Human Anatomy and Figure Drawing.pdf

HUnAn AnATOMY & FIGUREjmAWING JACK

n.

KRAMER

X

Second Edition

ILIMAN

DF

V

'I

THE INTEGRATTON OF STRUCTURE

AND PERSPECTEVE JACK N.

KRAMER

VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPANY .

MmALTTO PUBLIC LIBBARr

New

York

To

my

Copyright

mother, Sarah Kramer

©

1984 by

Van Nostrand Reinhold Company

Library of Congress Catalog Card ISBN 0-442-24735-4 (cl) ISBN 0-442-24736-2 (pbk) All rights reserved.

No

Number

84-2399

work covered

part of this

by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means graphic,

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Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold 135 West 50th Street New York, New York 10020

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'

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1

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Kramer, Jack.

Human anatomy and Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Figure drawing. I.

figure drawing.

2.

Anatomy,

Artistic.

Title.

NC765.K7 1984 ISBN 0-442-24735-4 ISBN 0-442-24736-2

743 '.4 (pbk.)

84-2399

CONTENTS

PREFACE

6

INTRODUCTION

7

PART ONE: STRUCTURE

CHAPTER

1

CHAPTER

2

AND

FIGURE DRAWING

8

AND ABSTRACTION IN DRAWING PERSPECTIVE AND FORESHORTENING

VISION

AND STRUCTURE INTRODUCTION TO PART TWO

PART TWO: ANATOMY

9

39

51

52

CHAPTER

3

CHAPTER CHAPTER

4 5

THE HEAD, FEATURES, AND HAIR THE NECK THE TORSO

CHAPTER

6

THE UPPER EXTREMITY: ARM,

CHAPTER

7

THE LOWER EXTREMITY: THIGH,

CHAPTER

8

DRAPE FORMATION ON THE COSTUMED FIGURE

AND HAND LEG, AND FOOT

WRIST,

55 83 95

127 163

192

PLANNING AN ANATOMY COURSE COMPENDIUM: CONDENSED REFERENCE

200

APPENDIX: SOURCES OF SUPPLY

233

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

236

CHAPTER

9

214

238

PREFACE

This revised edition of

and image.

in text

Human Anatomy and Figure Drawing has been generously expanded

am

I

privileged to share with the reader the elaborately labeled en-

gravings from Jean Leo Testut's Traite D' Anatomic Humaine. These engravings were labeled in English

by Frederick Henry Gerrish, professor

Maine, Bowdoin College, anatomist, Gerrish

for his Textbook of

was convinced

that

anatomy

of

Anatomy.

drawing as

at the

An American

a skill

own

line

He

did not anticipate

drawings of the origin and insertion of muscles (which accompany the

would

Testut engravings)

later serve the art student.

masterworks have been secured

A

nineteenth-century

"can be cultivated to such an

extent as to be wonderfully serviceable to the medical student." that his

Medical School of

new

completely

section

Many additional

anatomically relevant

for the present edition.

on the influence

of

anatomy on the costumed

figure

provides a more direct application of anatomy to figure composition and illustration.

For the instructor in figure drawing and the teacher of anatomy, an innovative

new

chapter on planning an anatomy course will suggest a

instruction. casts, slides,

A new and

appendix provides sources

films.

of

supply

The expanded compendium

number of ways

offers a quick,

reference, with diagrams indicating the surface location of bone,

a

to

implement

for skeletons, charts,

fat,

muscle

condensed anatomy

and

superficial veins.

The preparation of the revised edition has benefited from the valued assistance of number of individuals to whom wish to express my thanks: to Iso Papo for special I

new photographs;

to

June Mendelson for editorial corrections;

to

Samuel Goldring

for

thoughtful suggestions; to Stephen Ford for typing; and to colleagues and former students for graciously permitting their

The following

titles

works

to

be included. Their names accompany the captions.

have been shortened

in the captions

with the permission of

the Rare Books Department of the Boston Medical Library in the Francis A.

Countway

Library of Medicine: Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, Tables of the Skeleton and Muscles of the

Human Body; Antonio Cattani, From twenty plates representing the Osteology and Myology of the Human Hand, Feet, and Head; Jules Cloquet, Anatomic de L'homme ou descrijytions et figures lithographiees des toutes parties dii corps humain; Jean

Anatomic

of the External

Forms

of

Man

Cousin, L'Art du Dessin; Julian Fau,

Intended for the Use of Artists, Painters, and Sculptors;

Jean Galbert Salvage, Anatomic du Gladiator Combattant Applicable aux Beaux Arts ou Traite des Os, des Muscles,

Hercules

Lelli,

du Mechanismc des movements, des Proportions

Engraving on copper of the Muscles of the

Human

et des

Body.

Caracteres du Corps;

INTRODUCTION

Two developments have advanced

visual

knowledge

invention of geometric perspective. The second was the study of artist

made use

has

human

of both in understanding the

The

in figure drawing.

first

was

the

human anatomy. The

form. The integration of surface

anatomy and geometric perspective represents an exacting synthesis

of visual insight in

drawing. Despite the availability of information on anatomy,

has been written on

and development

its

beyond general alignment The

systematic integration with perspective structure.

investigation

between anatomy and perspective

of the specific relationship

examination. The study of

to extensive

little

anatomy

artistic

will

is

open

sharpen observation and

identify the cause of complex surface form.

But the perspective of the

human body

(foreshortening) has not been adequately

explained in relation to skeletal architecture and muscular volume. Familiarity with surface

anatomy

therefore, only part of the excitement of

is,

provide a visual context that

for the artist is to

which the parts space. the

Drawing from the

human form

is

of the figure coordinate with living

model

is

figure.

The challenge

internally consistent, a spatial order in

one another and with the surrounding

means

With progressive

in perspective.

the artist will accumulate a vocabulary of

The study and

the

drawing the

to

complete one's understanding of

visual examination

remembered forms

analysis of spatial order in the

and drawing

practice,

to serve his creative interests.

human form should

not interfere with

expressive intent or the integrity of personal style. Indeed the appearance of a coherent

three-dimensional spatial system coincides historically with the period remarkable for the development of individuality visual investigation

"The theory

vision. in

coming

versely,

to

— the Renaissance. Structure developed as a tool

and the extension

of visual

knowledge.

of art developed in the Renaissance

It

was an

was intended

to aid the artist

terms with reality on an observational basis; medieval treatises on

were

largely limited to codes of rules

direct observation of reality.

."^ .

.

When

which could save the

to serve

aid to expressive

artist

art,

con-

the trouble of

mastered, structure can be integrated into the

fabric of expression or stylized form.

Structure, discovered in visual reality of a formal, It

remembered

and

objectified in drawing, can

visual language stylistically reshaped

become

part

by content and meaning.

supplies an orderly underpinning of measured space to give support and conviction

to artistic

purpose. The lengthened ethereal forms of El Greco, the robust earthy forms

of Rubens, the afflicted, obsessed figures of Schiele, reflect

an

originality of stylistic expression, sustained

and the formal poetry

and integrated by

of Villon

a consistent space

structure.

1.

Erwin Panofsky, Menning

in the Visual

Arts

(New

York: Doubledav and

Company, Anchor Books,

195S), p. 278, footnote

114.

7

PART ONE: STRUCTURE AND FIGURE DRAWING

CHAPTER

1

AND

VISION

ABSTKACTTON

DRAWING

IN

stems from that most precious organ of sense, the eye. Perception,

Vitality in the visual arts

for the artist,

more than

is

on

active awareness, a focus

a passive response to

an environment.

It

involves intense

visual reality as the source of those forms that

make up

the

language of visual expression.

drawing

a function of

It is

The media

for

to enlarge the artist's vision

drawing are simple and

drawing may be consciously acquired are

made

when

useful

and

his vocabulary of forms.

the acquisition of drawing

facilitate

in structured learning exercises.

skills. Skill in

The

visual facts

the artist has acquired the proficiency in drawing to render his

observation concrete.

When forms

are complex, visual study

may demand extended

attention

and

effort.

Probably the greatest challenge to visual comprehension, the one requiring exceptional concentration,

anatomy

is

the

human

form. Part of this challenge stems from the intricate organic

of the figure continually altered

by movement. Without the study of anatomy,

a simple straightforward retinal response to surface forms,

convey

to result in figures that life,

is

static,

nonresilient images. Like the inert forms of a

they remain fixed, with predictable relationships. But the form of the

modified by the slightest gesture, into

example, a turn of the wrist can simple change occurs

it

A

knowledge units.

A

artistic

anatomy examines

in

make

of the anatomist

and the

of the origin

and

The

artist

something more than

it

Among

and organic connections. The eye

apparently other con-

clarity of the

must extend

medical

its

of the artist will

tissue.

of skeletal architecture provides a clue to the

context that will

this

an organic way the significant

dimension and axes

insertion of major muscles explains their

function and shape in relation to bone. But the study of artistic

information.

How

anatomy.

bony surfaces and mobile muscular

knowledge

still

figure

probes beneath the skin, anatomy makes the eye more

acutely sensitive to subtle tensions

distinguish between hard

human

disposition of parts to the whole. For

shape of the forearm.

explained by the study of

is

mechanics of movement. Since

form

new

a

alter the

siderations, a proper study of surface

of

no matter how accurate, tends

anatomy requires

a blueprint of the

illustrator

a visual

body. The knowledge

provide the essentials of anatomic

application to the broader realm of a form in three-

dimensional space. The disposition, in drawing, of the anatomically articulate figure, within a cohesive spatial order, represents an impressive synthesis of two visual disciplines

— surface anatomy and freehand perspective. In drawing, the graphic approximation to

human

vision

is

geometric perspective.

To some the connection between anatomy and perspective may not be immediately apparent. But that

it is

the relationship

between anatomy and the broader principles of perspective

must be examined and understood

if

the artist

is

to

develop

reliable spatial consistency

in figure drawing.

9

The student may have some experience and

theoretical

understanding of formal

perspective and form projection based on simple geometric solids cylinder, etc.)

an arm,

and

employed by the

human form

their relationship to the

Forms

for example).

an introduction have

of spatial concepts, simple geometric solids

these

same geometric forms

is

visual effort to

and understanding

to the explanation

and obvious

a real

utility.

Unfortunately,

head

are frequently translated into simplified stereotypes of

and body, and such stereotypes

physiognomy

(the cylindrical characteristics of

are a fundamental part of the language of spatial relationships

Vievv'ed as

artist.

sphere, cube,

(i.e.,

A

are inadequate to describe the living form.

too remote from the true aspects of anatomic structure.

impose the simple geometric

on

solid

a

The

simplified

too-insistent

complex human form may

dis-

courage and frustrate visual investigation and inhibit the growth of knowledge and understanding of the figure. The simple geometric solid (cylinder, as an arm), while

seem

to

be

concept in

a reduction to the essentials of a form,

itself. It

has

its

own intact,

in fact, a

is,

finished character

it

may

complex and complete

and therefore

is

of limited adapt-

ability.

The human

figure

an

is

intricate interrelationship of organic units.

To

cisely its significant spatial characteristics requires a very basic structural

that will mirror the figure selectively, but

To

fit

on

reflect pre-

symbol

varied situations such a symbol has to be simple, neutral, and adaptable.

human form

in the very complicated

abstractions

— one

a unit-for-unit relationship within a form.

The space

can best be explained by the most primary spatial

— the bare essentials of space measurement (and

its

symbols, point and

line).

THE REPRESENTATION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE move

Perceptual judgment, to be useful in drawing, must

to a level of visual abstraction

more fundamental and adaptable than the geometric form,

common

to

to

an abstracted base that

is

both complex and simple forms. All forms are composed of lengths in various

relationships.

Understanding a complex form

consist in visualizing the

arm

cylinder concept to their

common

like the

arm, for example, does not ultimately

as a simple cylinder, but in reducing both the

arm and the

dimensional components.

Dimensions are measurements of lengths of space. In figure drawing they mark an inner coherence of measured distance

in three directions

taken from surfaces and

forms. The dimensional attributes of height, width, and depth represent, within a form, its

space-filling capacity

acteristic of

forms

is

—

its

spatial quantity.

which has magnitude,

size,

understanding of

this abstracted char-

volume, area, or length. Recognizing quantities of length

three directions within volumes It is

An

important. Quantity (from one dictionary) can be described as that

is

fundamental

a function of intellect, distinct from,

to

an appreciation of the space of a

but based on, a visual sense response.

Quantity (dimension) as such has no actual, separate, concrete existence.

be isolated from texture, etc.). it is

its

always found,

quantity which as a concept.

identity with material substance (and

"Quantity

is

is

of the space of a

is,

Francis

10

J.

Collingwood,

it

Pliilosophy of

cannot

attendant qualities: color, qualities

material bodies. There

form can be

It

with which is

no actual

can be understood and abstracted

intellectually divorced

from

texture, color, shape,

all its

and value

the figure's space involves the abstraction, from a form,

of the dimensions of height, width, 1.

all

from material substance, surface

and shade). Identifying

its

from the sensible

not the quantity of something.'" But

visible attributes, that (light

considered in itself, apart

seen to be a constituent of

The idea

in

figure.

Nature

(New

and depth

as dishnct, isolable factors. Spatial cjuantity

York: Prentice-Hall, 1961), p. 72.

dimension) can then be given a separate, "symbolic" existence as measurement

(i.e.,

an eight-ounce measuring cup). The measurements of a form,

a ruler, a yardstick, or

autonomous

dimensions, thus give

measurements

a tailor's figure

—

(like

for a

custom-made

space-occupying capacity. For example,

suit

provide spatial data separate from the

nonsensuous construct

in effect, a symbolic,

its

its

identity to

that equals the

volume

of the

human

form.

To

isolate, in a

from

of a form)

its

form, the primary aspect of the purely spatial (the abstracted quantity

sensuous apprehension by color and

object in a dark room.

By physical contact

and

texture).

between them,

One

retain a

help to think of an

dimensions of height, width,

space-filling

its

may

it

as clearly distinct from optically perceived qualities (color,

and depth can be grasped light,

light,

can remove one's hands from an object and, by the distance

measured space (an

independent of

inch, a foot)

a given

form

the frustrated fisherman indicating the size of the one that got away). In a similar

(like

fashion, a length of line, in drawing, can function as a

symbol

for a "length of space."

(Each hand in the foregoing demonstration independently indicates a spatial position; correspondingly, a point in drawing can specify a spatial location, a specific place, that is

the origin of a length of space.)

The nature direction,

of space

and dimension

and the discovery, within forms,

of

main

its

attributes

— location,

— provide the basis of a rationally consistent visual language

in

drawing. These spatial attributes can be observed and abstracted as a unified construct, free of sensible qualities (color, texture, light,

and shade) and can thus be symbolically

understood. Dimensions in drawing can be given a separate graphic identity by line and point; but dimensions in themselves remain conceptual attributes apparent to the eye, as sensed experience, only in the context of color, shape,

and

value. (Quantity has

no

separate identity.)

The primary function emphasis on the "quality" of implied textural description (light

in

and dark

line)

line in

(i.e.,

drawing has been overshadowed by an undue

graphic description. Line quality

hardness, softness, roughness,

— in both a general and specific sense

is

— the capacity for

or value emphasis

etc.)

not the only purpose of line

drawing. Line has a very comprehensive function that has been largely obscured by

an almost

total

The

and exclusive consideration

distinction

and

directness with

which one can describe

color

is.

line) is

in

is

drawing,

is

factor of visual spatial "quantity"

drawing by location and length (graphically

form with

a

line

can be deceptive of what a line

a directly seen color-value; but a line

a line represent?

It

depicts something

is

lines in nature,"

becomes evident when

means

deduced from sensations.

length, a line represents

length taken from directly sensed phenomena. The line

full is

meaning

an abstraction of

of that old truism, "There

understood as a symbol

length measurement). Line

from

the direct visible sensation of qualities (color, value, texture, shape).

symbol

it is

is

a

to give identity to

for position or location in space, will

less obvious, generally

an implied but

for quantity

space (length) separate

(i.e.,

a

drawn

not a record of direct visual sensation.

Since the defining characteristic of a line

no

color,

not a reproduction of another line seen on a form.) Line, in observational

What, then, does

are

(i.e.,

not a representation of a sense impression in the direct sense that

(One can record on paper or canvas

on paper

"qualitative" possibilities.

not apparent in the immediate act of drawing. The seeming

stated as point

is

its

and the "secondarily" deduced

an independent abstraction represented

represents. Line

of

between the immediate visual perception of "qualities"

texture, shape, substance)

as

of line in

be discussed in detail

critically essential factor in

later.

(The point, as

As

a symbol,

drawing. The point

establishes position; line defines length.)

11

Length and position are the basis of an forms. All else

intelligible

and give meaning

of sense experience, qualities that amplify

secure abstract underpinning of spatial order, forms

unrelated superficialities

Line of a form.

— an incoherent pattern of

often viewed as an edge, but line

is

To consider

merely as an edge

line

function as

measurement

an edge

to substitute

is

space representation in drawing

embellishment. The embellishments are important. They are the specifics

is

is

may be

(as a container of quantity).

one abstraction

for another.

detached from the surfaces of which they are

a part.

become an

as "detached edges," they have, indeed,

shade, shape, and texture.

light,

not the simple equivalent of the margin

to leave unidentified its

is

But without a

to forms.

dissipated into meaningless,

major significant

Furthermore, to equate line with

Edges cannot,

When

themselves, be

in

they are mentally identified

abstraction.

In observational drawing, a "seen" three-dimensional quantity, as

undergoes a perceptual modification. Perspective

— length as

visual extent

by

tively altered

poles) each of the 1-1

relates to the

It is

an abstraction,

a factor. Obviously, in observed forms,

dimension of depth

(i.e.,

distance)

—

perspec-

is

not an "actual" measured length. Columns (or telephone

same length

space from the viewer

are perspectively diminished in size as they recede in

Or, an

[1-1].

arm

projecting toward the observer might have a

visually foreshortened length of ten inches

when

What should be

is

distinguished, however,

its

actual

measurement

is

thirty inches.

the attribute being abstracted, a length of

space that equals the observed extent of a form.

1-1

Detail from Interior of St. Paul Outside the Walls

Space, in observed forms,

(engraving) by G.B. Piranesi. (Collection: the author.

it

vision.

is

Photograph by Jonathan Goell.)

The columns and figures are seen in perspective. The forms visually are reduced in size in a receding space. The major converging perspective lines meet at the column supporting the left side of the

moved from

an abstraction of visually measured dimensions

is

re-

perceived reality and held in mind as a relationship. These momentarily

separated spatial attributes (height, width, and depth),

when

viewed as an open transparent framework of the essential

identified, can then

be

spatial aspects of simple or

complex material bodies. In figure drawing, quantitative extension

an ab-

(length), as

arch.

straction

from

human

form,

may be measured from

the significant limits of major organic

anatomic structures (the length of the leg from knee

By viewing forms

to ankle, for example).

as visually measurable quantities (dimensions), those immediately

perceived and insistent sensuous qualities (color, value, shape, and texture) are set on a second,

more manageable

The concept

level.

dimensional spatial quantity then becomes the In actual

seen (sensed)

drawing

first is set

second, and what

drawn. For example, the guidelines the ing.

first

things observed)

The

fact that a

of spatial in

[1-2].

This

may

measure and sensuously

may

(texturally)

out: line as space

second. (Line, primarily a symbol of length,

value and texture.) The fact that so

first

things

contain, in a few

the

What

first

is

thing

(but are not

strokes, a synthesis

embellished line does not

(i.e.,

length)

comes

may be adorned with

much

pen

alter the

order

comes

line quality

first;

implied qualities, usually

discussion of drawing revolves around line

symbol

for

quan-

measurement.

Line as quantity (length) and line as quality (texture, value,

combined in

is

drawn

quality should not obscure the underlying essential function of line as a titative

three-

not seem directly apparent in a completed draw-

sketch by Rembrandt

which these are thought

direct perception.

deduced secondarily

is

drawing are the

in a

and independent

aspect of form to consider.

one reverses the order of

practice,

down

of a separate

first

in

etc.) are

generally

the drawing experience by veteran draftsmen and expressed as a synthesis

drawing. There are, however, drawings in which a severe limitation

is

made

— prep-

aratory sketches restricted almost exclusively to quantitative relationships (the guidelines in a

drawing). In figure drawing, a graphic illustration of nearly unencumbered observed

dimensional measurement

is

the

pen study

Lc Joueur de Flageolet

conceived as a "spatial" construct rather than a volumetric is

12

important.

As

a functional,

preparatory drawing

it

by Jacques

(solid) one.

contains the bare

The

Villon.

It is

distinction

minimum

of sen-

1-2

Le loueur de Flageolet (pen and ink, c. 193^39) by Jacques Villon. (Collection: Mr. and Mrs. Irving M. Sobin, Boston. Photograph by Kalman Zabarsky.)

measures the space of a form but does not describe the inner surface of a volume-an important distinction in drawing. Transparent alignments of vertical, horizontal, and diagonal directions limit the area of space to be filled by forms. This is a function of guidelines in a drawing. In this spatial study, line

13

i

suous description, tone, or texture.

A

"transparent" construct in which line functions within a firm scheme

and diagonals,

of verticals, horizontals, Its

penmanship has no

active

illustrates the

of a

statement unadorned by the sentient appeal of modeling,

a spatial

more

specific textural focus

(i.e.,

and

size, direction,

wood,

cloth,

etc.). It

position.

graphically

primacy of space (measured space) as that which precedes the development

substantial volumetric modeling.

plan, a visible scaffold of open,

and finished

drawing measures

this

measured

As

a prelimit^ary drawing,

structure, eventually

it

offers a

diagramed

developed into an elaborate

etching.

Observational drawing in

hand space measurement.

visual-spatial aspects

its

In this respect,

it

essentially a process of free-

is

has a clear relation to geometry and per-

spective.

PERSPECTIVE Quantity

AND

SPACE

length) as a visually abstractable spatial concept

(i.e.,

in depth. In the visual arts,

is

related to perception

has been given diagrammatic identity by the science of

it

linear perspective. Artificial linear perspective presents the possibility of representing

depth on

a

two-dimensional surface

and (vanishing)

points.

in a simplified

schematic fashion, employing lines

deals with forms in space as perceived by the eye (forms reduced

It

in size, the greater the distance

from the observer).

Perspective, as a pure theoretical construct, does not concern itself with qualities.

A

pure outline drawing of

house

a

substance, color, texture, value

in linear perspective offers

—in

a

word, no evidence of

Formal perspective theory, as an aid

to

that

it

of

material

its

sensible qualities.

drawing, has dealt adequately only with

very regular geometric forms and form relationships.

but

no evidence

its visible,

It is

related to freehand drawing,

has not been convincingly linked to figure drawing and complex anatomy in a

is

functionally useful. (See the reference to Jean Cousin in chapter

the symbols of geometric perspective

on freehand form structure any degree

The

that

— the plane, the

of vital

is

consequence

if

vision in

2,

— have

drawing

is

a

to

40.)

way Yet

bearing

develop

of sophistication.

principle of space structure as the visually

and depth (within

a form), while easily

carelessly confused with light of intricate

and the point

line,

page

human anatomy.

grasped

measured

in theory,

is

location of height, width,

widely ignored

and shade, and lainentably misunderstood Since

it

in practice,

in the context

can be masked in an infinite variety of ways by

complex anatomic and visual phenomena,

its

discovery within forms requires close ex-

amination. Historically, the principle of three-dimensional structure derived

geometry T he Rout of San R omano by Paolo (Courtesy: The National Gallery, Lon-

Detail from Uccello.

(i.e.,

in his life of

1-3

perspective)

Masaccio

foreshortening) to

(c.

draw

is

from descriptive

the cornerstone of early Renaissance pictorial space. Vasari,

1401-1428), observes

figures standing

flat

on

how

was the

first

(through

their feet, correcting the old

medieval

this artist

don.)

manner

This early Renaissance example of foreshortening in the human figure shows the influence of per-

foreshorten forms coincided with his learning in formal perspective, discovered and com-

spective. 1-4

The Dead

Christ (oil) by Andrea Mantegna. (Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan.)

This welI-l