IEMA Learner Notes PDF

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management

Learner Notes

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Contents

Learner Note 1:

Megatrends

Learner Note 2:

Climate Change

13

Learner Note 3:

Fundamentals of Sustainability

22

Learner Note 4:

Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

30

Learner Note 5:

Effective Communication and Collaboration

37

Learner Note 6:

Environmental Principles (1)

44

Learner Note 7:

Environmental Principles (2)

60

Learner Note 8:

Pollution and Pollution Control

64

Learner Note 9:

Introduction to Policy, Regulation and Legislation

70

Learner Note 10:

Key Environmental Legislation

74

Learner Note 11:

Key Environmental Legislation and Enforcement

77

Learner Note 12:

Supporting Change and Transformation

90

Learner Note 13:

Environmental Management Systems

93

Learner Note 14a: Data Management and Interpretation

99

Learner Note 14b: Methods to Monitor Performance

101

Learner Note 15:

Environmental Auditing

104

Learner Note 16:

Impact Assessment and Other Tools

110

Learner Note 17:

Reporting (Corporate Reporting, Green Claims and Business Case for Sustainability)

120

Learner Note 18:

Reframing (Improving Sustainability Performance)

125

4

Learner Note 19: Procurement

126

Learner Note 20:

128

Contractor Management

References

129

Revision Guide

134

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | Contents

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Learner Note 1

Megatrends

DAY 1

The following are included in this Learner Note:

• Population • Globalisation and urbanisation • Implications from trends NB. Climate change is considered in Learner Note 2.

Introduction Megatrends relate to a wide variety of large-scale environmental, social and economic changes, varying across the globe. Trends such as climate change, population change, terrorism, big data, immigration, etc. affect all of society; however, some trends are directly related to the status of economic development such as big data and cybersecurity.

Population The United Nations (UN) Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division estimates a global population of 7.3 billion 1 July 2015. Various online population-estimation clocks are available based on UN data plus the current population growth rate to give a ‘live’ count.

Milestone (bn)

Year achieved

Years to achieve

2

1930

130

3

1959

29

4

1974

15

5

1987

13

6

1999

12

7

2011

12

8

Expected by 2024

13

9

Expected by 2038

14

Human population growth was fairly constant until the start of the industrial revolution. It took ALL of human history until 1800 for the population to reach 1 billion. FACTS

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In 1970, there were roughly half as many people as there are today. Due to reducing growth rates, it will take another 200 years to double again.

Global population doubled from 3 billion to 6 billion between 1959 and 1999. It is estimated that it will take a further 39 years for the population to increase by another 50%, to 9 billion by 2038.

The UN predicts that world population will reach 10 billion by 2056.

An estimated 106 billion ‘modern’ humans have been born (over 50,000 years), meaning that 6% of all the people who have ever lived are alive today.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Population (billion)

DAY 1

World: Total Population - Figure 1.1 shows the total global human population from 1950 to 2015, with projections to 2100. When planning for future needs, mitigation and adaptation, it is essential to consider projected changes.

median 00% prediction interval 05% prediction interval observed +/- 0.5 child

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015) World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision. http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/

Top 10 largest countries by population (May 2017) Rank

Country

Population

Rank

Country

Population

1

China

1.4bn

6

Pakistan

197m

2

India

1.3bn

7

Nigeria

191m

3

USA

326m

8

Bangladesh

165m

4

Indonesia

264m

9

Russia

143m

5

Brazil

211m

10

Japan/Mexico

130m

Source: Worldometers

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

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Population density DAY 1

Population density is a measurement of the population per unit area (m² or km²). Densely populated countries include Monaco, Hong Kong (part of People’s Republic of China), Singapore, Bahrain and Bangladesh (Source: World Bank). China has a lower population density than the UK, for example.

• Children are a valuable source of income for a family and society; in addition, they can help to care for other children and elderly family members • High infant mortality means that many children are needed to ensure that some survive • Humans are living longer.

Population management Population change Currently, the global human population is growing at 1.13% per year, which results in an average population increase of approximately 80 million per year (Source: UN). The annual growth rate peaked in 1963 (2.19%): this is estimated to reduce to 1% by 2020, and to be less than 0.5% by 2050. The growth rate in China is currently 0.52%. The countries with the highest growth rates are predominantly in the Middle East and include Oman, Kuwait and Qatar. This sees a move away from sub-Saharan Africa, albeit many of these countries still make up the top 20. The impact of a slowing growth rate should be positive; however, it could have significant implications, particularly as advances in medicine mean that we are living longer. This could result in a deficit in the number of people of working age and an increasingly less productive, ageing population, resulting in higher costs and less tax income. For example, the UK population was 64 million in June 2014, and is set to rise to 70 million by 2027; however, the ‘over-80s’ age group is the fastest growing.

There are many reasons for population growth, including:

Population management includes a controversial and complex mix of political, economic, environmental and social factors. Attempts have been made in several countries to control population, including India, Iran, Myanmar, Singapore and the USA. The most well-known was China’s ‘one-child’ policy in the late 1970s. The policy did allow for several exceptions (e.g. if the first child was a girl, or both parents themselves were onlychildren), with some reports suggesting that only approximately 35% of the population were subjected to the strict policy. The Chinese government imposed fines for breaches of the policy, and tried to raise awareness. There were also reports of more severe methods of control, particularly in rural locations, to include forced abortion and sterilisation. Due to the preference for boys, the policy resulted in a gender imbalance. It is very difficult to estimate how many births were prevented; according to the Chinese government, the figure is 400 million. The population growth rate was close to 2% in the late 1970s, it is now 0.52%. In contrast, the UK growth rate is 0.63%. The policy in China was amended in January 2016 to allow couples to have two children.

• Limited access to family planning services and education about contraception • Cultural reasons – it is important to have a large family, and/or contraception may not be culturally or religiously acceptable

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

What is an urban area?

“Globalisation is the process by which technological, communications and political changes have intensified the worldwide exchange of money, goods, people and culture.” (Faber, 2014)

Urban areas are defined as “places of dense human population, where most land is dedicated to buildings, concrete, grassy lawns and other human uses” (Pickett et al, 2001).

We have seen increased integration of economies and societies in a process that transcends national boundaries, which also has resulted in the development of transnational regulations.

Urban areas are sometimes referred to as ‘hardscape’. Urban areas are highly modified and complex landscapes within which green or open areas are valuable for human well-being, as well as wildlife. Habitat alteration from urbanisation is both drastic and increasingly widespread. Large parcels of land are de-vegetated, paved and dramatically modified in a way that often exceeds habitat changes that occur from logging, traditional farming and many other land uses.

Globalisation has resulted in an acceleration in the use of resources, as well as the exchange of ecological hazards between nations and environmental injustices, whereby imbalances between countries has led to affluent nations exporting ecological hazards to poor nations. Moreover, social injustices and human rights violations are caused using cheap labour.

Urbanisation Cities, and more importantly suburbs, are expanding – covering expanses of agricultural and ‘natural lands’. As well as population growth, a key driver for urbanisation is migration: the movement of people from one permanent place to another. This includes internal – rural to urban – and international migration. Migration can bring benefits as well as challenges to both places, and there are various push-and-pull factors for migrants, as well as benefits and challenges for the place losing or gaining people. FACTS In 1900, only 10% of humans lived in cities

In 2000, 50% lived in cities

DAY 1

Globalisation and urbanisation

Global middle class Globalisation has resulted in the growth of middle classes, resulting in improved quality of life, although paradoxically this can become a problem in an interconnected global economy where quality of life expectation is rising, particularly if economic growth is stagnating. The global middle classes are estimated to grow from 2 billion to 4.9 billion by 2030 (Source: Beyond the Perfect Storm, 2016) because of economic growth and development of technology allowing us to access more resources and improved medical care. This increase in wealth has resulted in an increased demand and desire for goods, many of which require finite resources such as fossil fuels and rare earth elements.

By 2030, 60% will live in cities

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

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Growth of the Global Middle Classes - Figure 1.2 DAY 1

It is estimated that the European and American middle classes will shrink from 50% to 22% of the total. Figure 1.2 shows the rapid growth in China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia. This will cause Asia’s share of the new ‘middle’ to more than double from its current 30%. By 2030, Asia will host 64% of the global middle class, and account for more than 40% of global middle-class consumption.

Middle Class Consumer Spending Outer Ring: 2030 in trillions. USD (projected) Inner Ring: 2009 in trillions. USD

$11.1

Asia Pacific $32.9

+571% GROWTH

Europe $8.1

$6

$4.9

North America $5.5 Sub-Saharan Africa $0.6

$0.4

While increasing Chinese spending tops the news, the East Asia Bureau of Economic Research forecasts that spending in India and Indonesia will grow at similar rates.

$1.5

$0.9 $3.3

Source: OECD https://qz.com/43411/the-worldsmiddle-class-will-number-5billion-by-2030/

Middle East and North Africa

$2.2

Central/ South America

REGIONS

Source: OECD

New markets: a pivot to the Asia-Pacific market Another consequence of globalisation is a growth in emerging economies, resulting in new markets being a pivot to the Asia-Pacific region. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000, the area accounted for less than 30% of global output, but by 2014 this had risen to almost 40%, as well as accounting for two-thirds of global growth. The real conflict is in the roles and responsibilities of the emerging powers (newly industrialised countries) – Brazil, South Africa, India and China (known as the BASIC group). The BASIC countries can be classed as ‘developing’, ‘major emitters’ and ‘major

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economies’. They have global economic and political power. So, at what point are these countries no longer ‘less developed’, and when should they be regarded the same as ‘more developed’ nations? Despite now committing to greenhouse gas emission (GHG) reductions, the BASIC group argues that ‘developed’ countries continue to have much higher per capita emissions, and that they still have a long way to go to achieve reasonable living standards and eradicate poverty, thus emissions should be able to continue to grow.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

Implications from trends Population structure

With an estimated population of more than 8 billion by 2030, we will need 50% more energy, 40% more water and 34% more food (Source: National Intelligence Council). This is a combination of a greater number of people and more intense resource consumption. The intensity of resource use between 1900 and 2000 increased by a factor of 12 for fossil fuels, and a factor of 8 for all resources overall. The intensity of resource consumption between 1900 and 2000 outstripped population growth by a rate of 3.75.

Different countries face varying problems when faced with managing population change. Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDC) have to manage rapid population growth, while More Economically Developed Countries (MEDC) have to manage slow or negative growth and an ageing population. Changes in the structure of the population, coupled with an increase in life expectancy, lead to fewer economically active people to support an elderly population. This results in increasing pressure on resources, and paradoxically, may result in more countries adopting pro-natalist policies and offering incentives.

World Energy Consumption

World Energy Consumption -Figure 1.3

600

Exajoules per Year

500

This shows the huge increase in world energy consumption that has taken place in the last 200 years. This rise in energy consumption is primarily from increased fossil fuel use.

DAY 1

Resource consumption (and intensity), scarcity and depletion

400 300

Nuclear Hydro-Elect Nat Gas Oil Coal Biofuels

200 100

Source: Our Finite World https://ourfiniteworld.com/2012/03/12/worldenergy-consumption-since-1820-in-charts/

0 1820 1840 1860 1980 1880 1900 11920 1940 1960 1980 2000

World Energy Consumption (per capita) - Figure 1.4

Source: Our Finite World https://ourfiniteworld.com/2012/03/12/worldenergy-consumption-since-1820-in-charts/

Gigajoules per Capita per Year

This shows world energy consumption per person (capita), which resonates with the previous observation that the intensity of resource use is as much a factor as total population.

World per Capita Energy Consumption 90 80 70 60 50

Nuclear Hydro-Elect Nat Gas Oil Coal Biofuels

40 30 20 10 0 1820 1840 1860 1980 1880 1900 11920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

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DAY 1

One way of measuring this is to consider our ecological footprint. An ecological footprint looks at the amount of resources we use. Similarly, if we consider the biocapacity of the planet to provide, then it is accepted that our ecological footprint exceeds the Earth’s biocapacity to provide. If the Earth’s footprint is expressed in terms of months of the year, then globally the human population uses up its resource allocation by September. If looking at the UK population only, we exceed the Earth’s biocapacity by April, and the USA by February. This is known as ‘overshooting’ or ‘ecological debt’.

Resource depletion This is the use of raw materials at a rate higher than their replacement within an area, region or country – many of these resources are non-renewable (e.g. fossil fuels). Research published in Energy Policy (2009) suggests that reserves of oil and gas will have diminished by 2042; coal will be available up to 2112.

Rare earth elements Rare earth elements are a key resource, called such because of their difficultly to extract and often sparse distribution, rather than the limited total amount. These include 17 chemical elements, the 15 lanthanides as well as scandium and yttrium. They are used in a wide range of electrical and electronic devices, from mobile phones and computers to solar panels, hybrid cars, and in military and medical applications. An estimated 95% of these elements are produced by China, despite having 20% to 30% of rare earth element global reserves. In addition to these elements, many other important elements such as gold, platinum and silver are used in electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing.

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Biodiversity loss and ecosystem decline There are estimated to be 8.7 million species (give or take 1.3 million and excluding bacteria) on Earth (Source: UNEP). Current extinction rates are estimated to be 1,000 times the background rates. It has been argued that the Earth is currently in its sixth ‘Mass Extinction Episode’, with the previous one being dinosaur extinction 65 million years ago. It is highly likely that there are species going extinct that we are not even aware of, and have not had the opportunity to assess their contribution to the functioning of ecosystems, or even the services that they might provide. Biodiversity refers to ‘the variety of life’ (Gaston and Spicer, 2004). The UN Convention on Biological Diversity provides the following definition: “’Biological diversity’ means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.” • Genetic: Populations, individuals, chromosomes, genes, nucleotides • Organismal: Kingdoms, phyla, families, genera, species, sub-species, populations, individuals • Ecological: Biomes, bioregions, landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, niches, populations. Maintaining biodiversity is important because human survival depends on it to support life, and because of the services it provides (see Learner Note 7). However, humans are directly (e.g. harvesting) or indirectly (e.g. climate change, pollution) responsible for reducing biodiversity, and for placing many other species at risk.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

Global imbalances The total human population, its change, distribution, structure and our social and economic expectations are significant drivers for change. This is resulting in several environmental, social and economic consequences (as laid out in this Learner Note). The image below highlights the imbalances that still exist.

The genome contains the genetic code of an individual. A gene is a section of DNA whose sequence determines the structure and function of a specific functional molecule (usually a protein). The gene information is encoded into building blocks and the code varies between individuals – this is genetic diversity. A high genetic diversity increases the likelihood of species survival.

Source: IEMA Water https://www.iema.net/assets/uploads/Beyond%20the%20 An estimated 1.8 billion people are Water perfect%20storm%20CS%20Briefing%20May%202016.pdf drinking water contaminated by An estimated 1.8 billion people are

Updating the Storm Warning - Figure 1.5

Updating thethe Updating storm stormwarning warning

Updating the torm warning

The only safe ship in a storm is leadership’

The only safe ship in a storm is leadership’

Faye Wattleton President of Planned Parenthood Federation of America

he only safe hip in a storm leadership’

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The Education to our planet is the is the most powerful belief that someone weapon else will save it’ you can

Updating the storm warning

aye Wattleton esident of Planned renthood Federation America

use to change the world’

Robert Swan Polar explorer and Education is the Nelson Mandela advocate for protection most Freedom fighterpowerful and former of Antarctica president of South Africa

weapon you can use to change the world’

eedom fighter and former esident of South Africa

Robert Swan Polar explorer and for protection UN Declarationadvocate of Human Rights of Antarctica

faeces; between 1990 and 2012 2.3 billion people gained access to Human rights improved drinking water An estimated 35.8 million people globally are defined as modern slaves

Climate change

women) lack basic literacy skills

Human rights

An estimated 35.8 million people globally are defined as modern slaves

Water

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity Pollution Education Poverty Global output of chemicals increased 57 million children worldwide and rights’ One person in five in developing

Pollution

Global output of chemicals increased Education

Human rights

An estimated 35.8 million people globally are defined as modern slaves

Health and wellbeing

2.5 billion people Biodiversity globally lack loss is estimated to access toSpecies basic sanitation; be between 1,000 and 10,000 millions have no access to soap Climate change times higher than the natural In 2015, global warming andreached water to wash their hands, extinction rate 1°C above pre-industrial times for denying a basic act that would the first time; 1.6 billion people them to block the empower live in countries and regions with spread of disease

oceans each year

Pollution

Global output of chemicals increased 84% between 2000 and 2010; 4.9 million deaths worldwide were attributable to exposure to chemicals in 2004; plastics weighing 191 times that of the Titanic are dumpedResources in The circular economy represents oceans each yeara net material cost saving

absolute water scarcity – with climate change this is expected to rise to Population 2.8 billion by 2025 Global population will grow from 7.2 billion to 9.7 billion by 2050; global middle class will grow from 2 billion to 4.9 billion by 2030; in the next 40 years we have to produce as much food as over the past 8,000 years

Biodiversity Health and wellbeing

opportunity of between $340bn and $380bn a year to the EU

84% between 2000 and 2010; 57 million children worldwide deaths were are4.9 notmillion in school, half ofworldwide them in conflict-affected areas; 103 million attributable to exposure to chemicals youth (moreplastics than 60% of them191 times in 2004; weighing women) lackthe basic literacy that of Titanic areskills dumped in

denying a basic act that would empower them to block the spread of disease

oceans each year

Resources

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’

Nelson Mandela Freedom fighter and former president of South Africa

Article 1 UN Declaration of Human Rights

Pollution

Global output of chemicals increased 84% between 2000 and 2010; 4.9 million deaths worldwide were attributable to exposure to chemicals in 2004; plastics weighing 191 times that of the Titanic are dumped in oceans each year

Resources

The circular economy represents a net material cost saving opportunity of between $340bn and $380bn a year to the EU

Biodive

Species loss is e be between 1,00 times higher tha extinctio

Statistics sourced from the UN,

Species loss is estimated to UNICEF, WHO, The World Bank, WWF, 2.5 billion people globally lack be between and 10,000 The Global Slavery Index, UNEP, Ellen access to 1,000 basic sanitation; MacArthur Foundation, OECD and Reuters. Population millions have than no access to soap times higher the natural and water to washrate their hands, Global population will grow from extinction

Population The circular economy represents

Education is the most powerful weapon you can use to change the world’

H

2.5 b acc millio and w deny emp

spread of disease

84% between 2000 and 2010; are not in school, half of them regions earns lessinthan $1.25 a day; 4.9 in million deaths worldwide were conflict-affected areas; 103 million ‘rich’ countries there has been a net attributable to exposure to chemicals Article 1 youth (more than 60% of them increase of 2.6 million in the number in 2004; plastics weighing 191 times Allof human beings UN Declaration women) literacyin skills of children poverty since the 2008;that of the Titanic are dumped in Human Rights lack basic

are born 76.5 free million and children live in poverty in the 41 most affluent countries equal in dignity and rights’

Climate

In 2015, global w 1°C above pre-in the first time; 1 live in countries absolute water climate change th rise to 2.8 bi

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Education

57 million children worldwide An estimated 1.8 billion people are are notdrinking in school, of them in waterhalf contaminated by faeces; between 2012 conflict-affected areas;1990 103and million billionthan people gained youth2.3 (more 60% of access them to improved drinking water women) lack basic literacy skills

Robert Swan Polar explorer and advocate for protection of Antarctica

In 2015, global warming reached 1°C above pre-industrial times for the first time; 1.6 billion people live in countries and regions with absolute water scarcity – with climate change this is expected to rise to 2.8 billion by 2025

Climate change

of 2.6 million in the number Education toofincrease our planet is the children in poverty since the572008; million children worldwide belief that children someone 76.5 million live in poverty are not in in school, half of them in Robert Swan conflict-affected areas; 103 million Polar explorer and the 41 most affluent countries else will save it’ youth (more than 60% of them advocate for protection

Article 1 UN Declaration of Human Rights

Human rights

An estimated 35.8 million people globally are defined as modern slaves

Poverty

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ducation is the The only safe greatest threat most powerful Nelson Mandela All human The beings ship in a storm to our planet is the Freedom fighter and former eapon you can and is leadership’ are born free belief that someone president of South Africa se to change equal in dignity else will save it’ he world’ and rights’

Faye Wattleton President of Planned Article 1 elson Mandela Parenthood Federation of America

drinking water contaminated by faeces; between 1990 and 2012 2.3 billion people gained access to improved drinking water

76.5 million children live in poverty in the 41 most affluent countries

of Antarctica

DAY 1

Genetic diversity is the foundation for all biological diversity

Global population will growmaterial from cost saving a net 7.2 billion to 9.7 billion by 2050; global opportunity of between $340bn middle class will grow from 2 billion to $380bn a year to the EU 4.9 billion by 2030; in and the next 40 years Biodiversity we have to produce as much food as Species loss is estimated to over the past 8,000 years

7.2 billion to 9.7 billion by 2050; global middle class will grow from 2 billion to 4.9 billion by 2030; in the next 40 years we have to produce as much food as over the past 8,000 years

UNICEF, The G MacArthur F

be between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than the natural Statistics sourced from the UN, extinction rate UNICEF, WHO, The World Bank, WWF, The Global Slavery Index, UNEP, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, OECD and Reuters.

Population

Global population will grow from 7.2 billion to 9.7 billion by 2050; global middle class will grow from 2 billion to Foundation Certificate in Environmental 4.9 billion by 2030;Management in the next 40 years we have to produce as much food as Resources over the past 8,000 years The circular economy represents a net material cost saving opportunity of between $340bn and $380bn a year to the EU

- Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

Statistics sourced from the UN, UNICEF, WHO, The World Bank, WWF, The Global Slavery Index, UNEP, Ellen MacArthur Foundation, OECD and Reuters.

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DAY 1

Further information National Intelligence Council – Global Trends https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/Global%20Trends_2015%20Report.pdf Population statistics www.worldometers.info United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/ PwC Megatrends www.pwc.co.uk/issues/megatrends.html Ernst and Young Global Megatrends www.ey.com/GL/en/Issues/Business-environment/EY-megatrends

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 1 - Megatrends

Learner Note 2 Climate Change

• The science and causes of climate change • Impacts/consequences of climate change • Global action

• Global emissions • Case study - UK response

DAY 1

The following are included in this Learner Note:

The science and causes of climate change Climate change is a complex science and causes much confusion. Here are a few simple definitions to distinguish between the key terms used.

The greenhouse effect is the heating of the surface of the Earth due to the presence of an atmosphere containing greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbons [HCFCs]) that absorb and emit long-wave (heat) radiation. Without the effect, the Earth’s average temperature would be −19oC, rather than 15oC, and the effect is natural. However, human activity is exacerbating the effect, causing global warming by increasing the amount of GHG in the atmosphere.

Global warming is the process by which the average surface temperature on the Earth increases. This is caused primarily by an increase in the amount of GHG in our atmosphere. Global temperatures increased by 0.85 degrees between 1880 and 2010. (Source: IPCC)

Climate change is a change in the long-term distribution and severity of weather patterns caused by changes in global temperature.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

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The Greenhouse Effect - Figure 2.1 DAY 1 Some solar radiation is reflected by the Earth and the atmosphere

SUN

Solar radiation passes through the clear atmosphere

Most radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and warms it

EARTH Infrared radiation is emitted from the Earth’s surface

Greenhouse gases GHG have varying global warming potentials (GWP), a measure used to compare the emissions from various GHG. This means that we need to consider the types and amounts of GHG in our atmosphere. If measured over 100 years and CO2 is worth 1, then methane is approximately 25 times more powerful than CO2, nitrous oxide is approximately 300 times more powerful, and a perfluorinated compound known as sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) used in industry is approximately 23,000 times more powerful than CO2.

ATMOSPHERE Some infrared radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by the greenhouse gases. The effect of this is to warm the surface and lower the atmosphere

Source: adapted from Global Greenhouse Warming http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/effectgreen-house.html

Our atmosphere

Carbon dioxide CO2 forms approximately 0.04% of the Earth’s atmosphere (400 ppm) – it is essential for life. The current levels are 125 ppm above the 1,832 ice-core levels. Using ice-core data, we know that there is now more CO2 in our atmosphere than at any point in the past 800,000 years. Even if we could reduce CO2 emissions, CO2 concentrations would continue to rise due to lag effects; taking 20 to 30 years to translate into warming.

More than 99% of the atmosphere is made up of nitrogen, oxygen and argon, and the levels of these atmospheric gases have been stable for millennia. The remaining constituents of the atmosphere are termed ‘variable trace gases’ and these are dominated by GHG (HCFCs are used in air conditioning equipment and industrial processes). GHG are capable of absorbing and re-emitting wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (i.e. the same heat energy that radiates from fire).

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

Causes of climate change

• Future population increases and rises in the global middle class – the increasing intensity of resource use magnifies this. • The finite capacity of the biosphere to absorb CO2 means that it will not always be there to act as a buffer. This can result in positive feedback mechanisms. • Lag effects – emissions realised today will cause warming in 20 to 30 years. • We are adding to the CO2 already in the atmosphere – reducing emissions is not taking CO2 out.

Impacts and consequences of climate change

Climate change by numbers • 0.85 degrees of global warming since 1880. • Scientists are 95% sure that half of global warming is caused by humans – a halving or doubling of CO2 can cause a 4⁰ change. Temperature rises are proportional to CO2. • 1 trillion tonnes – this is the amount of carbon we can use and potentially keep below 2 degrees of warming: a ‘world carbon budget’. We have already used half a trillion, and are projected to use the other half within 30 years. (Source: IPCC)

DAY 1

Climate change is both natural, including variations in solar output, the Earth’s orbit, volcanic eruptions and the natural carbon cycle, (see Learner Note 6) and man-made. About 80% of human CO2 emissions during the 1990s resulted from burning fossil fuels and cement production, with the remaining 20% from land-use change (primarily deforestation). Almost 45% of these emissions have remained in the atmosphere. Oceans have taken up 30%, and terrestrial ecosystems have taken up the rest through growth of replacement vegetation on cleared land, changes to land management practices, and the fertilising effects of increased CO2 and nitrogen depositions.

When measuring future climate, we also need to consider the following:

The impacts of climate change are usually felt locally and are unevenly distributed. Impacts include, but are not limited to: • Warming of the climate system, resulting in an increase in the incidence of heatwaves and/or stress • Snow and ice diminishing, resulting in sea level rises, land loss and flooding • More severe weather and pattern changes, causing damage to property and crops, cyclones, mudslides and forest fires • Increasing ocean acidity, resulting in damage to sensitive habitats and species • Changes in vegetation zones, resulting in desertification and reduced crop yields • Changes in the distribution of disease vectors – increasing the spread and/or incidence of disease and epidemics • Change to natural systems, loss of biodiversity and ecosystems.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

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Global action DAY 1

1988 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created. It was set up by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to prepare, based on available scientific information, assessments on all aspects of climate change and its impacts, with a view to formulating realistic response strategies.

1992

Other commitments of the UNFCCC include: • Publishing GHG inventories • Implementing measures to mitigate and adapt to climate change • Promoting and cooperating in the development, application, diffusion of mitigation or adaptation technologies • Promoting sustainable development • Taking care to minimise the adverse socio-economic or environmental effects that responding to climate change might bring about • Promoting and cooperating in relevant scientific research and technology • Promoting and cooperating in education, training and public awareness.

16

A key development behind climate change policy was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. A key objective was to “stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the global climate system”. The treaty sets out a broad framework of objectives, guiding principles and commitments for participating countries to tackle climate change at a global level. It did not set any binding targets or establish enforcement mechanisms, but set the way for future mechanisms (see reference to ‘1997 Kyoto Protocol’). It was agreed that parties should protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations, on the basis of respective capabilities and responsibilities; developed parties being responsible for the majority of GHG emissions should take the lead in combating climate change. It was agreed that from 1995, the parties to the agreement should meet annually in Conferences of the Parties (CoP) to discuss progress and action required to tackle climate change.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

DAY 1

1997: Kyoto Protocol (CoP 3, 1997) • Developed (industrialised) countries were set a target of reducing GHG emissions by 5.2% between 2005 and 2012 – targets varied by country (e.g. EU: 8%, UK: 12.5%). Developing countries were not set targets. The USA did not sign up • Targets covered all GHGs, not just CO2 • Targets were legally binding – failure to comply would incur penalties The Protocol ‘operationalises’ the UNFCCC, but due to complex ratification processes it only entered into force in February 2005. The Protocol committed industrialised countries to stabilise GHG based on the principles of the Convention. Developed countries insisted on a number of “flexibility mechanisms” to allow them to meet their targets in the most economically effective way.

2015: Paris Agreement (CoP 21) • This was signed in April 2016 and deals with GHG emission mitigation, adaptation and finance from 2020; it also adopts a pledge and review system discussed in earlier meetings and championed by the USA and China • A commitment to keep global warming to below 2°C; discussions suggested that a new limit of 1.5°C should be established • The Agreement was signed by 177 UNFCCC members, 15 of which ratified it. Importantly, the USA and China, which jointly represent 40% of global emissions, confirmed that they will sign the Agreement

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DAY 1

Methods to tackle climate change

Carbon markets

Mitigation – reduce the magnitude of climate change This means using cleaner energy sources, such as renewables, reducing reliance on fossil fuels, building a smart electrical grid, investing in carbon capture and storage/utilisation (CCS) and potentially other geo-engineering technologies that either remove GHG from the atmosphere (i.e. sequestration), or solar radiation management that reflects some of the inbound sunlight back into space, with the effect of reducing global warming.

Carbon markets put a commodity value on GHG emissions – emissions trading, carbon taxes and voluntary offset have become strategies because they claim to deliver economically efficient reductions in GHG emissions. The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is a mandatory multi-sector, multi-country cap and trade scheme that is the EU’s primary instrument for regulating carbon emissions from large energy and industrial installations. Large emitters of carbon are given a specific ‘allowance’; if they exceed that allowance, they need to buy carbon credits from those who may have not used their allowance.

Adaptation – adapt to the consequences of a changing climate and limit vulnerability

The nature of the scheme incentivises companies financially to reduce their emissions, and assists member countries in meeting their emission reduction targets.

This means preparing to live with the effects of climate change, some of which are under way or inevitable. Adaptation is both a technical and a political challenge. Technical adaptation means transforming our relationship with nature as nature transforms. Examples include:

As well as mandatory schemes, carbon is traded voluntarily, whereby credits are allocated to projects that are carbon ‘positive’, thus allowing businesses, countries and individuals to purchase carbon credits and offset their emissions.

• building seawalls around vulnerable coastal cities; • giving land back to mangroves and everglades, so they can act to break tidal surges during storms; • opening wildlife migration corridors, so that species can move as the climate warms; and • developing sustainable forms of agriculture that can function on an industrial scale, even as weather patterns vary wildly.

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

Global emissions DAY 1

Global emissions in 2010 were 49 billion tonnes CO2 (Source: IPCC). GHG (CO2e) emissions per territory, 2010 as a % of total emissions (top 10) Rank

Country

%

Rank

Country

%

Rank

Country

%

1

China

22.7

5

Japan

2.9

9

Canada

1.7

2

USA

15.5

6

Brazil

2.6

10

Iran

1.6

3

India

5.7

7

Germany

2.1

13

UK

1.4

4

Russia

5.4

8

Indonesia

1.9

Source: World Resources Institute

CO2 emissions, tonnes per capita per territory, 2010 Rank

Country

T

Rank

Country

T

Rank

Country

T

1

Qatar

40.1

6

United Arab Emirates

22.3

11

Bahrain

19.2

2

Trinidad and Tobago

37.8

7

Aruba

21.6

12

USA

17.5

3

Kuwait

34.2

8

Luxembourg

21.3

44

UK

7.96

4

Netherland Antilles

23.6

9

Oman

20.6

59

China

6.18

5

Brunei Darussalam

23

10

Falkland Islands

19.6

119

India

1.64

Source: UN Millennium Development Goals Indicator

Preliminary data for 2015 from the International Energy Agency showed that global emissions of CO2 (not all GHG) from energy generation have levelled off at 32.1 billion tonnes due to a reduction in coal-generated power coupled with a rise in renewable energy, despite the global economy growing by 3% during the same period. (Source: Guardian, 16 March 2016)

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DAY 1

CASE STUDY - UK RESPONSE In terms of energy generation, the UK has reduced its reliance on coal and replaced it with gas and renewables. In 2016, for the first time since before the Industrial Revolution, the UK operated without any coal-fired power generation. As we move forward, gas (including shale) will continue to play a key role, supplemented by nuclear and renewables.

UK activity includes the Climate Change Act 2008, which set a GHG reduction target of 80% by 2050. The UK was the first to set a carbon reduction law; more than 80 other countries have now set targets. The diagram below shows how UK total GHG emissions have been decreasing over recent years.

Total UK GHG emissions between 1990 and 2014 - Figure 2.2

MtCO2e 1000.0 800.0 600.0 400.0 200.0

Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/total-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-transport

Further information See Learner Note 1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) www.ipcc.ch International Energy Agency www.iea.org The Keeling Curve https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/ UK GHG emissions data https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/uk-greenhouse-gas-emissions-statistics UK Met Office Climate Guide www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate-guide 20

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 2 - Climate Change

2014

2013

2011

2012

2010

2009

2007

2008

2005

2006

2004

2003

2001

2002

1999

2000

1997

1998

1995

1996

1994

1993

1991

1992

1990

0.0

Notes

DAY 1

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Learner Note 3

Fundamentals of Sustainability

DAY 1

The following are included in this Learner Note:

• Definition of sustainable development • History of sustainable development • United nations sustainable development goals • Sustainable development concepts • Environmental limits and the planetary boundaries concept • Sustainable capitals

Definition of sustainable development There are said to be more than 200 definitions of sustainable development. However, the most common definition is: “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Individual jurisdictions tend to have their own definition, albeit following the Brundtland principles. Due to the number of definitions, sustainability is considered a ‘contested concept’: an idea that a concept does not have an agreed, fixed definition. If contested, then different groups may define or reframe the concept to suit their objectives. Consequently, it is common to see the term ‘sustainability’ added to other phrases or industries, including aviation, construction and landfill.

This is known as the Brundtland definition, after Gro Harlem Brundtland, chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development. The Global Association of Corporate Sustainability Officers (GACSO) defines sustainable development as: “Being able to meet our needs today, while ensuring that what we leave behind for future generations is sustainable, for people and the planet.” A simpler alternative suggested by Newcastle University and presented in the GACSO Defining Corporate Sustainability white paper is “Enough, For All, Forever”.

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

History of sustainable development DAY 1

Sustainable development is an extremely important yet simple concept, emphasised by the reported fact that if everyone in the world consumed as many natural resources as the average person in the UK, we would need three planets to support us – or if we lived the average USA lifestyle, we would need five planets. Despite its apparent simplicity, sustainable development can be extremely difficult to explain or apply to everyday life, as well as knowing when it has been achieved.

1972 The UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm: The Concept of Sustainable Development is widely accepted to have its origins here.

1992 The UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), at Rio – world leaders recognised sustainable development as a major challenge. The summit marked the first international attempt to draw up action plans for moving towards a more sustainable pattern of development. It was attended by representatives from 178 governments, and set out ‘Agenda 21’, which included various voluntary sustainable development goals to be achieved in the 21st Century.

2012 The Rio+20 Summit – governments reaffirmed their commitments to the previous sustainable development agreements and targets. They also committed to developing Sustainable Development Goals (see overleaf) building on Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

1987 The Brundtland Report – the concept gained momentum following the Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, which suggested that sustainable development was the solution to the problem of environmental degradation: namely, that human activity was having severe and negative impacts on the planet, and that patterns of growth and development would be unsustainable if they continued unchecked.

2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg – the Summit delivered three key outcomes: a political declaration, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, and a range of partnership initiatives. Key commitments included those on consumption and production, water and sanitation and energy.

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United Nations Sustainable Development Goals DAY 1

At the UN Sustainable Development Summit on 25 September 2015, world leaders adopted the ‘2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’, which includes 17 sustainable development goals to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change by 2030. These goals build on the Millennium Development Goals set in 2000 (which had eight anti-poverty targets that the world initially committed to achieving

by 2015). The sustainable development goals seek to address the root causes of poverty, and the universal need for development that works for all. All 17 goals are connected to the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) strategic plan that focuses on sustainable development, democratic governance and peace building, and climate change and disaster resilience.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): - Figure 3.1 Source: United Nations http://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/ sustainable-developmentgoals/

Each goal is supported by several targets, which are available on the UNDP website. 1. End poverty in all its forms, everywhere. 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.

3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.

4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.

5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.

6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.

9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.

10. Reduce inequality within and among countries. 24

11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive safe, resilient and sustainable.

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.

13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.

14. Conserve and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.

15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainable manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, promote access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.

17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development. Source: UNEP

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

Sustainable development concepts Common governing principles to achieve sustainable development include:

1. ‘Needs’ – the essential needs of the world’s poorest people, which should be given overriding priority.

•

Living within environmental limits or planetary boundaries

•

Integrated (and complementary) decision-making

2. ‘Limitations’ – imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s ability to meet both present and future needs.

•

Governance that is democratic, transparent, inclusive, participatory and accountable

•

Responsible use of robust and credible scientific evidence in decision-making.

This supports the central idea that sustainable development is about intergenerational equity: that needs are basic and essential, economic growth will facilitate their fulfilment, and equity is encouraged by participation.

DAY 1

The Brundtland Commission highlighted two key concepts:

‘Sustainability’ can be defined through the 3 Pillars approach: Economic, Social and Environmental. Sometimes the 3 Pillars are referred to as the triple bottom line: all three must be resolved for sustainability to be achieved. This means that sustainability is very broad, and only focusing on one or two areas does not consider the full range of issues. Sustainable development is the ‘pathway to sustainability’. Sustainability can also be looked at using the following model from Raworth (2012).

Sustainability: 3 Pillars Approach - Figure 3.2

Environment A viable natural world

Source: 3 Pillars Approach apadted from Wikimedia Link: https://commons. wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Nested_ sustainability-v2.svg

Social Nuturing Community

Economic Sufficient Economy

Sustainable natural and built environment

Sustainable economic development

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

25

se

biodiversity loss

income

education

SU

STA

INA B L E E C O N O

• Values, ethics and quality of life atmosp heri load c aer ing os ol

• Dependencies and megatrends

MN PE

LO

D

MI

C

DE

VE

n llutio l po ica em ch

IV

AN

jobs

ocea n a cid iti ca tio n

voice

energy E

T

resilience

social equity

US

n tio ple de e on oz

gender equality

CL

• The resilience of society and economy

water

health

IN

• Social value and/or social protection floor

SO food

n and roge nit horus cycles osp ph

• Environmental limits in meeting current and future generations

st space fo rh d ju an um e L FOUNDATIO CIA af N

ity an

• The rights and responsibilities of current and future generations

th es

la nd

u

Beyond the Perfect Storm, a report published by IEMA, suggested that the key challenges include:

change climate fre sh ONMENTAL CEILIN R I w V G at EN er

ge an ch

e us

DAY 1

The Doughnut of Social and Planetary Boundaries - Figure 3.3

• The need for new economic and business models. Source: Kate Raworth Exploring Doughnut Economics apadted from Wikimedia https://www.kateraworth.com/doughnut/

Environmental limits and the planetary boundaries concept The concept of ‘environmental limits’ and ‘planetary boundaries’ was established by the Stockholm Resilience Centre in 2009 (updated in 2015) to define a “safe operating space for humanity” as a pre-condition of sustainable development. It was based on research from the 1970s suggesting that population, pollution, food production, industrialisation and resource depletion grow exponentially, compared to technology’s ability to increase resource availability and efficiency, only growing linearly. Scientists at the Stockholm Resilience Centre identified nine Earth system processes which have boundaries:

The Nine Planetary Boundaries - Figure 3.4

Climate change Genetic diversity

Biosphere integrity

Novel entities

Functional diversity

?

?

Strosphere ozone depletion

Land conversion

? Atomospheric aerosol loading

Freshwater use

Phosphorus

Beyond zone of uncertainty (high risk)

Nitrogen

Biogeochemical flows

In zone of uncertainty (increasing risk)

Ocean acidification

Source: Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet http://science.sciencemag.org/content/347/6223/1259855

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

Below boundary (safe) ?

Boundary not yet quantified

Control variable

Boundary value

Current value

Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (ppm)

350

>400

Increase of top-of-atmosphere radioactive forcing (Wm2) relative to pre-industrial levels (1750)

+1.0

+2.3

2. Change in biosphere integrity*

Biodiversity loss and extinction rate (no. of species per million per year)

10

100-1000

3. Stratospheric ozone depletion

Stratospheric ozone concentration (Dobson units)

290

200

4. Ocean acidification

Global mean saturation state of aragonite in surface seawater (omega units)

2.65

2.90

Phosphorus flow from freshwater systems to oceans (millions of tonnes per year)

11

22

Nitrogen fixation (industrial and biological) (millions of tonnes per year)

62

150

6. Land conversion

Area of forested land as a percentage of original forest cover

75

62

7. Freshwater use

Global human consumption of water (km3/yr)

4,000

2,600

8. Atmospheric aerosol loading

Overall particulate concentration in the atmosphere, on a regional basis

?

?

9. Introduction of novel entities

Concentration of organic pollutants, radioactive materials, nanomaterials and micro-plastics in the environment

?

?

1. Climate change*

5. Biogeochemical / biochemical flows

DAY 1

Earth-system processes

*Known as ‘core boundaries’. Significantly altering either of these would drive the Earth system in a new state.

As of that published in Science by Steffen et al (2015), 4 of the boundaries have been exceeded.

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Sustainable capitals DAY 1

There are five types of sustainable capitals from which we derive the goods and services needed to improve the quality of lives. 1. Natural – any stock or flow of energy or material that produces goods or services. It includes: resources (renewable and non-renewable), sinks (that absorb, neutralise or recycle waste) and processes (such as climate regulation). 2. Human – people’s health, knowledge, skills and motivation. All are needed for productive work. 3. Social – institutions that help maintain and develop human capital in partnership with others, e.g. families, communities, businesses, trade unions, schools and voluntary organisations. 4. Manufactured – material goods or fixed assets which contribute to the production process rather than being the output itself – e.g. tools, machines and buildings. 5. Financial – enables the other capitals to be owned and traded. This has no value itself, but represents natural, human, social or manufactured capital, e.g. shares, bonds or banknotes.

The Five Sustainable Capitals - Figure 3.5

Manufactured Capital Financial Capital Social Capital

Human Capital

Natural Capital

Source: Forum for the Future https://www.forumforthefuture.org/project/five-capitals/overview

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

The features of a sustainable society include the following: DAY 1

In their extraction and use, substances taken from the Earth do not exceed the environment's capacity to disperse, absorb, recycle or otherwise neutralise their effects Natural

In their manufacture and use, artificial substances do not exceed the environment's capacity to disperse, absorb, recycle or otherwise neutralise their harmful effects The environment’s capacity to provide ecological system integrity, biological diversity and productivity is protected or enhanced At all ages, individuals enjoy a high standard of health

Human

Individuals are adept at relationships and social participation, and set and achieve high personal standards of their development and learning throughout life Access to varied and satisfying opportunities for work, personal creativity, and recreation There are trusted and accessible systems of governance and justice Communities and society at large share key positive values and a sense of purpose

Social

Society promotes stewardship of natural resources and people development Homes, communities and society provide safe, supportive living and working environments

Manufactured

Infrastructure, technologies and processes minimise the use of natural resources and maximise human innovation and skills

Finance

Financial capital accurately represents the value of the other capitals

Source: Forum for the Future

Further information See Learner Note 1. Beyond the Perfect Storm: The Corporate Sustainability Challenge https://www.iema.net/reading-room/2016/11/30/beyond-the-perfect-storm-(2016)/ Forum for the Future www.forumforthefuture.org Stockholm Resilience Centre www.stockholmresilience.org United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) www.undp.org United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/rio20/futurewewant Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 3 - Fundamentals of Sustainability

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Learner Note 4 Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

DAY 1

The following are included in this Learner Note:

• What are sustainability skills? • IEMA skills map • IEMA code of practice

Corporate sustainability The IEMA report, Beyond the Perfect Storm (2016), defines corporate sustainability as: “A cross disciplinary, corporate values-based approach to identifying and responding to the critical social, environmental and economic risks, opportunities and dependencies faced by the organisation and its stakeholders – now and in the future. It is likely the organisation would reference sustainability in its mainstream business strategy and in its governance, values and principles.”

Key aspects of corporate sustainability include: • • • • • • • • •

being business-critical and relevant; having a process tailored to the organisation; being supportive or involving a change process; having a holistic view – for example, of interactions across the wider value chain; being able to address the longer-term horizon – for example, more than five years; being collaborative and innovative with review; being supportive of coherent and robust integration across the business; being transparent, with progress (usually) reported; and being transformational and responding to Megatrends, risks, opportunities and dependencies.

In defining corporate sustainability, the word corporate is used in a broad context, so can include any organisation, including those in the third and public sectors.

30

Business (corporate) ethics When most people think of ethics, they think of rules that distinguish between right and wrong, or a code of professional conduct: for example, the Hippocratic Oath in medicine. Ethics are ‘norms for conduct’ that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted ethical (moral) standards; however, ethics and the law are not the same. An action may be legal and unethical, or illegal and ethical: for example, protesting about environmental issues and resisting police advice to move on is illegal but not unethical, based on personal values. Ethics should not be considered as absolute, and moral principles are not universally true (for all people across time and place). The IEMA report, Beyond the Perfect Storm (2016), defines corporate sustainability as: “The application of ethical values to business behaviour. Business ethics is relevant both to the conduct of individuals and to the conduct of the organisation as a whole. It applies to any and all aspects of business conduct, from boardroom strategies and how companies treat their employees and suppliers to sales techniques and accounting practices. Ethics goes beyond the legal requirements for a company and is, therefore, about discretionary decisions and behaviour guided by values.”

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 4 - Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

“The purpose of corporate governance is to help build an environment of trust, transparency and accountability necessary for fostering long-term investment, financial stability and business integrity, thereby supporting stronger growth and more inclusive societies.” (Angel Gurría, OECD SecretaryGeneral)

The characteristics of ethical organisations include the following:

Governance principles

• Ethical organisations are based on the principle of fairness • Stakeholders are treated equitably, without any discrimination

DAY 1

The business case for establishing and maintaining business ethics is well established by the costs and impacts associated with high-profile cases of corporate misconduct (such as the 2008 global financial crisis), which cross ethical boundaries and often circumvent or break laws.

Governance principles seek to provide a framework for embedding appropriate behaviours in everyday decision-making, and can be challenging, thoughtprovoking and continuously evolving. The following are fundamental governance principles.

• The benefits of the stakeholders are given priority • Clear communication and transparency on organisational activities • Compliance with applicable laws. The successful application of business ethics develops trust (among suppliers, customers and employees), which leads to predictability and efficiency and can improve public image, foster customer loyalty, enhance financial investment, limit legal action and increase profits. Most of the benefits received from business ethics are the goals of corporate governance. Corporate governance is “about how companies are directed and controlled. Good governance is an essential ingredient in corporate success and sustainable economic growth” (Simon Deakin, Robert Monks Professor of Corporate Governance, University of Cambridge). It is a framework of rules and practices that ensures accountability, fairness and transparency in a company’s relationship with stakeholders (e.g. employees, customers and community).

Accountability This is the process by which an organisation and employees are responsible for their actions and decisions. An organisation should present a fair, balanced and understandable assessment of the organisation’s position and prospects (Financial Reporting Council, 2012).

Equality This requires equal treatment (i.e. not discriminating) in employment and when accessing services regardless of age, disability, sex, gender reassignment, marriage or civil partnership status, race, religion or belief and sexual orientation. Equality should ensure equal access to opportunities without discriminating on the grounds named above. It is not about giving everyone the same. Sometimes this is called equity, whereby support is given to those who need it most, while being mindful of it not becoming a future crutch. An organisation could develop equal opportunities and diversity policies and procedures to help achieve equality.

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DAY 1

Inclusivity

Stewardship

This requires including the full range of stakeholders in decision-making and not disadvantaging any group. Inclusivity is included within BS8900-1 and stresses the importance of identifying those who could affect, or be affected by, an organisation’s decisions and actions as well as allowing stakeholders to contribute their views and helping them to understand the reasons for decisions. A common method of demonstrating inclusivity is through consultation.

This is a difficult term to define and is contextspecific. In business, stewardship can refer to the organisation’s responsibilities to understand their environment impacts, which can help to integrate sustainable practices. Within BS8900-1 this requires organisations to consider how any action affects quality of life and/or whether any action may lead to irreversible environmental or societal change or loss, and how impacts will be monitored and managed.

Transparency Integrity This is about representing shareholder interests: individuals are required to exercise honesty, selflessness, objectivity and the highest standards of professionalism. Within BS8900-1 this includes encouraging diversity while avoiding bribery, abuse, oppression and corruption. All actions should be unbiased and comply with relevant rights, legal obligations and regulations.

This helps to ensure that all stakeholders have confidence in decision-making and management processes. BS8900-1 states that transparency is required to make certain that relevant and reliable information is available in an accessible, low-cost and comparable way. This includes dealing with reasonable views and requests for information, ensuring that significant interests, influences or beneficiaries are recorded, communicated and managed, with decision-making being identified and the reasons for decisions recorded and communicated.

Cultural context and engagement Cultural context is about understanding the culture of customers and the places we do business. Engaging with stakeholders allows us to understand what is important to them as an indicator of wider society.

Further information BS8900-1: 2013 Managing Sustainable Development of Organisations. Guide Available from BSI. https://www.iso.org/iso-26000-social-responsibility.html ISO 26000: Social Responsibility Guidance Standard Beyond the Perfect Storm: IEMA https://www.iema.net/reading-room/2016/11/30/beyond-the-perfect-storm-(2016)/ Institute of Business Ethics www.ibe.org.uk

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Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 4 - Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

Sustainability Skills and the IEMA Skills Map IEMA Skills Map

Skills can be defined as an ability to apply knowledge to achieve something. We need and use a wide range of skills in everyday life: these include general skills such as time management, communication and team working, as well as specific skills such as operating a piece of equipment.

The publication Beyond the Perfect Storm (IEMA, 2016) outlined the key environmental risks and challenges affecting businesses, and the need for skilled environment and sustainability professionals in helping organisations to adapt.

Sustainability skills can be thought of as the range of abilities required to allow us to transform the world to sustainability. These are skills that can be used individually and organisationally. Most of the skills required to do this are applicable in all work sectors, and are explored within the IEMA Skills Map. IEMA’s Preparing for the Perfect Storm (IEMA, 2014) research revealed that many businesses lack the basic skills to take advantage of the opportunities offered by sustainable business management, or to make the transition needed to guarantee their survival in the new economy. Key findings from the research include the following:

DAY 1

What are sustainability skills?

The IEMA Skills Map relaunched in 2016 to ensure it accurately reflected the skills essential for transforming organisations to sustainability. It identifies the knowledge, skills and behaviours that are key to being an effective sustainability professional at different levels of work (entry level, operational, managerial and leadership), and environmental and sustainability professionals can use it to benchmark their current competencies. This allows individuals to identify areas where they may require further development and training to progress, and allows organisations to assess the competency and training needs of their staff. This course is set at the Entry level (Associate).

• Only 13% of respondent organisations are confident that they have the skills to compete in a sustainable economy • Only 2% of respondent organisations are confident that their suppliers have the capability to make the transition to a sustainable economy • 42% of respondent organisations met have barriers in securing environment and sustainability training in recent years • 52% of respondent organisations reported problems recruiting environment and sustainability professionals with the skills they need • Technical knowledge and understanding, strategic understanding of sustainable issues, leadership for change, sustainable practice and wider business skills were the skills gaps most commonly reported by organisations with recruitment problems.

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33

The Skills Map includes a combination of the following.

Core Knowledge: fundamental knowledge and understanding of sustainability and how to translate it into a business context

Sustainable Leaders hip

Tech nic al Kn ow Issu es &

Fundamentals of Sustainability Principles & Issues of Business Governance

bl

no In ng di Lea

at i el on op sh m ip en t

ge na Ma sm es Ass

a st Su ns g in utio er liv Sol De

in a

en m e n tT t& ool s

unication Comm ive ect Eff

Prob g lem nkin i h & R Ref lT a eso ram c i lut lyt a io ing n vironmental, Soc An n E ial ss o r a nd Ac Ec ge d P o o s l e i l le c p y, ci R n i Le Pr gi e s re Knowledge o C

ons riz Ho ic m on & no ati l gu tion la

Leadershi p fo rC ha ng e

ls for Skil

Technical Knowledge across Environmental, Social, Economic and Business and Governance horizons: a depth of knowledge in a technical discipline including understanding of relevant issues and principles; understanding key policy and legislation; knowledge of tools, techniques and systems; and familiarity with innovative and good practices.

va t P r iv e & ac ti c e s

DAY 1

IEMA Skills Map - Figure 4.1

l Re v e D

e Resilience, Risk & Cont inual Improvement

Source: IEMA https://www.iema.net/skills-map

Further information IEMA www.iema.net 34

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 4 - Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

DAY 1

Skills for Sustainable Leadership: including communication, leadership for change and problem reframing and resolution. Please refer to the interactive map at www.iema.net for the different knowledge and skill expectations at each level. The specific Learning Outcomes and prescribed content for this level are detailed in the Foundation Certificate Course Specification.

IEMA Skills Map - Figure 4.2 Sustainable Leaders hip

Tech nic al Kn ow Issu es &

Fundamentals of Sustainability

bl

no In ng di Lea

at i el on op sh m ip en t

ge na Ma sm es Ass

a st Su ns g in utio er liv Sol De

in a

en m e n tT t& ool s

va t P r iv e & ac ti c e s

Principles & Issues of Business Governance

unication Comm ive ect Eff

Prob g lem nkin i h & R Ref lT a eso ram c i lut lyt a io ing n vironmental, Soc An n E ial ss o r a nd Ac Ec ge d P o o s l e i l le c p y, ci R n i Le Pr gi e s re Knowledge o C

ons riz Ho ic m on & no ati l gu tion la

Leadershi p fo rC ha ng e

ls for Skil

l Re v e D

e Resilience, Risk & Cont inual Improvement

Source: IEMA https://www.iema.net/skills-map

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 4 - Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

35

IEMA Code of Practice DAY 1

All professional members of IEMA commit to abide by a Code of Practice. The current Code of Practice for IEMA members is available from iema.net. The Code sets out the behaviours expected of IEMA’s members in relation to ethics, values and professionalism; members whose actions are found to be inconsistent with the Code can have recognition withdrawn following a disciplinary hearing.

IEMA Skills Map - Figure 4.3 Sustainable Leaders hip

Tech nic al Kn ow Issu es &

Fundamentals of Sustainability

bl

no In ng di Lea

at i el on op sh m ip en t

ge na Ma sm es Ass

a st Su ns g in utio er liv Sol De

in a

en m e n tT t& ool s

va t P r iv e & ac ti c e s

Principles & Issues of Business Governance

unication Comm ive ect Eff

Prob g lem nkin i h Re T & l R eso fram ica t lut y al io ing m e n n o t r a n i l v , An S n o E c s ial ros an c dE eA co dg P o s e l e icy l ipl c , R in Le Pr gi e s re Knowledge o C

ons riz Ho ic m on & no ati l gu tion la

Leadershi p fo rC ha ng e

ls for Skil

l Re v e D

e Resilience, Risk & Cont inual Improvement

Source: IEMA https://www.iema.net/skills-map

36

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 4 - Principles of Sustainable Business and Corporate Governance

Learner Note 5

Effective Communication and Collaboration The following are included in this Learner Note:

• Communication as a ‘process’ • Verbal communication chain • Effective communication for collaboration

DAY 2

“The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken place [effectively].” (George Bernard Shaw) Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information. Being an adaptable, and therefore effective, communicator can require further understanding of the complexities of communication. Effective engagement in different situations relies on knowledge of communication and the ability to adapt our personal styles to achieve desirable outcomes. We are exposed to a lot of information (communication): up to 2 million bytes per second. Consequently, we miss out on a lot of information. It has been estimated that we only notice 134 bytes of information every second, and even then we group it into chunks of 7 (± 2). It is not surprising that we often see things differently to others. Often, a lack of effective communication is identified as the root cause of many environmental incidents (e.g. a spill from a damaged container). Communication of policies and procedures can be reactive (e.g. fixing the damaged container rather than being proactive in preventing its occurrence, such as staff not being aware of storage requirements). An example of effective communication leading to a better outcome was reported in the 2016 Guardian Sustainable Business Awards, ‘Communicating Sustainability’ category:

Climate-KIC was a campaign that saw 20 cities crowdsource ideas to make cities greener and get people interested in climate change action. The scale of the campaign and challenge in mobilising people on climate change action demonstrated the success that campaigns can have when they are focused on collaboration and use a range of communication media.

Communication as a ‘process’ Breaking down ‘communication’ into a process can help identify ways to make it more effective. Functional communication requires equal interaction between Means, Reasons and Opportunities. The Means, Reasons and Opportunities Model is well known among communication specialists: • Without the means of communication, you cannot express yourself. • Without reasons for communication, there is no point in or need to communicate. • Without the opportunities, there cannot be any communication. A copy of the model is included in the Learner Workbook.

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

37

Understanding

Attention

Hearing

Element of the chain

• • • • • • • •

•

Being able to hear or pay attention to what you have said Understanding the words or terms you have used Giving lots of information together Giving someone too much information Giving information in an unclear way with no clear order Language difficulties Disability or learning difficulties Levels of education



Can communicators give their full attention? Consider: personal distractions (psychological barriers: being unwell, being stressed, interest levels, level of education and interest) Are you interacting in an appropriate place, e.g. face-to-face (effective communication may not occur while you are walking together, in the car, because full attention will not be on the conversation)? Preconceived ideas, so unable to pay attention to new ideas

•

•

• • •

Noisy environments Distracting environment, e.g. a busy office

• •

Check that the listener is comfortable with terms used, including abbreviations or acronyms Back up key points with alternative communication, i.e. written, pictures, etc. – this does not always have to be pre-prepared Allow time for questions and reflection Check that people have understood, and consider how you do this Give information in a clear, concise and logical way Outline what information you will be giving at the beginning of the meeting, and check whether you will cover everything they need Allow breaks when giving lots of information to summarise and reflect Consider breaking up long pieces of information-giving with activities, e.g. questions, coffee break. Consider that on average a person’s attention span for new information is approximately 20 minutes Check whether alternative communication is needed, e.g. interpreters, a technical manager, feedback to more than one person

•

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

•

• •

• • • •

•

•

•

•

Raise concerns at the beginning of the conversation, e.g. check what level of understanding the person has about the topic Be open about asking for barriers, i.e. what someone’s understanding or belief already is on that topic. Invest time breaking this down to find out why. This may help if you need to challenge these barriers Consider how you will present information to keep it concise and simple. Use data and/or research to back up points if necessary Invest time in understanding personal communication styles

•

Find a quiet place with reduced distractions Agree times and dates Agree boundaries, e.g. if phone calls can be taken

Ideas to overcome barriers

Potential barriers to communication

The following are general barriers to communication, and methods to overcome them.

Verbal communication chain

DAY 2

38

Are attitudes impacting on communication? Are beliefs impacting on the information being received/ believed? Are there subjects that are being avoided intentionally or not? Does the individual have the same investment in the content of the conversation and value what is being said? Confidence in engaging about the topic being discussed – do they feel able to ask questions, show where they don’t understand, etc.

Not being able to see non-verbal clues, gestures, body language Geographical distances Technical barriers, e.g. phone signal, lack of alternative modes, alternative communication systems such as communication devices

• • •

Physical



• •

• •

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

•

Someone being able to engage at the same level of conversation, i.e. understanding Having the opportunity to give information back/ask questions Not feeding back/responding appropriately

• • •

Be creative with communication and consider alternatives such as Skype, messenger and email to make communication accessible and multimodal Check for a preferable mode, e.g. some people are not comfortable with email, some may prefer face-to-face conversation rather than a phone call

Honesty and openness about barriers Be clear in identifying the barriers and why, if you think they are linked to values, attitudes and beliefs Spend time breaking them down to the smallest components, and try to separate personal, subjective problems from objective problems/barriers Ask the other person for a solution that they think is acceptable

Is someone asking questions? Have you given opportunity to ask questions? Have you asked questions, i.e. does this make sense, do you have any questions, is this what you expected? Have you given time for reflection/thinking? Provide information in another way, e.g. drawing to facilitate questions

Ideas to overcome barriers

Potential barriers to communication

• Values/ • attitudes/beliefs

Expression

Element of the chain

DAY 2

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

39

Ideas to support effective verbal interaction

Ideas to support effective written communication

• Clearly state and explain the purpose of the communication, i.e. ‘The meeting is about … and the areas we need to cover are ..."

• Use the principles of communication (see page 42) • Explain technical terms or phrases for clarity

DAY 2

• Consider a written agenda that outlines what you each will provide for the meeting, so that everyone knows what you expect. Provide an ongoing opportunity for questions and discussion • Document key agreements in your discussion, and provide a written copy for everyone. Consider following this up with a formal write-up containing more information if necessary • If actions have been agreed, make sure they are clearly outlined, with agreed timescales • Use visual information to support explanations, i.e. drawings, printed graphs or diagrams • Take time to summarise the key points you are going through, to make sure that everyone has time to digest information, reflect and raise any further questions if necessary

• Remember that you are the expert, so clearly interpret data and findings for the layperson • A report is often an artefact that can be referred to for more complex information; however, make sure that information is still explained clearly • Use shorter, simpler sentences to make things clear and concise • Use visual information such as graphs, tables and diagrams, with explanations • Consider verbally discussing the report with the receiver, or allowing time for them to read and come back with questions to make sure that it has been fully understood

• Be creative: if you can’t meet face-to-face, consider video conferencing and/or other methods such as electronic messages

40

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

General signs that someone is not listening or engaging • Lack of eye contact

DAY 2

• Inappropriate posture – lack of collaborative posture (lack of mirroring, excessive movements, generally apathetic) • Being distracted easily • Inappropriate expression and lack of affirmation, i.e. head nods • Sudden changes in topic • Selective listening • Daydreaming • Advising – jumping in with ideas before they fully understand the problems or concerns.

Consider that people remember • 10% of what they read • 20% of what they hear • 30% of what they see • 40% of what they see and hear

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

41

Principles of communication • Who is your audience? • What is the purpose of the communication? • Do you understand the topic fully?

DAY 2

• What might the objections be? • How can you present a rounded picture? • How can you achieve credibility with your audience? • Do you need to follow through on what you say? • Consider communicating a little at a time and give people time to understand and digest what you say. Break it up by summarising the main points, and asking for any questions. • Present information in several ways – verbal, pictures, demonstrations, graphs, video. • Develop a practical way to get feedback – what information do you need, and how much? • Use multiple communication techniques – verbal, written reports and presentations.

Effective communication may need to use several modes for a message to be completely effective, i.e. both a verbal and written report, or a written report combined with demonstration. Collaboration focuses on positive results and innovation, which is as much about ideas as it is manoeuvring around barriers. Collaboration is recognised as an essential element of successful business, allowing multiple factors to be addressed collectively rather than individually. Effective communication facilitates meaningful collaboration for all parties.

While there are many ways to collaborate, the process tends to follow a similar path. One model is as follows: 1. Confirm what needs to change. 2. Convene partners to focus around a shared goal. 3. Develop a shared understanding of the issues. 4. Think about the trends shaping the future. 5. Align around a vision to which all partners can commit. 6. Create strategies that innovate and prioritise.

• Building rapport and relationship is critical to effective communication – people like people that are like them (match and mirror positive behaviours).

7. Take collective action towards objectives. 8. Maintain momentum, review and adapt to lessons learned.

• Listen to understand, not to reply. (Source: Forum for the Future)

• The response you get is what you communicated. What you think you are communicating may not be what the other person is receiving. • There is no failure, only feedback. Don’t take it personally, just adjust your approach in future.

Effective Communication for Collaboration 42

Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

Examples of effective collaboration include those presented on the ‘2degrees’ network. The global healthcare company GSK aims to use a supplier exchange to help reduce the environmental impact of its value chain by 25% by 2020.

DAY 2

GSK purchases more than €2.5 billion of materials from more than 500 suppliers, representing 40% of its carbon footprint. The exchange was established to: • Drive collaboration and innovation across the supply base to improve resource efficiency • Enable suppliers to disclose data and share best practice and expertise to reduce impact • Source innovative solutions. GSK also runs energy reduction workshops at some of its largest supplier sites. An example of successful internal collaboration is Kingfisher, a leading European retailer. Kingfisher has 1,200 stores across 10 countries, and thus is required to share a lot of information across its various operating companies. The use of an internal collaboration platform unifies colleague efforts, making it easier to meet internal objectives, saves time and costs, increases efficiency and accelerates the uptake of best practice.

Further information Forum for the Future Collaboration Guidebook www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/default/files/files/Collaboration%20Guidebook.pdf Ego-state Therapy www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego-state_therapy UNEP: Communicating Sustainability www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx0679xPA-CommunicatingEN.pdf 2degrees www.2degreesnetwork.com Foundation Certificate in Environmental Management - Learner Notes | 5 - Effective Communication and Collaboration

43

Learner Note 6

Environmental Principles (1) • The carbon cycle • The nitrogen cycle • The water cycle

The following are included in this Learner Note:

• The phosphorus cycle • Ecological systems

The carbon cycle What is carbon? DAY 2

Carbon (C) is an element that is present in all living organisms. The carbon cycle describes how carbon is exchanged, primarily by being exchanged among the lithosphere (the solid, rocky crust covering the planet), biosphere (‘zone of life’), hydrosphere (all water on or near the Earth) and atmosphere (the body of air surrounding the planet).

The cycle is important because it is key to allowing the Earth to sustain life. The Carbon Cycle - Figure 6.1

CARBON CYCLE Atmosphere 750 CO2 5.5

121.3

0.5 60

Fossil Fuels & Cement Production 4,000

1.6 60

Vegetation 610

Rivers

92

50

Surface Ocean 1,020

Marine Biolo 3 6

40

4 Dissolved Organic 6 Carbon