ICT and Play in Preschool- Teachers Beliefs and Confidence

International Journal of Early Years Education

ISSN: 0966-9760 (Print) 1469-8463 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ciey20

ICT and play in preschool: early childhood teachers’ beliefs and confidence Kleopatra Nikolopoulou & Vasilis Gialamas To cite this article: Kleopatra Nikolopoulou & Vasilis Gialamas (2015) ICT and play in preschool: early childhood teachers’ beliefs and confidence, International Journal of Early Years Education, 23:4, 409-425, DOI: 10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727

Published online: 02 Sep 2015.

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Date: 28 January 2016, At: 19:57

International Journal of Early Years Education, 2015 Vol. 23, No. 4, 409–425, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2015.1078727

ICT and play in preschool: early childhood teachers’ beliefs and confidence Kleopatra Nikolopoulou* and Vasilis Gialamas

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Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Athens, Navarinou 13A, 10680 Athens, Greece (Received 23 April 2015; accepted 26 July 2015) This study investigated early childhood teachers’ beliefs about information and communications technology (ICT) and play in preschool, as well as their confidence in integrating ICT in the classroom. A 28-item questionnaire was compiled and administered to 190 early childhood teachers in Greece. Although ICT play (which can provide learning opportunities) has largely replaced traditional childhood play, in Greece, there is inadequate integration of ICT in early childhood education. In this study, two factors were extracted: ‘playing with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing children’s technological competence’ and ‘ICT use as free play’. The fewer the years of teaching experience and the higher the teachers’ computer self-efficacy, the stronger was the view that ICT play is not just free play. Teachers’ beliefs and confidence affect their classroom practices and, consequently, the children’s learning. Viewing ICT as a mode of learning that should be embedded in the curriculum is expected to lead to ICT integration in a teacher’s daily practices. The implications for in-service teacher training are therefore discussed. Keywords: information and communications technology; computer; play; preschool; Greece

Introduction A growing body of literature on information and communications technology (ICT) use in preschools reveals the positive effects on young children’s learning (Clements and Sarama 2003; Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012; McCarrick and Li 2007; McKenney and Voogt 2012), although there are some concerns about the effect of technology upon young children’s learning and development (Lindahl and Folkesson 2012a). Today’s children interact with a wide range of technology in their everyday lives, and become competent users of devices, such as computers, mobile phones, video game consoles, digital video and communication-based devices, without any formal instruction (Morgan and Kennewell 2005, 2006; Rosen and Jaruszewicz 2009). The technological resources available in the home and other informal environments are increasingly widespread, while many homes possess more sophisticated resources than do schools. As children are exposed to new technological experiences on a daily basis, these experiences are likely to influence their competency and skills *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]; [email protected] © 2015 Taylor & Francis

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410 K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas in using new technological tools. The computer, in particular, supports and extends children’s learning and development, as they use computers to explore, play, solve problems, do puzzles and manipulate objects on the screen (Clements and Sarama 2003; McCarrick and Li 2007; McKenney and Voogt 2012). Much traditional childhood play is being replaced by time spent on computer play, and often at a very early age (Verenikina and Herrington 2006). In discussing computer use in kindergarten classes, the phrase ‘playing with the computer’ is often used by teachers and children (Plowman and Stephen 2005). This phrase designates a series of qualitatively different activities (associated with different types of software, including computer games) in which children may, for example, engage in exercise control, play or create. The early childhood literature still discusses the inadequate integration of digital technologies into early childhood curricula (Parette and Blum 2013), and this is often attributed to early childhood teachers (Edwards 2013). Although the early childhood curriculum is traditionally based on play, and several studies have examined the link between computers-ICT and play (Ljung-Djärf 2008; Morgan 2010; Plowman and Stephen 2005; Verenikina and Herrington 2006; Verenikina et al. 2010), there is limited evidence regarding preschool teachers’ beliefs about computers-ICT and play in early childhood education settings. The purpose of the study described in this paper was to investigate preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool, as well as their confidence in integrating ICT in the classroom. Such an investigation is important, because teachers’ beliefs and confidence influence their classroom practices (e.g. their efforts to integrate ICT in preschool classes) and, as a consequence, young children’s learning. First, some specific terms used in this paper will be briefly explained. Initially, the term ICTwas used synonymously with the terms computer and technology. There is consensus that today children are using computers, multiple desktop and mobile technologies even before they know how to read and write (McKenney and Voogt 2010; O’Hara 2011). Apart from computers, a number of products that incorporate some aspect of ICT are available to young children, such as digital cameras, gaming consoles and programmable toys. The technologies available to support early childhood education include, for example, computers, e-mail, the Internet, word-processing and graphics software and mobile phones (Parette and Blum 2013). The definitions of technologies vary, and many of the areas where play and ICT appear to function harmoniously rely on a definition of ICT that reaches beyond the desktop computer (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012). The phrases computer play and ICT play denote the process of children using computers-ICT, through which they can achieve different goals, such as familiarity with letters and numbers and the acquisition or development of various skills. Computer-ICT play is not restricted to computer games; rather, it includes everyday electronic objects and toys that generate a response when stimulated by the child (Arnott 2013). Finally, the terms preschool, kindergarten and early childhood setting are used synonymously to refer to formal educational settings for children above three years of age. Literature review Common features of traditional play and computer play Play has been identified as essential for children’s development and as a key element in effective learning (Bruce 1991; Yelland 1999). The research has shown that play does assist in children’s development and learning in many ways, depending on the

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educational and social frameworks where the play occurs (Avgitidou 2001; PramlingSamuelsson and Johansson 2009). Play can be described as informal (it is typically given a higher value in preschool curricula) when initiated by the children themselves, and as formal when organised by the teachers (Lindahl and Folkesson 2012b). The research has also identified various characteristics that distinguish play from other human activities (Garvey 1977). Play has been characterised as spontaneous, pleasant, child-led and voluntary (freely chosen), opportunistic, creative, focused on the activity and process rather than the product, low risk and highly engaging (Ashiabi 2007; Bruner 1976; Rubin, Fein, and Vandenberg 1983). Furthermore, children’s play has been connected to terms such as creativity, adaptation, experimentation, learning, communication and socialisation (Piaget [1946] 1962; Vygotsky [1978] 1997). At the same time, learning to use the computer may be characterised by the active involvement of the children in interacting with the software, investigation and experimentation, and focusing on the discovery process rather than the product (Clements and Sarama 2003). For example, children’s sign-making extends to computer screens and keypads, showing that the children transform the content of the meanings of the signs they make, whether on screen or on paper, through playful manipulation (Labbo 2006). Many different kinds of educational software have been presented in the form of play in order to make them attractive to young children (Verenikina and Herrington 2006; Verenikina et al. 2010). Stephen and Plowman (2014) surveyed the contested nature of young children’s play with digital technologies and the empirical evidence about the nature of that play: on the basis of their review, they concluded that digital play can provide opportunities for entertainment and learning, but one child’s experience will depend on individual motives, adult/peer support and a match between the design and the purpose of the child’s play episode. Others (Verenikina et al. 2010) have identified features of children’s traditional play that can be supported and further enhanced by different kinds of computer play. Common characteristics between children’s traditional play and computer play include, for example, the active involvement of the children, self-motivation, experimentation with new and different situations and the players’ high levels of engagement. Beliefs about ICT and play: claims and research findings ICT and play in preschool are linked. Computer use is often something that may be allowed between planned or adult-led activities, which means that it is typically used during the time that is organised as free play (Ljung-Djärf 2008). Furthermore, it is a fact that children’s play changes over time, and the computer and video games influence the way that children play (Doliopoulou and Rizou 2012). Recently, the USA National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center reported that ‘interactions with technology and media should be playful and support creativity, exploration, pretend play, active play’ (NAEYC – FRC 2012, 7). However, there are contrasting beliefs regarding the relationship between ICT and play. Play usually includes physical activities manipulating tangible objects and not digital ones. Some educationalists view ICT as a threat to playful learning (Cordes and Miller 2000), while others regard it as a resource or toy (Facer et al. 2003; Plowman and Stephen 2003). The positions of sceptics were reflected, in particular, in the report ‘Fool’s Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood’ (Cordes and Miller 2000), in which computers were presented as dangerous to children’s physical health, socio-emotional development and intellectual development, and focusing

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412 K. Nikolopoulou and V. Gialamas on the essentials of childhood, like play, hands-on activities and experiences of the natural world were suggested as alternatives. The non-sceptics believe that children are often the technological experts at home, learning to program videos and use mobile phones through play. Children can make sense of new programs and computers by playing with them to find out what they can do and how they can do it. For example, Clements and Sarama (2003) examined survey results and discussed the impact of children’s use of ICT on various areas, such as socio-emotional development, cognitive development and creativity. Moreover, Facer et al. (2003) noted the features of learning about and through ICT in the home, and showed that children who have well-supported access to computers at home develop the ability to use multiple resources (playful discovery and working with others) and work interactively with the technology. The confidence gained from ‘playing around’ with the technology in these informal experiences is likely to influence the children’s technological skills in more formal settings (a fact which is often ignored within traditional classrooms), and it has implications for learning about and with ICT. Regarding the research findings on ICT and play, Yelland (1999) discussed the impact of new information technologies on play and as play for young children. She highlighted the opportunities for young children to play in technological environments and the changing nature of the concept of a ‘toy’ over the last decade due to the advent of new technologies (referring to the potential of the digital revolution to transform the world of toys and play). Later, Yelland (2005) examined several studies regarding computer use in early childhood education and illustrated the advantages of using computers and play; for example, the manipulation of symbols and images on the computer screen represents a new form of symbolic play, and there is potential for exploring the affordances of computer play in the development of children’s higher order thinking. Research on children has indicated that play can make a major contribution to developing ICT competence and skills (Morgan and Kennewell 2005). Morgan (2010) investigated teachers’ beliefs about interactive whiteboards and play in the classroom with children aged 3–7 years. All teachers felt positively about the presence of this technology in their classroom, and stated that they promoted ‘play’ as a vehicle for learning. Additionally, the teachers identified the affordances of interactive whiteboard technology to support the pedagogy of play. Wohlwend (2009) conducted a three-year study with children aged 5–7 years and demonstrated that the children accessed new literacies through pretend play by exploring normally unavailable multimedia, such as cell phones, iPods and video games. She referred to two simultaneous identities for young technology users: (1) developing learners of new literacies and technologies and (2) curious explorers who willingly play with new media. A study (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012) investigated computer use within a play-based early years curriculum and found that the teachers confidently delivered various computing experiences and the children consistently rated these activities as play, regardless of the presence of adults. Lindahl and Folkesson (2012b) showed that preschool student teachers were ambivalent about computer use. Some of the student teachers associated computer use with informal learning activities, such as free play (they interpreted the children’s use of computers as playful), while others viewed computers as a threat to traditional play. In Doliopoulou and Rizou’s (2012) study, 19% of kindergarten teachers (and 30% of parents) expressed the view that children’s play was heavily influenced by television and computers.

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Regarding early childhood teachers’ confidence and competence in ICT, Aubrey and Dahl (2014) found that teachers were positive and actively promoted the use of ICT in early years settings, while an earlier study (Gialamas and Nikolopoulou 2010) showed that preschool teachers’ computer self-efficacy influenced the teachers’ views and intentions about ICT use in preschool. The higher the teachers’ confidence with technology, the higher was their intention to use a computer in a preschool class. The above findings show the importance of investigating teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool. The teachers’ beliefs about the use of ICT influence their classroom practices (Ihmeideh 2010), and these beliefs often limit their efforts to integrate ICT into their classroom practices (Pelgrum 2001).

The study Research objectives The aim of the study was to investigate preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool, as well as their confidence in integrating ICT in the classroom. The research objectives were as follows: (1) to compile an instrument for investigating preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool classes; (2) to investigate the effects of the teachers’ individual characteristics (years of teaching experience, years of computer experience, in-service training in ICT and computer self-efficacy) on their beliefs; (3) to investigate preschool teachers’ confidence in their knowledge and ability to integrate ICT in the classroom.

Sample The participants were 190 preschool teachers, who teach in various kindergartens in and around Athens, Greece. They were all female, consistent worldwide with the predominance of females within the population of early childhood teachers (Chen and Chang 2006). Table 1 displays the demographic and individual characteristics of the sample (years of teaching experience; years of computer experience; access to, and use of, a computer at home; views on computer appropriateness in kindergarten classes and in-service teacher training in ICT) and computer use in class. Those teachers who did not use a computer in class (14.7%, n = 28) mentioned that they did not have one in kindergarten. Indeed, a recent study (Nikolopoulou and Gialamas 2015) identified a ‘lack of equipment’ as the main barrier to the integration of computers in Greek early childhood settings. In Greece, many kindergartens recently acquired computers (predominantly one computer) for children to use. The national curriculum for preschool education sets general directions for programmes regarding the planning and development of activities in five subjects (not considered as independent), with ‘computer science’ among them. The curriculum proposes ‘free’ activities, chosen and carried out by the children themselves, and ‘teacher-organised’ activities, which are planned and organised by the teachers according to the set objectives of the curriculum (Kallery 2015). It also refers to the potential of ICT to support children’s learning, but it does not include specific guidelines for teachers. Regarding in-service teacher training in ICT in Greece, A-level training includes training in technical skills

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Table 1. Demographic and individual characteristics of the sample (190 teachers) and computer use in class.

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Teachers’ characteristics Years of teaching experience 1–5 (13.7%) 6–10 (31.6%) 11–15 (23.2%) 16–20 (12.6%) 20+ (18.9%) Views on computer appropriateness Positive views (89.5%) Not sure (9.5%) Negative views (1%) A-level teacher training in ICT (technical) Yes (65.3%) No (34.7%) Computer use in class Yes (85.3%) No (14.7%)

Years of computer experience < 1 (4.2%) 1–2 (6.3%) 3–5 (15.8%) 5+ (73.7%) Access to, and use of, a computer at home Yes (98.9%)

B-level teacher training in ICT (pedagogical) Yes (28.4%) No (71.6%)

(use of word-processing, spreadsheets, presentation programs and the Internet), while B-level training is dedicated to providing teachers with the pedagogical skills for integrating ICT in the classroom (e.g. the objectives are to familiarise kindergarten teachers with appropriate educational software and the skills to integrate ICT in their everyday practices). Table 1 shows the percentage of participant teachers who completed A-level and/or B-level training in ICT. The questionnaire was administered during the 2013–2014 academic year. The responses were anonymous and the teachers were assured that there was no right or wrong answer. Regarding ethical research practice, permission was gained from the gatekeeper-teachers.

Research instrument and procedure The data were collected using a questionnaire comprising two sections. Section A included statements regarding the teachers’ demographic and individual characteristics (sex; years of teaching experience; years of experience with computers; in-service training in ICT; access to, and use of, a computer at home; and computer self-efficacy), the teachers’ views about the appropriateness of using computers in preschool and information about children’s computer use in class. Computer self-efficacy was assessed according to four items on a ‘confidence with technology’ subscale (Pierce, Stacey, and Barkatsas 2007) (see Appendix). To assess the teachers’ views on the appropriateness of computer use in class, the teachers were asked to answer the following question using a three-point rating scale (yes, no and not sure): ‘Do you believe the computer to be an appropriate tool in a kindergarten class (in supporting – developing children’s learning)?’ Section B included 25 statements–items aiming to investigate the teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool. These statements were separated into three groups. The first group comprised 11 items (Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6, Q9, Q11, Q12, Q13, Q15, Q21

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and Q24) investigating the teachers’ beliefs about children’s learning via ICT and play in kindergarten; the second group comprised 11 items (Q7, Q8, Q10, Q14, Q16, Q17, Q18, Q19, Q20, Q23 and Q25) investigating the teachers’ beliefs about the ways of using ICT in class (e.g. during formal or free play activities); and the third group comprised 3 items (Q1, Q2 and Q22) investigating the teachers’ general beliefs about ICT in preschool. The statements were constructed taking into account the relevant literature. This section also included three items (Q26, Q27 and Q28) aimed at investigating the teachers’ confidence in their ability to integrate ICT in the classroom. These three items were adapted from Chen et al. (2014), who investigated early childhood teachers’ confidence about early math. Although desktop computers remain a predominant means of providing ICT in most Greek preschool classes, in the questionnaire, ICT was defined more broadly (as explained in the introduction). This is because many of the areas where play and ICT appear to function harmoniously rely on a definition of ICT that reaches beyond the desktop computer (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012; Stephen and Plowman 2014). In the questionnaire, the 28 items were presented in mixed order, and the teachers were asked to rate their beliefs on a 5-point Likerttype scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = I am not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree) (Likert 1932). The instrument was piloted with 17 teachers (who did not participate in the main survey) to ensure that there was no ambiguity in interpreting the wording of the items. Before administering the questionnaire, it was given to two specialists in ICT in education, to check its face and content validities. There was an agreement on the categorisation of the items. Data analysis The statistical software SPSS version 20.0 (2011) was used for managing the data and conducting the statistical analyses (descriptive statistics, factor analysis, and correlation analysis). Results Descriptive measures for teachers’ beliefs and factorial structure of the questionnaire To explore the early childhood teachers’ beliefs about and confidence in using ICT and play in preschool classes, a descriptive analysis was performed. Table 2 shows the preschool teachers’ (n = 190 teachers) response rates (%) on the 28 items of the questionnaire. In order to explore the structure of the 25 items regarding the teachers’ beliefs (Q26, Q27 and Q28 were left out at this stage), a factor analysis was performed (principal axis factoring) using OKN (Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization) as the rotation method. The screen plot inspection revealed a two-factor structure (Table 3). In the analysis, .35 was used as the cut-off loading value. The first factor, labelled ‘playing with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing children’s competence with technology’, was associated with 12 items and the second factor, labelled ‘ICT use as free play’, was associated with 5 items (Table 3). The factor loadings of the 12 items on the first factor (F1) varied from .38 to .78. The 5-item loadings on the second factor (F2) varied from .40 to .70. The item Q9, ‘children can learn through exploration with ICT, in specific school subjects’, had a negative loading on F1 (−.43) and a positive loading on F2 (.45). A negative statistically significant correlation coefficient between F1 and F2 (r = −.29) was found. Reliability analyses were

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Table 2. Teachers’ response rates (%) on the 28 items (n = 190 teachers).

Q1 Children can learn through exploration with ICT, in every school subject Q2 Computer use is peripheral to real learning in classroom Q3 Play is a basic method of learning with or about ICT Q4 Children playing around with ICT gain confidence Q5 Playing with ICT can make a major contribution to children’s developing technological skills Q6 Playing with ICT is an effective mode of learning for young children Q7 ICT and play must be integrated into the early childhood curriculum Q8 ICT use by children in kindergarten, is not a play Q9 Children can learn through exploration with ICT, in specific school subjects Q10 ICT use by children, in kindergarten is a free play activity Q11 Play is a vehicle for developing children’s competence with ICT Q12 Children can acquire new technological skills via playing with computers Q13 Children explore the possibilities of a new software when they are left to play with it Q14 Computer use should be embedded in formal learning activities Q15 ICT can be used to enhance & support children’s play Q16 ICT can be used to replace children’s play Q17 Teacher’s presence facilitates children’s play with ICT Q18 Computer use is a threat to the traditional free play Q19 Computer use is associated to formal (planned) activities

Disagree

I am not sure

Agree

Strongly agree

1.1

22.1

48.4

28.4

13.7

26.3

46.3

12.6

0

2.1

21.1

52.6

24.2

0

15.8

35.8

34.7

13.7

0

0

5.3

60

34.7

2.1

3.2

28.4

50.5

15.8

0

1.1

17.9

55.8

25.3

7.4

26.3

21.1

34.7

10.5

7.4

46.3

21.1

21.1

4.2

9.5

53.7

14.7

14.7

7.4

0

8.4

7.4

62.1

22.1

0

1.1

4.2

65.3

29.5

1.1

3.2

18.9

55.8

21.1

1.1

4.2

34.7

41.1

18.9

1.1

10.5

22.1

50.5

15.8

57.9

31.6

1.1

6.3

3.2

1.1

5.3

13.7

55.8

24.2

6.3

33.7

21.1

24.2

14.7

1.1

25.3

13.7

55.8

4.2

Strongly disagree 0

1.1

(Continued )

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Table 2. Continued.

Q20 Computer use is associated to informal (free play) activities Q21 Computer play can be applied in class as a cognitive tool Q22 ICT is another toy in the classroom Q23 Computer use should be embedded in informal learning activities Q24 Computer play can be applied in class as a ‘teaching’ method Q25 Computer use must take place only in the hour of free play activities Q26 I am confident in my knowledge of the best practices and strategies for helping children learn with/ about ICT Q27 I am confident in my ability to integrate ICT in kindergarten class Q28 I am confident in my ability to plan activities or educational scenarios to help children learn with/ about ICT

Disagree

I am not sure

Agree

Strongly agree

35.8

25.3

31.6

4.2

0

4.2

72.6

23.2

6.3

26.3

15.8

41.1

10.5

5.3

22.1

29.5

35.8

7.4

2.1

2.1

14.7

65.3

15.8

17.9

56.8

17.9

5.3

2.1

3.2

6.3

27.4

46.3

16.8

4.2

3.2

23.2

53.7

15.8

7.4

8.4

33.7

38.9

11.6

Strongly disagree 3.2 0

then performed for the two factors and the other two scales used in this study (teachers’ confidence scale and computer self-efficacy scale), and the reliability was calculated. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient showed satisfactory internal consistency: .84 and .63 for factors F1 and F2, respectively, .90 for teachers’ confidence in ICT integration (items Q26, Q27 and Q28), and .85 for computer self-efficacy.

Impact of individual characteristics on teachers’ beliefs Correlation coefficients were estimated in order to investigate the effects of some individual characteristics on the factors extracted by the previous factor analysis (Table 4). Significant correlation coefficients were found between the first factor (F1: playing with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing children’s competence with technology) and each of the following individual characteristics: ‘years of teaching experience’ (r = −.290), ‘computer self-efficacy’ (r = .298) and ‘confidence in ICT integration’ (r = .297). The higher the teachers’ computer self-efficacy and their confidence in integrating ICT in class, the more positive were their views about ICT use as a mode of learning. Similarly, the teachers with fewer years of teaching experience (a characteristic related to age, i.e. younger teachers) tended to strongly believe that ICT use in preschool is a mode of learning. No significant coefficients were found between

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Table 3. Factor loadings, means and standard deviation per item (25 items regarding teachers’ beliefs). Factor Mean

Standard deviation

.781

3.75

0.84

.717

3.73

0.86

.690

4.23

0.57

.609

4.05

0.69

.578

3.93

0.79

.573

4.04

0.74

.569

3.98

0.80

.566

3.69

0.90

.545

3.91

0.76

.460 .403

3.46 4.29

0.92 0.56

.382

3.18

1.03

−.362

3.56

0.92

4.19

0.49

3.23 3.97

1.14 0.83

3.37

0.95

.702

3.15 2.17

1.15 0.86

.567

2.57

1.09

.447

2.68

1.02

.436

3.07

1.20

.399

1.65 3.99

1.01 0.74

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1 (F1) Q6 Playing with ICT is an effective mode of learning for young children Q14 Computer use should be embedded in formal learning activities Q12 Children can acquire new technological skills via playing with computers Q7 ICT and play must be integrated into the early childhood curriculum Q13 Children explore the possibilities of a new software when they are left to play with it Q1 Children can learn through exploration with ICT in every school subject Q11 Play is a vehicle for developing children’s competence with ICT Q15 ICT can be used to enhance & support children’s play Q24 Computer play can be applied in class as a ‘teaching’ method Q4 Children playing around with ICT gain confidence Q5 Playing with ICT can make a major contribution to children’s developing technological skills Q23 Computer use should be embedded in informal learning activities Q2 Computer use is peripheral to real learning in classroom Q21 Computer play can be applied in class as a cognitive tool Q22 ICT is another toy in the classroom Q17 Teacher’s presence facilitates children’s play with ICT Q19 Computer use is associated to formal (planned) activities Q8 ICT use by children in kindergarten is not a play Q25 Computer use must take place only in the hour of free play activities Q10 ICT use by children in kindergarten is a free play activity Q9 Children can learn through exploration with ICT in specific school subjects Q18 Computer use is a threat to the traditional free play Q16 ICT can be used to replace children’s play Q3 Play is a basic method of learning with or about ICT

−.431

2 (F2)

(Continued )

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Table 3. Continued. Factor 1 (F1) Q20 Computer use is associated to informal (free play) activities

2 (F2)

Mean

Standard deviation

2.98

0.99

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Note: Extraction method: Principal axis factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

F2 and the individual characteristics. Table 5 shows the factor means by teacher training level. Note that in Greece, A-level technical training in computer use is a prerequisite for attending the B-level pedagogical training in ICT use in class. The B-level teachers’ training in ICT showed a positive but insignificant (r = .18) effect on the teachers’ beliefs about ICT as a free play activity (Table 4). Differences in the mean level on F2 among the three groups of teachers (with no ICT training, only with A-level technical training, with both A-level and B-level training), with respective means of 2.58, 2.44 and 2.23 (Table 5), confirm that the teachers with B-level training tended to strongly believe that ICT use is not only a free play activity.

Discussion and conclusions There is emerging evidence about the value of ICT and play in preschool classes. Although several studies have investigated the link between ICT and young children’s play (in preschool settings or at home), there is still limited evidence regarding preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in early childhood settings. This study was driven by the facts that computer play has replaced much traditional childhood play (Verenikina and Herrington 2006), ICT-digital play can provide opportunities for children’s learning (Stephen and Plowman 2014) and teachers’ beliefs influence their classroom practices (Pelgrum 2001). Currently, in Greece, there is inadequate ICT integration in early childhood education. This study contributes to the body of empirical evidence, by investigating Greek early childhood teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in kindergarten. The sample size and its origin from one region do not allow for broad generalisations. However, the findings are useful for early childhood teachers, researchers and education policy-makers. The integration of technology into teaching and learning is influenced by the teachers’ technical skills and beliefs (Hew and Brush 2007). Thus, it might be concluded that the teachers’ beliefs are linked to the children’s learning and development. With regard to the first objective (to develop an instrument for investigating preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool classes), the findings show a very strong belief: that ICT play is an effective mode of learning and developing children’s technological competence. As seen in Table 2, most of the sample believed that ICT play is an effective mode of learning for young children (66% agreed or strongly agreed with item 6). Most of the teachers also stated that ICT use is not only a free play activity (around 75% and 63% for items 25 and 10, respectively) and that computer use should be embedded in formal learning activities (60% agreed or strongly agreed with item 14). The teachers’ beliefs align with earlier studies (e.g. Morgan 2010; Yelland 2005) which illustrated the advantages of ICT use and play in the classroom.

Correlation coefficient

Spearman’s rho

F1 F2

Years of teaching experience

A-level training

B-level training

Years of computer experience

Computer selfefficacy

Confidence in ICT integration

−.290** .044

.065 .140

.020 .180

.170 −.062

.298** −.094

.297** −.038

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 5. Factor means by teacher training level. B-level training

F1 F2

Yes

No

A-level training

A-level training

Yes

No

Yes

No

3.84 2.23

– –

3.85 2.44

3.87 2.58

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Table 4. Correlations among factors and individual characteristics.

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Additionally, the teachers expressed less ambivalence than the student teachers (Lindahl and Folkesson 2012b). Interestingly, around 80% of the teachers in this study believed that ICT and play must be integrated in the early childhood curriculum (they expressed agreement or strong agreement with item 7). However, as the curriculum does not provide specific guidelines, the choice/ nature of the teacher-organised activities is left to the teachers’ discretion (Kallery 2015). The above have implications for curriculum planning and for teacher training (discussed later in the section). The manner in which ICT and play are integrated in the early childhood curriculum (e.g. teachers’ choice to include ICT within the free or teacher-organised activities) affects the children’s learning. With regard to the second objective (to investigate the effects of teachers’ individual characteristics on their beliefs), two characteristics (years of teaching experience and computer self-efficacy) were statistically related to the preschool teachers’ beliefs, and mainly to the first factor, ‘playing with ICT as an effective mode of learning and developing children’s competence with technology’ (as shown in Table 4). More specifically, fewer years of teaching experience and higher computer self-efficacy resulted in more positive beliefs. This result aligns with earlier research (Chen and Chang 2006) which showed that early childhood teachers’ beliefs were shaped by their knowledge of, and experience with, computers and the relevant in-service training they had received. The teachers’ views (F1) were not statistically related to inservice teacher training in ICT (neither A-level nor B-level training). However, within factor F2, there was a tendency for the teachers to adopt the view that ‘ICT is only for free play’. This view was especially predominant among the teachers who did not receive in-service training in ICT (Table 5). Those who had attended in-service training in ICT (A-level technical training and B-level pedagogic training) adopted the above view to a lesser extent. Thus, teacher training in ICT influences the teachers’ beliefs, and this has implications for teacher training. With regard to the third objective (to investigate the teachers’ confidence in their knowledge and ability to integrate ICT in the classroom), the majority of the early childhood teachers expressed confidence in their skills-knowledge for integrating ICT in preschool classes: around 63% and 69% of the sample either agreed or strongly agreed with items Q26 and Q27, respectively (Table 2). However, in item 28, ‘I am confident in my ability to plan activities or educational scenarios to help children learn with-about ICT’, around half of the sample expressed confidence (50% agreed or strongly agreed). It was also found that around one-fifth of the sample expressed uncertainty (as they did with the rest of the questionnaire). The teachers’ confidence in ICT integration (i.e. items 26, 27 and 28) was correlated with each of the following individual characteristics: years of teaching experience, years of computer experience, in-service teacher training in ICT and computer self-efficacy. From the above correlations, statistically significant, positive correlations between confidence and years of computer experience (r = .55), as well as between confidence and computer self-efficacy (r = .75), were found. More years of computer experience and higher computer self-efficacy were found to lead to higher confidence in integrating ICT in the classroom. There was no correlation with A-level training (r = .045), while the correlation with B-level training was not significant (r = .2). ICT integration in preschool classes is often attributed to the teachers (Edwards 2013); thus, those teachers who expressed positive beliefs and higher confidence are expected to integrate ICT in their classes. Indeed, research (Howard, Miles, and Rees-Davies 2012) has revealed that confident teachers delivered a variety of computing experiences in preschool classes.

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Previous research has also indicated that beliefs and confidence are closely related to teachers’ knowledge acquisition and classroom practice (Vartuli 2005). Investigating preschool teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play is important because their views affect their classroom practices. For example, they affect whether ICT will be used during the free play activities, as well as the possible combination with typical organised activities. The essential role of kindergarten teachers in ICT environments, in supporting children’s experiences, has been discussed in the relevant literature (Nikolopoulou 2014; Stephen and Plowman 2008). Additionally, this study’s finding supported an earlier research finding (Gialamas and Nikolopoulou 2010; Nikolopoulou and Gialamas 2015): the higher the teachers’ confidence with technology, the higher their intention is to use a computer in a preschool class. The findings have implications for education policy-makers and, in particular, for in-service teacher training in ICT. Teachers’ confidence with technology can be increased via attending appropriate in-service teacher training. Such programmes should be carefully designed in order to help the teachers, among others, with integrating ICT in kindergarten and with acquiring skills for software evaluation. For example, teachers need to make the best out of the ICT features (see Facer et al. 2003; Verenikina et al. 2010) in order to support the children’s learning. The number of early childhood teachers in Greece who attend B-level ICT training is increasing annually, and this is expected to influence their beliefs positively. Professional development must address the views of the teachers (Mueller et al. 2008). The limitations of this study include the size of the sample and the use of a strictly quantitative approach. Further research employing a larger sample and utilising a mixed-methods approach would add to the body of knowledge by offering rich insight into teachers’ practices and beliefs about the role of ICT in a playful learning environment. Identifying early childhood teachers’ beliefs about ICT and play in preschool is not an end in itself. As boundaries shift between what is possible in life and what is possible in the computer environment, there is a need for new definitions of what it means for children to play with digital technologies (Yelland 1999). Computer-digital play is a qualitatively different form of play (Salonius-Pasternak and Gelfond 2005; Stephen and Plowman 2014), and it is gradually becoming a significant part of young children’s lives. In parallel, ICT is not a static technology; new forms of technology are being developed. Future research should investigate the effects of different types of play with ICTon children’s learning. Traditional activities may be complemented by different experiences that have been made possible due to the new ICT. Early childhood teachers must be aware of the potential of such environments and contexts for learning, in order to support young children with opportunities to play and learn with (and about) them.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the teachers who participated in this study, and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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Appendix ‘Confidence with technology’ subscale (Pierce, Stacey, and Barkatsas 2007) 1. I am good at using computers [strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree] 2. I can fix a lot of computer problems [strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree] 3. I am quick to learn new computer software needed for school [strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree] 4. I am good at using things like VCRs. DVDs. MP3s and mobile phones [strongly agree] [agree] [disagree] [strongly disagree]