IB Economics Exam Notes
May 1, 2017 | Author: Nica Calvert | Category: N/A
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Exam notes for the 2015 IB Economics Exam...
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MICROECONOMICS Economics: The study of how groups allocate scare resources to satisfy unlimited wants and needs Opportunity Cost: The value of the nextbest alternative forgone Factors of Production: All inputs used to produce goods and services C Capital (equipment) E Entrepreneurship (management) L Land (natural resources) L Labor (workforce) Normative Statement: A statement that is a matter of opinion Positive Statement: A statement that can be proven or disproven PPF (Production Possibilities Frontier): Represents all combinations of the maximum amounts that two goods can be produced in an economy when there is a full employment of resources and efficiency. The PPF model demonstrates concepts such as scarcity and opportunity cost. Point A = the economy is operating less than full efficiency Point B = the economy is operating at full efficiency however the opportunity cost to produce more guns is a lot of bread Point C = the economy is operating at full efficiency however the opportunity cost to product more bread is a lot of guns Point X = the economy can not operate at this efficiency as they do not have the factors of production to do so Economic Growth: The measure of a change in countries GDP, or real national income such that an increase in national income is classified as economic growth Economic Development:
The measure of welfare and wellbeing, instead of being measured in monetary indicators, it is measured in terms of indicators such as education, health and social indicators
Demand Demand and the Law of Demand Demand is the quantity of a good that consumers are willing and able to purchase at a given price in a given time period. The law of demand states that as the price of a product falls, the quantity demanded increases. Ceteris paribus.
Shifts in the Demand Curve Income Normal Goods: as a consumer’s income rises, the demand for the product will also rise, shifting the demand curve to the right Inferior Goods: as a consumer’s income rises, the demand for the product will fall, shifting the demand curve to the left Substitutes If products are substitutes, then a change in the price of one of the products will lead to a change in the demand for the other product. For example, if there is a fall in the price for Good A (movement along the demand curve), then the demand for Good B will decrease (demand shifts left). Complements If products are complements to each other, then a change in the price of one good will lead to a change in the demand for the other product. For example, if there is a fall in the price for Good A (movement along the demand curve), then the demand for Good B will increase (demand shifts right).
Calculating the Demand Curve (HL) Qd=a−bP
A = where the graph meets the xaxis and where demand would be if the price was zero. If A changes, there will be a parallel shift in the demand curve. B = sets the slope for the demand curve (rise/run). If B changes, there will be a change in the steepness of the curve therefore a change in the elasticity.
Supply Supply and the Law of Supply Supply is the willingness and ability of products to produce a quantity of a good or serve at a given price in a given time period. The law of supply states that as the price of a product rises, the quantity supplied of the product will increase. Ceteris Paribus.
Shifts in the Supply Curve Cost of Factors of Production If there is an increase in the costs of the factors of production, such as a wage increase, ths will increase the firm’s costs meaning that they can supply less (shift to the left) Price of Other Products Producer’s often have a choice of what they would like to produce such that if there is a raise in the price of Good A, they may produce less of Good B (shift to the left) to maximize revenue Technology Improves in the state of teachnology in a firm should lead to an increase in supply thus a shift of the supply curve to the right
Calculating the Supply Curve (HL) Qs=c+ dP C = the quanitity that would be supplied if the price was zero. If C changes, there will be a parallel shift in the supply curve D = sets the slope of the curve. If D changes, there will be a change in the slope therefore the elasticity.
Market Equilibrium Equilibrium The point in which the demand and supply curve intersect and the economy is in a state of rest such that there is no “outside disturbance”
Changes in Equilibrium If there is a change in one of the determinants of demand or supply there will be a shift in one of the curves resulting in a new equilibrium. Surpluses and Shortages If the price is raised above the equilibrium, suppliers will have more incentive to produce however demand will decrease resulting in a surplus (excess supply) If the price is lowered, demand will increase while supply will decrease resulting in a shortage (excess demand)
Consumer and Producer Surplus Consumer surplus: the highest price consumers are willing to pay minus the price they actually pay. Consumers who are willing to pay for a product at a higher price, but only have to pay at equilibrium price are experiencing a gain. Producer surplus: the price received by firms for selling their goods minus the lowest price they are willing to accept. Producers who are willing to supply a product at a lower price, but instead can supply at equilibrium are experiencing a gain.
Economic Efficiency When allocative and productive efficiency are achieved and marginal cost = marginal benefit (MC=MB) in every market Allocative Efficiency When an economy produces the combination of goods most desired by society where the consumer surplus is equal to producer surplus thus community surplus is achieved and where marginal cost is equal to marginal benefit
Calculating Market Equilibrium 1. Set Qs and Qd equal to one another and solve for P to get the equilibrium price 2. Substitute P into either of the equations to get the equilibrium quantity
Elasticity’s Elastic vs. Inelastic Elastic: responds substantially to price (e.g. luxuries, goods with close substitutes), such that if the price goes down the change in Qd/Qs is greater Inelastic: does not respond to price (e.g. necessities, addictiveness), such that if the price goes down the change in Qd/Qs is smaller
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) Price Elasticity of Demand The measure of how much the demand for a good changes when there is a change in the price of the product
PED=
change ∈quanitity demanded change ∈ price
*Percentage change is calculated by taking (New – Old)/Old Values of PED PED1 elastic PED=1 unit elastic PED=0 perfectly inelastic PED=P perfectly elastic Inelastic Demand If a product has inelastic demand, then a change in the price of a product leads to a proportionally smaller change in the quantity demanded of it. Therefore raising the price of an inelastic product leads to a larger total revenue. P ↑ TR ↑ P ↓ TR ↓ Elastic Demand If a product has elastic demand, then a change in the price leads to a greater than proportionate change in the quantity demanded of it. P ↑ TR ↓ P ↓ TR ↑
Determinants of PED The number of substitutes: If a product has more substitutes then likely the demand will be elastic The necessity of the product: If a product is a necessity, then likely it will have inelastic demand
Cross Elasticity of Demand (XED) Cross Elasticity of Demand The measure of how much the demand for a product changes when there is a change in the price of another product
XED=
change∈demand of product X change∈ price of product Y
Values of XED XED>0 substitutes XED0 normal good YEDMC indicating there is an under allocation of resources Productive: when P= min AC, in this market P>min AC therefore average cost is higher than what is optimal, if excess capacity is lowered than it can become productively efficient
Oligopolies Oligopoly Type of Product: similar Market Power: compete on strategy not price Number of Sellers: few Role of Advertising: high Barriers to Entry: very high Collusion Oligopolistic firms are very competitive and because of that, they try to limit competition on price as much as possible. A cartel is an agreement between firms to limit competition, or what is referred to as “collusion.” Cost Curves when firms Collude
The light grey box represents the firm’s costs, while the dark grey box represents supernormal profits. Cost Curves when firms do not collude
The Kinked Demand Curve explains price inflexibility of oligopolistic firms that do not collude. Firms also maximize profits where MC=MR, therefore firms will always produce at Q, which is the point that reflects the dashed part of the MR curve.
MACROECONOMICS Expenditure Components of GDP Consumers (C) = consumer expenditure Investment (I) = investment by firms in capital Government (G) = government expenditure Net Exports (XM) = exports minus imports Aggregate Demand (AD) The total quantity of goods and services that all sectors of the economy (GDP) are willing and able to buy at all possible price levels Changes in Consumer Spending Changes in wealth Changes in interest rates Changes in expectations Changes in personal income taxes Changes in Investment Spending Changes in interest rates Changes in business taxes Changes in expectations Improvements in Technology Changes in Government Spending Changes in political priorities Deliberate efforts to influence AD Short Run in Macroeconomics The period of time during which the nominal prices of resources do not change in response to changes in the price level Long Run in Macroeconomics Period of time in which the nominal prices of all factors and resources change so as to reflct fully any changes in price level Aggregate Supply (SAS) The total quantity of goods and services produced in an economy at different price levels Shifts in SAS Wages: if wages increase, SAS shifts left. If wages decrease, SAS shifts right.
Resource Prices: if prices increase, SAS shifts left. If the price decreases, SAS shifts right. Taxes: If business taxes increase, SAS shifts left. If business taxes decrease, SAS shifts right. Subsidies: if subsidies increase, SAS shifts right. If subsidies decrease, SAS shifts left. Long Run Aggregate Supply (LAS) Represents potential GDP where resources are being used efficiently and where unemployment is at its natural rate. LAS represent potential GDP. Short Run Equilibrium Occurs where AD intersects SAS, this point determines the price level, the level of output and the level of unemployment
Changes in the Equilibrium Inflationary Gap When real GDP is larger than potential GDP and occurs when AD shifts right Output increases Unemployment decreases Price increases Recessionary Gap When real GDP is less than potential GDP and occurs when AD shifts left Output decreases Unemployment increases Price decreases
Stagflation Occurs when there is high unemployment and high inflation and occurs when SAS shifts left Output decreases Unemployment increases Price increases Gives rise to an economic contraction
Neoclassical Perspective Neoclassical Perspective In the long run all resource prices change so as to match changes in price levels. The LAS curve is vertical at potential GDP because inflationary and deflationary gaps are only in the short run. This is because if unemployment is increased in short run there is a downward pressure on wages. Shift of LAS A shift in the LAS curve indicates a decrease or increase in potential output and therefore economics growth. The LAS curve may shift due to improvements in the factors of production, improvements in technology or an increase in efficiency. Government Intervention Government intervention may intensity the business cycle and only result in price changes therefore governments should encourage competition to stimulate economic growth rather than intervene themselves
Keynesian Perspective Keynesian Perspective The economy can stay stagnant for a long time thus it is imperative for government intervention. As the economy approaches potential GDP, all factors of production are employed
Government Intervention Government policies are imperative to deal with short term fluctuations therefore they should intervene with polices that will increase AD until it intersects LAS at potential GDP
Demand Side Policies Demand Side Policies These aim to change AD to meet macroeconomic objectives. There are two types of demand side policies, fiscal and monetary policies Weaknesses in Demand Side Policies Fiscal and monetary policies are unable to fix both inflation and unemployment at the same time because inflation worsens unemployment and unemployment worsens inflation
Fiscal Policy Fiscal Policy When governments use government expenditure and taxation to influence AD. Fiscal policies can affect consumption with personal taxes, investment with business taxes and government expenditure with government spending. Expansionary Fiscal Policy This is used when the economy is experiencing a deflationary gap. It may consist of: 1. Government spending increased 2. Personal taxes decreasing 3. Business taxes decreasing Contractionary Fiscal Policy This is used when the economy is experiencing an inflationary gap. It may consist of: 1. Governments spending decreased
2. Personal taxes increased 3. Business taxes increased Strengths of a Fiscal Policy Combat Inflation: contractionary policy helps bring problem under control Recession: expansionary policy can pull an economy out of a recession Weaknesses of a Fiscal Policy Time Lags: lags such as recognition, decision or implementation lags Political constraints: tax increases could be inappropriately enacted Crowding out effect: when the government borrows to pursue an expansionary policy, in effect it increases the demand for money and interest rates get too high
Monetary Policy Monetary Policy These policies are carried out by central bank, which is a government financial institution to change money supply and interest rates to affect consumption and investment Expansionary Monetary Policy The objective is to expand aggregate demand. It may consist of: 1. Increasing the supply of money 2. Decreasing interest rates Contracting Monetary Policy The objective is to increase the costs of borrowing therefore reducing aggregate demand. It may consist of: 1. Decreasing the supply of money 2. Increasing interest rates Strengths of a Monetary Policy Quick Implementation: does not have to go through political processes No political constraints: greater freedom to pursue No crowding out effect Weaknesses of a Monetary Policy Time Lags: lags in recognition or implementation Ineffective in recession: expansionary policy aims to increase AD by encouraging spending however this is under the assumption that consumers will increase spending
Supply Side Policies Supply Side Policies
Aim to shift the LAS curve to the right in order to achieve longterm economic growth. The objects are to increase efficiency, decrease the natural rate of unemployment and increase production possibilities. There are two types, market oriented or interventionist.
Market Oriented Supply Policies Reducing the size of the Government Sector Large government sectors may be inefficient. The methods to reduce may include privatization, restricting monopoly power or private funding however privatization may make products less affordable. Incentives by Lowering Taxes Lower personal taxes = incentives for people to work and spend more Lower investment taxes = more motivated to save Lower business taxes = increase profits therefore investment spending The weaknesses however is that this may worsen income distribution or have a larger impact on AD than AS Make Labor Market More Responsive Abolish minimum wage legislation Weaken labor unions Reduce unemployment benefits The weaknesses however are that it may increase income inequalities and have a downward pressure on consumer spending
Interventionist Supply Policies Interventionist Supply Side Policies Presuppose that the economy cannot by itself achieve desired results therefore government intervention is required. Examples may include: 1. Training and education (more skills in workforce) 2. Improved health care (more productive) 3. Research and development 4. Support for small businesses and infant industries
Money Multiplier Money Multiplier A change in an injection of expenditure will lead to a proportionally larger change in the level of national income
multiplier= Leakages
change∈GDP change∈leakages
Size of savings ratio (mps) Amount spent on imports (mpm) Level of taxation (mrt) The greater these leakages are, the smaller the multiplier is
multiplier →
1 1 = mps+mpm+mrt mpw
Marginal Propensity to Consume MPC is the proportion of each extra dollar that households will spend in the economy, the higher the value the larger the multiplier.
multiplier=
1 1−mpc
Consumer Price Index Consumer Price Index The CPI is the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical urban consumer. It is used to monitor the cost of living over time by monitoring a “basket” of goods and services. As the CIP rises, the typical family has to spend more to maintain the same standard of living
CPI=
price of basket ∈ year x 100 price of basket∈base year
Category Weighting Different categories of consumption have different impacts on consumers therefore weighting is used to calculate indices based on the relative expenditure on each category
CPI with weighting=
index for year weighting
Problems with Measuring CPI Substitution bias: does not consider consumer substitution New goods: does not reflect change in value of dollar as new products are introduced Unmeasured quality changes: if quality changes and the value of the dollar changes, the price of the good remains the same
Inflation
Inflation Rate
Inflation Rate=
index for year ( x +1 )−index for year (x ) x 100 index for year (x )
Real vs. Nominal Interest Rates Nominal interest rates: interest rate not corrected for inflation Real interest rates: Corrected for inflation Anticipated vs. Unanticipated Inflation Anticipated Inflation: firms will constantly change prices and people will be less likely to hold cash, as it will lose value Unanticipated Inflation: it is difficult to predict if investments will be profitable, wage distortions such that some professions can adjust wages easier than others and assets are worth more while loan is the same Demand Pull Inflation Aggregate demand increase Causes include: 1. Decrease in interest rates 2. Decrease in taxation 3. Increase in government spending CostPull Inflation Costs increase independently of AD (SAS decreases) Types include: 1. Wages increase due to power of unions 2. Monopolies drive up prices 3. Taxes 4. Expectations
Unemployment PPF Model of Full Employment Full employment occurs when there is a maximum use of all resources in the economy to product the maximum combination of two goods (i.e. along the PPF curve) AD/AD Model of Full Employment Occurs where the economy is producing at potential output (i.e. at the LAS curve) Unemployment and Underemployment Unemployment: people of working age whoa re without work, available for work and actively seeking employment Underemployment: refers to those how only manage part time work or those who are over qualified for their jobs
Difficulties Measuring Unemployment The unemployment rate does not include discourages workers, does not capture underemployment and may be overestimated as it does not include works in the informal economy Costs of Unemployment For the unemployed, it is a loss of income For society, there is an increase in crime rates, divorce, health costs and there is an unequal distribution of income For the economy, there is a decrease in production/consumption
Structural Unemployment Structural Unemployment When industries are no longer capable of competing due to changing demand or new technology there is structural unemployment. There are mismatches between the labor skills demanded and supplied and between the physical location of works and employers Market Oriented approach Let wages fall so new firms may arise Lower unemployment benefits so works must accept lower pay Lower income taxes, increased incentive for works to accept worse jobs DISADVANTAGES There may be an increase in income inequalities Interventionist approach Setting up training programs and assist youth to pursue education and training Provide grants and subsidies to help with relocation Establish government projects DISADVANTAGES Requires government funding with high opportunity costs
Frictional and Seasonal Unemployment Frictional Unemployment A time lag between someone losing/changing job and starting another. It may be the result of geographical immobility or lack of knowledge regarding available job opportunities Market Oriented approach Lower unemployment benefits to increase incentives to accept work Lower income taxes increase incentives Interventionist approach Establish job centers to improve information Establish employment agencies Improve information between employers and job seekers
Seasonal Unemployment Occurs when the demand for labor in certain industries changes as to reflect in reasons Correcting Seasonal Unemployment Proving information on jobs available during offpeak seasons in other industries
Cyclical Unemployment Cyclical Unemployment Cyclical or demand deficient unemployment is when the cyclical nature of the macroeconomic economy goes into a recessionary gap (AD shifts left) Monetary Solutions Interest rates decrease Supply of money increase Fiscal Solutions Taxation decreased Government Spending increased
Disequilibrium/Equilibrium Unemployment Disequilibrium/Equilibrium Unemployment
If the wage rate rises above the equilibrium then some unemployment will arise. This is also known as real wage unemployment
Solutions
Eliminate minimum wage legislation Reduce the power of labor unions This will result in the costs of production decreasing, wages decreasing and SAS shifting to the right
Calculating Employment Calculating Unemployment Rate
unemployment rate=
number of unemployed x 100 number∈labour force
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