepand simulation, orrather, resentation thedistinction ofsimulationfromother formsof representation to define,but it is (such as imitation)is difficult crucialto theunderstanding ofVR. The essenceofsimulationresidesin its witha dynamiccharacter.Friedman(86) calls simulationa "map-in-time" narrativedimension.Butthisfeatureoftemporality, whichenablessimulativesystemsto representchangeand movement,is notsufficiently distinctive:a cameracan also recordchangeand yielda narrative,thoughit does notproducea simulation.The difference betweena movieand a computer simulationofthesame process,such as an airplaneflight, lies in theactive role ofthesystem.A camerarecordsa flightpassively,and theflighttakes ofitsrecording, evenifitwas stagedfora movie.Once place independently recorded,theflightcan be playedoverand overagain and remainthesame: is theessenceofcinematicrepresentation. In contrastto a camera, iterability a computersimulationdoes notreproducea preexisting process,notdoes it is theproductofthesimulator, and every outputa durableimage.The flight use of thesystemproducesa different of It events. would takea sequence device to the same The ofthesimularecording replay flight. non-iterability tionderivesfromthefactthatchangeand movementare calculatedby the systemon thebasis ofa variableinputproducedbyan externalsource,such as a random-number generatoror humanuser.In thislattercase, thesimulationbecomesthenarrativeoftheuser's pursuitofa personalgoal in collaborationwiththesystem.Successor failuredepends on theuser's understandingofthelaws ofthevirtualworld. An important featureoftheinteractivity ofsimulativesystemsis itssocalled "real-time"dimension.The timingof the inputis of crucialimportance,sincetheresponseofthesystemdepends on itscurrentstate.(Think ofthedifferent consequencesofsteeringan airplanedownwardswhenyou areup in theskyorcloseto theground!)Because simulationoperatesin real Substance #89,1999

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time,theexperienceoftheuseris thatofa continuouslymovingpresent.In contrastto traditionalnarrative,simulationdoes not representhistoryretfashioninga plotwhenall eventsarein thebook,butgenerates rospectively, withoutknowledgeoftheoutcome.Theusermayhave eventsprospectively, a goal,buttheinputcan missthetarget.The traceofthesimulationtellsthe oftheuserin thepursuitofhergoal. storyofthetribulations Takenas a whole,however,a simulativesystemis nota narrativebut a narrativematrix.Like a "GardenofForkingPaths"-to parodythetitleofa shortstoryby Borges-it is open to all thehistoriesthatcould develop out of a givensituation.The systemcan also be comparedto an alphabetcontainingall thebooks on a given subject,while the simulationitselfis the actualizationofa potentialbook,a book thatvanisheswhen thewritingin completed. ofa VR systemis a functionofa variety The degreeofinteractivity offactors.Steuerenumeratesthreeofthem,withoutclaimingthatthelistis exhaustive: intothe whichrefers totherateatwhichinputcanbe assimilated [S]peed, whichrefers to thenumberofpossibilities mediatedenvironment; range, whichrefers to theabilityofa foractionat anygiventime;and mapping, in a to changesin themediatedenvironment systemto map itscontrols naturaland predictable manner. (86)

The firstofthesefactorsrequireslittleexplanation.The speed ofa systemis what enables it to respondin real timeto theuser's actions.Faster responsemeansmoreactions,and moreactionsmeanmorechanges.(Existing systems,because of hardwarelimitations,are somewhatdeficientin thisdomain.Withcurrently availableHMDs, thegenerationofvisual data is said to lag annoyinglybehindthemovementsof thehead.) The second factoris equallyobvious:thechoiceofactionsis likea setoftools;thelarger The factorofmappingimposes theset,themoremalleabletheenvironment. constraints on thebehaviorofthesystem.Insofaras "mapping"is defined in termsof naturalresponse,it advocates the disappearanceof arbitrary codes. Far frombeing associatedwithpassive immersion,semiotictransparencyis conceivedby VR developersas a way to facilitateinteractivity. oftheresponsedemonstrates The predictability theintelligenceofthesystem. The user mustbe able to foreseeto some extenttheresultofhis gesactures,otherwisetheywould be pure movementsand not intent-driven tions.Iftheuserofa virtualgolfsystemhitsa golfball he wantsittoland on #89,1999 Substance

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the ground,and not to turnintoa bird and disappear in the sky.3On the otherhand,thepredictability ofmoves shouldbe relative,otherwisethere would be no challengein using the system. Even in real life,we cannot calculateall theconsequencesofour actions.Moreover,predictability conflictswiththerangerequirement: iftheusercould choose froma repertory ofactionsas vast as thatofreallife,thesystemwould be unable to respond to mostformsofinput.The coherenceofflight-simulation intelligently programsstemforinstancefromthefactthattheyexcludeany choiceofactivityunrelatedto flying.Meaningfulinteractivity requiresa compromisebetweenrangeand mappingand betweendiscoveryand predictability. Like a narrative VR good plot, systemsshouldinstillan elementofsurprisein the fulfillment ofexpectations. The caveatof puttingspectatorson stage is thatiftheytakecontrolof theaction,theresultingperformance maybecomeutterchaos. The particiof users is and both feared: "The problemwiththe audipation pursued idea is thatitadds to theclutter, bothpsychologience-as-active-participant cal and physical"(Laurel,Computers,17). The spectatoris welcomeon stage onlyifhe can be made tobehavein an orderlymanner.In orderto maintain somedramaticvalue,theperformance mustimposea scripton thespectator's a scriptthatwillchannelhis actionstowarda goal sanctioned participation, by thesystem.As Laurelargues: "The well designed[virtualworld] is,in a sense,the antithesisof realism-the antithesisof the chaos of everyday life"(quotedby Pimenteland Texeira,157).Howard Rheingoldstressesthe need for"scenariocontrol":"They[VR developers]want a world thatyou can walk aroundin,thatwill reactto you appropriately, and thatpresentsa narrativestructure foryou to experience"(307).Is thisa utopiangoal ? Can the spectatorturnedactorbe coaxed intotakingactionsthatwill give her pleasure,when she doubles as spectatorof her own deeds? This goal is of elements relativelyeasy to achieve in thevisual domain:the repertory controlled by the user-colors, shapes, and movements- can be so thateverycombinationresultsin a pleasantexperience. preharmonized, Additionalpleasure will be derivedfromcontrollingthe display through physicalgestures:a pleasuretakenin thecreativepower ofthebody itself. But coordinatingtheuser's inputin a narratively is meaningfulstructure muchmoredifficult thanharmonizing visualelements.Itis inveryrestricted domainsregulatedby narrowlydefined"narrative"scripts(flightsimulaof tors,golf,paddle ball,etc.),or in areas notsubjectedto therequirements narrative or visual data with sound (visual logic displays, systemscombining

Substance#89, 1999

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and dance) thatVR systemsachievethemostsatisfactory compromisebetweenuserfreedomand systemcontrol. and Literature Interactivity theconceptofinteractivity can be interpreted in two In textualmatters, and literally. Each of thesetwo interpretations may in ways: figuratively turnbe divided intoa weak and a strongform: Literal Figural Weak Classicalnarrative Hypertext Drama Postmoderntexts MOOs, Interactive Strong 1. Figuralinteractivity standsforthecollaborationbetween In thefiguralsense,interactivity thereaderand thetextin theproductionofmeaning.Even withtraditional typesofnarrativeand expositorytexts-textsthatstrivetowardglobal coherenceand a smoothsequentialdevelopment-readingis nevera passive experience.I have mentionedabove thedisciplinenecessaryto the"mental simulation"(as KendallWalton["Spelunking"]calls it) thatopens thedoor to immersion.As the phenomenologistRoman Ingardenand his disciple WolfgangIser have shown,thismentalsimulationrequiresa construction ofthefictionalworldthroughwhichthereaderprovidesas muchmaterial as she derivesfromthetext.Ifit takesdisciplineto forma mentalimageof thefictional world,ittakesan even moredemandingactivityto convertthe of meaning.As the temporalflowof language intoa spatialconfiguration criticJeanRoussetwrites: Reading,whichtakesplaceovertime,should,in ordertoachievetotality, inallparts.Theexacting renders theworkpresent reader's simultaneously ofthebookso thatitwill thenaturaltendency job consistsin reversing itselfall atoncetothemind'seye.Therecanbe no complete readpresent thebookintoa simultaneous network ofreingthatdoes nottransform (139) ciprocalrelationships.

Buttheinherently interactive natureofthereadingexperiencehas been obinperforming scuredbythereader'sproficiency thenecessaryworld-buildthe We are so used to fictional game thatit has being operations. playing come a second nature:as "nativereadersof fiction"we takeit forgranted thatworlds should emergefromtexts.This explainswhy postmodernist in theconstruction ofmeanattemptstopromoteactivereaderinvolvement of take the form self-referential As demystification. Linda ing usually Hutcheonwrites:"Thereaderoffictionis alwaysan activelymediatingpres#89,1999 Substance

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ence; the text'srealityis establishedby his responseand reconstituted by his activeparticipation. The writerofnarcissisticfictionmerelymakes the readerconsciousofthisfactofhis experience"(141). The price of thisconsciousnessis an ontologicalexpulsion fromthe fictionalworld.Insofaras itclaimstherealityofitsreference world,fiction its own denial fiction. as the implies By overtlyrecognizing constructed, reclaimsour "nativereimaginarynatureofthetextualworld,metafiction ality"as ontologicalcenter.The implicitmessage"thisworldis theproduct oflanguage" is notan invitationto make-believe, itis literallytrue.Butthe reader'sinterest is difficult to maintainin theabsenceofmake-believe.The mostefficient strategyforpromotingan awarenessof the mechanismsof is not to block access to the fictionalworld,but to engage the fictionality readerin a game ofin-and-out:now thetextcapturesthereaderin thenarrativesuspense;now itbaresthe artificiality ofplots;now thetextbuildsup theillusionofan extratextual now referent; it exposes thetextualoriginof thisreferent. Shuttledback and forthbetweenontologicallevels,thereader comesto appreciatethelayeredstructure offictional a laycommunication, ered structure which he is both narratorial audi(in make-believe) through ence in thefictionalworld,and authorialaudiencein therealworld.One of themostsuccessfulexamplesof thisgame of in-and-outis JohnFowles's The FrenchLieutenant'sWoman.The fictionalworld may be eventually demystifiedas a textualconstruct,yet the textsucceeds in creatingan immersiveexperience.Attimesthereaderregardsthecharactersas human beings and investsan emotionalinterestin theirfate,at othertimeshe is made to acknowledgetheirstatusas literarycreations.It is thememoryof theimmersivepowerofthetextthatengageshis criticalfacultiesduringthe self-reflexive moments.The objectof the reflexiveactivityis as much the of fictionalworlds.We may phenomenonof immersionas theartificiality call interactivitythis switch in perspective fromworld-internaland immersiveto world-external and reflexive. Underthisinterpretation, periodic de-immersion is essentialto the"tiltinggame"4ofinteractive reading. 2. Weakliteralinteractivity betweentextand readercan onlybe literalifthetextunInteractivity dergoesphysicalchangesduringthereadingprocess.The readermustparticipatein thematerialproductionofsigns. A weak formofliteralinteractivity is foundin hypertext. As thereader selectsthedirectionto followby activatingone ofmanypossible links,she determinesthe sequentialorderof her reading.As Bolterobserves:"The Substance#89, 1999

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readerparticipatesin themakingofthetextas a sequence ofwords" (158). Ifwe equate "text"to one particulartraversaloftheunderlyingnetworkof linksand lexias,thenindeed everyreadingsession generatesa new text, and thereadertakesan activepartin thiswriting.In thisview,"text"is not a staticcollectionofsignsbut theproductofan encounterbetweena mind and a set ofsigns.Iftheconceptoftextis indissolublefromtheact ofreadis a concretemetaphorforthe of hypertext ing,the physicalinteractivity mentalinteractivity promotedby all texts. Whileeveryparticularpath of networkbringsto the screendifferent navigationthrougha hypertextual texthighlights chunksof text,everyparticularreadingof a non-electronic a web of and creates different links different different images, episodes, meaning.This analogypresupposesthattheact of clickingis notmerelya physicalgesturewithpurelymaterialconsequences,but eithera reasoned action,or the stimulusofmentaloperations.Clickingis a reasonedaction when it implementsthereader's decisionto pursue thereadingin a relativelyforeseeabledirection.It stimulatesmentalactivitywhen thereader, aftermakinga relativelyrandomchoice,applies his sagacityto thedetectionofsome kindofsemanticrelationbetweenthelinkedelements. In thisinterpretation thedifference of interactivity, betweenthereadand traditional texts is morequaningexperiencepromotedbyhypertext by an intensification offers and heightened titativethanqualitative.Hypertext awarenessofthekindoftextualpleasurethatNabokovcalls "combinational delight"(69): a delighthe relatesto the tracingof "linksand bobolinks" (63). [Bobolinksarebirds.]In theabsenceofthedirectionality imposedby a it is hoped thatthereaderwill wanderforpleasure dominatingstory-line, the textual space. No longerdistractedby theplot,she will devote through As Bolterwrites:"A printedbook's moreattentionto textualarchitecture. naturalorderprovidesthefoundationforthearchitecture ofthetext,butan all reference" electronictextis all architecture, (160). Buthow,theskeptic stand a can this architecture without foundation? To whichthe ask, may textual is notsupposed tostand. theorist architecture mightreply: hypertext ofmetaphorical not Itis a dynamicstructure monurelations, a time-defying ment. ofhypertext The interactivity appearsmuchmorelimitedif we define "text"as a sum of possiblereadings.The physicalcorrelateof thismental definition equates textto thewrittensignsthatformthecommonsourceof thiswould mean thatthetextis the thereadings.In thecase ofhypertext, entirenetworkof linksand of textualnodes. Accordingto thisview,the is nota powertochangetheenvironment, ofhypertext as is the interactivity Substance#89, 1999

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butmerelya freedomtomovethesensorsfora personal case in VR systems, The reader exploration. may chose in whichordershe visitsthenodes,but ofthenetwork.No matterhow her choicesdo notaffecttheconfiguration the readerrunsthemaze, themaze remainsthesame, and the author,far remainsthehiddenmasterofthesystem.Some fromrelinquishing authority, mayerasecertainpathwaysafterthereaderhas takenthem,but hypertexts thispruningoflinksis programmedintothetextfromtheverybeginning. ifthehypertextual The reader'sactionscould onlymodifytheenvironment an text in as real time, intelligent responseto thereader's systemgenerated decisions.As I have arguedabove, thisis whathappens in simulativesystems.The computercalculatesthe positionof the plane accordingto the user's input,ratherthandisplayinga pre-calculatedposition.This will not untilitjoins forceswithAI-and untilAI sharpensits happen in hypertext capabilities. story-generating In thedomainofinteractivity, thusscoresa smalladvantage hypertext over traditionaltexts,but itsinteractivity is achievedat thecostofimmertextinvolvesmuchmorefrequent, sion.Becausemovingacrossan electronic and ofthereader'sbody moreextensive, muchless automaticinterventions thanturningthepages ofa book,and because thetextdisplaysitself"in the face"ofthereader,as a visuallyaggressivepatternofpixelson thescreen,it is hard to forgetits physicality. Movingthroughthewords to thefictional worldthusbecomesmuchmoreproblematicthanin familiarprinttexts. This problemmay disappearwhen we become moreused to reading on a screen,butotherobstaclesstandin theway ofimmersion.Formanyof us notyetschooledin theparallelmode ofthinking, thedistraction offered and the is the screen, flickering by keyboard display compoundedby perplexitycreatedby thebranchingsystem.The constantneed to make decisions preventsthe concentrationnecessaryto immersivereading.What GarethRees writesofhis experienceoftreefiction(a variantofhypertext in which each branchdevelops separately, withoutpossibilityof returnto a previouslyvisitednode) is even moreto the pointin the case of a more complexnetwork:"I thinkthatas readerswe arenotreadyfortreefiction:I I wantto findout all theconsequences know thatwhen I read such a story, thattheauthorwrote,fearingthatall ofeverydecision,to read everything is theinteresting developments goingon in anotherbranchofthestorythat I didn'tinvestigate.I want to organizethewhole storyin mymind." The body of thereader's imaginarypersonain thefictionalworldwould have to takeall theroads at thesame time,and to to undergoa dismembering Substance # 89, 1999

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overcomethenaggingfeelingof missingsomethingalong the way. Can a body) exKeep describesthehypertextual "corpsmorcel'" (as Christopher all of its or does immersion immersion requirea parts, through perience sense ofphysicalunity? Still anotherobstacle to immersionis the fragmentedcharacterand ficavailable formsof hypertext of mostcurrently apparentdiscontinuity tion.The linkis a jump,and each act ofclickingsends thereaderto a new, relativelyisolated textualisland. It always takes timeto make oneselfat home in a text,to growrootsin thefictionalworld,to visualize thesetting, to familiarizeoneselfwiththecharactersand theirmotivation.In his novel of Italo Calvino allegorizesthe difficulty Nighta Traveler, If On a Winter's immersionby embeddingin thenarrativethebeginningof a dozen other aftera fewpages-just as thereader novelswhichare brutallyinterrupted in the fictionalworld.In Calvino's novel, a sense of to place begins develop thethreat thereaderis leftstrandedat theend ofeverychapter;inhypertext, ofuprootingoccurswitheverychangeofscreen. enviThe bestway to maintainan immersivequalityin a hypertextual of choices be to make the results it to would seems me, ronment, reasonably predictable,as theyshouldbe in VR,so thatthereaderwould learnthelaws ofthe maze and becomean expertat findinghisway evenin new territory.5 he maybe caughtin a specific Butifthereaderbecomesan expertnavigator, a mode of and revert to linear reading.The readersofhypertext story-line maintaina basic freedomenjoyedby all readers:the freedomto fightthe text,to read itagainstthegrain.As RobertCoover observes:"One will feel theneed, even while usingthesevast networksand principlesofrandomness and expansive storyline,to struggleagainstthem,just as one now strugglesagainst the linear constraintsof the printedbook" (quoted by Moulthrop,"Rhizomes,"119).Some of the readersof Michael Joyce'shyincluded-are indeed drivenby thedesire pertextnovelAfternoon-myself to findoutwhetherornotthenarrator'sex-wifeand son have been killedin an accident.6 In this"readingfortheplot,"we pretendthatthereis oneworld, onehistoricalsequence offacts,and oneanswerto thehauntingquestion. It would be preposterousto pass a global judgmenton the intrinsic meritof hypertext: whetherthemaze is experiencedas a prisonor as the to freedom depends on thequalityofthetextand on thedispositionof key Like all technologicalinventions, it thereader.Hypertextis onlyin infancy. may develop in directionswe cannotimagineat thistime.ButI would like to advance a generalpronouncement concerningtheimmersivepower-or lack thereof-ofthegenreas it is conceivedtoday.We are told thattheesSubstance#89, 1999

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is an awarenessof sence oftheaestheticexperiencegeneratedby hypertext thepluralityofworldscontainedin thesystem.Sincethispluralitycan only be contemplatedfroma pointof view externalto any oftheseworlds,the of hypertext is incompatproperappreciationof the multidimensionality ible withimmersion.Ifhypertext fictionis to carve a durablenichein the literarypantheon,it will have to demonstratethattextualpleasurecan be emancipatedfromimmersion.

literal 3. Strong interactivity

For interactivity to reachits strongestformit should allow theactual of production signs. The "empowermentof the reader" advocated by postmoderntheorycan onlybe morethana sloganifitinvolvesthepower to use language. In some hypertextual systems-such as RobertCoover's the Hotel-the user is encouraged to add new MOO, literary Hypertext materialsthatbecomea permanentpartofthesystem.In thisformofinteractivecreation,however,the user is creatingthe fictionalworld fromthe externalperspectiveof theauthor.She alternatesbetweenreader-roleand and interactivity, betweenimmersion ratherthancombining them writer-role, in themythical"wreader"experience. can onlybe reconciledwithimmersioniftheuser's input Interactivity countsas participation and as actioninthefictional world.Thisperformative dimensionrequiresa dramaticsetup. BrendaLaurel and JosephBates are at workon a formofVR (knownas Interactive Drama) in which currently theuserwill play a characterin a fictional worldand influencethedevelopmentoftheplotthrough herspeechand action.7Amongpurelytextualforms of communication, thosethatcome theclosestto mergingthe two dimension oftheVR experienceare thereal-timemulti-users role-playinggames known as MUDs or MOOs.8 (I will ignoreherethe technicaldifference betweentheseacronymsand refertobothenvironments as MOOs.) In these the user creates her own character its textual games, byposting description. Once investedwitha make-believeidentityin thefictionalworld,theuser playstheroleoftheimpersonatedcharacterfromtheinside.She encounters otherusersplayingothercharacters, and theyengagein a dialogue in real time.Mostcontributions are speechacts(x says),butthesystemalso allows theperformance ofphysicalactionsand even thebuildingofvirtualobjects. As ElizabethReid writes:"On [MOOs], textreplacesgesturesand has even becomegestureitself"(167). Ifa userplayinga characternamed Fredtypes "pose (or any othercode-wordforphysicalaction)fliesthroughthe window," thisdoes not countas thedescriptionby an observerofFred flying Substance#89, 1999

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by Fred,hereand now,ofthe throughthewindow,but as theperformance act of flyingaway. Throughtheirwrittenmessages,MOO users thusparticipatein what comes veryclose to a dramaticaction.The design of thisactionis almost oftheplayers.As Reid observes:"The MOO sysentirelytheresponsibility temprovidesplayerswitha stage,butitdoes notprovidethemwitha script" (170).On thestagesetbythesystem(usuallya buildingwithmultiplerooms withtextuallydescribedobjects),usersmeetothercharactersand furnished talkor get involvedin various activities:flirting, spying,buildingcastles, in a characters conversation, free-flowing makinglove,breakingup.As may butwhatevernarrativity tellstories,orengagein actionsthatoutlinea story, emergesfromthis interactionis strictlya micro-levelphenomenon.The minimalstructuring of the MOO world makes aestheticpleasure almost and cooperativenessof on compatibility entirelydependent thecreativity, players. Artcan sproutout of MOOs, as it can out of conversation,but MOOs in themselvesare not objectsof art.What you get out of themin termsof gratification is, moreliterallythanin any othermode of textual a function ofyourown performance. Thisis theinevitable communication, a of creator's over a fictionalworld. consequence seizing power Despite thislack ofcontrolling script,MOOs seem to have no problem generatingimmersion-perhapsbecause playersdo notlook at thegame as artand do not expectsustaineddramaticsuspense or a steadydisplay of on thegenreis fullofexpressionsoffanatic poeticinvention.The literature totellhow muchof loyaltyon thepartofitsusers.Atthispointitis difficult thisenthusiasmis due to thepleasureofrole-playing perse,and how much is infatuation withthetechnologicalmedium,need forsocial interaction, or fascination forthe real-worldidentities thathidebehindthemasks.Immersion is notthesame phenomenonas addiction:it requiresa sense ofmemwhileaddictionis an obsessive bershipin a world,eitherrealorimaginary, on a certain kind of dependency experienceor activity. 9 But since MOOs createa relationto an imaginaryworld throughrole-playing, it is a safe assumptionthatimmersionis an important partoftheMOO experience. A Dilemma of TextualCommunication Immersionor Interactivity: Whethertextualinteractivity takestheweak formofa mentalplaywith signsleadingto a productionofmeaning,or thestrongformofphysically producingthese signs,one consequenceappears unavoidable: in textual conflictseitherwithimmersionor withaestheticdematters,interactivity Substance#89, 1999

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sign,and oftenwithboth.If we comparetraditionalnarrative,hypertext immerfictionand MOO-typerole-playing gamesin termsofinteractivity, all I rank three counts. no form scores on and highest sivity, global design, themin thefollowingorder: 2. Role-playing 1. Traditional narrative. games.3. Hypertext. Immersivity: narrative. 1. Role-playing 3. Traditional games.2. Hypertext. Interactivity: 2. 1. narrative 3. Traditional games. Design: Hypertext. Role-playing

runmostblatantlyintotheproblemof The strongformsofinteractivity be monitored ofthereader-turned-author design:how can thecontributions that text a will maintain narrative the so the as whole coherence by system, and aestheticappeal ? Itcouldbe objectedthatliterature does notguarantee pleasureeither.Thereare good and bad novelsand poems just as thereare enjoyableand disappointingMOO sessions.In thisrespectMOOs are only different fromliteraryworks.But thegreaterabilityofliterquantitatively kindle texts to the aesthetic ary experienceis due to a largeextentto their use of time-tested compositiondevices,such as plot,theme,symbol,and tropes.10 In theweakerformsofinteractivity, designis easierto control,but immersionremainsproblematic.The various attemptsby contemporary literatureto emulatetheinteractivity ofVR createa loss ofinvolvementin the fictionalworld,a weakeningoftheimaginativeexperienceand a momentarybreakupofmake-believe.The textsthatcome theclosestto combining bothimmersionand interactivity are thosethatorchestrate themin roundrobinfashionthrougha game ofin-and-out. The textualincompatibility ofthetwotypesofexperiencecan be traced back to severalfactors.Whileimmersionin a textualworlddepends on the forwardmovementof a linearplot,interactivity involves (and creates)a spatial organization.While immersionpresupposespretendedbeliefin a solid extratextual reference thrivesin a fluidenvironworld,interactivity mentof changingrelations.While immersionlooks throughthe signs toward the reference of the meworld,interactivity exploitsthe materiality dium. Textualrepresentation behaves in one respectlike holographicpictures:you cannotsee theworlds and the signs at the same time.Readers and spectatorsmustfocusbeyondthesignsto witnesstheemergenceof a three-dimensional life-likereality. In computer-generated VR, by contrast,immersionand interactivity do notstandin conflict-orat leastnotnecessarily. Steuersuggeststhatthe #89,1999 Substance

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vividnessof a virtualworldmay "decreasea subject'sabilityto mindfully environment is so interactwithitin realtime"(90). Ifa computer-generated richin "fictional truths"thatitsexplorationoffers greatrewards,whywould the user botherto changethisworld?Immersionmay offeran occasional but once a virtualworldis in place as a multisensory threatto interactivity, Thereis nothits can onlybe enhancedbyinteractivity. display, immersivity in real and between immersion ing intrinsically incompatible interactivity: lifealso, thegreaterourfreedomto act,thedeeperourbond to theenvironment.Whyis it thatthetwo typesofexperienceharmonizein lifeand VR, but conflictin textualcommunication? One reasonhas to do withthepropertiesofthemedium.The relative in classical narrativeand of immersionand interactivity incompatibility is due to their exclusive reliance on hypertext language. Whilevisual media are inherently immersive(ittakesonlya fewsecondsto feelpartofthe world of a movie or a realisticpainting),textrequiresfargreatermental As the Loyola example activityto translateits signsintoa representation. it takes to achieve concentration because languageitimmersion, suggests, selfoffers no data to thesenses(exceptforthelook,feeland thesmellofthe book,whichare usuallynotrelatedto themessage). All sensorydata must therefore be simulatedby theimagination.The reasonforthetendencyof theorists to dismissimmersionas a passive experienceis thatit is literary thatmustignoreitselfin ordertoreachits reachedthrougha mentalactivity to increase this goal. Anyattempt activityis likelyto lead to self-reflexivity, the textual therebydestroyingthe delicatebalance betweenconstructing itas language-independent worldand experiencing This dilemma presence. is muchless acutein a multi-media environment. In VR,thesenseofimmersion is givenby image,sound,and tactilesensations.Interactivity is added to theexperienceby coordinatingthedisplaywiththemovementsof the user's body.The physicalpresenceofthebody in thevirtualenvironment reinforces thesense ofthephysicalpresenceofthevirtualworld. Anotherdifference betweenVR and literature residesin the semiotic In a textualworld,thetoolsofinteractivity natureofinteractivity. are signs, butintherealworldall actionpasses through thebody.Itis therefore through themediationofthebody thatVR developersenvisionthereconciliation of "Our body is our interface," claims William immersionand interactivity. Brickenin a VR manifesto(quotedin Pimenteland Texeira,160).Whenthe readerofa postmodernworkis invitedto "participate"in theconstruction Substance#89, 1999

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of thefictionalworld she is aware thatthisworld does not existindependentlyof thesemioticactivity;hencetheloss in immersivepower.But the user of a VR systeminteractswitha world thatis experiencedas existing autonomouslybecause thisworld is accessibleto thebody throughmany to thesenseoftouch.As thestoryofSaintThomasdemsenses,particularly onstrates,tactilesensationsare second to none in establishinga sense of oftheuserin virtualrealitycan be termed reality.The bodilyparticipation in thesame sense thatperforming actionsin therealworld world-creative As a purelymentalevent,textualcreationis a can be said to createreality. creationex nihilothatexcludesthecreatorfromthecreation:authorsdo not belong to the world of theirfictions.But if a mindmay conceivea world fromtheoutside,a body alwaysexperiencesitfromtheinside.As a relation of VR immersesthe user in an world involvingthebody,theinteractivity experiencedas alreadyin place; as a processinvolvingthemind,itturnsthe user's sojournin thevirtualworld intoa creativemembership.The most immersive formsoftextualinteractivity aretherefore dramaticperformances in whichtheuser's verbalcontributions countas theactions,gesturesand an acts of member of the embodied fictional world.Ratherthanperspeech a a creation i.e. through diegetic, descriptiveuse oflanguage,these forming createthe fictionalworldfromwithinin a dialogic and live contributions withits objectsand its othermembers.As I have pointedout interaction above,theseformsoftexuality(MOOs, interactive drama,children'sgames of make-believe)have yetto solve theproblemof design,a conditionfor being acceptedas art,but theypointtheway towarda solutionoftheconflictbetweenimmersionand interactivity: turnlanguage intogesture(here I paraphraseReid),intoa corporealmode ofbeingin theworld. and immersionare inherently more By suggestingthatinteractivity I do notmeanto promoteVR as a supecompatiblein VR thanin literature, riorartform.Immersionis a provenmean ofaestheticsatisfaction, butit is not necessarilythe onlyone. Many readersare willingto sacrificeat least some degreeofimmersionto themoreintellectual pleasureofself-reflexivity. I deferto empiricalstudiesthetaskof tellingwhetheror notaesthetic satisfactioncan be completelyemancipatedfromimmersion.But even if immersionturnsout to be a necessarycomponentof readingpleasure,its conflictwithinteractivity should be regardedas a challenge,not a limitation.Artis an exploitationof thepropertiesof its mediumand a compromisebetweenconflicting dramatic goals.In VR and in theabove-mentioned formsof textuality, theconflictinvolvestherelationof interactivity to deSubstance#89, 1999

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the conflictis sign-immersionbeing givenby the medium.In literature, and it immersion against againstinteractivity, interactivity two-pronged: pits design.The challengemay be morecomplexthanin VR, but thecomproof its medium,literatureowes its mises are morevaried.To the strictures richnessand diversity. FortCollins,Colorado

NOTES formfromthe 1. An earlierand shorterversionof thisessayis availablein electronic fileryan.994. archivesofPostmodern Culture, 2. See Moulthrop, fora critique oftheidea ofpost-symbolic com"Writing Cyberspace," It is obviousthatVR developersunderstand munication. sense, symbolin a linguistic as anarbitrary anddiscrete intolargersignifying unitsthrough signthatcanbecombined therulesofa syntax. As in Peirce'stypology, forthemwithiconand symbolcontrasts index.ButevenifVR technology modesofinteractivity--such developsnon-symbolic as changingthecolorofan objectby thetouchofthehand,ratherthanby typinga command-itcouldnotcreatereasonably completesimulacraof therealworldifit excludednaturallanguages. 3. One mayofcourseimaginea system ofdoingjustthatforthesakeofaesthetic gratification:an interactive, ofsurrealistic multi-media itsefimplementation poetryderiving fectfromtheincongruity ofthemetaphor. Butin thiscase theuser'sactionwouldaim towardmagicaltransformation, nottowardsinkinggolfballs intoholes,and theretheuser'sintent. sponseofthesystemwouldfulfill 4. I borrowthisphrasefromIser,thoughI giveita different meaning. 5. Makingchoicespredictable thereaderwitha strategy meansproviding fornavigating thetext.In thepamphletthataccompanies MichaelJoyce Afternoon, providesa cluefor the"wordsthatyield,"i.e.thewordsthathavelinksattachedtothem:"They detecting are usuallyones whichhave texture, as well as character namesand pronouns"(3). thatkeepsthereaderturning the Findingthe"wordsthatyield"becomesthestimulus electronic to theincentiveoftraditional alternative pages.Thisdesireis hypertext's narrative: howitends. finding 6.Anexampleofa readerfascinated isJ.Yellowlees bythecentral enigmaposedbyAfternoon interactive we arepurnarratives, Douglas.Shewrites:"So whenwe navigatethrough whenwe knowthatthe suingthesamegoalswe do as readersofprintnarratives-even textwillnotbestowuponus thefinalsanctionofa singularendingthateitherauthorizesorinvalidates ofthetext"(184). ourinterpretations 7. See Laurel,"Placeholder," and Kelso,Weyhrauch and Bates,"DramaticPresence." 8. MUD standsforMultiUserDungeon(or Dimension)and MOO forMultiUserDungeon,ObjectOriented. 9. In thecase ofreading,VictorNell makesa cleardistinction betweeninvolvement (an closeto whatI call immersion) and addiction.Addictedreadersare voraexperience blockoutreality, do notsavorthestory, and whentheyaredone,the cious,completely (211)becauseitlivesforthem story"leavesnoresidueanditawakensno deepfeelings"

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behavior... predicts onlyinthepresentofreading.Nellgoeson tosaythat"addictive an undevelopedcapacityforprivatefantasm" (212). 10. Anotherfactor, ofcourse,is theexistenceof a processofselectionand ofeditorial butnottoMOO participation. policiesthatapplyto publishedliterature

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