Human Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses

Section 1

The Human Body: An Orientation. Orientation. 1.1

Define ine th the fo follow lowing te terms:

Anatomy:

Anatomy is the study if the structure of the body, body, the parts inside and the relationships between between them. them.

Ross & Wilson Wil son (2001) pg pg 4, Marieb Marieb (2003) pg 2.

Physiology:

Physiology Physiol ogy is the study of of how the body parts work; work; how they work together and ensure life and health of the body.

Ross & Wilson Wils on (2001) pg 4, Marieb (2003) pg 2.

1.2 discuss the relationship between anatomy and physiology:

The body and all of the parts inside makes a good mechanism, every body part inside the body have their own job to do to ensure that the body function as one mechanised thing, the structure determines what does what, how and when.

1.3

Marieb (2003) pg 2

Which Which of the the follo followin wing g is the the corr correct ect seque sequenc nce, e, going going for for the the simplest simplest to the the most most complex in the levels of structural organisation of the human body:

a. Chemical level, cellula cellularr level, tis tissue sue level, organ level, organ organ sys tem level, organis organis mal level.

1.4 1.4

The The smal smalle lest st liv living ing un unit of all liv living ing th things ings is: is: E) A cell.

1.5

We have have 11 organ organ system systems in the the hum human an body body.. Name Name the them m and and state one one func functio tion n of  each one:

Integumen Integumentary tary system Covers Covers the the exterior exterior of of the the body body and protect protect the the deeper deeper tiss tiss ues. Skele Skeleta tall system system

Prot Protec ects ts and and supp support ort th the organ organss as well as provid ovide e fram frame e for for mu muscles. scles.

Nerv ervous syst system

Resp Respo onds to to ch change angess insid inside e an and outside side of th the bo body.

Muscu scular lar syst system em

Allo llows mo movemen ementt and and provides ides he heat. at.

End Endocrin crine e system system

Regu Regulat lates es pr processes cesses in in th the bo body., y., eg.: eg.: gro growth.

Cardiovascular Cardiovascular system Transpor Transports ts blood blood,, oxygen oxygen and carbon carbon mono monoxide. xide.

Lym Lymphatic atic syst system em

Colle Collect ctss flu fluid idss left left by the blo bloo od vessel vessels. s.

Respira Respirato tory ry system system

Supp Supply ly the the bloo blood d with with the oxyg oxygen en and and expe expell carbon carbon mon monox oxide ide..

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Dig es es ti tive s ys ys te tem

Breaks down food.

Urinary sy sys tem

Eliminates wa was te.

Repro Reprodu ducti ction on system system

Prod Produc uce e offspr offspring ing..

1.6 1.6

Which Which of th the follo follow wing ing is NOT NOT a nec necessar essary y life life func functtion: ion:

D) Nutrients. 1.7 1.7

The The surviv survival al need need tha thatt is req requi uirred to release elease ener energy gy from from food food is:

D) Oxygen. 1.8

Des cr cribe Homeos tta as is is :

Homeostas Homeostasis is is basically basic ally about the body's body's ability to maintain s tability with the the internal internal condition while other circumstances outsi outside de the body body is al ways changing.

1.9

Mareib Mareib (2001) pg 9

When When the the languag language e of of anatom anatomy y is being being discussed, discussed, it is always always assum assumed that that the the body body is in a standard position called ca lled the the anatomical anatomical position. Described the anatomical anatomical position.

Anatomical position is a position where the body is s tanding upright upright fa cing forward, forward, pal ms facing forward with arms by the side and feet are placed together. Ross & Wilson (2001)

1.10 1.10

The hum human body body has many many region regional al ter terms, ms, visible landmar landmarks ks on the the surface surface of of the the body.

Where Where is the the occipital occipital region? region? Poster Posterior ior surface surface of of the head. head. Wher Where e is the the tar tarsal sal region egion? ?

Arou Aroun nd the the ankl ankle e area. area. Mareib Mareib (2001) pg 13

1.11 1.11

○

Direction Directional al term termss are used used when when describing describing the the relation relationships ships betwee between n one one bod body y structure in relation to another. Describe proximal: Proximal is the closest point of attachment or origin.

Ross & Wilson (200) pg 45.

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1.12 .12

lab label the fo follo llowing ing dia diagr gram am..

Mareib Mareib (2001) pg 14 - 15.

1.3 1.3

We have have 4 quad quadrrant ants and and 9 region egionss . Draw Draw two two diagr diagram amss and and labe label. l.

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The (4) Four quadrants. quadrants. 1.14 .14

Ide Identify ify 6 cau causes ses of of disease isease:: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

Generic a bnorm bnormalitie alitiess Infection by microbes or parasi tes Chemicals Ionising radiation Physical trauma trauma Ross & Wils on (2001) (2001) pg 15. Degeneration

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Section 2 & 3

2.1

Matt Matter er exists exists in solid, solid, liqu liquid id and and gaseous gaseous states. states. Explain Explain these these thre three e gases.

Solids have a definite shape and volume, liquid has a volume but it can take shape of a container and gas has no shape or volume. Marieb (2001) pg 23.

2.2 2.2

Fill Fill in the the follo follow wing ing elem elemen entt sym symbols:

Calcium Hydrogen Magnesium Phosphorus

2.3

Ca H Mg P

Carbon Co2 Iodine I Nitrogen N Sodium Na

Chlorine CI Iron Fe Oxygen O Sulphur S

Compo Compoun unds ds that that make make up up living living matter matter but but do not not contain contain carbon carbon are are called? called? ○

Inorganic compo c ompounds. unds.

2.4

Dra w a nd nd la la be bel a ba ba si si c c el el l: l:

2.5 2.5

Brie Briefl fly y exp explain lain the the stage stagess of of mito itosis: Mitosis is a s equence equence of events events i n a sel l division which produces produces two daughter cell s from a

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○

○

Anaphase: The centromeres centromeres begin to divide and th the e sis ter chromatids s plit up and move towards the corresponding poles. Telophase: Telophas e: When the the daughter chromosomes chromosomes arrives at the poles the microtubles microtubles disappear. disa ppear. The condensed condensed chrom c hromatin atin expands, ex pands, the nuclear envelope shows up and the cytoplasm divides them and the cell cel l membrane membrane pinches inward til l finally producing producing two daughter daughter cells . ("mitosis ("mitosis ," n.d., n.d., ¶ 3)

2.6

The proces s of facil itated di ffus i on requires energ y.

Fals e

2.7

The greater greater the the osmot osmotic ic pressure pressure the the greater greater the tend tendency ency of of the the water water to move move in that that area.

True

2.8

The movem movement ent of substan substances ces fro from m an area of higher higher hydro hydrostatic static pressure pressure to and area of  lower hydrostatic hydrostatic pressure is ca lled diffusion.

False

2.9

When a cell is pl aced i n a hypotoni c so s olution i t wi ll s well and rupture.

True

2.10

Group Groupss of cell fro from m different different tissue types types in the the body body,, explain the the following following with with an example of where you would find this tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue cells are packed closely together together and can have several layers. The Ross & Wil son (2001) pg 35, epithelial tissue is committed to form the covering or lining of the internal and the Marieb (2001) pg 78. external external body s urfaces, epithelial cells are very very clos e together and there i s almost no intercellular space with with very li ttle intercellular intercellular s ubstance. Regardless of the type of  epithelial tissue it is usually separated from from the underlying underlying tissue with a thin connective tissue called basement membrane which support the epithelium. Epitheli al tiss ue can be found in the kidney's where they excrete was te from the body and reabsorb minerals from the urine.

Connective Unlike the the epithelial tiss ue the the main characteristics is that the tissue has a large Tissue amounts amounts of intercellular substance. The connective connective tiss ue has has a relatively few cells which are are s parsely separated from from each other, other, the living cells within the tis sue can secrete large amounts amounts of intercellular ground ground substance which is non-living material that can be liquid ( eg; blood), blood), semi s olid (eg; connective connective tis sue) or solid (eg; bone). bone).

Ross& & Wil son (2001) pg 37, Marieb (2001) pg 82.

Muscle Tissue

Marieb (2001) pg 85.

The muscle muscle tiss ue is a type of tiss ue that that is designed to contract contract a nd relax thus resulting resulti ng in movement. movement. There are three three types of muscl muscle e tiss ue, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac cardiac muscle tis sue. All three types of muscle tiss ues use movement movement to act ac t agai nst the myosin to create contraction, contraction, the skeletal muscle tiss ue uses contraction contraction that is s timulated timulated by electrical electri cal impulses whic h is trans mitted by the nerves ( the motor motor nerves and motor motor neurons neurons especial ly). Cardiac and smooth smooth muscle utilise contractions contractions that are stimulated by internal pacemaker cell which regularly contract, and propagate contraction to other muscle cells they are in contact with, much of the skeletal and many of the smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Nervous Tissue

2.11

Nervous Nervous tiss ue is made made up of living cells with the ability to react to stimuli. The nervous nervous tiss ue is made up of nerve cells c alled neurons, neurons, neuron neuronss transmit transmit messages rapidly and are easily stimulated, these are present in the brain, spinal cord and the pe3ripheral nerves the branch throughout the body.

When When injur injury y occur occurs, s, it stimulate stimulated d the the bod body's y's inflammat inflammator ory y response response so that that the healing process begins. Desc ribe this this process.

When the cells are injured this leads to inflammation which could result in either resolution and

Marieb (2001) pg 86.

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Section 4

Skin and Body Membranes 4 .1

Lab Label the fo follo llowing ing dia diagr gram am::

Hair shaft

Epidermis Dermal papillae Sebuceous gland Sweat gland

Reticular layer of d ermis Arrector pili muscle Hair follicle

Hair root

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4.4 4.4

List the the func functi tion onss of of the the inte integu gum menta entarry system system: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

4.5 4.5

Waterproof the body. Cushion and protect the deeper tissue from injury. Regulate body temperature. Egests salt and urea in perspiration. perspiration. Synthesize Synthesize vitamin D.

Discuss Discuss what what makes akes our our skin colo colour ur diff differ eren entt to oth other ers: s:

The skin colour is determined determined by the amount amount and type i d melanin melanin which is a pigment in the skin, there two types of mela melanin; nin; pheomelani n and eumelani n. How much pheomelanin and eumelanin someone may have in their s kin is determined determined by their genes, a copy of each gene is inherited from the parents and each gene comes as alleles. 4.6

The "tann "tanning" ing" effect effect (dark (darkeni ening ng of of the the skin) that that occur occurss when when a perso person n is exposed exposed to the sun is somewhat protective protective due to:

A) Increased production production of melanin the helps to block the ultraviolet light. 4.7

Distinguish Distinguish betwee between n the the appea appearan rances ces of the the partial partial-th -thickn ickness ess and and full-t full-thick hickness ness bur burns: ns:

Partial-thickness is a burn that that has affected the epidermis l ayer of of skin and can be desc ribed as superficial. When the the burn had affected not just the epidermis layer of skin but als o a deeper deeper layer of skin called the dermis, dermis, the damage to the s kin is called full thickness burn as i t has affected the full thickness of the skin. Ross & Wils on (2001) pg pg 370.

4.8

What What is the the first first thre threat at to life life from from a massive massive third third-de -degre gree e burn: burn:

B) Dehydration.

4.9

A physician physician estimates estimates the the volum volume e of fluid fluid lost lost in a severely severely bur burned ned patie patient nt by: by:

D) Using the "rule "rule of nines ."

4.10 4.10

Ros s & Wi ls on (2001) pg 370

Ros s & Wils on (2001) pg 370.

The ABCD rule rule describes describes the the appear appearance ance of of the the most form formss of skin cancer cancer and and melanoma. melanoma. Describe this rule:

The ABCD stands for Asymmetr Asymmetry, y, Border i rregularity, Colour and Diameter.

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Marieb (2001) pg 111. 4.12 4.12

Describe Describe 6 are areas as of of quest question ioning ing when when takin taking g a healt health h histo history ry::

The six areas of questioning in a health history a re: Health habits habits - A brief overview overview of chronicled chronicled varied habits which have a impact on health, ○ such as tobacco use, al cohol intake, exercise and diet. This section may also include intimate details details s uch as sexual habits and s exual orientation. orientation. History of of medication - This section covers the patient's current current and previous previous medications. ○ Hospitalization and or or operations operations - This section is chronicle chronicle of operations performed performed for ○ the patient patient a nd time spent in hospital. It may have dates of the operations, operative reports reports and a nd details of what the surgeon did. Allergies to medications medications - Brief overview overview of any medical allergies of the the patient. ○ Family health history - This section contains contains a lis t of of health status of immediate immediate family ○ members members as well as their causes of death (if known). known). It may also contain diseases that are common common within the fa mily or only in one s ex of a side of the family. Review of systems - This section covers covers a review of function, exposure and history in ○ respect to the the body's system such as skin, blood, cardiovasc ular, psychological, and gender specific questions. Sorensen Sorensen & Luckmann ( 1986) pg, 356.

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Section 5

The Skeletal Skeletal System. 5.1 5.1

Exp Explain lain the fiv five e fun functio ction ns of th the skele skeleta tall syst system em::

Support

The The skel skelet etal al syst system em provides ides int intern ernal fr framew amewo ork wh which ich sup supports and and protects protects al l soft s oft organs. organs.

Protection

The bones pr protect so soft organs .

Movem vement ent

Muscles scles are are att attached ached to th the bo bones and and the the bo bones are are used used as leve leverrage to move the body.

Storage

Fat is st stored in insid side the bo bones as well as min mine erals, als, ca calciu lcium m and phosphorous.

Blood cell formation

Formation Formation of blood cel ls occurs inside the marrow marrow cavities ca vities of particula r bones.

Marieb (2001) pg 117.

5.2 5.2

Nam Name the the classificat classificatio ion n of bone one and and an an exam examp ple of of each each::

There are two classifications of bones, Compact and Spongy. Compact bones consist of long bones and flat bones. ○ ○ Spongy bones are short bones and irregular bones. Marieb (2001) pg, 111. 5.3 5.3

When When a fr fractu acture occur occurs th they are are descr describ ibed ed initi initially ally as wh what? at? ○

Closed, Open.

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Overtime the callus is remolded in response to undue stresses whilst forming a strong. Marieb (2001) pg, 124. 5.6

The The five five region region of the the verteb vertebra rall colum column n from from super superior ior to infer inferior ior are: are:

D) Cervical, Thoracic, Thoracic, Lum L umbar, bar, Sacral, Coccugea l.

5.7

Which Which is the the corr correct ect ord order er of of ribs ribs from from super superior ior to infer inferior ior:: C) True True ribs, False Fal se ribs, Floating ribs.

5.8

Marieb (2001) pg, 131.

Label the s keleton:

Marieb (2001) pg, 135.

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5.10

Name Name the the s ix typ types es of of synovial synovial curvatu curvature ress and name name one one area where where you you will find them. ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○

5.11 5.11

Plain Plai n joint. This joint can be located in the intermetacarpal joints and the the acromioclavicular joint. Hinge join. Can be found found between the atlas atla s and the occipital occipita l bone bone such s uch as the elbow. Pivot joint. This joint ca n be found found in the proximal proximal and distal radioulnar joints Condyloid joint. This joint can be found found in the wrist. Saddle joint. In the hand hand there i s a saddle joint on on the thumb. thumb. Ball Bal l and socket joint. Can be found found in the shoulder and hip. Marieb (2001) pg, 151.

Name Name thr three abno abnorrmal curv curvatu ature ress of the the spine: spine: ○ ○ ○

5.12 5.12 •

Scoliosis. Kyphosis. Lordosis.

Nam Name the the most most com common disor disorder of of join joints: ts: Osteoarthritis.

Marieb (2001) pg, 152

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Section 6

6.1 6.1

Name ame the th three typ types of mu muscle scle tissu tissue: e: ○ ○ ○

6.2

Smooth. Skeletal. Cardiac.

Marieb (2001) pg, 85

Describ Describe e the the differ differen ence ce bet betwe ween en volu volunt ntary ary and involu involunt ntary ary muscle muscle::

The voluntary muscle is a muscle that operates consciously like the muscles in the leg, the operate only only when required. required. Involuntary muscles muscl es is a muscl muscl e that operates unconsciously unconsciousl y for example the the cardiac cardia c muscl muscle e is an involuntary muscl e as it is a vital component component in i n keeping the body alive. Ross & Wil son (2001) pg pg 41.

6.3 6.3

Brie Briefl fly y exp explain lain the mu muscles scles fun functio ction n.

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6.6

Name Name the the thre three e musc muscles les used used to give an intram intramuscu uscular lar inject injection ion:: ○ ○ ○

6.7 6.7

Deltoid muscle. Gluteus muscle. Vastus lateralis.

Marieb (2001) pg, pg, 185 - 188

Exp Explain the the abd abdomin ominal al mus muscle cless and and how how they they wo work: rk:

The abdominal muscles are classed into four separate types of muscles located between the ribs and the pelvis. These muscles have also the transverse abdominal, the internal obliques, the external obliques and the rectus abdominis. These muscle groups have a very important role to play in the body's health. The abdominal muscles are attached to the skeletal structures, within the abdominal muscles there are many many fibres. These fibres are filled fi lled with very very small s mall proteins proteins called ca lled actin and myosi myosin. n. When the the electrical electric al impulses are sent through through a passi ve of of nerves nerves to the fibres, fi bres, this acti on causes caus es the actins acti ns and myosi myosin n to rub across ac ross each other making the muscle muscl e to shorten. shorten. The shortening of the muscle causes the muscle to contract. Ross & Wilson (2001) (2001) pg, 432 432 - 433.

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Section 7

7.1

Labe abel the follo llowing ing dia diagr gram am::

Cell body Dendrites

Axon Nucleus

Synapse

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transmitter is then released in the synaptic space and eliminate the polarization of the dendrite of the the next neuron a long the pathway. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 293. 7.3 7.3

Name ame the the stru structur ctural al classificat classificatio ion n of the nervo ervous us system system: ○ ○

7.4

Pseudounipolar. Multipolar.

Huether & McCance (2000) pg 293.

Func Functio tional nal classification classification is conce concern rned ed only only with with the the PNS PNS struct structur ures, es, briefly briefly explain explain this this function.

The peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerve, PNS structures are common commonly ly found in groups calle ca lled d gangli gang lia. a. The peripheral nervous nervous sys tem connects connects the central central nervous nervous system sys tem to all of the body's body's sense organs, internal internal organs organs and muscles . Without the peripheral peripheral nervous s ystem the central nervous system s ystem would be starved of sensory information and the ability to act. Huether & McCance (2000) pg, 292. 7.5 7.5

Descr Describ ibe e wh what happ appens ens during ing a simp simple ref refle lexx arcs: arcs:

A reflex reflex action is a fast fas t moto motorr reaction to a s ensory stimulus, the si mple mple reflex arcs involves the afferent neurons to connect directly to the efferent neurons and only requires one synapse in the circuit to complete the reflex. An example example of a s imple reflex is a knee jerk: j erk: ○ The patell patell ar tendon is i s stretched. The afferent afferent neur sends a signal s ignal to th spinal cord.

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Parietal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

Cerebellum

Frontal Lobe

Temporal Lobe

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the maintenance of balance and posture through panoptic neural connection with the medullar oblongata and the midbrain. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 301, 609.

7.11 7.11

Brief Briefly ly exp explain lain the the flow flow of cer cereb ebrrospinal spinal fluid fluid..

The cerebr cerebrospinal ospinal fluid is a clear fluid with no c olour similar to blood plas ma and interstitial interstitial fluid. The floating floati ng properties properties of the the cerebrospina l fluid helps prevent prevent the brain brain from tugging tuggi ng on the meninges, meninges , nerve roots roots and blood vess els. els . Approximatel Approximately y there there is i s about 125 to to 150 ml of  CSF circulating within the ventricles and the subarachnoid space at any given time, about 600ml of CSF is produ produced ced on a daily basi s. The cerebrospinal fluid flows through the interventricular foramen into the third ventricle and then continues through the cerebral aqueduct into the paired lateral aperture or the median aperture before communicating with the subarachnoid spaces of the brain and spinal cord. The cerebrospinal fluid does not accumulate but instead it is reabsorbed into the venous

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Scot, E MS, MS, (n.d). Fight or flight. flig ht. Retrieved 27th march march 2008, from http://stress.about.com/od/stressmanagementglossary/g/fightorflight.html

7.16

The hypothalam alamu us:

A) Is the thermo thermosta statt of the body since s ince it regula tes the body temperature. temperature.

7.17 7.17

Name Name thre three e commo common n condition conditionss that relate relate to the the nervo nervous us system: system: ○ ○ ○

Shingles. Rabies. HIV.

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Section 8

8.1 8.1

The The special senses arise arise follo followin wing g stim stimulat ulation ion of the the s pecialised pecialised sensory sensory recep recepto torr cell, cell, the senses sens es are to give the the body body a general conscious awareness of what is going on outsi outside de the the body's body's surround surroundings ings.. Though Though it is perceived perceived that the s enses are separate and different from each other, they rarely work alone for example; when the smell of  smoke is perceived al l other other senses sens es start s tart to work work like si ght and sound, sound, these other other senses try to help you locate the source of the fire. Ross & Wilson Wils on (2001) (2001) pg 10.

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the eye. ○

8.8 8.8

Ophthalmoscope.

The The thre three e s ets ets of of colour colour rece recept ptor orss within within the the retina retina are are sensitive sensitive to wavelen wavelength gthss of  of 

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Sensorineural deafness

Sensorineural Sensorineural deafness is a impairment impairment of the corti corti organ or it's central central connection, this may happen slowly over time or suddenly. Huether & McCance (2000) pg 304.

8.13 8.13

Name ame the the nerv nerve e tha thatt enab enables les us to smell: smell: ○

Olfaction.

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Section 9

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