HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Project Directors:
Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil Prof Dr Widad Othman Open University Malaysia
Module Writer:
Prof Dr John Arul Phillips Open University Malaysia
Adapted by:
Teh Lai Ling Open University Malaysia
Developed by:
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia
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First Edition, October 2010 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2011, HPGD1103 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
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Table of Contents Course Guide Course Assignment Guide
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Topic 1
What is Curriculum? 1.1 Definitions of Curriculum 1.2 The Hidden Curriculum 1.3 Curriculum Approaches 1.3.1 Curriculum as Content 1.3.2 Curriculum as Product 1.3.3 Curriculum as Process 1.4 Foundations of Curriculum 1.5 Curriculum Development 1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline 1.7 Curriculum and Instruction Summary Key Terms References
1 4 7 8 8 9 11 12 14 15 16 18 18 19
Topic 2
Philosopical Foundations of Curriculum 2.1 What is Philosophy? 2.2 Philosophy of Education 2.3 Philosophy and Curriculum 2.4 Perennialism 2.4.1 What is Perennialism? 2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum 2.5 Essentialism 2.5.1 What is Essentialism? 2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum 2.6 Progressivism 2.6.1 What is Progressivism? 2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum 2.7 Reconstructionism 2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? 2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum 2.8 Abu Nasr Al-Farabi 2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education 2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum
20 22 23 23 25 25 25 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 33 35 35 36
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2.9
Confucius 2.9.1 Confucius on Education 2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum 2.10 Rabindranath Tagore 2.10.1 Tagore on Education 2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum Summary Key Terms References
38 38 39 40 40 41 42 43 44
Topic 3
Pyschological Foundations of Curriculum 3.1 Understanding Learning 3.2 Behaviourism 3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) 3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980) 3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 ă Present) 3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom 3.3 Cognitivism 3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach 3.3.2 Meaningful Learning 3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development 3.3.4 Metacognition 3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom 3.4 Constructivism 3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction Of Knowledge 3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity 3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom 3.5 Humanism 3.5.1 Abraham Maslow 3.5.2 Carl Rogers 3.5.3 Arthur Combs 3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom Summary Key Terms References
45 47 48 49 49 50 52 53 53 54 56 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 65 66 66 67 69 70 70
Topic 4
Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 4.1 Society and Curriculum 4.2 Changing Economy and Curriculum 4.3 The Changing Family Institution and Curriculum 4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 4.5 Special Interest Groups and Curriculum
72 75 77 78 79 80
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Knowledge that is Most Worth Evolution of Curriculum 4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School Curriculum 4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School Curriculum Summary Key Terms References
82 83 84 89 94 94 95
Topic 5
Curriculum Planning 5.1 The Curriculum Development Process 5.2 Models of Curriculum Development 5.2.1 The Tyler Model 5.2.2 The Taba Model 5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model 5.3 Goals of Education 5.4 Levels of Goals 5.4.1 Educational Philosophy 5.4.2 Education Goals 5.4.3 Curriculum Goals 5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives 5.4.5 Instructional Goals 5.4.6 Instructional Objectives 5.5 Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 5.6 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 5.6.1 Cognitive Domain 5.6.2 Affective Domain 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain Summary Key Terms References
96 97 98 98 101 103 105 106 107 109 110 110 112 112 113 114 115 116 117 119 119 120
Topic 6
Curriculum Design 6.1 What Is Curriculum Design? 6.2 Content Selection 6.2.1 What is Content? 6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? 6.2.3 How Should Content Be Selected? 6.3 Principles of Content Organisation 6.3.1 Scope 6.3.2 Sequence 6.3.3 Integration
122 124 125 125 125 126 127 127 128 129
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.6 4.7
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Topic 7
Topic 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.3.4 Continuity 6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum 6.4 Selection of Learning Experiences 6.4.1 What Are Learning Experiences? 6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences 6.5 Curriculum Designs 6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs 6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs 6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs Summary Key Terms References
130 131 132 132 133 134 136 138 141 143 143 144
Curriculum Implementation 7.1 What is Curriculum Implementation? 7.2 Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process 7.3 Types of Curriculum Change 7.4 Resistance to Change 7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation in Indonesia 7.6 Individuals Involved in Curriculum Implementation 7.6.1 Teachers 7.6.2 Students 7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters 7.6.4 Parents 7.7 Case Study: England' National Curriculum for Secondary Schools 7.8 Implementing Curriculum in The classroom Summary Key Terms References
146 149 150 152 153
Curriculum Evaluation 8.1 Curriculum Evaluation 8.2 Formative and Summative Evaluation 8.2.1 Formative Evaluation 8.2.2 Summative Evaluation 8.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models 8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model) 8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools
170 172 173 173 174 175
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8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model 8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model 8.4 Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 8.5 Instrumentation for Curriculum Evaluation 8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists 8.5.2 Interviews 8.5.3 Observations 8.5.4 Documents 8.6 Case Study: Evaluation of a Mathematics Curriculum in South Africa Key Terms References
179 180 183 183 184 184 185 185
Topic 9
Curriculum Issues and Trends 9.1 Some Challenges 9.1.1 Information Age 9.1.2 Changing Workplace 9.1.3 Influence of the Media 9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process 9.2 Curriculum Issues 9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum For the Gifted 9.2.2 Compensatory Education Summary Key Terms References
191 193 194 195 195 195 196 196 198 200 200 201
Topic 10
Fiture Directions 10.1 Character Education 10.2 Performance Assessment 10.3 Retooling Schools for the Future 10.3.1 Schools for All 10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School 10.3.3 Personalised Schools 10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools Summary Key Terms References
202 202 203 207 208 211 214 215 216 217 217
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
COURSE GUIDE
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COURSE GUIDE
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Table of Contents Welcome to HPGD1103
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What is this Course All About? Description of the Course Objectives of the Course
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How Can You Get the Most from this Course? Learning Package Course Synopsis Organisation of Course Content
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How Will You be Assessed? Assessment Format
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What Forms of Support Will You Get in Studying the Course? Seminars MyVLE Online Discussion Facilitator Library Resources Learner Connexxions
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Final Remarks
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COURSE GUIDE
WELCOME TO HPGD1103 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Welcome to HPGD1103 Curriculum Development. This is one of the required courses for the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching programme at Open University Malaysia. You are encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher, instructor, lecturer or trainer to relate to the concepts and principles that will be discussed. This is a 3-credit course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.
WHAT IS THE COURSE ALL ABOUT Description of the Course Educators are often faced with the task of conceptualising and developing different types of curriculum for various levels of education. An understanding of the development process would be useful for those involved in such activities. The course explores the various definitions of curriculum, followed by discussion on how philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societal demands and the legacy of history impact the curriculum. Next, the curriculum development process is discussed with particular emphasis on curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. Finally, the course focuses on the issues and future trends in curriculum development in the context of todayÊs dynamic society.
Objectives of the Course The course aims to develop an understanding of the following areas: 1.
Compare, apply and disseminate the various definitions of curriculum;
2.
Explain and formulate how philosophy, psychology, history and society impact curriculum;
3.
Elaborate the four phases of the curriculum development process, namely; planning, design, implementation and evaluation as well as describe the phase that is most related to teaching and learning;
4.
Evaluate the issues of curriculum development;
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5.
Apply curriculum concepts, principles and theories to the teaching and learning environment; and
6.
Demonstrate an ability to communicate ideas in written form.
HOW CAN YOU GET THE MOST OUT FROM THIS COURSE? Learning Package In this Learning Package, you are provided with THREE sets of course materials: 1.
The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;
2.
The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be submitted and the examination you have to sit for); and
3.
The Course Content (consisting of 10 topics).
Please ensure that you have all of these materials at the start of the course.
Course Synopsis This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as follows: Topic 1 examines different definitions of curriculum, what is the hidden curriculum, approaches in viewing curriculum and a brief introduction to the curriculum development process. Topic 2 analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism) and how they influence curriculum. Topic 3 evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism and constructivism) and how they influence curriculum. Topic 4 explores how societal forces and demands (culture, work, technology and globalisation) influence curriculum. The curriculum of the United States and Japan are examined to show how curriculum has changed over time. Topic 5 compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba, Alexander and Saylor and the tasks involved at different levels of curriculum planning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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COURSE GUIDE
Topic 6 examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility, learnability, feasibility and utility), the principles of content organisation (sequence, scope, integration and balance) and models of curriculum design (subject-matter, learner-centred and problem-centred). Topic 7 discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the categories of curriculum change, the resistance to change, why people resist change and the role and responsibilities of people involved in curriculum implementation. Topic 8 compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes Countenance model and Eisner's Connoisseurship model) and the techniques of data collection for decision making. Topic 9 critically evaluates different curriculum issues such as the impact of globalisation, the knowledge economy, national unity and citizenship education. Topic 10 focuses on character curriculum suggest possible scenarios of future in determining the curriculum.
Organisation of Course Content In distance learning, a print module such as this replaces the university lecturer. This is one of the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed study allows you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what to read, when to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask you questions in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at appropriate points. To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are combined into a visually appealing, easy-to-read module. Throughout the course contents, diagrams, illustrations, tables and charts are used to reinforce important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has adopted the following features in each topic:
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LEARNING OUTCOMES This is a listing of what you should be able to do after successful completion of a topic. In other words, whether you are be able to explain, compare, evaluate, distinguish, list, describe, relate and so forth. You should use these indicators to guide your study. When you have finished a topic, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the learning outcomes or be able to do what is required of you. If you make a habit of doing this, you will improve your chances of understanding the contents of the course.
INTRODUCTION Lists the headings and sub-headings of each topic to provide an overview of the contents of the topic and prepare you for the major concepts to be studied and learned.
ACTIVITY These are situations drawn from research projects to show how knowledge of the principles of research methodology may be applied to real-world situations. The activities illustrate key points and concepts dealt with in each topic.
SELF-CHECK Questions are interspersed at strategic points in the topic to encourage review of what you have just read and retention of recently learned material. The answers to these questions are found in the paragraphs before the questions. This is to test immediately whether you understand the few paragraphs of text you have read. Working through these tests will help you determine whether you understand the topic and prepare you for the assignments and the examination.
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COURSE GUIDE
The main ideas of each topic are listed in brief sentences to provide a review of the content. You should ensure that you understand every statement listed. If you do not, go back to the topic and find out what you do not know.
At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in OUMÊs Digital Library which you can access and OUMÊs Library. Also, relevant internet resources are made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.
HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED? Assessment Format Pleas refer to myVLE.
WHAT FORMS OF SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING THE COURSE? Seminars There are 15 hours of seminars or face-to-face interaction supporting the course. This consists of or FIVE tutorial sessions of 3 hours each. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the names and phone number of your facilitator, as soon as you are allocated into a tutorial group.
MyVLE Online Discussion Besides the face-to-face tutorial sessions, you have the support of online discussions. You should interact with other students and your facilitator using MyVLE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance your Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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understanding of course content, how to go about doing the assignment and preparation for the examinations.
Facilitator Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the seminar sessions or online if:
You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned readings.
You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities.
You have a question or problem with the assignments.
Library Resources The Digital Library has a large collection of books and journals which you can access using your student ID.
Learner Connexxions This online bulletin provides interesting and relevant information to help you along the programme. There are can be useful study hints and you can read about the experiences of other distant learners.
FINAL REMARKS Once again, welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you should try at all times relate what you are studying with the real-world of classrooms, schools and learners. Look at the environment in your institution and ask yourself whether they provide opportunities for research. Most of the ideas, concepts and principles you learn in this course have practical applications. It is important to realise that much we do in education and training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The contents of this course provide the principles for doing research in education whether it is in a school, college, university or training organisation. We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting, useful and relevant towards your development as a professional.
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COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
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Table of Contents Introduction
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Academic Writing (a) Plagiarism? What is Plagiarism? How Can You Avoid Plagiarism?
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(b)
Documenting Sources Ć Direct Ć Indirect
xxiii xxiii xxiii
(c)
Referencing Ć Journal Ć Online Journal Ć Webpage Ć Book Ć Article in a Book Ć Printed Newspaper
xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv xxiv
Details about Assignments Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA) General Criteria for Assessment of FMA
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COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
INTRODUCTION The Assignment Guide provides an outline on how you will be assessed in this course during the semester. It contains details of the Facilitator-marked assignments, final examination and participation required for the course. One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students and facilitators should have the same information about the answers to be assessed. Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in assessing your work. Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.
ACADEMIC WRITING (a)
Plagiarism (i)
What is Plagiarism? Any written assignment (essays, projects, take-home examinations, etc.) submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities, knowledge, or amount of work contributed by the student. There are many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:
Paraphrases:
The student paraphrases a closely reasoned argument of an author without acknowledging that he or she has done so. (Clearly, all our knowledge is derived from somewhere, but detailed arguments from clearly identifiable sources must be acknowledged.)
Outright plagiarism:
Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other sources, and are not acknowledged as quotations.
Other sources:
Often include essays written by other students or sold by unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers is perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and the source is cited.
Works by others:
Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works produced by another without giving proper acknowledgement. Works include photographs, charts, graphs, drawings, statistics, video-clips, audio-clips, verbal exchanges such as interviews or lectures, performances on television and texts printed on the web.
Duplication:
The student submits the same essay to two or more courses. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(b)
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How Can you Avoid Plagiarism? Insert quotation marks around Âcopy and pasteÊ clause, phrase, sentence, paragraph and cite the original source.
Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own words and cite your source.
Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when writing out the bibliography or reference page.
Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent of information from anotherÊs original works.
Educate yourself on what may be considered as common knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright (legally protected).
Documenting Sources Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise, or otherwise refer to the work of another, you are required to cite its source parenthetical documentation. Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of material.
Direct
Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that children will use it. In order for such skills to become part of day-today behaviour, they must be cultivated in an environment that value and sustains them. „Just as childrenÊs musical skills will likely lay fallow in an environment that doesnÊt encourage music, learnerÊs thinking skills tend to languish in a culture that doesnÊt encourage thinking‰ (Tishman, Perkins & Jay, 1995, p.5)
Indirect
According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of the 21st century will be information anxiety, which has been defined as the ever-widening gap between what one understands and what one thinks one should understand.
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(c)
COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
Referencing All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference section at the end of your paper. HereÊs how you should do your Reference.
Journal
DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal: Educational Leadership, 59(8), 12-15.
Online Journal
Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the connection between rationality and logical ability [Electronic version]. Mind, 110, 335-367.
Webpage
National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham Lincoln birthplace national historic site. Retrieved February 13, 2003, from http://www.nps.gov/abli/
Book
Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000. London: Pan Books.
Article in a Book
Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron & R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 27-37.
Printed Newspaper
Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A1, A22-A23.
DETAILS ABOUT ASSIGNMENTS Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA) You will be able to complete the assignment from the information and materials contained in your suggested readings and module. However, it is desirable at graduate-level education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using a variety of references will give you a broader perspective and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed the assignment, submit it to your facilitator. Make sure that your assignment reaches the facilitator on or before the deadline.
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General Criteria for Assessment of FMA In general, your facilitator will be expecting you to write clearly, using correct spelling (please use your spell checker) and grammar. Your facilitator will be looking for the following:
(i)
That you have critically thought about issues raised in the course.
(ii)
That you have considered and appreciated different points of view, including those in the course.
(iii) That you give your own views and opinions. (iv) That you state your argument clearly with supporting evidence and proper referencing of sources.
(v)
That you have drawn on your own experiences.
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1
X
What is Curriculum?
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this chapter, you be able to: 1. Define what is curriculum; 2. Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different scholars; 3. Explain what is hidden curriculum; 4. Differentiate between the three approaches to curriculum; 5. Identify the foundations of curriculum; 6. Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction; 7. Describe the curriculum development process; and 8. Argue whether curriculum is a discipline.
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X TOPIC 1
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
X INTRODUCTION
NEWS PAPER HEADLINES • • • • • • • • •
„Homework should be made more meaningful‰ „Students canÊt read properly after 11 years of schooling‰ „Students are bored with studying the same thing each year‰ „Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses because too much time is spent on co-curricular activities‰ „Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is in the curriculum, considering it a waste of time‰ „Thinking skills of students need to be developed‰ „Parents passing the responsibility of educating their children to teachers‰ „Sports is being neglected in schools‰ „Environmental education should be taught‰
You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and magazines. These headlines are an indication of societyÊs concern with what is going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered that a curriculum is contract between society and those in power stating how its Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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next generation of young people will be educated. Hence the general public have a right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens. As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing their views on various issues regarding what are schools doing and what is taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society ever come to a consensus on what it wants schools to do. Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery of the facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system. Whether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals acquire while in school, there is no denying that curriculum affects us all. Curriculum is the concern of everyone, whether they are teachers, academics, students, parents, politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or the person on the street.
ACTIVITY 1.1 1.
Discuss any 3 headlines listed above that you agree with. Why?
2.
Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you have you come across?
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X TOPIC 1
1.1
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
Just like most things in education, there is no agreed upon definition of ÂcurriculumÊ. The word originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which Roman chariots raced (see picture). The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational institution or by a department while The Oxford English Dictionary defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means different things to different people. Most people, including educators equate curriculum with the syllabus (Do you agree?) while a few regard curriculum as all the teaching-learning experiences a student encounters while in school. Since the early 20th century when Franklin Bobbitt dubbed the Father of Curriculum wrote his book The Curriculum in 1918, various theoreticians and practitioners have proposed definitions of curriculum. Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as „the planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learnersÊ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence‰ (p.13). Ć
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
Ć
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Ć
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
Summary of Various Interpretations of Curriculum Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć Ć
Ć
Ć
Curriculum is: that which is taught in school a set of subjects content a programme of studies a set of materials sequence of courses a set of performance objectives a course of study everything that goes on within a school everything that is planned by school personnel that which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school a series of experiences undergone by learners in school that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling
Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown & Company. 1982. p. 5
Ć
Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Ć
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
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X TOPIC 1
Ć
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes „all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice‰ (p.5).
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
SELF-CHECK 1.1 1.
Identify the FIVE common features of a curriculum mentioned in most of the definitions given by scholars in the field (exclude Peter Oliva).
2.
Select SIX interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Peter Oliva which you think gives a comprehensive definition of curriculum.
Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, donÊt be! It is not necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies, political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would difficult to implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a consensus that it is a statement: Ć
of what students should know (knowledge or content),
Ć
be able to do (skills),
Ć
how it is taught (instruction),
Ć
how it is measured (assessment), and
Ć
and how the educational system is organised (context).
It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge, skills, behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of events that a student acquires through education and training. How we conceive of the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on the education made available to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our assumptions about the world (Cornbleth, 1990).
1.2
THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM
You may have heard of the phrase „hidden curriculum‰. What is it? The phrase hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Philip Jackson in his book Life in Classrooms written in 1968. He drew attention to the idea that schools did more than simply transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Students learn things that are not actually taught in the formal curriculum. It could be viewed as the entire range of educational experiences promoted by schools and teachers through practices that are not necessarily written down. As pointed out by Doll (1992), „every school has a planned, formal acknowledged curriculum, but there is also has an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be considered‰ (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned, informal curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students, teachers and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and behaviours If we only consider the planned curriculum, the official curriculum stated in a written document, we ignore both the numerous positive and negative consequences that can result from the planned curriculum. Oftentimes, we fail to realise the power of the hidden curriculum, which may not be written but will certainly be learned by students. For example, they learn even without being formally taught: Ć
about „the rules of the game‰ in the school canteen, in the playground, in the corridors of the school and so forth,
Ć
the specific relationships between senior and junior students, between male and female students, cliques of students,
Ć
how order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual teachers interpret the behaviour of students, and
Ć
the way teachers and principals or headmaster have different expectations of students based on interpretations of behaviour in class.
The hidden curriculum involves learning such things as how to respond to and cope with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how deal Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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with boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations of teachers and their peers.
SELF-CHECK 1.2 1.
What is the hidden curriculum?
2.
Why is the hidden curriculum important in education?
3.
Give examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated in the text.
1.3
CURRICULUM APPROACHES
If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three ways of approaching a curriculum (see Figure 1.1). First is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is practiced.
1.3.1
Curriculum as Content
It is quite common for people to equate a curriculum with the syllabus which is a concise document listing the topics of a subject. If you have experience in preparing students for national examinations, you will be familiar with such documents. What do they contain? Perhaps, a list of topics, the concepts to be mastered and some suggestions on how the topics are to be taught. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum will consist of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and so forth. A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or the order in which they are to be studied. But, there is tendency for teachers to follow the sequence prescribed in the syllabus. In most cases teachers follow the logical structure of selected textbooks simply because the textbooks have been written to match closely the syllabus. For example, in secondary school geography involving the study of countries or regions, textbooks tend to begin with physical geography such as relief, climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth. It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or 'delivered' to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is equated Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.
Figure 1.1: Approaches to curriculum
SELF-CHECK 1.3 1.
What do you mean when curriculum is approached as content?
2.
Why is it a common approach of viewing curriculum?
1.3.2
Curriculum as Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, what is it that is desired of students having been taught using a curriculum. Franklin Bobbitt (1918) in his book The Curriculum, stated that; Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularised. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (p: 42). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs („the abilities,
attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need‰ according to Bobbitt). Curriculum should not to be the result of 'armchair speculation' but the result of systematic study of society. The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares BobbittÊs approach to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of education is to bring about significant changes in students' pattern of behaviour [We will examine TylerÊs view in more detail in Chapter 5]. It is important that any statement of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results evaluated. In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units („numerous, definite and particularise⁄series of experiences which children and youth must have ‰ according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined. SELF-CHECK 1.4 1.
How is curriculum as product different from curriculum as
content? 2.
What should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to Bobbitt and Tyler?
3.
How are these objectives to be derived?
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ACTIVITY 1.2 Criticisms of the „Curriculum as Product‰ Approach There are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as product approach. The first is that the curriculum can become too technical and sequential. The tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside the learning experiences which takes much away from learners and end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of a curriculum is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the curriculum is closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators into technicians. Also, since the approach emphasises measurability, it implies that behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here; there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
1.
To what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the curriculum as product approach?
2.
What are some advantages of this approach?
1.3.3
Curriculum as Process
We have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to be transmitted while curriculum as product approach is focussed on the setting of instructional or behavioural objectives. Another way of looking at curriculum is via process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. It is what actually happens in the classroom such as the questions asked by the teacher, the learning activities students engage in and so forth. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occurs. Stenhouse (1975), used the analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook which teachers translate into practice in the classroom. Like a recipe it can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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According to the process approach curriculum is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is seen as a laboratory in which the teacher is like a scientist who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. The teacher translates an educational idea into a hypothesis that is tested in the classroom. It involves critical testing rather than acceptance. The focus is on finding out those processes which enhance (if it is successful) or hinder (if it goes wrong) a personÊs learning. So, the curriculum is not a finished product but rather the proposed educational ideas that have to been verified in the classroom by teachers. So, you may not know what you are going to get and may differ from what has been specified in the curriculum document [ÂLife is like a box of chocolates, you never know what youÊre gonna to getÊ ă Forest Gump]. This differs from the product approach where the desired behaviours have been pre-determined or more or less fixed and applies to all learners. The process approach to curriculum treats the learners are not as objects to be acted upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions. The focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the other hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory and practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and meaning-making.
1.4
FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Debate is still continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Despite this lack of consensus, it has not hindered institutions, school districts, states and nations continually developing and improving curriculum in schools, colleges, universities and training organisations. Imagine what would have happened if we had to wait for an agreed upon definition of curriculum. The design and development of curriculum is a team effort involving curriculum planners, curriculum developers, teachers, academicians, education officers, administrators, community members and may others. They decide the goals of the curriculum, what content to include, how it should be organised, suggest how it should be taught and how to determine whether efforts have been successful. To help them make these decisions, they have turned to philosophy, psychology, sociology and history. These have been accepted as the foundations of a curriculum [We shall discuss the influence of these disciplines in detail in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 respectively]. These disciplines have produced a vast amount of knowledge that provide guidelines for people interested in developing curriculum. For example, from Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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philosophy has evolved numerous beliefs as on how people should be educated and what knowledge is worthwhile. These beliefs have provided curriculum developers with guidelines on how they should go about designing curriculum. From psychology, various perspectives on how humans learn have been proposed. This knowledge is of great significance since a curriculum is a plan on what individuals are supposed to learn. Decades of research have provided insight into the human psyche which curriculum developers have tapped into to guide decisions on how a body of content is to be taught and acquired at different levels of human development. The disciplines of sociology, economics, culture, and politics provide an insight into society. A curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and desires. [Refer to the newspaper headlines listed at the beginning of the chapter]. The community plays an important role in influencing what is taught in the classroom. Finally, many curriculum plans are an evolution from earlier times and curriculum developers refer to historical events to better understand the decisions made at different points of time. It provides a background for better understanding present day curriculum development efforts [We will examine the curriculum of early American and Japan in Chapter 4 to understand how and why curriculum changes with the evolution of society]. ACTIVITY 1.3 Problems with the „Curriculum as Process Approach‰ •
Teachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this approach problematic because the focus is on the learner. So there will be different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual needs.
•
Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of a learner.
•
Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning takes place and so some students might be disadvantaged.
•
Teachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have to believe that learning is the making of meaning and construction of knowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of education, then the process approach will not succeed.
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14 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
1.
To what extent do you agree with the problems with the „Curriculum as Process Approach‰?
2.
Do you think the curriculum as process approach would be easier to implement if there were no centrally controlled or national examinations?
3.
What is the main difference between the curriculum as product and curriculum as process approachÊ? Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education.www.infed.org/biblio/b-urric.htm.
1.5
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and procedures. Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. [We will discuss each
phase in detail in Chapter 5, 6, 7 and 8. If you were to specialise in curriculum, then each of these phases would be taught as a separate course by itself]. The phases of the process provide us with guideposts and structure to clarify our thinking. The phases can be graphically or pictorially illustrated and are conceived in technical terms ă with the assumption that one must be knowledgeable of the process to fully appreciate and understand. DonÊt worry! By the end of Chapter 8, you will fully understand the technical terms associated with each of these phases of curriculum development. Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves decisions about the philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having decided on the philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived which are later translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught. The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of content, and the selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues that have to be resolved is deciding Âwhat knowledge is of most worthÊ, Âhow should the content be organised to maximise learningÊ. The third phase is curriculum implementation in the classroom setting. It involves getting people to practice the ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the necessary resources, training and encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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the ideas of the curriculum have been successful. It involves identification of factors that have hindered implementation as well as success stories; and most important whether students have benefited from the programme.
1.6
CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE
Can curriculum be considered a discipline just like sociology, economics, biology or political science? Graduate students have been taking courses in curriculum planning, curriculum evaluation, primary school curriculum and so forth in various universities. Many graduate schools of education offer doctoral specialisations in curriculum and instruction, better known as ÂC&IÊ. To arrive at a decision as to whether an area of study is a discipline, one must first ask the question, ÂWhat are the characteristics of a discipline?Ê.If we know the characteristics of a discipline, than maybe we can decide if ÂcurriculumÊ is a discipline. According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following characteristics: •
A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles.
•
A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that discipline.
•
A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.
The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term ÂcurriculumÊ itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school, universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope, sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles, knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational setting. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
16 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers and so forth who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are wellversed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failure), curriculum planning and how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be
more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe not!] SELF-CHECK 1.5 1.
Why do curriculum developers rely on the knowledge and skills of other discipline?
2.
How would you justify the field of curriculum to be a discipline?
1.7
CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Now that you have an idea of what is a curriculum; what is the relationship between curriculum and instruction? Simply put, curriculum is what to be taught while instruction is how it is taught. The relationship between curriculum and instruction is a partnership. We may think of the curriculum as a plan stipulating the content to be taught along with the learning experiences to be included. Instruction may be thought of as methodology, the teaching act and assessing of achievement. In other words, it is putting into practice what has been planned. Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is hierarchical, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate entity but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations, curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular relationship, called the circular model (see Figure 1.2c). Curriculum makes a continuous impact on instruction and similarly instruction impacts on curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process is continues, repeated and never-ending.
Figure 1.2: Curriculum and instruction relationship Source: Peter Oliva, Developing the curriculum. 1982. Boston: Little Brown & Co. pp.12-13
Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners. Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
18 X TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
•
Curriculum is a statement of what students should know, be able to do, how it is taught, how it is measured, and how the educational system is organised.
•
Curriculum can be approached as content (knowledge, skills and values), product (desired learning outcomes) and process (interactions in the classroom).
•
Curriculum development is a process involving planning, designing, implementation and evaluation.
•
Curriculum can be considered a discipline because it has an organised set of theoretical principles, it includes a body of knowledge and skills and has its theoreticians and its practitioners.
•
The relationship between curriculum and instruction is interdependent, continuous, repeated and never-ending.
Curriculum Curriculum and instruction Curriculum as a discipline Curriculum as: • content • product • process
Curriculum development • dualistic model • cyclical model • concentric model • Hidden curriculum
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1.
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
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Write down your definition of curriculum. (a)
What does your definition of curriculum include?
(b)
Does it include a process? . . a product? . . materials for teaching? . . . an approach to education and methods of instruction that fosters certain values and attitudes?
(c)
Compare your definition with the definitions given by scholars in the field. How similar or different is yours?
2.
„The curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action‰. What do you understand by these statement?
3.
„The curriculum is too examination-oriented and children are deprived of their childhood‰. Discuss.
4.
„An over-loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers. Increasingly, teachers are feeling that there is not enough time to cover all the traditional material being put into the curriculum‰. (a)
To what extent do you agree?
(b)
Suggest solutions to overcome the problem.
Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary]. Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London: Routledge. Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [available at eBrary] Ornstein, A. & Hunkins F. (1998), Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 1: The field of curriculum. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopaedia of informal education,www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
The hidden curriculum. www.sociology.org.uk/tece1tl.htm. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic
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2
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define what is philosophy; 2. Define what is educational philosophy; 3. Compare the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism; 4. Explain the influence of the four educational philosophies on curriculum; 5. List the main features of the educational philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and Tagore; and 6. Discuss the implications of the philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and Tagore on curriculum.
X INTRODUCTION
In topic 1, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process and the relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this topic and the following two topics, we will examine in greater detail the foundations of Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 2
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
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curriculum. In other words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced curriculum. A curriculum is developed based on certain beliefs and orientations, conceptions of learning and the demands of society. In this topic, we will focus on the philosophical beliefs that influence curriculum and in Topic 3 we will focus on the psychological perspectives that impact curriculum. In Topic 4 we will discuss the role of society in determining what is to be included in a curriculum as well as the legacy of significant historical events. 'Consult Private Sector on Curriculum' Kuala Lumpur, Sat-The Prime Minister wants education officials to consult the private sector when drawing curriculum for secondary and tertiary level education to produce the right people for the job market. Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said that private sectorÊs manpower needs and future trends would allow adjustments to be made to the current curriculum.
"Consultation to get views of the private sector should be for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia-level and onwards (Year 11 onwards). This approach is important because of the rapid and dynamic industrial development taking shape. We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation building". Abdullah said after opening the twoday second Malay Education Congress today.
The curriculum must see that those entering the work market after completing their secondary education, diploma or degree courses are equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs, he added. Source: New Straits Times, March, 27, 2005
ACTIVITY 2.1 Read the newspaper report on ÂConsult Private Sector on CurriculumÊ 1.
What do you understand by the phrase "equipped with knowledge that is useful to the nature of their jobs"? Give specific examples.
2.
"We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by industries for nation building". To what extent do you agree that this should be the role and functions of schools and universities?
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2.1
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
LetÊs begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek word "philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom) which translated means "love of wisdom". Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about the world seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers. For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality, goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions philosophers ask are: •
What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
•
How do we know what we know?
•
What is reality? What things can be describe as real?
•
What is the nature of thought and thinking?
•
What is special about being a human being?
•
Is there anything special about being alive at all?
•
What is ethics?
•
What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
•
What is beauty?
•
How do beautiful things differ from others?
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing. Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone's perspective on life (philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving something.
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TOPIC 2
2.2
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
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PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Now, let's examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education. What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as "What is education?" ÂWhat is the purpose of education?‰, "What does it mean to know something?" "What is the relationship between education and society?" The philosophy of education recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children themselves. Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education later in the topic]. These philosophers have been key voices in philosophy of education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems in education.
2.3
PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM
What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when you propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject, you will be asked, "What is your philosophy for introducing that content?" If you are unable to answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum. Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. "What subjects are of value?", "How should students learn the content?" It also helps us to answer more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them, what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.
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X TOPIC 2
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
SELF-CHECK 2.1 1.
What do philosophers do?
2.
List the concepts philosophers have been interested in.
3.
What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the curriculum of a school system?
"In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at nonessentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue. So naturally they differ also about the proper training for it."
Would you believe that the above statement was written more that 2000 years ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament about the poor level of basic skills of students and call for a return to the basics. At the same time we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the centuries, many philosophies of education have emerged, each with their own beliefs about education. In this topic, we will discuss four philosophies, namely; perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism proposed by Western philosophers. Also, discussed are the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers; namely, al-Farabi, Tagore and Confucius. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be conducted.
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TOPIC 2
2.4 2.4.1
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
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PERENNIALISM What is Perennialism?
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms year after year. Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is "to improve man as man" (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing one's moral and spiritual being, character education should be emphasised. Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the 'Great Books' was proposed covering topics in Literature, Art, Psychology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Science, Economics, Politics and so forth. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville, EuclidÊs book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
2.4.2
The Perennialist Curriculum
Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics: Ć
The 'Great Books' programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced Mathematics and Philosophy (Hutchins, 1936). Ć
The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.
Ć
At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.
Ć
Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects. They argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers.
Ć
The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.
Ć
Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.
Ć
At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should be on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and concepts that have stood the test to time. Student should learns to learn and not to be evaluated.
Ć
Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake. "University students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions" (Hutchins, 1936).
Ć
Teaching reasoning using the 'Great Books' of Western writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students. Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach Science but not technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics.
Ć
Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society. Students must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion. Ć
School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right and wrong should be emphasised so that students will have definite rules that they must follow.
SELF-CHECK 2.2 1.
Identify the main features of the perennialist curriculum.
2.
According to perennialism, what should be emphasised in the classroom?
ACTIVITY 2.2 The Great Books
The Great Books refer to a curriculum and a book list that came about as the result of a discussion among American academics and educators, starting in the 1920s and 1930s. It was initiated by John Erskine on how to improve higher education by returning to the western liberal arts tradition of broad cross-disciplinary learning. Notable among the academics and educators was Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. They felt that the emphasis on narrow specialisation in American universities and colleges had harmed the quality of higher education by failing to expose students to the important products of Western civilisation and thought.
The Great Books started out as a list of 100 essential texts which were selected based on the criteria that it had relevance to present problems and issues and it is relevant to a large number of the great ideas and great issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals.
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The Great Books covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, economics and ethics. Examples of the books are: •
Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey
•
Works of Aristotle and Plato
•
Archimedes Measurement of a circle, On Spirals, Treating Mechanical
Problems •
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
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ShakespeareÊs complete works
•
Descartes The Geometry
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Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
•
Karl Marx's Das Kapital
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Leo TolstoyÊs War and Peace
•
William James' The Principle of Psychology
The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to 'dead white males', while ignoring the contributions of females and minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another harmful criticism was that the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any real substance behind it. Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at http://www.answers.com
1.
What other books of The Great Books do you know?
2.
What were the main arguments put forward by the perennialists for using The Great Books?
3.
Do you agree with the criticisms of The Great Books?
2.5 2.5.1
ESSENTIALISM What is Essentialism?
Essentialism comes from the word 'essential' which means the main things or the basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with the "essentials" or "basics" of academic knowledge and character development. The Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik which caused a panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education followed that led to interest in essentialism. Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instil traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality. Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion.
2.5.2
The Essentialist Curriculum
Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following characteristics: Ć
The 'basics' of the essentialist curriculum are Mathematics, natural Science, History, foreign language and Literature. Essentialists disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content.
Ć
Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading and measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most often associated with the development of creativity) students are required to master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students promoted to the next higher grade.
Ć
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student ability.
Ć
It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role model for students. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Ć
Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.
Ć
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge, but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge in real world settings.
Ć
Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Ć
Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well and can transmit their knowledge to students.
SELF-CHECK 2.3 1.
What are THREE main features of the essentialist classroom?
2.
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist curriculum?
2.6 2.6.1
PROGRESSIVISM What is Progressivism?
Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952). The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational
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ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement. According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society's identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920): (a)
To be aware of the problem (e.g. plants need sunlight to grow).
(b)
Define the problem (e.g. can plants grow without sunlight).
(c)
Propose hypotheses to solve it.
(d)
Test the hypotheses.
(e)
Evaluate the best solution to the problem.
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems; reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate to he real life situations of students, emphasising 'learning by doing'.
2.6.2
The Progressive Curriculum
Ć
Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social Sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological and social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the experiences, interests and abilities of students.
Ć
Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society.
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Ć
Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
Ć
Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.
Ć
Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or gender.
Ć
By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school.
SELF-CHECK 2.4 1.
What are the main arguments of the progressive movement?
2.
List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum.
3.
What are the main differences between the progressive curriculum and the essentialist curriculum?
2.7 2.7.1
RECONSTRUCTIONISM What is Reconstructionism?
Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the 1930's through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favour reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932) who in a speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but must take a position. Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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designed by Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its conception, critical pedagogy was based on Marxist ideology which advocates equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against capitalism. More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in which people can move through different stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active participants in changing their own status through social action to change bring about social justice.
2.7.2
The Reconstructionist Curriculum
Ć
In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.
Ć
The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty, environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc.
Ć
There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.
Ć
The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society. Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum.
Ć
Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may be utopian in nature.
Ć
In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as History, Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Ethics, Poetry and Philosophy), rather than the Sciences.
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ACTIVITY 2.3 Identify the Educational Philosophies Which of the following statements reflect the four philosophical traditions that have been discussed? Mark: Ć
'E' for essentialism;
Ć
'P' for progressivism;
Ć
'PN' for perennialism; and
Ć
'R' for reconstructionism.
Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, it is possible that you may disagree with the classification. Support your argument. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
A school curriculum should include a common body of knowledgthat all students should know. The curriculum should focus on the great ideas that have survived through time and related to present day challenges. Schools should prepare students for analysing and solving the social problems that they will face as adults. Each student should determine his or her individual curriculum, and teachers should guide and help them. Students must be taught about change and how to bring about change. Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour, discipline, hard work and respect for authority. Students must be questioned and probed until they discover the truth in the texts selected. Schools should develop studentsÊ ability to think deeply and analytically rather than focus on temporary issues such as social skills and current trends. For a country to be competitive in the global marketplace, schools should seek to produce more competent workers. Since students learn effectively though social interaction, schools should plan for increased social interaction in the curriculum. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn and so the school should decide for them. Teaching should emphasise relating what is learned to the realworld through field trips and internship. Education is not primarily concerned with producing future workers but should emphasise learning for its own sake and students should enjoy reading, learning and discussing interesting ideas.
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15.
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Education should enable students to recognise injustices in society, and schools should promote projects to redress social inequalities. Students should be active participants in the learning process, involved in democratic class decision making and reflective thinking. Students should be taught to be more sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, and differences in general.
SELF-CHECK 2.5 1.
What is the main argument of proponents of reconstructionism?
2.
What are the recommendations of the reconstructionists with regards?
2.8
ABU NASR AL-FARABI
Al-Farabi (872-950 AD) was born in Wasij, in the province of Farab in Turkestan, of a noble family. To understand the universe and humankind he undertook the meticulous study of ancient philosophy (particularly Plato and Aristotle) which he integrated into his own Islamic-Arabic civilization whose chief source was the QurÊan. Al-Farabi used a number of terms to describe education: discipline (taÊdib), training (tahdhib), guidance (tasdid), instruction (taÊlim), exercise or learning (irtiyad) and upbringing (tarbiya) (quoted in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993). He believed that the first aim of knowledge was knowledge of God and His attributes. He emphasised the need for unity of society and the State to be achieved by unity of thought, wisdom and religion.
2.8.1 •
Al-Farabi on Education
According to him the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the attainment of happiness. The perfect human being (al insan al kamil) is one who has acquired −
theoretical virtue (intellectual knowledge); and
−
practical moral virtues (moral behaviour). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
Virtue is the state of mind in which the human being carries out good and kind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness, temperance, courage, generosity and justice (Al-Farabi, Talkhis, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
•
Theoretical and practical virtue can only be obtained within society, for it is society that nurtures the individual and prepares him or her to be free. Thus, one of the goals of education is the creation of the ideal community, Âthe one whose cities all work together in order to attain happinessÊ (Al-Farabi, Mabadi ahl al-madina al-fadila, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
•
Another aim of education is to educate political leaders, because ignorance among them is more harmful than it is in the common person.
•
He considered the method of dialogue or debate as important in instruction. The method of argument and the method of discourse which can be used orally or in writing. For the common people, the methods used must be closely related to what they can grasp and understand.
•
He also emphasised on the need for scientific discourse; that by which the knowledge of something is obtained either through asking questions about the thing, or from the replies obtained, or by resolving a scientific problem (Al-Farabi, Kitab al-huraf, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
•
In this book Al-Alfaz, Farabi argues that there are two types of learning: learning through speech and learning by imitation (observing other peopleÊs actions with the intention of imitating or applying them).
•
The method of instruction must be appropriate to the level of learners. For example, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching the hard to grasp concepts to common people. The educator resorts to metaphors and illustrations in teaching especially for people who are reluctant to learn (AlFarabi, Tahsil, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
•
According to Al-Farabi, understanding is better than memorisation because the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and hardly useful. But the action of understanding concerns meanings, universals and laws which are valid for all.
2.8.2 •
Al-Farabi on Curriculum
Al-Farabi classified the sciences and learning not just for the sake of listing them, but with an educational objective in mind.
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Content to be taught as suggested by Al-Farabi o
Language and its structure (to express oneself and understand others).
o
Logic (mantiq) which includes verbal expression and intellectual procedures.
o
Mathematics (he divided into 7 parts) -
arithmetic (begin with numbers and proceeding to measures)
-
geometry (use of geometric shapes to stimulate imagination)
-
the science of optics
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astronomy (study of instruments and observation skills)
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music (making and listening to musical instruments)
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dynamics (e.g. momentum)
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science of machines
o
Natural Sciences.
o
Religion and scholastic theology (kalam).
o
Political Science/Civics.
o
Jurisprudence (fiqh) and law (qanun).
•
Mathematics called 'the teachings' (taÊalim) was given importance because it trains students toward the path of precision and clarity. The student is to begin with studying arithmetic (numbers) followed by geometry, optics, astronomy, music, dynamics and last of all mechanics. The student moves in stages from the immaterial and the immeasurable to what needs some matter. (Al-Farabi, Ihsa' al-'ulum, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
•
On evaluation, Al-Farabi emphasised that the aim of an examination is to find out a learner's level in the field being studied. He believed that the questions students ask could have either an educational or an experimental character. Educational is when students demonstrate that they have mastered something. Experimental is when students test themselves using instruments (such as compass, abacus, ruler, tables) to determine whether they know the rules.
•
Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate creativity. Play should be used appropriately to restore the learner's strength to undertake more serious activity.
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SELF-CHECK 2.6 1.
What are some of al-Farabi's views on teaching? How relevant are they today?
2.
What are main features of the curriculum proposed by al-Farabi?
2.9
CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of ChinaÊs most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and of individuals alike. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals which will alter human nature. By raising individual moral standard, society will become more virtuous and the country will be well-governed and its citizens law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was passed from one generation to the next based on birth which was prevalent during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu) which is a record of his speeches and his disciples, as well as the discussions they had. It literally means "discussions over words". Confucian thought was not confined to China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts of Southeast Asia.
2.9.1
Confucius on Education
•
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals (ziancai) whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality) who combined competence with virtue. They would serve the government and bring about an ideal managed by men of virtue. The cultivation of virtue was to be through observation, study and reflective thought.
•
Among the virtues given priority are: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly (ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan), fidelity (xin), diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance (rang), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong).
•
Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of office from one generation of nobles to the next (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
•
According to Confucius, 'Study without thought is labour lost; thought without study is dangerous'. He saw learning as a process of observation of Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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some type of subject matter, whether it be books, objects or people, followed by reflection. •
He saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity but when awakened by real learning would be repeated by the student. Teachers should be committed to their work and have good mastery of the knowledge to be imparted.
•
A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their psychological uniqueness and give thought to ways and means of facilitating their access to knowledge (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
•
A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge.
2.9.2
Confucius on Curriculum
•
Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education was thus for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be realised.
•
Content to be taught as proposed by Confucius
− His six books; the Book of Odes, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Music, the Book of Changes and the Spring and Autumn Annals ă which dealt with subjects such as philosophy, politics, economics, culture and musicianship.
− Music. − The Code and Manner of Proper Conduct (Li). − Poetry. − Literature. − History. •
His emphasis on political and moral principles led to ignoring the natural Sciences, Trade and Agriculture.
•
His curriculum served as the curriculum for 2000 years in feudal China and the following pedagogical strategies were proposed:
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− to inspire and guide learners by stages. − to instruct oneself while teaching others. − to explain the present in the light of the past. − to combine theory with practice. − to encourage independent thought. − to set a good example. − to correct one's errors and improve oneself. − to welcome criticism. − to curb evil and exalt the good. SELF-CHECK 2.7 1.
What are the main features of the Confucian system of education?
2.
How relevant are the ideas of Confucius in today's schools?
2.10 RABINDRANATH TAGORE Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) born in Calcutta, India was known for his socio-religious and cultural innovations. In 1901 he founded a school at Santiniketan (that developed into a university) based on the ancient forest schools which emphasised three basic elements of Indian culture, namely Advaita (non-duality) in the field of knowledge, friendship for all in the field of feeling and fulfillment of one's duties without concern for the outcomes in the field of action (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
2.10.1 Tagore on Education •
Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment. Education should provide the individual with a satisfactory means of livelihood followed by fulfilment and completeness. Schools should be made more lively and enjoyable. They should be more attractive and productive.
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•
The ideal school should be established away from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and surrounded by the fields, trees and plants. Classes were held outdoor (whenever the weather permitted) so that students gained from being in a natural setting while learning (Tagore, Siksha cited in Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
•
He was against bookish learning because it deprives one of learning from the real-world. Students should gather knowledge and materials from different sources of nature through their own efforts.
•
On university education he suggested that it should be based on knowledge of economics, agriculture, health, medicine and other subjects that reflects life in the surrounding villages. Universities should attempt to push for the growth of rural areas (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
•
Emphasis should be more on self-motivation rather than on discipline and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence.
•
He insisted on open debate on every issue and distrusted conclusions based on a mechanical formula, no matter how attractive that formula might seem in isolation.
2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum •
He put great emphasis on the use of the national language as the medium of instruction at all stages of education. The younger generation should be aware of their cultural heritage but at the same time they should be exposed to the cultures of other countries and learn from them.
•
He wanted women and men to be offered similar theoretical courses with separate practical courses for women, since their roles in life differed from those of men.
•
In his view, education was not intellectual development alone. It should also develop a student's aesthetic nature and creativity. The quest for knowledge and physical activity in an agreeable environment were integral parts of the process.
•
Nature walks and excursions were part of the curriculum and students were encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, birds and plants.
•
Aesthetic development was important as intellectual development; if not more so. This would include music, art, literature, drama and dance which should be given prominence in the daily life of the school (OÊConnell, 2003).
•
He advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for the progress that had been made in breaking down social and religious barriers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse backgrounds and narrow the gap between rich and poor (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994). •
The curriculum was flexible. Class discussion would move from Indian traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical Western thought and then to the culture of China or Japan or elsewhere.
SELF-CHECK 2.8 1.
What are the main aims of education according to Tagore?
2.
What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by Tagore?
•
Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and are curious about the world and seek to understand the nature of things.
•
Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision and it becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.
•
The perennialists believe that the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
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The essentialists argue that schools should transmit the traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens.
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The progressivists believe that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other people.
•
The reconstructivists favour reform and students must be taught about how to bring about change.
•
According to Al-Farabi the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the attainment of happiness.
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•
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals whom he called gentlemen or men of quality who combined competence with virtue.
•
According to Tagore, education should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment.
Al-Farabi on education
Philosophy
Confucius on education
Progressivism
Educational philosoph
Reconstructionism
Essentialism
Tagore on education
Perennialism
1.
Write down your personal philosophy of education and share it with others.
2.
What is the current "status" of the essentialist orientation to curriculum? How widespread is this approach in curriculum planning at the elementary, middle, secondary, and higher education levels?
3.
What is the current "status" of the progressive orientation to curriculum in primary and secondary schools?
4.
To what extent do you agree with the reconstructionist perspective on curriculum?
5.
Which ideas of al-Farabi, Confucius and Tagore are practiced in the school curriculum in your country?
Answer Key to ACTIVITY 2.3: Progressivism: 4, 10, 12 & 15 Essentialism: 1, 6, 9 & 11 Perennialism: 2, 7, 8 & 13 Reconstructionism: 3, 5, 14 & 16 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Alistair, R. (2000). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary]. Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice. London: Greenwood Publishing. Chapter 1: The study of educational philosophy [available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 2: Philosophical foundations. Tanner, E., & Tanner, L. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Chapter 4: Curricular sources and influences. Prospects: Quarterly review of comparative education (1993). Thinkers on Education. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Publications/Thinkers/thinhome .html Shaw, L. Five educational philosophers. http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/f95syll/philos/phessent.html
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Topic X Psychological
3
Foundations of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.
Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans learn;
2.
Compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human learning;
3.
Identify the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and humanist principles in the classroom; and
4.
State your values and beliefs about the nature of learning.
X INTRODUCTION In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and believes influence curriculum. We examined both Western and Eastern philosophers and their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. In this topic we will focus on how different psychological perspectives impact curriculum. Psychology deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to know how humans learn so that they can incorporate psychological principles when they design, develop and implement curriculum. Just as there are varying philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning and how the curriculum should be conceived especially with regards to learning in the classroom.
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Strokes of Genius from a Wonder Boy"
Lost in his own world, 11-yearYeak Ping Lian kneels on the floor, humming softly as he doodles on a yellow paper. He is oblivious to my presence. "Say hello to the lady", Sarah Lee said to her son who reluctantly moved away from his drawing.
Railway Station and charcoal etchings of Tun Mahathir Mohamad and Datuk Seri Abdullah Badawi, the Prime Minister of Malaysia. Ping Lian's artistic talent is extraordinary. But, like any ordinary child, he is hyperactive and has a short attention span, loves root beer float and biscuits and enjoys watching Sesame Street and Toy Story. His latest preoccupation is the electronic keyboard.
"Hello", he mumbles while engulfing me in a hug. His eyes settle on the flowery motif of my dress. "Paint", he retorts in a clear voice and then runs to his worktable and waits. "Paint Unlike ordinary children, however flower!" he repeats louder. Ping Lian is autistic and diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactive The home is swamped with Ping Disorder. Although he has an Lian's art ă on the walls, stacked excellent memory and reads well, up against banisters and under the he has limited speech vocabulary, tables. They are done in charcoal, usually expressing himself in single pencil, ink and marker pens with or double words. watercolour and acrylic. He is home-tutored and attends While some resemble infantile supplementary lessons for special scratchings, there are others that needs children at the Emanuel Care seem impossible for an 11-year- Centre. He also takes Kumon old to produce, such as the classes in mathematics. Petronas Twin Towers, the Kuala Lumpur. Source: Strokes of genius from an 11-year-old autistic child, by Vivienne Pal, New Straits Times, February 3, 2005
ACTIVITY 3.1 Read the newspaper report on Stroke of Genius from a Wonder Boy. 1.
What are the unusual abilities of Yeak Ping Lian?
2.
How is he presently educated?
3.
Are there special schools in your country to educate autistic children? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Scientific study of human learning began only in the late 19th century though philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, al-Farabi and Confucius have attempted to explain human learning much earlier. For example, John Locke, in 18th century philosopher compared children's minds to blank slates or tabula rasa. He believed that children's experiences are etched or carved into their minds in much the way that one writes on slates with a chalk. Learners are visualised to be empty buckets into which information is poured into by the teacher. However, today we know that children are not empty vessels but come to school have with many different experiences, prior knowledge and expectations. There is so much interest in studying human learning and various disciplines besides psychology have inquired into the mysteries of the mind. Neuroscientists, linguists, cognitive psycholinguists, organisational psychologists, philosophers and computer scientists, to name a few are engaging in studying the brain hoping to unravel its mysteries and better understand how humans learn and think. A variety of research approaches and methods have evolved in studying how humans learn. Introspection and the use of computers produced abundant research in cognitive psychology and increased our understanding of human competence, memory, knowledge representation, problem solving ability and decision making skills in areas such as Mathematics, Science and Economics. Developmental psychology provided some answers to how children think and understand concepts as they grew chronologically while work in social psychology revealed that learning takes place in cultural settings. Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul. It is a discipline devoted to the study of behaviour, mind and thought. Specifically, it deals with the study of mental processes that determines a person's behaviour and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The curriculum developer has to know how students' learn and to take into consideration individual differences when designing a curriculum. It is only when students learn and gain from the curriculum will the curriculum be considered to be successful. The curriculum developer is interested in knowing how organisation of the curriculum can enhance learning. Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar in curriculum development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology "screen" to establish whether they are congruent with how humans learn. (We will examine in detail about Ralph Tyler in topic 5). While there is a great deal of interest in studying human learning, anyone Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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involved in curriculum work should also be aware that there are many different explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of thought that have had an impact on curriculum; classified as behaviourism, cognitivism, humanism and constructivism (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Psychological perspectives influencing curriculum and their proponents
3.2
BEHAVIOURISM
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany dedicated to the scientific study of human thought processes which is often used as the beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments to studying the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the laboratory. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their subjects to reflect on their thought processes. By the turn of the century, the behaviourist school emerged as a reaction to the method of introspection used by Wundt. Proponents of behaviourism argued that the introspection method was too subjective and felt that scientific study of psychology must be restricted to the study of behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the behaviour. The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. They argued that behaviour can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punishment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
The famous Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov introduced the theory of classical conditioning through a series experiments with dogs (see Figure 3.2). Based on the Law of Association proposed by Greek philosophers such Aristotle, he showed that an organism can associate a particular stimulus (S) with a particular response (R). Learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus (such as food) and a response (the animal salivating). Later, one could substitute 'food' with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus) and yet the animal salivates. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that the sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating and the behaviour is said to be extinct.
Figure 3.2: PavlovÊs experiment with dogs Source: http://www.filisofie.science.ru.htm
3.2.2
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit formation. In his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and could escape and eat the food by pressing a lever inside the box (see Figure 3.3). After much trial and error behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (Stimulus) with opening the door (Response). This S-R connection when established resulted in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Each time the animal was put in the box, it took lesser time to press the lever and escape because the animal has learned. Based on these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which he called:
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Figure 3.3: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box Source: http://www.freeclipart.com
•
Law of Effect ă If a response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is followed by a pleasurable or rewarding experience (e.g. student gets the right answer and is praised by the teacher), the response will be strengthened and become habitual.
•
Law of Exercise ă Connections between stimulus (e.g. getting the right answer) and response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.
•
Law of Readiness ă Certain behaviours are more likely to be learned than others because the nervous system of the organism is ready to make the connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action.
The task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities so as to enhance connection between a stimulus and response.
3.2.3
B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980)
He worked with rats and pigeons. The theory of Skinner was based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. He introduced the term 'operant' which means to act upon. He put a hungry rat in a box and each time the rat pressed the lever, a food pellet would be given. This resulted in the rat pressing the lever each time it wanted food. The change in behaviour or learning by the rat is the result of the animal's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. For example, a child will do her homework because she knows that she will be allowed to watch her favourite TV programme. When a particular response or behaviour is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer could be anything. It could a parent saying 'good work' or the child obtaining an 'A' in history which gives the child a feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction. These are examples of positive reinforcement. However, there are also negative Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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reinforcers which are any stimuli that give rise to a response when it is withdrawn. For example, the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock given (see Figure 3.4). A mother will pick up her child who is crying because she cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the safety belt to avoid the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the behaviour of 'picking the baby' and 'putting on the safety belt' is performed to avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when you want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other words, the mother is depriving the boy the pleasure of playing football. Based on a schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be modified.
Figure 3.4: SkinnerÊs box Source: http://www.csus.edu/ClassLectureThreeOperant.html
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. For example, in Pavlov's experiments, the dog had no choice whether to salivate or not when given food or the sound of the bell. In operant conditioning, the organism has the choice to act or not to act because its response is determined by the stimulus or the food given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in behaviour modification, classroom management and instructional design. Programmed instruction based on Skinner's ideas was widely adopted in the 1960s and still used today (with modifications). For example, in programmed instruction students are presented with manageable chunks of information in gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to reinforce understanding. Good performance is provided with reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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good grades. Remember the gold or sliver star you would get next to your name in primary school for good behaviour or good grades! Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated and information presented in small amounts can reinforce and shape the formation of the behaviour desired.
3.2.4
Walter Bandura (1925 – Present)
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura learning would be a slow process if people had to rely solely on the own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn he or she must watch and pay attention to the model and the behaviour being modelled. The information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the behaviour observed. Among the most common and pervasive examples of social learning situations are television advertisements. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown in the advert and buy the product being advertised. Individuals are more likely to model behaviours that result in something that is valued or if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status.
SELF-CHECK 3.1 1.
What are the differences and similarities between operant conditioning and social learning?
2.
Give examples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning in daily life.
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Behaviourism in the Classroom
The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learning: •
Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
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When learning factual material provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts.
•
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.
•
Break down complex task into smaller and manageable sub-skills.
•
Sequence material to enhance understanding; e.g. teach simple concepts first before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concept.
•
Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations when necessary.
•
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour.
•
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and students.
•
Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards will be given.
ACTIVITY 3.2 1.
Which of the behaviourist principles listed in 3.2.5 do you think are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2.
Select a textbook and examine how any of the behaviourist principles have been used.
3.3
COGNITIVISM
In the 1950s there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was observable and measurable, there was something missing, namely mental events. In other words, what is going on in the minds of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking (see Figure 3.5). Cognitivists felt that it was necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. For example, when students are asked 'What is the capital of China? One student responds Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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'Beijing' while another responds 'Shanghai'. Why did one student answer correctly while the other got it wrong? By observing the responses individuals make to different stimuli, cognitivists make inferences of the mental processes that produce those responses.
Figure 3.5: The mystery of the black box
Cognition can be defined broadly as the act or process of knowing. Cognitive theories of learning focus on the mind or 'black box' and attempt to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. However, it should be noted that unlike behaviourism there is no single theory explaining cognitive processes or the mysteries of the 'black box'. Evidence seems to indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. Research in cognitive psychology has been prolific and many theories have been proposed based on empirical evidence. This is not surprising since the human mind is so complex and attempting to unravel its mysteries is only just beginning. The various theories proposed examine a small facet of cognition and for this reason there are many explanations of how humans think, solve problems, make decisions and learn.
3.3.1
The Information Processing Approach
All learning has to do something with memory. If we cannot remember from what we have experienced we will never be able to learn anything. For example, one morning you are introduced to Shalin. That afternoon you see again and say something like, "You're Shalin. We met this morning". Clearly you have remembered her name. Memory is crucial in learning and the 'Stage Theory' proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argue that information is received, processed and stored in three different stages. This theory has also been described as the Information Processing Approach (see Figure 3.6). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Figure 3.6: Three stages of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968)
The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory, smell, touch and taste) and the brain will only focus on information that has been attended to. For example, we normally are not aware of the sensory properties of stimuli, or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to specifically identify such information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting or important to them. Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about ô second. Information that is attended to is encoded into short term memory (STM). Encoding is transforming information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in memory. A striking feature of short term memory is its very limited capacity. On the average it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller, 1956). A chunk is a unit that could be number of words, digits, sentences or even paragraphs. To keep information 'active' in STM you must do something to it. For instance, when you look up a phone number you repeat it over and over in you mind in order to retain it until you have dialled the number. We keep information active by rehearing it, either by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal) or give it meaning by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to prevent it from fading from STM. Information that is encoded and rehearsed is stored in long-term memory which consists of information that has just happened a few minutes ago or as long as a lifetime. It has been said that all you have learned and experienced in your lifetime is stored in long term memory; nothing is lost. Long term memory has an unlimited capacity or storage area.
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When you are unable to recall from long term memory, it is the result from a loss of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. It is there but cannot be found. That is, poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure rather than a storage failure. Failure to find your car keys does not necessarily mean it is not there; you may be looking in the wrong place or it may simply be misfiled in your brain and therefore inaccessible. Research has identified that successful retrieval from long term memory is enhanced when the information is properly organised and the context in which you retrieve the information is similar to the context in which you encoded it. For example, at a meeting you met various professionals ă doctors, teachers, journalists and accountants. When you later tried to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall by profession: Who were the doctors I met? Who were the teachers? And so forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis. Organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more efficient. Information is stored in long term memory as a network and the more we elaborate on it, the more you will remember. In other words, the more connections that are established between the new information and what is already stored, the greater the number of retrieval possibilities. Information in long term memory is usually encoded in terms of its meaning. Memory can be improved by making meaningful connections between what is known and what is new.
3.3.2
Meaningful Learning
The search for meaning or making sense of one's experiences is innate and the need to act on one's environment is automatic. Our brain has been described as both artist and scientist as it is designed to perceive and generate patterns. When confronted with meaningless or unrelated isolated pieces of information, it tries to make sense and create order Learners are constantly patterning, or perceiving and creating meanings all the time in one way or another. Information is processed at multiple levels depending upon its characteristics. The "deeper" the processing the more that will be remembered (Craik and Lockhart, 1972). Information that involves strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge or elaborations will be processed at a deeper level. Things and events that are meaningful are better remembered because it requires more processing than meaningless stimuli. The greater the processing of information during learning, the more it will be retained and remembered.
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Learning is seeing patterns; teaching is surrounding learners with the patterns that are already known by the culture. And the difference between Nobel Prize winners and others is that they see patterns that have not been seen before. (John Polanyi, Noble Laureate).
Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning, but can influence the direction. Although much of what students are to learn is predetermined by the curriculum, the ideal process is to present information in a way that allows the learner to extract patterns, rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time provisions must be made to satisfy the learner's need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and challenge. Lessons need to be exciting, meaningful and offer students abundant choices. All students need to be provided with a rich environment with complex and meaningful challenges. David Ausubel (1960), a medical practioner argued that learning occurs when one's current organisation of knowledge is changed, either because a subsuming concept has been elaborated with the new information or because existing concepts are now connected by a new subsuming concept. This indicates that learners change their knowledge in a meaningful and coherent way based on prior knowledge. Students come to school with quite sophisticated theories about the world and an intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking which they apply to problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some of the basic skills. However, also included in this prior knowledge are preconceived ideas and misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc) and simplistic notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore such prior knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to place new knowledge in context and to challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If efforts are not made to figure out what students believe and then confront their flawed or incomplete notions about the world, they will continue to hold on to many misconceptions, some of which will make it impossible for them to ever truly understand more complex concepts.
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Levels of Cognitive Development
According to genetic epistemologist, Jean Piaget (1955) information that is attended to is absorbed by the senses and the human mind goes to work to organise it and to impose personal understanding by relating it to what it already knows. When the new information is assimilated through existing ideas and beliefs, it is usually combined with existing knowledge and reinforces the existing views. On the other hand, when learners have to consider information through a new schema they may be required to transform their beliefs to accommodate the information which is the basic process for conceptual change. Through observation of his children, Piaget proposed the following theory of cognitive development: (a)
Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): In the early stage, the child's reactions are based on reflex operations and progresses towards being able to differentiate self from objects. By the end of this stage the child achieves object permanence and realises that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or felt.
(b)
Preoperational stage (2-7 years): The child learns to use language and able to represent objects symbolically. For example, a chair is used for sitting. Thinking is egocentric in which the child finds it difficult to consider the viewpoints of others. He or she is able to classify objects by a single feature. For example, the child groups together all the red objects regardless of shape or all the square objects regardless of colour.
(c)
Concrete operational (7-11 years): The child can think logically about objects and events. For example, by age 7, the child knows that when 500 millilitres of water in a tall glass is poured into a flat container, the volume of water is the same. The child can classify objects according to several features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size.
(d)
Formal operations (11 years and onwards): The young person can think logically about abstract ideas, evaluate data and test hypotheses systematically. He or she is able to analyse ideas and comprehend spatial and temporal relationships. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on what the young person can learn depending on his intellectual potential and environmental experiences.
Piaget's view on how children think and develop has had a significant impact on educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of cognitive development and to avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their cognitive capabilities.
3.3.4
Metacognition
For many people, learning feels like a random activity; it just happens (or it doesn't). However, this has shown to be not true because learners who order their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information such as relating it to prior knowledge are engaging in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1977). •
your knowledge of the task,
•
awareness of your own ability
•
and the action you will take. Knowledge: Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to whatever is in the surroundings.
Awareness: Awareness of your cognitive behaviour includes being aware ofabout the purpose of the Metacognition •is Âthinking thinkingÊ andtask, involves: • aware of what you knows about the task, • •your knowledge of the task, aware of what needs to be known and, •awareness of your own ability aware of the strategies which facilitate or impede learning. • •
and the action you will take. "Knowing that you know and knowing that you do not know".
Action: Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to ensure successful completion of the task such as: o planning your next move, o checking the outcome of any move made , and o evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted move.
Experts in any field carry with them very well-developed patterns of knowledge in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new information and recognise patterns and features that are not noticed by novices. But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question what they know when confronted with new patterns and new contexts. They learn for understanding by paying attention to their learning, monitoring what Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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they are learning and using the feedback from this self-monitoring to make adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as understanding (Brown, 1978). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to control their own learning. When they have skills like planning, organisation, monitoring, revising and refocusing they enhanced metacognitive ability.
SELF-CHECK 3.2 1.
What are the characteristics of the three memory stores?
2.
What is meant by 'meaningful learning'?
3.
What is metacognition? How does it influence learning?
3.3.5
Cognitivism in the Classroom
The following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practiced in the teaching and learning of various subject areas: Gain the students' attention: •
Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
•
Move around the room and use voice inflections (changing tone).
Bring to mind relevant prior learning: •
Review previous day's lesson.
•
Have a discussion about previously covered content.
Point out important information: •
Provide handouts.
•
Write on the board or use transparencies.
Present information in an organised manner: •
Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
•
Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
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Show students how to categorise (chunk) related information: •
Present information in categories.
•
Teach inductive reasoning.
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information: •
Connect new information to something already known.
•
Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists: •
Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
•
Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
Provide for repetition of learning: •
State important principles several times in different ways during presentation of information (STM).
•
Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
•
Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM). Source: Adaptation of Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
ACTIVITY 3.3 1.
Which of the cognitivist principles listed in 3.3.5 do you think are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2.
Do you think schools should teach students how to learn? Why?
3.4
CONSTRUCTIVISM
A baby is born and soon takes her first step. In that short period the amount of learning and understanding of her immediate environment is enormous. The early years are significant because it provides the basis for language, physical dexterity, social understanding and emotional development for the rest of the childÊs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to suggest that not everything the child learns is taught by adults. The child teaches Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such learning is the basis of constructivism, an idea that has generated much excitement and interest among educators.
3.4.1
Learning is the Active Construction of Knowledge
Constructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky. The knowledge, beliefs and skills an individual brings to a learning situation should be given due importance. Learners are not passive recipients of information but are active agents engaging in constructing their own knowledge. According to Piaget (1955), this is done through three mechanisms namely; assimilation (fitting a new experience into an existing mental structure), accommodation (revising an existing schema because of a new experience) and equilibrium (seeking cognitive stability through assimilation and accommodation). In other words, learning involves the construction of new understanding by combining prior learning with new information. In other words, knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). If this be the case then knowledge is seldom transferred intact from the mind of the teacher to the mind of the student. "Knowledge is the result of an individual subjectÊs constructive activity, not a commodity that somehow resides outside the knower and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics communication" (von Glaserfeld, 1990, p.37). Knowledge is something which is constructed personally by individuals in an active way, as they try to give meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their own knowledge by looking for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read and see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to accurately "hear" or "see" what is before them. What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as passive learners but rather as active learners exploring and going beyond the information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging projects that encourage students and teachers working together. Authentic settings provide learners with opportunities to see a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibilities for their own learning. The goal is to create learning communities that is more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
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Learning is a Social Activity
Constructivism emphasises that learning is a social activity. The environment in which young people learn has a very powerful influence on them. The subtle and overt cues that pervade a community influence them. Often it is social experiences, rather than what is taught in schools, that accounts for much of the variation in student learning. The community is the basic fabric of student learning encompassing the values, beliefs, norms habits and behaviours of a culture (Vygotsky, 1978) As students enter adolescence, the social fabric of their learning expands as their contacts broaden and they become more closely identified with peers. Within their peer group, young adolescents encounter many new ideas and points of view. If learning is social and students are social, it seems logical that social engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Cooperative, collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies and misconceptions with their peers and teachers. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together, engage in serious discussion examine important topics, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Organising for this kind of learning is a much more complex kind of teaching compared to lecturing or demonstrations. Every child's learning develops in the context of a culture and through culture students acquire much of the content of their thinking as well as the tools of intellectual adaptation. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to think and through problem solving share experiences with others such as the teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on themselves is on the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. Schools need to create the conditions within which students can come to recognise their own beliefs and engage in challenge phenomenon in their environment through investigations, reading, laboratory investigations, debates, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.3 1.
What do you mean by 'students constructing their own knowledge'?
2.
What do you mean by 'learning is a social activity'?
3.
Why are authentic and real world situations important in learning? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Constructivism in the Classroom
Student autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged: •
respect students' ideas and encourage independent thinking.
•
teachers help students attain their intellectual potential.
•
students take responsibility for their own learning.
Higher-level thinking is encouraged: •
teachers challenge students to make connections, analyse, predict, justify and defend their ideas.
•
way in which teachers ask questions will influence student response.
•
teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses.
Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other: •
students present what they and build their personal knowledge.
•
comfortable to express their ideas to allow for meaningful learning.
Students are engaged in experience that challenge hypotheses and encourage discussion: •
students generate varying hypotheses about phenomena.
•
provide opportunity to test their hypotheses through dialogue.
•
the class use raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and interactive materials.
•
involve students in real-world situations.
Curriculum: •
curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts.
•
knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with experience.
Source: Adapted from Brooks, J. G., & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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ACTIVITY 3.4 1.
Which of the constructivist principles listed in 3.4.3 do you think are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2.
What are some problems principles in the classroom?
3.5
with
implementing
constructivist
HUMANISM
The humanistic approach to learning refers to a wide variety of ideas and techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate humanising teaching and learning. The learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine how a student approaches learning. However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear have a profound effect on learners' ability to think and learn effectively. Past experience such as grades and failures have a major impact on a student's current ability to learn. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Arthur Coombs.
3.5.1
Abraham Maslow
He observed that humans are constantly striving to control their behaviour and seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed his well-know theory called 'Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs' (1943). According to this theory, individuals satisfy their needs as follows: (a)
Survival needs: food, water, air and rest.
(b)
Safety needs: to be safe and avoid danger.
(c)
Belongingness and love needs: gain affection of people and need to belong to a group.
(d)
Esteem needs: to be recognised and feeling worthwhile.
(e)
Knowing and understanding needs: a desire to know, learn and understand things.
(f)
Self-actualisation needs: to develop one's full potential and to fulfil one's aesthetic needs. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level needs of students are satisfied, so that they are more likely to function at the higher levels. Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring that the physiological, safety, love, belonging and esteem needs of children are satisfied. While schools cannot control all the influence that impinges on a learner, they can create an atmosphere of trust, warmth and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening environment where students feel safe and comfortable.
3.5.2
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was the most important person and developed what he called client-centred therapy. The therapist was not to tell the client what to do but rather the client should learn how to control his or her own behaviour. He established a warm, positive and acceptant atmosphere in which he was able to empathise with his clients and sense their thought and feelings. When applied to education, he proposed that classrooms become learner-centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, their school work, their relations with others and their interaction with society. Letting students talk about their feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can help then to learn.
3.5.3
Arthur Combs
Arthur Combs believed that how a person perceives himself or herself is most important and that the basic purpose of teaching is to help each student develops a positive self-concept. The roles of the teacher are that of facilitator, encourager, helper, colleague and friend of his or her students. Combs elaborated on these points by listing six characteristics of good teachers: (i)
well-informed about their subject;
(ii)
sensitive to the feelings of students and colleagues;
(iii) believe that students can learn; (iv) have a positive self-concept; (v)
believe in helping all students do their best; and
(vi) use many different methods of instruction.
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SELF-CHECK 3.4 1.
What is the humanistic view of learning?
2.
What do you mean by 'teacher as facilitator'?
3.
What are the 6 characteristics of good teachers according to Arthur Combs?
3.5.4
Humanism in the Classroom
The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom: •
Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening learning environment in which learner's self-concept and self-esteem are considered essentials factors in learning.
•
When it seem appropriate, function as a facilitator where the he or she works and shares ideas with students.
•
When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show his or her "real person" by telling students how he or she feels.
•
Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
•
Teachers should be role models and set good examples.
•
Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the curriculum.
•
Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to the maturity level and age of students.
•
Learning is based experimenting.
on
life
experiences,
discovery,
exploring
and
ACTIVITY 3.5 1.
Which of the humanistic principles listed in 3.5.4 do you think are widely practiced in your school? Give specific examples.
2.
Do you think schools give enough attention to the affective (emotions, feelings) aspects of learning?
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ACTIVITY 3.6
Curriculum for Western Australian Schools Principles Guiding Teaching and Learning The following are 7 principles of teaching and learning that form the basis of the learning environment in Western Australian Schools. These principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about how learning can be supported. The focus is on the provision of a school and classroom environment which is intellectually, socially and physically supportive of learning. •
Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to observe and practice the actual processes, products, skills and values which are expected of them.
•
Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect with students' existing knowledge, skills and values while extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and acting.
•
Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be meaningful and encourage both action and reflection on the part of the learner.
•
Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be motivating and their purpose clear to the student.
•
Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect and accommodate differences between learners.
•
Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should encourage students to learn both independently and from and with others.
•
Supportive environment: The school and classroom setting should be safe and conducive to effective learning. Source: Government of Western Australia, Curriculum Council. Available at: http://www.curriculum.wa.edu.au/pages/framework/framework03g.htm
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Questions: 1.
Based upon what has been discussed in this chapter, can you identify which psychological perspectives are emphasised?
2.
What is meant by the term 'learning experiences'?
3.
To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your school curriculum?
•
Psychology deals with the study of learning, behaviour, attitudes and abilities.
•
Behaviourism views human learning as the association between a stimulus and the accompanying response.
•
Operant conditioning argues that the connection between a stimulus and a response can be strengthened by reinforcement.
•
Social learning occurs when a person attends, retains and reproduces the modelled behaviour and is motivated to do so because it is of value.
•
Cognitivism involves the study of the mental activities or events that takes place when a person learns, solves a problem or makes decisions.
•
Meaningful learning is making connections between prior learning and the new information learned.
•
Metacognition is the knowledge one has about oneÊs thinking.
•
Constructivism argues that learning is not passive but involves the construction of knowledge by the learner.
•
Constructivism suggests that learning is a social activity.
•
According to the humanist approach, learning should take into consideration the emotions and feelings of students.
•
Humanism argues that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator.
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Behaviourism • • •
Constructivism • Constructionof knowledge • Learning as social activity
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning
Cognitivism • Information processing approach • Meaningful learning • Cognitive development
Humanism • Hierarchy of needs • Teacher as facilitator Psychology
1.
According to the behaviourist perspective, instruction is essentially "teacher-centred" and learning tends to be passive. Discuss.
2.
In your view as a teacher or instructor, to what extent does the curriculum in your institution take into account the needs and interests of learners? Given the opportunity, what modifications would you recommend to curriculum planners that would accommodate these learners?
3.
To what extent can constructivist principles be applied in the classroom?
4.
How would you incorporate humanistic principles in your teaching? Give specific examples.
Stuart-Hamilton, I. (1996). Introduction to psychology. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Chapter 7: Learning Theory [available at eBrary]. Bentham, S. (2002). Psychology and education. London: Routledge.
Chapter 1: Perspectives on Learning: The Cognitive Approach Chapter 2: Perspectives on Learning: The Behaviourist and Humanistic Approaches. [available at eBrary]
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Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (1998) Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 4: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, J: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 6: Studies of Learners. Funderstanding. (2001) About Learning, www.funderstanding.com/about_Learning.cfm. Teaching Resources Center, University of Berkeley. Theories of Learning. gsi.berkeley.edu/resources/learning/
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4
X Social and
Historical Foundations of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain how the changing economy has influenced curriculum; 2. Suggest how curriculum has to cater for cultural diversity; 3. Discuss how the changing family institution influences curriculum; 4. Identify the demands of some special interest groups regarding curriculum; 5. List the criteria for knowledge that is most worth; 6. Identify the underlying beliefs determining school curriculum in early America and Japan; and 7. Give reasons for the changing curriculum emphasis in these two countries.
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X INTRODUCTION
In topic 2 we discussed how educational philosophy influences curriculum. In topic 3, we saw how psychological perspectives impacts curriculum. In this topic we will examine two factors that influence a curriculum, namely, society and history. Specifically, we will attempt to answer the following questions: What are some of the demands of society with regards to curriculum? How have the needs of society been considered when developing curriculum? What are some of these needs? What historical events have influenced curriculum? Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
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'A Big Fat World Problem' DAVOS, Switzerland, Mon. Concern over mounting levels of obesity has sparked a lively debate among food sector professionals and health experts about how to halt a trend that is medically and economically harmful. The World Health Organisation said more than one billion people worldwide are overweight, including 300 million regarded as obese, a medical condition inking excess fat to long-term health risks. The causes of growing obesity range from social, such as lack of exercise at school and home, peer pressure to eat the latest fads and centuries of habit, to corporations involved in price fixing and mislabelling of foods to suggest they contain less fat and sugar or more fibre than they do.
Two big problems identified were mislabelling and advertising as companies sought the upper hand in a cut-throat sector. One of the biggest concerns raised at the debate was the lack of physical education at school and snack food in canteens and vending machines. They agreed that companies had to properly label their foods and social habits had to change. Parents were afraid to let their children play on the streets, while computers and television kept young people indoors. Countries should incorporate consumer and health education in the curriculum and promote the importance of physical education in schools. Students have to be taught good nutritional habits at an early age.
Source: New Straits Times, February 1, 2005
ACTIVITY 4.1 Read the newspaper report on "The Big Fat World Problem"? 1.
Can you identify the concerns of society?
2.
What has been suggested to address the problem? Do you agree?
3.
Do you have other suggestions to alleviate the problem?
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SOCIETY AND CURRICULUM
Education systems are closely tied to the institutional network of society. Thus, to understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must understand the relationship between education and other institutions in society. In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is taught, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum. When designing curriculum, the following questions must be addressed: •
To what extent should curriculum consider the world outside of school?
•
How do changes in society affect curriculum?
Knowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions about what should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens in the classroom. Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture which in turn shapes curriculum. The story 'Curriculum of Forest SchoolÊ' illustrates this point. A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and globally (McNeil, 1995). Students might ask, "Why do I need to study algebra? I do not intend to be a mathematician, computer scientist or engineer". The utility of certain subjects in a curriculum may not be obvious to learners but teachers know that solving problems in algebra involve thinking skills which may not seem immediately relevant but will serve students indirectly in many professions and jobs later in their lives. According to Burks (1998) content is useful; •
if it relates to the general body of knowledge needed by average human beings for conducting daily life (e.g. reading, writing);
•
when it is related to the specific present or future situation of the student (eg. to be a journalist one needs good language skills) ;
•
if it develops thinking skills that probably increases the student's success in other subject areas or in general life-decisions (e.g. geography develops spatial thinking, art develops design skills); and
•
if it fulfils unavoidable requirements imposed by society as entry qualifications to certain vocational and professional programmes (e.g. mathematics as requirement for technical jobs).
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Curriculum of Forest School
Once upon a time the animals in the forest decided to start a school. They agreed that the curriculum should include the following subjects: swimming, hopping, climbing, running, flying, digging and slithering. All animals were required to take all subjects. Everything went on well until the third day when the principal, Wise Old Owl noticed some disturbing trends. For example, the rabbits were excelling in hopping but performed poorly in flying tests. The cheetahs were scoring AÊs in running but were getting D's in digging. The ducks were getting straight AÊs in swimming but were failing in the slithering course. The snakes easily got AÊs in slithering but had difficulty flying. An emergency staff meeting was held among the teachers to find out whether is was due to poor teaching or was it a curriculum problem. It was agreed that the teachers were good and dedicated practicing research-based instructional strategies. Professor Lion from Forest State University was called in as a consultant. He discovered that the problem was not due to poor teaching but rather the low level of curriculum utility. He pointed out that ducks really do not need to know how to slither and cheetahs should not be forced to learn digging skills. Neither should the snakes be asked to take flying classes. Prof. Lion concluded that animals were forced to learn skills that were not relevant to their situations. However, there are certain skills every animal needs to know such as finding food and water. He proposed that the curriculum be revised to include instruction in generic skills such as foodacquisition principles and social skills. But, animals were allowed to specialise in subjects most applicable to their species (eg. swimming, running). The animals all rejoiced when the recommendations were implemented and shouted "Now this is a useful curriculum". Source: Adaptation of Buscaglia, L. F. (1972). Love. Thorofare, NJ: C.B. Slack, cited in R. Burks (1998). A theory of secondary curriculum utility. Available at http://www.randallburks.com/curriculum.htm
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CHANGING ECONOMY AND CURRICULUM
Few would disagree that the main function of education is to produce people with appropriate skills and knowledge to enable them to participate in the nation's economy (refer to the "Curriculum of Forest School"). The nature of schooling tends to reflect the nature of the society in which it is found (see Figure 4.1). For example, in the latter part of the 19th century, life in the United States was farm based and schools mirrored that lifestyle. The one-room school house was sufficient to meet the needs of an agrarian society. School started late and ended early in the day to allow time for students to help their families with farm work. School dismissed entirely during the summer so that children could help their parents the fields. Education was primarily didactic and learning was less book-based that it is today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to complement the skill students learn outside school. Since relatively few students progressed further than grade 6 or 7, the need for higher levels of education was minimal. By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in cities and working in factories. As a consequence new skills were needed in an industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in education: the model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives. One-room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. Students were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and taught in separated bits and pieces ă similar to the way that work is completed on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions with the goal of turning out identical products.
Figure 4.1: Changing economy and curriculum Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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The appearance in the early 70s of the microprocessor and the explosive growth of networking and information technologies in the 80s and 90s witnessed the growth of the knowledge economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of the internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of the trend, educators are still unsure as to what the curriculum of the postindustrial-style classroom should be. Without doubt, in the post-industrial or information society, a new curriculum will be needed. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each student's learning requirements. Students will be challenged with higher expectations of learning, and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and learn independently. The knowledge gained and skills acquired and attitudes nurtured will support them throughout life.
SELF-CHECK 4.1 1.
State how change from an agrarian economy to an industrial economy has influenced curriculum?
2.
List some of the features of a curriculum for an information society. Suggest other features.
4.3
THE CHANGING FAMILY INSTITUTION AND CURRICULUM
In an agrarian or pre-industrial society, gender determined the role of individuals. Men worked at their various crafts or the farm. When boys were old enough they worked alongside their fathers. Women on the other hand maintained the house, caring for the children and training the girls. They also sewed, processed food (such as milling cereal) and produced clothing. Thus, men, women and often children worked for the betterment of the whole family and there was no individual bread-winner. Families were large and the extended family where parents lived with their adult children was common. The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family changed from an extended kinship family to a nuclear family which consisted of Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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parents and their children only. Men moved from working in farms and cottage industries to work in offices or factories owned by corporations. Women also moved out of households to work in business, factories and offices, double income families gradually became common in many of today's society. As parents worked away from home, children suffered. Conditions at work sometimes strained relationship between father and mother which leading to stress in children affecting their performance in school. To compound the problem, families were disrupted with divorce which saw an increase in singleparent families. Some adults remarried and formed new families from previous marriages posing many challenges of their own. As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values were acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion and school complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in changes in the relationship between family, education and religion. Social norms that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed and these social institutions (family, education and religion) are increasingly loosing their ability to guide the behaviours desired of today's generation (Sowell, 2000). Children could now support their own families with their own earnings and as a result no longer needed the blessings of their elders. Since advancement on the job depended on the individualÊs ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no longer a necessity (Roberts, 1990). Families have also been disrupted with stress, violence, crime and having to live in poor neighbourhoods. This had led to depletion of parents' personal resources' leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to cope with the job of educating the next generation without the active involvement of parents in the education of their children.
4.4
CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CURRICULUM
Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), "the complexion of our students is changing from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future" (p.146). As the world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new way of life. Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. One concept that Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse groups. In the 60s and 70s the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries (most notable is the United States) in an attempt to assimilate people of different cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is metaphor for the way in which diverse societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures, languages and religions) are combined so as to lose their distinct identities resulting in a final product that is quite different from the original inputs. Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes. However, in practice the culture of the majority became dominant. This approach has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by the salad bowl approach. Here people of diverse backgrounds are all in the same salad but maintain their own unique features. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each other; coexist and interact without conflict. Power and decision making is shared leading to more widespread participation and greater feeling of commitment from society members. How should curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralism? The challenge confronting educators is developing curriculum that is responsive to students' diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, flexible curriculum and even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. No society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student and the curriculum must nurture students to become active participants in a dynamic and emerging society (Schon, 1993).
4.5
SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS AND CURRICULUM
Curriculum decision making is political. Various special interest groups continually propose what should be included in school curriculum. The topics range form substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citizens. •
Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. Among the concerns of these groups are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, saving the whales and leatherback turtles.
•
Substance abuse is another concern of society. Substance abuse includes drugs (such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc), alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and so forth. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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prevention programmes to be included in school curriculum. Groups involved in prevention of drug addiction are keen to see that students are taught about drug addiction in the hope that they will be more aware of the problem and say "no" to the habit. •
Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent consumers as students and later as adults.
•
Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about HIV Aids awareness, nutritional information, and other health related issues. As society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern in terms of its consequences on the health system, especially in worker productivity and increased expenditure on health care [refer to Activity 4.1].
•
Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points; especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity are highlighted by the media and government reports.
•
Crime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention techniques and by getting citizens involved in crime prevention activities such as neighbourhood watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase the quality of life of citizens.
•
Governments are also determined to ensure that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education has been proposed in an effort to politically socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and practices. Being prepared to play a part in political institutions is essential such as the ability to make informed decision at the personal and societal level. Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society such as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth
SELF-CHECK 4.2 1.
What changes are happening to the family institution? List other changes not mentioned in the text.
2.
What is the difference between the melting pot and salad bowl approaches in assimilating people of diverse backgrounds?
3.
Identify other special interest groups and interested parties who have voiced their opinions on what should be taught.
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KNOWLEDGE THAT IS MOST WORTH
As society changes so does knowledge. Knowledge is growing at a rapid rate and educators are finding it a challenge as to what to include in the curriculum. Increase in knowledge, especially in science and technology is the result of increasing subdivisions and specialisations within the fields. Proliferation of several new fields of study or branches has contributed to exponential increase in the quantity of knowledge. For example, in the field of information technology alone, information is expanding daily. Just look at the number of new words and terminologies being coined in the field of computer science, telecommunication and genetic engineering. The continuing debate on what knowledge should be included in the curriculum of primary, secondary and even tertiary level education. Some segments of society argue that students should be given a general education which will equip them with generic skills to function effectively in society. Others argue that students should be given the knowledge and skills of specific disciplines to prepare them for specific careers. Futurists such as John Naisbitt and Alvin Toffler assert that knowledge should prepare students for the future. "Nothing should be included in the required curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future. If this means scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum, so be it" (Toffler, 1972, p.132). Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p.153) provide the following guiding principles in selecting knowledge for a society that is changing rapidly: 1.
Knowledge should comprise basic tools (this includes reading, writing, arithmetic, oral communication and computer literacy).
2.
Knowledge should facilitate learning how to learn (provide learners with skills and tools to be efficient and effective independent learners).
3.
Knowledge should be applicable to the real world (to be able to apply their knowledge in the solution of real-world problems).
4.
Knowledge should improve learners' self esteem and personal integrity (learners to feel good about themselves and be able to get along with others).
5.
Knowledge should consist of many forms and methods (because of there are different ways of learning, various options and alternatives should be provided for acquiring knowledge).
6.
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7.
Knowledge should prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy (able to deal with various types bureaucratic organisations in government, business, industry and services).
8.
Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve old information (to modify and transform old knowledge to produce new knowledge).
9.
Knowledge acquisition should a lifelong process (schools provide the basics and beyond those individuals learn from other sources such as books, newspapers, television and Internet etc).
10.
Knowledge should be taught in context with values (teaching has to incorporate values because interpretation of knowledge reflects the value structure of the individual).
ACTIVITY 4.2 1.
To what extent do you agree with the guidelines proposed by Ornstein and Hunkins on knowledge that is most worth for schools?
2.
Examine the suggestions in relation to your primary and secondary school curriculum?
4.7
EVOLUTION OF CURRICULUM
Have you ever wondered what school was like in 1930? What subjects were taught to the primary school child during that time? What textbooks were used? In Malaysia, during the 1950s the textbooks used in the primary school were biased towards life in England. For example, students learned about the English farmer and his daily activities. If you trace the history of any education system, you will be able to identify many events which have influenced the curriculum. Curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during that period of time. The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies, economic systems, religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a particular point in time. To understand how these beliefs and practices have influenced curriculum throughout history, the educational systems of the United States of America and Japan are examined beginning from the 17th century to early 20th century.
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Case Study 1: History of the American School Curriculum
Europeans came to America and established the first colony in Jameston, Virginia in 1607. Many of the people who settled in America came to escape religious persecution. The Pilgrims, founders of Plymouth, Massachusetts, arrived in 1620. Later they settled in the other New England region in the states of Maine, Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. In the south, other than Virginia, they settled in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Maryland. Slaves were brought in to work in the tobacco and cotton plantations and by 1770 there were more than 2 million people living the colonies under British rule. School Curriculum in Colonial America (Before 1776) At the primary level, the main purpose of schooling was to teach children to read, write and spell for purpose of reading the Bible, government notices and common law. The first primary school was built in Massachusetts. There were two main types of schools, the town school and private schools. The town school was a locally controlled primary school. Often it was a crude, one-room structure attended by both boys and girls of the community (see Figure 4.1). Students sat on benches and studied their assignments until called on by the teacher to recite. In that one-room were children from ages 6 to 14 years. Attendance was not always regular depending on weather conditions and farming cycle. Which time of the farming cycle do you think attendance would be low? The private schools were established by religious groups and specific ethnic groups to educate their own children. These primary schools also focused on reading and writing and religious education and were attended by upper-class children.
Figure 4.1: A One-Room Schoolhouse in Colonial America Teachers were expected to know many subjects as they taught students of different age groups attending different grades in one classroom. Source: http://www.newdeal.feri.org/library/ab95.htm
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At the secondary level there were two types of schools; Latin grammar schools and the Academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin Grammar School for preparation toward entering university. The curriculum consisted of studying Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history and religious education. These schools followed closely the model of European schools and their role was to support the religious and social institutions of that era (Morrison, 1990). The Academy was established to offer a practical curriculum for those not going to university. Its curriculum consisted of English grammar, classics, composition, rhetoric and public speaking. Latin was not considered a crucial subject. Students could choose a foreign language based on their vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could do German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history was given importance together with the teaching of specific skills such carpentry, engraving, printing, farming, bookkeeping and so on. With regards to university education, most students from Latin grammar schools went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of courses in Latin, grammar, logic, rhetoric, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, ancient history, Greek, Hebrew and natural sciences. The education system described above was to a large extent confined to the New England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? In the Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and Georgia), education was left to the family or home education. Wealthy landowners employed private tutors to educate their children and some sent their children to England to finish their education. For most poor whites who worked on their farms, formal education was nonexistent. Unable to read and read and write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before them. Children of black slaves in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read and write and were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught from an early age that mankind was divided naturally by race; each race having certain physical and mental characteristics which had remained fundamentally unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery on the basis that blacks were incapable of improvement, all the while denying them access to any type of formalised education.
SELF-CHECK 4.3 1.
What was taught in primary schools in the New England States during the colonial period?
2.
How were children in the Southern colonies of the United States educated?
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School Curriculum After Independence: (1776 -1900) The American Revolution of 1776 had ended British rule in the colonies. The new government set a new mission for education. Emphasis was on Âlife, liberty and equality' as enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights which formed the constitution of the United States of America. Emphasis on democracy, the development of a strong federal government, the idea of religious freedom and the new discoveries in natural science saw the decline of religious influence over primary and secondary schools (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). For example, individuals like Benjamin Rush and Thomas Jefferson asserted that American schools should be reformed to focus on subjects such as science, reading, writing, geography and higher mathematics. Education should be made accessible to the wider population and not confined to upper-class and privileged few. Mass education was essential if citizens are to actively participate in the democratic process. The monitorial system taken from Europe was introduced in American schools by Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838) in which academically superior students or monitors were taught by the teachers and they in turn taught their classmates. The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate large numbers of students at low costs in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing and arithmetic. The system was practiced both in primary and secondary schools. Later this system gave way to schools that were graded and students of the same age groups were grouped together. The common school, today's public school, evolved as a result of the belief that a well-educated citizenery was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy. Through a common programme of civic education, it set out to inculcate an American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American community. The aim of the common school was to develop basic literacy skills of students that could be used in everyday life as well as learn skills and attitudes that made one into a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan and worker. The education provided as to facilitate upward mobility and occupational choice (Ornstein & Levine, 1985). Schools were financed by the state and the local community who governed them. The coming of the common school laid the foundation of the American public school system. By 1900 the majority of children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900.
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Table 4.1: The American Primary School Curriculum 1800-1900 1800
1825
1850
1875
1900
Reading
Reading Declamation
Declamation
Literature
Literature
Spelling
Spelling
Spelling
Spelling
Spelling
Writing
Writing
Writing
Penmanship
Writing
Religion
Good behaviour
Conduct
Conduct
Conduct
Arithmetic
Arithmetic
Mental arithmetic
Arithmetic
Arithmetic
Primary/Advance
-
Manners and morals
Manners
-
-
-
Bookkeeping
Bookkeeping
-
-
-
Grammar
Grammar
Grammar
Grammar
-
Geography
Geography
Home geography
Geography
Text geography
Text geography
-
-
US History
US History
History studies
-
-
Object lessons
Object lessons
Nature study
-
-
-
Science
Science
-
-
-
Drawing
Drawing
-
-
-
Physical exercises
Physical training
-
-
-
-
Music Play Sewing Cooking
Source: From Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p.756, cited in Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p.74
Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the educational ladder that led to the state college and university. As the common school movement expanded, the ideal was to provide as much education as possible for all children and youth. The slogan was "more education for more people" and high schools were established and it gradually replaced the Academy. By 1890 there were 2526 high schools in the United States with an enrolment of more than 200,000 students. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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to 17 were in school which rose to 50% in 1930. The provision of public secondary schools became an obligation of the states, rather than a volunteer matter for parents and the local district to decide. Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy and foreign languages (Spanish, German and French). Between 1875 and 1900, the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects: meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology, physics, world history and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to allow students to explore their interests and capabilities.
ACTIVITY 4.3 List of Punishments in a North Carolina School, 1848. Rules of School
Lashes (Strokes)
Boys and girls playing together Fighting Playing cards in school Telling lies Nick naming each other For misbehaving to girls For having long finger nails Wrestling in school Unable to recall a word from memory without excuse
4 5 4 7 4 10 2 4 1
1.
Comment on the punishment for breaking schools rules in early American schools.
2.
Compare the punishment for breaking school rules above with your school system. Source: Coon, 1915 cited in G.R. Lefrancois, 1982, Psychology for teaching. Belmont, CA.: Wardsworth, p.53
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Case Study 2: History of Japan's School Curriculum
School Curriculum: Tokugawa Era (1603-1867) A significant date in Japanese history is the ending of wars between different warlords in 1603 and the founding of the Tokugawa Regime by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The Tokugawa family took over control of the country and ruled as Shogun or "generalissimo", in the name of the Emperor. The Shogun's government, called the Bakufu (or 'tent-government') was the national government of Japan which had jurisdiction over areas controlled by the Tokugawa family as well as areas controlled by many feudal lords. The Tokugawa shoguns established a high bureaucratic government, giving great control over Japanese society from its system of education to its business practices and religious institutions. Japanese society was stratified as follows: daimyo (lords), samurai (warrior), farmers, artisan, merchants and others (actors and outcasts). During the Tokugawa period, there were five types of schools, namely; shogunal schools, daimyo schools, shijuku, terakoya and gogaku. The Shogunal schools were for the children age 8 to 15 years from the samurai or warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was forbidden to teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology and cartography. Confucian classics were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common methods of study. With this form of education the role of the samurai gradually changed from warrior to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 27 shogunal schools. The Daimyo schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan and provided education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was based on Confucian ideas but included history of Japan and China, calligraphy, composition and etiquette. Some of the domain schools also taught Chinese and Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography and astronomy. There were nearly 300 domain schools and about half opened their doors to commoners. Many of the schools emphasised different curriculum for the different ranks of the samurai. For example, for the higher ranked samurai children character education was most important with focus on proper manners, proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, moderation in food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class and to be future leaders. ÂPracticalÊ subjects such as arithmetic and Western subjects which produced technicians was introduced to the lower samurai class and commoners but not the higher samurai class. The Shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Similar to the domain schools, many of them opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100 shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a curriculum consisting of medicine, Dutch studies, Western subjects, military Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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subjects and navigation. Since they were private schools, they were freer than other schools to teach doctrines and subjects that were forbidden (Passin, 1982). These schools became the centres which held strong views against the Tokugawa shogunate. They produced leaders who helped spread Western ideas and knowledge. The idea of merit was being practiced in these schools as opposed to the class students originated from. For example, an individualÊs performance and examination grades were emphasised rather than his social class.
Figure 4.2: Terakoya schools during the Tokugawa period Temple schools educated children of common people. Students were taught to read, write and use the abacus. In capital city of Edo, the literacy rate was 86% for boys and 30% for girls. In the outlying areas, the literacy rate for boys was 56% and for girls it was 15%. Source: http://www.honco.net/.../01/ caption/ caption-3-09.html
The Terakoya (children of the temple) was the most important and widespread school for commoners. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples but later became secular for the common people (see Figure 4.2). Though the majority of terakoya schools were concentrated in the towns and cities, some were established in the rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and artisans. The majority of terakoya schools focussed on reading, writing and arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals and accounting while others taught geography, history, science, military arts and even English. Students were not divided into grades. Although education was the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and easily adjusted to the work routines of shop or farm. During the busy agricultural season village terakoya schools were closed and students were given time to keep up with their household chores. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 14,000 terakoya schools and over 17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners. Students did not pay fees and teachers were not paid. Schools were maintained by donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority. According to a well-known textbook, "the pupil should be careful not to step on the teacher's shadow or to come within seven paces of him" (Passin, 1982, p.33). Teaching methods were not standardised and the basic subjects were taught using simple primers (elementary textbooks) prepared by teachers which were closely liked to the daily life and occupational expectations of students. The following are some examples of these primers: •
Farmer's reader
•
Increased Profits for Farmers
•
Bumper Crops
•
Merchant Reader
•
Navigation and Shipping Reader
•
Wholesaler's Reader
SELF-CHECK 4.4 1. What were the main differences between the curriculum of the shogunal, domain and shijuku schools during the Tokugawa era? 2. What are the main features of the curriculum of the terakoya schools? Why was such a curriculum preferred? Apart from formal schooling, a highly developed apprenticeship system provided direct vocational training. This was carried out mainly in the family, though some involved apprenticeship in commercial houses. Besides learning a trade, the training also included discipline and proper behaviour. The educational achievements and the high respect for learning of Tokugawa Japan played a large role in Japan's smooth transition to the modern age in the Meiji period. With a large number of schools for both samurai and commoner children, the country had achieved a high general literacy rate. The Tokugawa shogunate showed great interest in learning even from foreign countries. They supported the translation and study of Western works on science, geography, medicine, military science and other subjects. These studies allowed the Japanese to be exposed to Western technology and ideas, which facilitated the transition of Japan to a modern country in the Meiji era.
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School Curriculum: Meiji Era (1867 - 1900) When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan could read or write. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, an ideology based on meritocracy (even though it practiced feudalism) and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from a feudal country to a modern nation. Internally Japan was faced with an entirely new form of government; having been ruled under a feudal system since 1600, the Japanese were not individually prepared to become a modern nation. To better prepare themselves for modernisation, a national education system was introduced o help Japan catch up with the West. The education system would not only raise the level of common education, but would also work toward instilling a sense of national pride. Initially the Japanese hurriedly translated western text books and used them in their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling can be used as a boost to national pride; by replacing American or European stories of triumph with those of Japanese war heroes. The education system was used to establish a strong sense of Japanese patriotism. Also, the new system of education was geared toward creating a distinctively Japanese culture; no longer would the Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing, instead they developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. The education system was developed in a manner that would prepare the youth for more technical positions all the while creating a strong sense of nationalism and love for the Emperor. Even with the progress in the field of education, more had to be done to remove the feudal traditions of the past. In order to prepare the population for a centrally administered government, the traditional feudal districts were gradually consolidated into larger blocks. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient system of administration and gave the government more power to control the people. In educating their society, the Japanese not only sent thousands of students abroad to study at foreign universities, they also hand selected individuals who would visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or military. From their experiences the Japanese then consciously decided which methods to adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. As an indication of its success, elementary school enrolments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900.
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By the 1890s, after earlier intensive preoccupation with Western ideas a conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education system became more reflective of Japanese values. The emperor when visiting a local school, found out that some Japanese students speaking in English were unable to translate back into Japanese the English that they spoke. In 1879, he issued the Great Principles of Education and argued that the decline of Japanese culture was due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal, but at higher levels it was highly selective, and elitist. College education was largely limited to the few national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and there were a number of women's colleges, some quite prestigious, but women had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education.
ACTIVITY 4.4 Education and Social Mobility In modern society occupational stratification is relatively open. People can achieve different levels of socioeconomic statuses. They can be socially mobile, up or down the stratification system. However, this is not always with some systems of stratification: For example: •
In slave societies, such as the American South in the 18th century, the slave is legally owned by their master and their position is fixed.
•
In caste societies, such as in India, position in the stratification system is fixed at birth and strictly no social mobility is allowed. However, this is gradually breaking down today.
•
Similarly, in feudal societies, such as in Europe and Japan in the 15th and 16th century, social position is fixed and clearly defined (i.e. lords, vassals and fiefs). People could not move up the social ranks.
1.
How has education enabled social mobility? Give specific examples.
2.
Why do you think a sector of the population are either deprived of education or given a different form of education in these societies?
3.
Is social stratification still prevalent in society? Give specific examples.
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Curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs. •
The changing economy determines the characteristics of the curriculum.
•
Curriculum will have to address changes in the family institution.
•
Curriculum has to consider ethnic and cultural diversity of the population.
•
Special interest groups play an important role in influence curriculum.
•
It is a challenge for curriculum developers in deciding on knowledge that is most worth.
•
Curriculum is related closely to the ideological beliefs of a nation at a particular point in time.
Changing family institution
Latin grammar school
Common school
Pressure groups
Cultural diversity • salad bowl approach • melting pot approach
Public schools
Daimyo schools Economy and curriculum • information society • factory model
Shogunal schools Social mobility Terakoya Schools The academy Town schools
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1.
How has the school curriculum in your country responded to different societal demands?
2.
When you were in school, were the concerns of society regarding the curriculum similar or different from the concerns today?
3.
Interview individuals who were in primary or secondary school during the 1960s. What was schooling like during that period? Has it changed or in many respects still the same today.
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Alistair, R. (2000). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 3: Conflict in the curriculum? [Available at eBrary]. Cornbleth, C. (2000). Curriculum politics, policy, practice. New York: State University of New York Press. Chapter 7: Curriculum as a site of memory: The struggle of a history in South Africa [Available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 5: Social foundations of curriculum. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 5: Studies of society and culture. Kerry, S. (1999). Harm in the school system. School Reform.net http://www.school-reform.net/ Valiant, B. (2005). 21st century basic skills. Valiant Etc: News and Resources for
Thoughtful Educators. http://valetc.com/article.php?sid=51&mode=&order=0
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Curriculum Planning
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development; 2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model; 3. Describe the Saylor and Alexander model; 4. Compare the Tyler, Taba, and the Saylor and Alexander models; 5. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals; 6. Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains; and 7. Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.
X INTRODUCTION In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and history events influence curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning followed by curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. In this topic we examine in general the curriculum development Source: process by referring to three well-known http://www.iconandclipart.com curriculum development model; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor and Alexander model. In the second part of the topic, we focus on the first phase of the process namely, curriculum Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy.
Source: adaptation of http://www.freeclipart.com
ACTIVITY 5.1 1.
What is the message of the cartoon?
2.
How far is this characteristic of your education system?
5.1
THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a number of questions are raised. How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the principles in developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the curriculum is successful? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.
5.2
MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
What is a model? A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development, but in this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler Model, the Taba Model, and the Saylor and Alexander Model. Each of these models is named after their originator.
5.2.1
The Tyler Model
One of the best known curriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in which he asked four questions: 1.
What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2.
What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3.
How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4.
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
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In essence, Tyler's questions represent the four-step sequence of: •
identifying purposes or objectives;
•
selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students;
•
organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and
•
evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved.
By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography, History), the learners (e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1 presents Tyler's model of curriculum development. After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and human development. Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g. History, Economics, Science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6]. Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
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There is no denying that Tyler's thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
SELF-CHECK 5.1 1.
What is the role of objectives in Tyler's model?
2.
Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and psychology?
3.
Give THREE specific examples of "learning experiences" according to the Tyler Model.
4.
What are elements? Give specific examples.
5.
What is the purpose of evaluation?
Figure 5.1: Tyler's Curriculum Development Model Source: adapted from Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p.198. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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The Taba Model
Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2). She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision making. The greater portions of curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education. Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme. Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design. This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.
Figure 5.2: Taba's Curriculum Development Model Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Taba proposed seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development process: 1.
Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
2.
Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3.
Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined; i.e. the relevancy and significance of content.
4.
Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
5.
Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the content.
6.
Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.
7.
Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
8.
TabaÊ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
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However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and employers.
SELF-CHECK 5.2 1.
Explain why Taba's model is called the grass-roots model.
2.
Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers in the development of a curriculum? Why?
3.
To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in your country?
5.2.3
The Saylor and Alexander Model
Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is "a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre" (p.24).
Figure 5.3: Saylor and AlexanderÊs Curriculum Development Model Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(a)
Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate four major goals or domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others.
(b)
Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
(c)
Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss curriculum implementation in more detail in Topic 7].
(d)
Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
SELF-CHECK 5.3 1.
What is meant by "domains" in the Saylor and Alexander model?
2.
What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
3.
What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander model?
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The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model. In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with it.
5.3
GOALS OF EDUCATION
The cartoon at the beginning of this topic shows the kinds of decisions that curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world. Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary school or after completing secondary school? In Topic 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Topic 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which provide guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be taught. In Topic 4, we examined what society demands of its education system providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the goals of education may be derived.
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5.4
LEVELS OF GOALS
Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level.
Figure 5.4: Levels of Curriculum Planning
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Educational Philosophy
The initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational vision or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic vision is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather remaining an ideal that is unachievable. The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the different communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, socio-cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to the priorities. For example does the country want more graduates or should the emphasis be on basic education. In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions etc. could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost opportunities for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of students have to be assessed. In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices, customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.
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The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology. The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development. The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to work cooperatively. Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A user's guide. Available at http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles
ACTIVITY 5.2 Read the Case Study and answer the following questions: 1.
Why do you think that in the vision it is emphasised that South Africa should be free of violence, discrimination and prejudice?
2.
What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa?
3.
How are these educational goals similar or different from those of your country?
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Education Goals
Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run throughout the period some are specific to particular levels and times. This means that a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence, cooperation, responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts. Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, ending on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education on society.
ACTIVITY 5.3 In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000: •
All children in America will start school ready to learn.
•
The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%.
•
American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated competency in challenging subject matter (English, Mathematics, Science, History and Geography).
•
U.S students will be first in the world in Science and Mathematics achievement.
•
Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the right and responsibilities of citizenship.
•
Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning. Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C
1.
What seems to be the emphasis in these goals? What is lacking?
2.
Compare these goals with the goals of your education system.
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5.4.3
Curriculum Goals
A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is mention of the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it as a result of exposure to segments or all of a programme in a particular educational institution. Goals provide direction for the curriculum. For example: •
"Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as good citizens in their own school and community".
•
"Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of students"
5.4.4
Curriculum Objectives
Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; "Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good citizens in their own school and community setting"; the following curriculum objectives can be derived: •
"The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school".
•
"More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary activity".
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.
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ACTIVITY 5.4 Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum Curriculum Goal or Aim Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute towards the creation of a society that practices science and technology culture, responsible towards the environment and appreciative of nature and GodÊs creations. Sample Curriculum Objectives The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to: •
Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences.
•
Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem solving and decision making.
•
Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance.
•
Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discoveryinquiry approach.
•
Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research.
Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4 (A)
Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things.
(B)
Know that light can be dispersed.
Sample Instructional Objectives (A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans. (A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals. (B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours. (B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow.
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1.
How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different from the stated curriculum objectives?
2.
Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and attitudes/values to be acquired by students?
3.
How is 'Instructional Goal A 'implemented in the classroom? Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for smart schools. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
5.4.5
Instructional Goals
At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, 'Students will show an understanding about the tropical rainforest'. It indicates the performance expected; i.e. "understand", but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So it is not easily measured. Instructional goals points the way to instructional objectives.
5.4.6
Instructional Objectives
An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional objectives, specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives performance objectives, and competencies. An example of an instructional objective is: 'At the end of the lesson students should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest'. It is important that you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a period of instruction. It determines the selection of content (textbook, the Internet, reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures, practical sessions, group discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted, learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how you intend to evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been achieved. Let us examine in detail about instructional objectives.
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INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING OUTCOMES
Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of assessing performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a course simply referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover. There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning and the learner now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner. In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the subject area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does, and the intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of how the learner will be changed as a result of learning that content. The statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as "intended learning objectives" or "intended learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for short. Teaching then becomes a series of strategies which are devised in order to help students achieve these objectives/outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of each topic in this course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives]. In stating a instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used to indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is not enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand unless you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some examples of learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you should be able to: •
Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, and canopy
•
Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map
•
Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest
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ACTIVITY 5.5 Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it: •
forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished
•
enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve
•
makes evaluation easier because it is measurable
•
makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives
•
makes accountability easier
Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that it: •
restricts creativity
•
lead to trivial or unimportant competencies
•
is dehumanising
•
downplays affective outcomes
1.
How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students?
2.
Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?
3.
State ONE other reason each supporting the proponents and opponents of behavioural objectives. Source: Adapted from Oliva, P. (1982). Developing the curriculum. Boston: Little Brown.
5.6
CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING OUTCOMES
The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed and each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying of learning objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills and abilities.
•
The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes.
•
The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills.
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content require students to do, and for thinking about how students should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks which a subject might require to perform.
5.6.1
Cognitive Domain
BloomÊs taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his associated classified cognitive learning in six major categories: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Table 5.1). Table 5.1: The Cognitive Taxonomy Cognitive Levels
Description
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes
Knowledge
Remembering previously learned material. The skill may involve recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate information.
Define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, select, state, outline, recite.
Comprehension
The ability to grasp meaning of material. This skill may be shown by translating material from one form to another, by interpreting material (explaining or summarising), and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects).
Change, decode, defend, distinguish, estimate, explain, generalise, infer, give example, illustrate, paraphrase, predict, rewrite, restate, summarise, solve.
Application
The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This
Apply, compute, demonstrate, develop, employ, manipulate,
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may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories.
modify, organise, produce, relate, transfer, discover.
Synthesis
The ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information).
Categorise, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, devise, formulate, invent, generate, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, revise, rewrite, set up.
Evaluation
The ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organisation) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be given them.
Appraise, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, criticise, decide, defend, discriminate, justify, resolve, support, validate, write a review.
Source: Bloom, B. (1956). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives
5.6.2
Affective Domain
After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others, including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner in which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something. Table 5.2: The Affective Taxonomy Cognitive Levels Receiving
Description Willingness to receive or to attend to particular information or activity (textbook, classroom activity). Receiving involves the willingness to receive or accept and focussing attention.
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Attend, be aware, listen, reply, show, alert, use, watch, select, tolerate, follow, ask.
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Responding
Refers to active participation by the student. The student is actively attending by responding in the class and is involved in the teaching-learning setting. He or she gains satisfaction from engaging in activities.
Agree, answer, communicate, comply, consent, contribute, cooperate, help, inquire, obey, participate, question, request, report, respond, seek, volunteer.
Valuing
The students sees worth or value in what is being learned or the activity being done. The student does not merely obey or complies but does so because he or she is intrinsically motivated.
Accept, adopt, approve, complete, commit, desire, display, exhibit, express, initiate, invite, prefer, share, study, work.
Organisation
The student brings together many different values and attempt to resolve the conflicts between the values. Through this process he or she builds a value system. He or she sees how new values are related to existing values and try to establish a balance.
Adapt, alter, arrange, classify, compare, defend, establish, generalise, integrate, modify, order, rank, synthesise.
Characterisation
The student internalises the values. In other words, he or she adopts the values as his or her own. The values internalised determines the behaviour of the student. The behaviour is consistent and predictable.
Act, behave, conform, devote, display, endure, exemplify, function, maintain, practice, perform, uphold, use, influence.
Source: Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. (1964). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives.
5.6.3
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution.
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Table 5.3: The Psychomotor Taxonomy Cognitive Levels
Description
Examples of Verbs for Stating Objectives or Outcomes
Imitation
The student indicates a readiness to learn a certain complex skill. Imitation includes repeating an act that has been demonstrated or explained. It includes trial and error until an appropriate response is achieved.
Assemble, carryout, copy, construct, repeat, duplicate, practice, reproduce, start, try, volunteer, sketch, follow.
Manipulation
The student continues to practice the skill until it becomes habitual and can be performed with some confidence. The response is more complex but he or she is still not sure of himself or herself.
[All the verbs for Imitation plus the following]: acquire, conduct, do, execute, operate, perform, produce, progress, use, operate.
Precision
The student attains the skill and proficiency is indicated by a quick, smooth and accurate performance. The response is complex and performed without hesitation.
[All the verbs for Imitation and Manipulation plus the following]: achieve, automatise, exceed, excel, master, reach, refine, surpass, accomplish.
Articulation
The student is involved at an even higher level of precision. The skill is well developed. The student can adapt the skill according to different requirements.
Adapt, change, alter, reorganise, rearrange, revise.
Naturalisation
The skill is automatic and the student is able to experiment and create new ways of using the skill.
Arrange, compose, refine, create, design, originate, transcend.
Source: Dave, R. (1974). Psychomotor domain
The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain.
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•
Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes determination of aims and goals, design, implementation and evaluation.
•
The Tyler model focuses on four aspects: the purpose of education, the educational experiences to be provided, organisation of educational experiences, and evaluation to determine attainment of goals.
•
The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers, who teach the curriculum, to participate in developing it.
•
The Alexander and Saylor model consists of four phases: goals and domains, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and evaluation.
•
Levels of goals: educational philosophy, educational goals, curriculum goals, curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional objectives.
•
An instructional objective or learning outcomes specifies the behaviour desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the criteria for evaluating achievement.
•
The learning domains are: the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the affective domain (emotions and feelings) and the psychomotor domain (skills).
Affective domain
Curriculum goals
Cognitive domain
Curriculum objectives
Curriculum development
Educational philosophy
Curriculum development models: • Tyler model • Taba model • Alexander & Saylormodel
Instructional goals Instructional objectives Psychomotor domain
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1.
If you heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or subject, which of these 3 models of curriculum development would you adopt to guide you? Why?
2.
Have a look at any course or programme. (a)
Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and instructional objectives to be achieved?
(b)
Would you say that students would be clear about what they are expected to do in the course, or do the objectives simply delineate the content areas that the course will cover?
(c)
Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and the teaching-learning methods employed in the subject?
(d)
Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than class tests and examinations?
(e)
Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning in the subject?
(f)
If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective objectives for the subject?
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean? McGill Journal of Education, 34(3), p. 227. [Available at ProQuest]. Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in Education, 90(6), pp. 39-43. [Available at ProQuest]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter. Dalton, J., & Smith, D. (1986) Applying Bloom's http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm
taxonomy.
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MagerÊs tips on instructional objective. http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html
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Top i c
6
X
Curriculum Design
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define what is curriculum design; 2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content; 3. Explain the principles of content organisation; 4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences; and 5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred and problem-centred curriculum design models.
X INTRODUCTION The curriculum development process aims towards producing a plan that stipulates the kinds of teaching-learning experiences students will engage in. In Topic 5, we discussed the initial step in the curriculum development process which is curriculum planning in which decisions are made as to what we want students to be able to do. This is derived from the educational philosophy and aims of education. It also includes the kinds the objectives that are to be achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom level. To guide discussion of the curriculum development process, three well-known models were examined; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor and Alexander model. In this Topic, we will deal with the next phase of the curriculum development process which is curriculum design.
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'Prevention is Better than Cure' As society becomes increasingly complex, the incidence of various at-risk behaviours among students has increased. These include substance abuse (tobacco and drugs), teen pregnancies, road safety, sexual promiscuity, violence, HIV infection, gangsterism, bullying and others. Parents and society have not adequately taught students to avoid such high-risk behaviours and have passed on the task to schools. As such we see „add-on‰ programmes which often are a series of brief, fragmented units on critical life issues, squeezed into the regular curriculum. Unfortunately there is never enough hours in a school day and they have to compete for valuable class time. So, instead of "doing more", curriculum planners have decided to introduce prevention programmes by using existing school subjects.
Adopting the curriculum infusion approach, educators have designed lesson plans to include prevention issues in the regular curriculum. They have used real-life issues as the context for addressing the critical health and social issues while teaching academic subjects. In fact prevention strategies are ideally suited to infusion into academic subjects. Some educators are beginning to resent having to be the sole ÂcustodianÊ of society with parents and the community not doing enough to prevent such negative behaviours among students and youths. Through the years, more and more societal issues have been brought into the curriculum and schools are expected to teach them in an already crowded curriculum.
Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the curriculum, NCREL. Available at http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm
ACTIVITY 6.1 Read the report on "Prevention is Better than Cure." 1.
To what extent is this happening in your school?
2.
Give other examples of critical issues your schools have to deal with.
3.
Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the school curriculum?
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6.1
WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?
Curriculum design is deciding about the "shape" or "configuration" of a curriculum plan. It involves selection of content in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to as 'curriculum organisation'. In short, designing the curriculum involves the task of organising or arranging the four components; namely, objectives, subject matter, teaching-learning experiences and evaluation procedures into a cohesive and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties. According to Giles (1942) these four components; are intertwined and interactive. Unfortunately, not all curriculum plans give equal emphasis to each component. There are cases of plans that emphasise the subject matter or the content while others stress mainly the objectives and evaluation procedures. Still, others give primary emphasis to learning experiences or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design, namely; •
selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners,
•
selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities).
Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter is to be included? What learning activities should be planned for learners? What teaching-learning or instructional strategies should be used? What educational resources should be used in the teaching-leaning situations? Obviously, the selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a sound theoretical framework. This is where one's philosophical beliefs and conceptions of human learning come into play [Discussed in Topic 2 and Topic 3]. Your philosophical stance and your understanding of human learning will affect your interpretation and selection of objectives which in turn will influence the content selected and how it will be organised and how it will be taught or delivered. This is what Ralph Tyler meant by the philosophical screen and the psychological screen in his curriculum development model [refer to Topic 5:
Curriculum Development Process].
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CONTENT SELECTION What is Content?
All curricula have content and how individuals view content is affected by their view of knowledge and philosophical position. There are varying conceptions of content. Some curriculum designers conclude that content is really another term for knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts, generalisations, principles and theories. For example, an important concept in geography would be spatial relationships while in physics it would be acceleration. However, a distinction has to be made between disciplines and content. The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology and psychology are concerned with advancement of understanding and the exploration of the unknown. In contrast, content as found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) do not provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creation of new knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping students understand knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of knowledge or discipline, content is selected for educational purposes and organised according to the cognitive level of learners.
6.2.2
How Should Students Learn Content?
Some people feel that content should be prescribed and transmitted to learners (behaviourism) while others feel that content should be constructed by learners (constructivism) based on their experiences. In the former setting, learners are passive recipient of the facts, concepts and generalisations of a subject while in the latter situation learners seriously engage in the construction of meaning. Content is not just something told to students but rather something that students personally construct. Similarly, some educators argue that it is more important to learn the processes of content than the products of content itself. Such a view divides content as consisting of product and process, when in reality both should be given equal emphasis [We discussed this in Topic 1]. Cognitive psychologists refer to: •
content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts, concepts and principles of a body of knowledge), while
•
process as procedural knowledge or what should be able to do (the procedures, thinking skills and methods of inquiry embedded in any body of knowledge). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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6.2.3
How Should Content be Selected?
There is so much pressure from parents, academics, the government, the business community, religious institutions, non-governmental organisations and so forth as to what to content should be selected and taught in schools. In addition, there is abundant information and it is doubling at a very rapid rate. Schools do not have the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in its curriculum. Choices have to be made on what to include in the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) list the following five criteria to guide the selection of content: •
Significance: It is obvious that content selected should be significant. But, the definition of significance varies with an individual's beliefs. For example, curriculum developers who favour subject matter designs think of significance in terms of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour learnercentred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the learner. While those who favour a problem-centred design would regard the problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962) further argues that we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners, but also on their affective dimensions.
•
Utility: Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This again depends on your philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the subject-centred design, then you believe that the content learned from the various subject areas will be useful in the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, then you will take into consideration the needs and interests of learners which will enable them to realise their potential to function effectively in the workplace. Alternatively, if you subscribe to the problem-centred design, then you believe that learning about societal issues will enable students to apply directly what they have learned to their daily lives and the world of work.
•
Validity: Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is authentic and obtained from credible sources. This is especially significant today with the deluge of information that is easily accessible which may not necessarily be credible or reliable. How much of the billions of pages on the internet are credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and constantly updated.
•
Learnability: It may seem strange that anyone would select content that is not learnable. Unfortunately, it does happen. Can you give examples of this happening? For Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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example, the content selected for a particular age group might be too difficult and teachers need more time but insufficient time is allotted. Eventually, teachers will end up rushing through the material and some students left behind not understanding the content. •
Feasibility: Educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints of time, expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources that schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the content because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities and other schools events. Content selection has to be considered within the context of existing reality of economics and the role of the government.
SELF-CHECK 6.1 1.
What is the difference between content and a discipline?
2.
What is the difference between significance and utility in the selection of content?
3.
What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the selection of content?
6.3
PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION
After having decided on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a form that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
6.3.1
Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning experiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and activities.
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"The physics syllabus is overloaded" "Laboratory sessions has increased with the introduction of the new chemistry curriculum" "Scientific literacy of secondary school students is Low"
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much science should students in primary school know? What is the level of mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school? When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should be included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum. When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful: •
You might want to ask about the usefulness of the content selected.
•
You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities.
•
You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the specified period of time.
•
You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
ACTIVITY 6.2 1.
Do you think the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you teach (or are familiar with) appropriate?
2.
Give examples of subjects which you think the scope is inappropriate. Explain.
6.3.2
Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum). Do students have the opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of content? It is important that the
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sequencing of content lead to cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes. The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning [refer to Topic 3: Psychological Foundation of Curriculum]. The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962; Bruner, 1960). (a)
Simple to complex ă content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complex components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
(b)
Spiral - In a "spiral curriculum", concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on (Bruner, 1960).
(c)
Prerequisites ă it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood.
(d)
Whole to part ă content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts.
(e)
Chronology ă this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history, political science and world events.
(f)
Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later.
(g)
Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of view.
6.3.3
Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together in such a way to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much curriculum planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual learner. The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of concern that school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached. Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time. Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena drawing from various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum. Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and reading across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society (STS) curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4
Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the grades. Why? This is because students may not grasp certain concepts and skills in one experience and have to be presented again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is repeated throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction.
SELF-CHECK 6.2 1.
Name the different ways of sequencing content.
2.
What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of content organisation?
3.
Why is there need to ensure continuity in content organisation for certain concepts and skills?
4.
Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.
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Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum
The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even though it is not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching and learning. The expanding body of knowledge, concerns about curriculum relevancy, lack of connection among subjects and the need for future workers to have the ability to draw from many fields in solving problems has been cited as reasons for a moving towards an integrated curriculum. The integrated curriculum is organised in such a way that cuts across subject matter, bringing together various aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study. It views teaching and learning in a holistic way that reflects the real world. Among the common areas of integration are: 1.
art, mathematics and reading;
2.
writing across the curriculum;
3.
history, science and mathematics;
4.
history and literature;
5.
integrated humanities;
6.
health and reading;
7.
social studies, health and the arts;
8.
physical education, the arts, health and literature; and
9.
science, social studies, health and the arts.
For example, 'water' as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science (composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature (poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes related to water), economics (supply and demand of water) and so forth. Education journal and teachers' own anecdotal records report many examples of educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. It has been suggested that the integrated curriculum helps students apply skills, leads to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning and promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).
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Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from business, industry, government and labour need to provide suggestions for curriculum redesign. Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Available at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html
ACTIVITY 6.3 Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the following questions: 1.
Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum?
2.
What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
3.
Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your institution may be integrated.
6.4 6.4.1
SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES What are Learning Experiences?
While content is the "meat" of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning experiences planned for the students as the "heart" of the plan (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum. Tyler (1960) used the term Âlearning experiencesÊ in his curriculum development model (discussed earlier in Topic 5). Learning experiences is the instructional component of the curriculum providing for the interaction between teacher, student and the content. Learning experiences, designed for the purpose of achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan can be divided into: •
teaching methods adopted; and
•
learning activities.
There are many types of teaching methods and some examples of teaching methods include; the inquiry method, the discovery approach, the lecture method, small group discussion, role-playing, fieldwork and so forth. The term learning activities was used by Taba (1962) in her curriculum development Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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model (discussed in Topic 5). Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create and apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are answering questions, solving problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games and so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally important parts of the learning experience and should be carefully planned. In many instances, there is overlap between teaching methods and learning activities and some people may find the distinction problematic.
6.4.2
Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences ACTIVITY 6.4 Malaysian Primary 6 Science
Topic: Conservation Objectives: •
List waste materials that can be reused and recycled.
•
Explain the paper recycling paper.
•
Carry out recycling projects.
Content: •
Concept of recycling and reusing.
•
Components of the paper recycling process.
Learning Experiences: •
View photos and video-clips on recycling of waste materials.
•
Class project on collecting newspapers for recycling.
•
Visit to a paper recycling plant.
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for SMART SCHOOLS. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
1.
How are the objectives, the content selected and learning experiences related?
2.
Suggest other learning experiences for the same content.
3.
Does the subject or course you teach make the distinction between content and learning experiences? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities) are selected to translate the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan. It includes all the actions of teachers necessary to influence student behaviour and ultimately, their learning. The particular actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching method adopted and learning activities used, but they all are aimed towards bringing about learning. The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure that there is alignment between objectives, content and learning experiences. Will the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum? This criterion is termed as validity. Learning experiences should also be selected in terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be carried out given the time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. It would be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper but difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained and facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences which require using the internet when the school does not have internet connection. Learning experiences should also be selected on the basis whether they will enhance students' learning of the content as well as motivate them to continue learning. The learning experiences should also attempt to develop thinking skills of students and to stimulate greater understanding of their own existence as individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the learning experiences selected should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning which are skills required in the world of work. Learning experiences should foster cognitive, affective, psychomotor and spiritual development of the learner. In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content and experiences. In reality, both content and learning experiences do not exist in isolation. For example, a student cannot just engage in learning or studying without experiencing some activity and some content. Likewise, teachers cannot deal with content without being engaged in some experience or some activity. [You will notice that each topic in this course has a number of learning activities such as 'self-test' &'activity' to encourage you to 'play' with the content]
6.5
CURRICULUM DESIGNS
Most curriculum designs can be grouped into the following three basic designs; namely, subject-centred designs, learner-centred designs and problem-centred designs (see Table 6.1). Subject-Centred Designs include 5 types of designs: academic subject designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation designs and process designs. Learner-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs identified as child-centred, romantic/radical designs and humanistic designs. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Problem-Centred Designs include 3 types of design identified as life-situations design, core design and social problems design (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Table 6.1: Summary of major curriculum designs (a) Academic Subjects Design (b) Discipline Based Design
Subject-Centred Designs
(c) Broad Fields Design
•
Separate subjects or courses.
•
Use structure of the discipline.
•
Approach physics as a physicist.
•
Use inquiry methods of the discipline.
•
Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary.
•
E.g. Integrated science, whole language.
•
Relate one subject to another with each keeping its identity.
•
Thematic approach or Team teaching.
•
Teaching thinking processes such as critical & creative thinking, problem solving.
•
Metacognitive training.
•
ChildÊs interest, need and experiences are emphasised.
•
E.g. project method.
•
Learning is reflective and not externally imposed.
•
Society is flawed and curriculum should emancipate the learner.
•
Stress development students.
•
Uniqueness of individuals and importance of self-actualisation.
•
Life situations design.
•
Subject matter focuses on pressing social issues and solutions.
•
Social functions core.
•
Students work on problems crucial in todayÊs society
•
Social problems and reconstructionist designs.
•
Analyse severe humankind
(d) Correlation Design
(e) Process Design
(a)
Learner-Centre Designs
Problem-Centred Designs
Child-Centred Design
(b)
Radical Design
(c)
Humanistic Design
(a)
Life-Situations Design
(b)
Core Design
(c)
Social Problems Design
of
self-concept
problems
confronting
Source: Adapted from Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.264. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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6.5.1
Subject-Centred Designs
Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is integral in any school system, much thought has focussed on how best to present the knowledge, skills and values of subjects to learners and five approaches have been proposed: (a)
Academic Subject Design: The academic subject design is both the oldest and best known design to most people because it was the way many of them were educated. Is this true of you? This design is based on the belief that humans are unique because of their intellect and the quest for and acquisition of knowledge is to feed this intellect. In the 1930s, Robert Hutchins indicated that the academic subject design model for American schools should comprise; language and its uses (reading, writing, grammar, literature), Mathematics, Science, History and foreign languages. Has it changed today? Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given is that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it be lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to communicate the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal form in textbooks. Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone through themselves when in school. However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. Stress on subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical development and to some extent fosters an elite ruling class based on knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Do you agree?
(b)
Discipline Design: A discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of inquiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition, has a collection of literature and persons involved in the field as theoreticians and practitioners. Proponents of the discipline design model emphasise the teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In other words, a student who studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist while those who study history will study it as historians. What is the rationale for teaching the disciplines? According to its proponents, the school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the disciplines reflect that world.
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SELF-CHECK 6.3
(c)
1.
Why is curriculum based on the academic subject design model popular even today?
2.
What is the main difference between the academic subject design model and the discipline based design model? Give examples
Broad Fields Design: The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main reason for this design arose from the concern that subjects taught were too compartimentalised and fragmented. For example, geography, geometry, literature, algebra and so forth. The suggestion was to bring together content from different subject to form one logical subject. For example, Economics, Sociology, Political Science, Geography and History were combined to form the social studies. Another example is language arts (composed of literature, grammar, linguistics and spelling) and general science (composed of Biology, Chemistry and Physics). At one time there was a subject called Man and the Environment (Alam dan Manusia) implemented in Malaysian primary schools. What do you see as some problems with this model? One is the issue of breadth versus depth. For example, in studying the social studies over one year, students are exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various social science concepts will be superficial. For sure, a year of economics will expose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a year of social studies. However, some may argue whether students need such in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. If the educational philosophy is to give students an overview of the social sciences, then the social studies might be a logical choice.
(d)
Correlation Design: The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five separate subjects and neither do you want the five different subject areas to be fused into one subject, then the correlation design model might be an alternative. For example, you may want to just fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school level. For example, in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese occupation of Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels about life during that time period. However, each subject retains its own distinct identity. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(e)
Process Design: In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of inquiry used by experts in the respective discipline. For example, in studying anthropology, students will learn the various ethnographic procedures used in the field. Advocates of the process design model stress the learning of general procedures and processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline. The most popular example of the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Various educators have suggested that students should be taught to think. Curriculum has focussed on the teaching of decision making, problem solving, critical thinking and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identification of fallacies, checking the credibility of sources and so forth. In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their thinking and to take action when necessary. The good thinker is able to monitor his or her thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general assumption is that there are general thinking skills and processes are common regardless of the subject area. The aim of the curriculum is to enhance these process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not unique to geography or physics. Neither is thinking creatively the sole domain of art or literature.
SELF-CHECK 6.4 1.
What is the main difference between the broad field design model and the correlation design model? Give examples.
2.
How is the teaching of thinking skills in the discipline based design model and process design model different?
6.5.2
Learner-Centred Designs
While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learnercentred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were largely the progressives [we have covered this in topic 2]. Emphasis was on the development of the whole child and this was most evident in primary schools. (a)
Child-Centred Design: Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related closely to the daily lives of students unlike the subject-centred design which tends to separate content from the daily lives of learner. In the child-centred Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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design focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An early advocate of the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) who in his book Emile made the child the focus of the educational process. He emphasised that "Living is the business that I wish to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man" (cited in Soetard, M., 1994, p.423). This did not mean children were allowed to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of development. Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John Dewey [we have discussed some of his ideas in Topic 2- Progressivism]. He argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them four basic impulses ă the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast, to inquire and to express themselves through language. In the child-centred design teaching and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of information they bring to the classroom. Using this design teachers and students negotiate what if of interest to learners and what content is to be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units, its purposes, the focus of the content, the learning activities to be introduced in the teaching-learning situations. Hence, in meeting the needs of students, the childcentred curriculum will be constantly changing. In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become subject-matter of the curriculum. Children are given the freedom to discover, first hand, by doing things for themselves rather that being told how to do something. The "project method" became a popular pedagogical strategy in the child-centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve problems that are of interest to learners. (b)
Radical Design: In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the childcentred design. The difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the curriculum to reform society [we dealt with this in Topic 2 ă Reconstructionism]. Proponents of the radical design operate on the assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of the radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating students as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal, that is, 'the teacher who learns and the learner who teaches'. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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According to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective and not externally imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so designed to free the learner from indoctrination. Knowledge is not the finished product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination. Learning is something that results from the interaction between and among people. Learners should challenge content and allowed to give their opinions about the information given to them. Learners will value what they learn if they are allowed to construct their own knowledge. [These ideas have been discussed in Topic 3 ă Constructivism]. When learners create meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned resulting in genuine thought. (c)
Humanistic Design: The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response to excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in the United States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology [we have discussed this in Topic 3 ă Humanistic Psychology]. A basic question asked is whether the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or her full potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis was to be placed on the affective domain to permit students of feel and value. One of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl Rogers (1902-1987) who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons, placing importance on their feelings, their opinions and caring for them. In other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the studentÊs eyes. With such a curriculum, learners will be able to become fully functional persons, capable of intelligent choice, are critical learners and able to approach problems situations with flexibility and work cooperatively with others (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The humanistic curriculum design focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The design stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum requires teachers with great skills and competence in dealing with individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers. There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of society.
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SELF-CHECK 6.5 1.
What is the main focus of curriculum based on the LearnerCentred Designs?
2.
What is the main difference between the child-centred design model and the radical design model?
3.
What is the main feature of the humanistic design model?
6.5.3
Problem-Centred Designs
Besides the Subject-Centred and Learner-Centred curriculum design models, a third category called the Problem-Centred Designs is proposed. The focus of this category of models is the problems faced by society. Problem-centred designs are predetermined before the arrival of students. In other words, genuine life problems are selected and teaching-learning activities organised around these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address the problem. Unlike the learner-centred designs, the problems or issues discussed originate from issues that are of concern to society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge and skills to fit into society when they leave school. (a)
Life-centred situations: In any society there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a society's successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use of leisure time, ethical character, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. It was argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a curriculum around such life situations. Students will see direct relevance in studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having students study social or life situations will encourage them to see ways to improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will depend on what students' need before entering the world of work and assuming adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have already been met by the family, religious institutions and other community organisations. So, the school should address those needs not met through these institutions. This life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allow students to see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing problems, Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions to current issues.
Core-design:
(b)
A variation of the life-centred situations design is the core-design model. Focus is still on the pressing problems of society. The difference being that certain problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before students enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core problems are taught to all students in a block-time format whereby two or more periods of class time is used. A problem solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems. Students select a problem through consensus and work either individually or in groups. Data is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented in class. Findings are evaluated and discussed.
SELF-CHECK 6.6 1.
What is the main focus of curriculum based on the Problem-Centred Designs?
2.
What is the main difference between the life-centred design model and the core-design model?
ACTIVITY 6.5 The following are some problems with the problem-centred designs: •
The difficulty in determining the scope and sequence of social problems faced by society.
•
Textbooks and other teaching material do not support the problemcentred design.
•
Teachers are uncomfortable with the design because it departs too much from their training.
•
The design requires an exceptional teacher, well versed in subject matter, problem-solving skills and general knowledge.
You are leading a team in designing a curriculum for the primary school using the problem-centred design. Suggest how you would overcome the problems listed above.
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•
Curriculum design involves making decisions about the selection and organisation of content and learning experiences in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
•
Content is usually selected from a body of knowledge or discipline for educational purposes and organised to meet the cognitive level of learners.
•
Content is selected based on significance, validity, feasibility, learnability and utility.
•
The principles guiding content organisation are scope, sequence, integration and continuity.
•
Content may be sequenced horizontally, vertically, chronologically, simple to complex, spirally and whole to part.
•
Most curriculum design models may be classified as either subject-centred models, learner-centred models or problem-centred models.
Content organisation • scope • sequence • integration • continuity Content selection • significance • feasibility • learnability • validit • utility
Curriculum design Curriculum designs • subject-centred designs • problem-centred designs • learner-centred designs Learning experiences Selection of learning experiences
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1.
Choose a course or subject you teach or have taken. Explain how the content in the course is organised.
2.
"The content selected and organised in a particular curriculum is closely related to the textbook". How does this affect the scope of the curriculum? Its sequence? Its continuity? Its integration?
3.
Would a learner-based design be easier or more difficult to implement compared to a subject-based design for your subject or course?
4.
Which curriculum design model is more prevalent in your institution? Explain why?
5.
What is your preferred curriculum design? Why?
6.
How much freedom are you given to change the curriculum design for the course or subject you teach?
Gatewood, T. (1998). Integrated curriculum in today's middle schools. The Education Digest, 63 (9). p. 24-29. [Available at ProQuest]. Wragg, T. (1997). Cubic curriculum. London: Routledge. Chapter 2: Subjects, the first dimension [Available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 8: Curriculum design. pp. 232-267. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 3: Curriculum organisation. pp. 41-64. Cherry, C. (2000). Interdisciplinary curriculum project for grade 10. http://www.health-careers.org/resources/Physical%20 Differences%20Project.pdf McGinty, E. (2004). The spiral theory of curriculum. http://www.uprite.net./spiral.html
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Manitoba Curriculum Development and Implementation. Elements integrated into curriculum. http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/ks4/cur/elements.html
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Topic X Curriculum
7
Implementation
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain what is curriculum implementation; 2. Describe Lewin's change model; 3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change; 4. Explain why people resist change; 5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change; and
6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in the implementation of a curriculum.
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'Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful' The Education Ministry is to regulate homework assignment of school pupils to make it more interesting. Homework is clearly one key area in which things can and should improve in the interest of all concerned. Homework should have more quality than quantity. It needs a finer focus with less bulk, and in the process become more interesting to give students an added incentive to studying harder. Young people have energy, imagination and a natural curiosity that can help them to learn if properly chanelled. Otherwise homework can become a hindrance to the learning process. Teachers should be guided to learning rather than be fountains of infinite knowledge. They should present material in intellectually stimulating ways, without spoonfeeding. Pupils need to know that learning is part of their own life experience, not something separate and removed from it. Teachers should therefore avoid dishing out homework mechanically as routine chores, which would make studies boring and brain-deadening.
Homework that is interesting to pupils would not only make their learning more meaningful and productive, but also facilitate teaching. When school children are better motivated in their studies, teachers also find their task easier. Students learn better and faster when their innate inquisitiveness is fired with more participatory observation and enquiry of the world about them. Good teachers can make this vital difference. Pupils must constantly be encouraged to do more than answer set questions, as it is essential to think their way to unrehearsed answers. True learning is more than 'spotting exam questions'. It is more important for pupils to experience a sense of achievement in all aspects of study, which would give them a feel of their own development and growth. A more enlightened approach to learning such as this may also apply to regular class work besides homework.
Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005
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X INTRODUCTION In Topic 5 we discussed what was involved in curriculum planning and in Topic 6 we looked at different techniques of designing the curriculum focusing on some curriculum design models. The next stage in the curriculum development process according to Tyler, Taba and Alexander & Saylor is the implementation of the curriculum plan. The final destination of any curriculum (whether it be a school, college, university or training organisation) is the classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community. Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as: •
Teachers are already overloaded ă how are they going to implement the new ideas.
•
Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in examinations ă how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the curriculum are not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard people say, 'the plan was good but implementation was poor'? On the other hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf then all efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A curriculum must be delivered and that means it must be implemented in the classroom if it is to make an impact on student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not properly implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum development projects, implementation is not been given due consideration; not realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement changes in the classroom within a short period of time.
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ACTIVITY 7.1 Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer the following questions. 1.
What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun and meaningful?
2.
Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not 'spoonfeed' but rather be guides to learning? Why?
3.
Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.
7.1
WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION?
Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998; •
implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme.
•
implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people.
•
implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
•
implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours; often involving using new resources.
•
implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organise implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals.
•
implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication between administrators, teachers educators and where risk-taking is encouraged.
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum, several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason for the failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both experts outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships, the traditions, the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school system. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals, district education officers) should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be clear of the purpose, the nature and the real and potential benefits of the innovation. As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); "effective implementation of innovations requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other forms of people-based support" (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires winning people over and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should be given financial rewards but there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved.
7.2
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A CHANGE PROCESS
Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan in enhancing technology integration across the curriculum is introduced and you would want to know whether what was intended in the plan is actually being done in the classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a difference to learners. Simply, put, curriculum implementation is bringing about change and hopefully improvement. How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about change, you need to know what change is. You may say whatÊs the big deal? We all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how government policy changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum? Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for change. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they understand change and how it works. DonÊt you agree? Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a model explaining change (see Figure 7.1). According to him, all persons are faced with two competing forces:
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(a)
Driving Forces: These are forces that that are driving or pushing you to do something and change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it going. In the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and competition for promotion may be examples of driving forces.
(b)
Restraining Forces: These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, obsolete equipment may be examples of restraining forces.
(c)
Equilibrium: When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you do the same thing you did before. For example, in the school setting, the principal who is autocratic and constantly pressures his or her staff which may bring about change in the short run. In other words, the driving forces have overpowered the restraining forces and when this happens, change is initiated. As long as the driving forces are more powerful than the restraining forces, change will continue. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased hostility and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining forces have got stronger and change slows down. Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This has been termed as unfreezing whereby the powers of the restraining forces are decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal could instead encourage more discussion and group problem solving in an attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear among teachers that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best that they be trained before implementing the new ideas.
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Figure 7.1: Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)
SELF-CHECK 7.1 1.
What does curriculum implementation involve?
2.
How does Kurt LewinÊs model explain curriculum change?
7.3
TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE
If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a challenging and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of change you are likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion and tension within the school or district. Curriculum change is a complex and difficult process and requires careful planning, adequate time, funding, support and opportunities for teacher involvement. McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum change as follows: (a)
Substitution: One element may be substituted for another already present. For example, the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
(b)
Alteration: This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the hope that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example, introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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curriculum; use of new materials such as the graphing calculator in mathematics teaching. (c)
Perturbations: These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
(d)
Restructuring: These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system. For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team teaching or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
(e)
Value Orientation: These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel. For example, if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes. It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general enough to help you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the change. However, you should be aware that change is not synonymous with improvement and you might decide that change should not be undertaken.
SELF-CHECK 7.2 1.
What are the FIVE types of curriculum change listed by McNeil? Give examples of each category other than those given in the text.
2.
Identify other types of curriculum change which you have come across but do not fit into those given.
7.4
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job of implementing a curriculum, whether it is in the school system, college, university or training centre, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep things as they are! Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are. We often hear people say, "If it is not broken, why fix it". People are happy with the current situation in their institution and feel that the change suggested will Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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not meet the objectives of the school, college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the persons introducing change are themselves not clear as to the intent and what is required of the new programme. To make matters worse, the implementation of the programme is poorly planned. Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and competencies which will mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical strategies or teaching methods that are different from what they are currently using. They are reluctant to change or modify their current instructional strategies and understandings of classroom practice. Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and how to encourage them to be receptive to change. The following are the main reasons why people resist change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966). (a)
People resist because they do not understand ă They simply do not follow what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going. They are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome: The key is "communication". You have to explain to them "Why". You have to answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember, the effectiveness of communication is not the "message sent" but of the "message received." (b)
People resist because of lack of ownership ă Individuals will not accept change if they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them. Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the outside which may be at the national, state or district level.
Overcome: You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside, their view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design stages of curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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get them to feel that they are an important part of the curriculum implementation process. (c)
People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes ă It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new curriculum has been rushed or due to budgetary constraints, the training period has been greatly reduced and teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome: Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum. (d)
People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits ă If teachers are unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students (in terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome: Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts need to be given due recognition. (e)
People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change ă Teachers find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change activities, may run the risk of neglecting their current responsibilities.
Overcome: Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-CHECK 7.3 1. Why do people resist change? 2. Suggest other reasons why people resist change.
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7.5
CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA
In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) was aimed at the local situation and context while the national curriculum focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level (LCC). Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the curriculum to more closely match students' needs and interests. However, in reality not all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not responded in modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional techniques. Moreover, parents and interested groups in the locality have not been invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC program. According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into a new set of subjects. In some cases teachers have made connections between the subject matter they disseminate to the world outside, but the basic curricular foundations in junior secondary school has remained essentially the same as the previous curriculum. National Curriculum (80%)
Local Content Curriculum (20%)
Pancasila and civic education
Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism)
Environmental education
Indonesian language Reading and writing
Local culture (dance, local language, traditional games, etc
Mathematics
English
Computer and information
Science & technology Geography National and World history
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels, the lack of training, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and lack of funding allocation. •
First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions made at the provincial level tend to not meet each district's needs and conditions.
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•
Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in the provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East Java. Most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not have any specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional culture and local languages.
•
Third teachers' attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop their knowledge and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the national curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which required regular meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject development. This caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation. Source: MinHo, Y., Clementina, A., & Erry, U. The reform of secondary education in Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving relevance and quality through curriculum decentralisation implementing the curriculum in Indonesia. Available at: http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2 Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions: 1.
What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the local curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?
2.
To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country?
7.6
INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people. Each is a 'key player' in the change process. Without the coordinated involvement of these individuals the implementation of the curriculum programme will encounter many problems. Among the key players identified are: teachers, students, principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district education officers, state education officers, curriculum developers, academics, parents, interested political officials and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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national curriculum is developed at the national level and passed on to the individual districts and schools to be implemented.
7.6.1
Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and workshops have to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by experts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and professional interest and motivation (see Table 7.1). Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have teacher education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum development? Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not include curriculum development in their teacher education programmes. [Did you study curriculum development in your training as a teacher?] Certainly an adequate teacher education programme should include curriculum development (both the theory and the work of curriculum development) if teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be improved. Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme. •
Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-solving approach rather than a topical approach. Table 7.1: Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools Factors
Description
Adequacy of resources
Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general resources required for implementing a new curriculum.
Time
Time available for preparing and delivering the requirements of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need enough time to develop their own understanding of the subject they are required to teach.
School ethos
Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and community; e.g. school administration recognises the importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum.
Professional support
Support for teachers from both within the school and outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum professional support.
Professional adequacy
TeachersÊ own ability and competence to teach the curriculum; i.e. confidence in teaching.
Professional knowledge
Knowledge and understandings teachers possess regarding the new curriculum; e.g. different ways of teaching to foster student learning.
Professional attitude and interest
Attitudes and interest of teachers toward curriculum; e.g. keen to teach the subject.
the
new
Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ). Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html
•
Pedagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new programme's pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values, or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet.
•
Components of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn about the components of the new programme early in the implementation phase. For example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on school-based assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or centralised assessment.
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ACTIVITY 7.3 According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be conformist in nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have succeeded in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to play it safe and to keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by administrators who do not like to create waves. They have found success and fulfilment as students and now as teachers in this system, and for this reason many see no reason to change it. Source: Friendenberg, E. ( 1965). Coming of age in America. New York: Random
House.
1.
To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about teachers and curriculum change?
2.
Is this characteristic of other professions?
7.6.2
Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be willing to participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of the programme there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to participate or learn. However, it is still not clear how students should be involved in the curriculum implementation phase even though they are the main recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given notes by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught how to go about it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients to information.
7.6.3
Principals or Headmasters
Principals or headmasters are important players the curriculum implementation process in a school. •
They should understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to be taken along the way. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
They should have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the implementation process. They should be familiar with the goals and components of the curriculum and be able to see a shift in teachers' role in the classroom and the way in which teachers interact with students.
•
They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved in the process. Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals or headmasters a chance to stay on top of issues that need to be addressed. It will also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to frustration or even anger among teachers. Lines of communication are best set early to get out information to people as well to provide a platform in which they can voice their concern. Information gathered from listening and talking to people will also help principals or headmasters decide where to focus and needs attention.
•
They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum and how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for their children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the community on the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message that they have thought carefully about the need for change, that the have anticipated the issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing the issues.
•
They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government, sudden change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation plan may be necessary which is adapted and revisited along the way.
•
They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers such as; building on the strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
7.6.4
Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators, parents also play an important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a subject being taught in way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. To be successful, any new programme needs to be embraced by parents. One way of reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for them focusing on the new curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going on in the classroom. Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province of Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents containing information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in all schools. The information is updated each year as changes are made to the curriculum (refer to http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks). Similarly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents informing them of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 7.4 1.
What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the successful implementation of any curriculum?
2.
How should parents implementation process?
7.7
be
involved
in
the
curriculum
CASE STUDY: ENGLAND' NATIONAL CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The law requires that all schools in England provide for all pupils a balanced and broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve; promotes students' spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; prepares students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult life. The following subjects must be taught: •
English
•
Mathematics
•
Science
•
Design and Technology
•
Information and Communication Technology
•
History
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Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship Education, and Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects: English, Mathematics and Science will be given priority to ensure that they are secure. Beyond this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and, within a subject, which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis might apply across subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to individuals. For example: •
A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly videoconference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
•
A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across the curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
•
In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and pharmaceuticals, school gives priority to Mathematics and Science to help its students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve creativity in science and technology (CREST) awards.
Source: Department for Education and Skills. Key stage 3 national strategy: Designing the key stage 3 curriculum. England: Author.
ACTIVITY 7.4 1.
What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary school curriculum?
2.
Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting local needs? Give reasons.
3.
Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your country? Why?
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7.8
IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE CLASSROOM
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this point curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and decision making was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly the role of the teacher). Now classroom teachers will take over and make decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering question like: •
What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?
•
What topics or content will I have to cover?
•
What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and achieve the objectives?
•
How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully achieved the objective?
Figure 7.2: An example of an instructional model
Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or learning goals (discussed in Topic 5), selecting content, selecting learning experiences and choosing techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure 7.2). Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? LetÊs look at three examples of planning for instruction. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of topics by the number of weeks in the school year. For example, one topic may be taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the respective topic guides the presentation of content. He or she may prepare some notes for students, ask some questions during class (which may come from the textbook) and give group assignments to clarify points in the topic or topics.
•
Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of lessons using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources may include the textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through various sources of information to solve a problem.
•
Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A theme or issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to contribute their understanding and interpretation about the theme or issue. While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind, might term it non-planning.
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most cases, teachers adopted an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more methods. Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed in Topic 1 and Topic 5]. Instructional objectives: •
make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve.
•
help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes or learning desired.
•
inform students of what is expected of them.
•
indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson.
In planning for instruction lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is "simply an outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used efficiently" (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson plans and different students require different lesson plans. The following is generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of: (see Figure 7.3): Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(a)
objectives
(b)
pre-requisite knowledge
(c)
learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities)
(d)
instructional aids and resources
(e)
assignment
(f)
evaluation tasks or techniques
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been made, the teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.
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Date: When is the lesson to be conducted? Time: Time when the lesson is to be conducted. Duration: How long will the lesson take? Grade Level: State what level. Topic: From one topic two or lessons plans may be developed. Objectives: (a) Cognitive 1. Mastery and understanding of the content (e.g. able to give three characteristics, able to give reasons). (b) Affective 2. The affective outcomes desired (e.g. express an opinion, take a position, empathise with the issue discussed). Pre-Requisite Knowledge: 1. List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this lesson. Instructional Aids and Resources: 1. The instructional aids that will be used (e.g. maps, pictures, videoclip). 2. Show how they will be used. Learning Experiences: 1. Set induction: how the lesson will begin (e.g. review previous lesson). 2. The teaching strategy used (e.g. inductive approach). 3. Questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking). 4. What students will be required to do (e.g. listen, manipulate data). 5. How students interact with the instructional aids. 6. Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson. Assignment: 1. Learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (e.g. refer to newspaper article). Evaluation Techniques: 1. How will student learning be assessed? (e.g. oral questioning). 2. What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson? Figure 7.3: Generic components of a lesson plan
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•
Curriculum implementation is an interaction between those who have created the programme and those who are charged to deliver it.
•
Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a method, procedure or desired purpose.
•
According to Lewin change is determined by driving forces and restraining forces. To bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces.
•
People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies, ownership, incentives and time.
•
Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration, perturbations, restructuring and value orientation.
•
The factors influencing curriculum implementation in schools are: adequacy of resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional knowledge, professional attitude and interest.
•
An instructional model consists of the following four components: learning objectives, content, learning experiences and assessment tasks.
•
Principals and headmasters play an important role in the successful implementation of curriculum.
Curriculum implementation Force field model • Restraining forces • Driving forces Forms of Curriculum change
Resistance to change • National curriculum • Local curriculum • Curriculum in the classroom • Lesson plan • Role teachers • Role of students
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1.
Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
2.
Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English was implemented in your school?
3.
"New curriculum often fail to become established in schools because the importance and complexity of the implementation phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State University of New York Press. Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher's involvement in the curriculum endeavour. Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues. Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development. [Available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Bennie, K. & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum. http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A classroom teacherÊs perspective. http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm
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8
Evaluation
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. State what is curriculum evaluation; 2. List reasons for evaluating the curriculum; 3. Explain the characteristics of the CIPP model; 4. Describe the features of Stake's model of curriculum evaluation; 5. Explain the characteristics of Eisner's Connoisseurship model; and 6. Compare the different instruments of data collection.
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'Don't Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject' The sporting calendar for Term 1 (January to April) had football, athletics, cross country. In term 2 (May to August), it was athletics and cricket. In term 3 (september to december) it was hockey and rugby. As for the court games, they were In the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and played all around the year. 1980s, PE was never an exam subject and yet the country There were inter-house games and produced world-class sportmen if your school has six houses would and sportwomen in badminton, paly at least five matches for your weightlifting, hockey, athletics and house. There were inter-school other events. People like gamesare extinct and even they do Jegathesan, Mokhtar Dahari, Tan have them, it is on a knock-out Aik Huang, Rajamani, Ng Boon basis. It is the same for inter-school Bee, Nurul Huda, Marina Chin, games. Karu Selvaratnam, Nastar Singh, Zaiton Sulaiman, Ghani Minhat, Sporting activities have become a Tan Aik Mong, Dhanapal Naidu, burden for a schools. There is little organisation and the faster they are and many others. over, the better. The school saves We had no sports schools in those money and teachers have more time days. All schools were sport for completing the syllabus and schools. How did we produce revision in preparataion for national excellent sportmen and examinations. sportwomen. We had supportive parents, interested headmaster, - Retired Physical Education Teacher dedicated and comitted PE teachers, coachersand disciplined sportmen and sportwomen. The ministry of education has asked ministry officials to look into introducing physical education (PE) as an examination subject. I think PE should not be an exam subject.
Source: Letters to the Editor, New Straits Times, February 1, 2005
X INTRODUCTION In Topic 7, we discussed the implementation of the curriculum plan. We looked at why people resist change, the role of teachers, students, administrator and parents in ensuring the successful implementation of change. In this topic, we will focus on determining Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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whether the curriculum plan implemented has achieved its goals and objectives as planned. In other words, the curriculum has to be evaluated to determine whether all the effort in terms of finance and human resources has been worthwhile. Various stakeholders want to know the extent to which the curriculum has been successfully implemented. The information collected from evaluating a curriculum forms the basis for making judgements about how successfully has the programme achieved its intended outcomes and the worth or value of the programme.
ACTIVITY 8.1 Read the newspaper report „DonÊt Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject‰ at the beginning of the chapter and answer the following questions. 1.
Do you think physical education be made an 'examination subject'?
2.
Do you agree with the writer's opinions on the state of sports in schools?
8.1
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
What is evaluation? Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the programme. Programmes are evaluated to answer questions and concerns of various parties. The public want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved its aims and objectives; teachers want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective; and the developer or planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product. •
McNeil (1977) states that „curriculum evaluation is an attempt to throw light on two questions: Do planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses and activities as developed and organised actually produce desired results? How can the curriculum offerings best be improved?‰ (p.134).
•
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as "a process or cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide whether to accept, change or eliminate something- the curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular" (p.320).
•
Worthen and Sanders (1987) define curriculum evaluation as "the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of a programme, product, project, process, objective or curriculum" (p.22-23). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
Gay (1985) argues that the aim of weaknesses and strengths as implementation; to improve the determine the effectiveness of the allocated.
•
Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives. The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation results are: to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to eliminate the curriculum.
curriculum evaluation is to identify its well as problems encountered in curriculum development process; to curriculum and the returns on finance
Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. 'Things' may include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and evaluation are different even though similar data collection tools may be used. The three dimensions on which they may differ are: •
First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge. Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic.
•
Second, evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has immediate use while research need not.
•
Third, evaluation is a judgement of worth. Evaluation result in value judgements while research need not and some would say should not.
8.2
FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth of programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they have come to mean different things to different people, but in this topic, Scriven's original definition will be used.
8.2.1
Formative Evaluation
The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative evaluation may include determining who needs the programme (e.g. secondary school students), how great is the need (e.g. students need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (e.g. introduce a subject on ICT compulsory for all secondary schools students). In Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme. In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the instructional strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that in a curriculum plan the learning outcomes and the learning activities do no match. You want students to develop critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by experts of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or revising selected strategies. In formative evaluation learners may be When the cook tastes the included to review the materials to soup, that’s formative determine if they can use the new evaluation; materials. For example, so they have the when the guests taste the relevant prerequisites and are they soup, that’s formative motivated to learn. From these evaluation. formative reviews, problems may be - Robert Stakes discovered. For example, in curriculum document may contain spelling errors, confusing sequence of content, inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback obtained could be used to revise and improve instruction or whether or not to adopt the programme before full implementation.
8.2.2
Summative Evaluation
The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur just after new course materials have been implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years after the materials have been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions you want answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made as a result of the evaluation. You may want to know if learners achieved the objectives or whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. For example, the use of a specific simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes? Besides, quantitative data to determine how well students met specified Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations, and document analyses.
SELF-CHECK 8.1 1.
Identify the key words in the five definitions of curriculum evaluation.
2.
Why do you need to evaluate curriculum?
3.
WhatÊs the difference between formative and summative evaluation?
8.3
CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS
How should you go about evaluating curriculum? Several experts have proposed different models describing how and what should be involved in evaluating a curriculum. Models are useful because they help you define the parameters of an evaluation, what concepts to study and the procedures to be used to extract important data. Numerous evaluation models have been proposed but three models are discussed here.
8.3.1
Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model)
Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1971), who chaired the Phi Delta Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, introduced a widely cited model of evaluation known as the CIPP (context, input, process and product) model. The approach when applied to education aims to determine if a particular educational effort has resulted in a positive change in school, college, university or training organisation. A major aspect of the Stufflebeam's model is centred on decision making or an act of making up one's mind about the programme introduced. For evaluations to be done correctly and aid in the decision making process, curriculum evaluators have to: •
first delineate what is to be evaluated and determine what information that has to be collected (e.g. how effective has the new science programme has been in enhancing the scientific thinking skills of children in the primary grades);
•
second is to obtain or collect the information using selected techniques and methods (e.g. interview teachers, collect test scores of students); and
•
third is to provide or make available the information (in the form of tables, graphs) to interested parties. To decide whether to maintain, modify or Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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eliminate the new curriculum or programme, information is obtained by conducting the following 4 types of evaluation: context, input, process and product. StufflebeamÊs model of evaluation relies on both formative and summative evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness a curriculum programme (see Figure 8.1). Evaluation is required at all levels of the programme implemented.
Figure 8.1: Formative and summative evaluation in the CIPP Model
(a)
Context Evaluation (What needs to be done and in what context)? This is the most basic kind of evaluation with the purpose of providing a rationale for the objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which the curriculum is implemented which could be a classroom, school or training department. The evaluator determines needs that were not met and reasons why the needs are not being met. Also identified are the shortcomings and problems in the organisation under review (e.g. a sizable proportion of students in secondary schools are unable to read at the desired level, the ratio of students to computers is large, a sizable proportion of science teachers are not proficient to teach in English). Goals and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. In other words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations are being implemented. The techniques of data collection would include observation of conditions in the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players involve in implementation of the curriculum.
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(b)
Input Evaluation (How should it be done?) is to provide information for determining how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of the curriculum. The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage the evaluator decides on procedures to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input evaluation are lacking in education. The prevalent practices include committee deliberations, appeal to the professional literature, the employment of consultants and pilot experimental projects.
(c)
Process Evaluation (Is it being done?) is the provision of periodic feedback while the curriculum is being implemented.
(d)
Product Evaluation (Did it succeed?) or outcomes of the initiative. Data is collected to determine whether the curriculum managed to accomplish it set out achieve (e.g. to what extent students have developed a more positive attitudes towards science). Product evaluation involves measuring the achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and providing with information that will enable them to decide whether to continue, terminate or modify the new curriculum. For example, product evaluation might reveal that students have become more interested in science and are more positive towards the subject after introduction of the new science curriculum. Based on these findings the decision may be made to implement the programme throughout the country.
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SELF-CHECK 8.2 1.
What is the difference between context evaluation and input evaluation according to the CIPP model? Give specific examples
2.
What is the difference between process evaluation and product evaluation according to the CIPP mode? Give specific examples.
8.3.2
Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools
The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning is growing rapidly in many countries. The use of the internet and other computer software in teaching science, mathematics and social sciences is more widespread today. To evaluate the effectiveness of such a programme using the CIPP model would involve examining the following: Context: Examine the environment in which technology is used in teaching and learning. •
How did the real environment compare to the ideal? (E.g. The programme required five computers in each classroom, but there were only two computer labs of 40 units each for 1000 students).
•
What problems are hampering success of technology integration? (E.g. technology breakdowns, not all schools had internet access).
•
About 50% of teachers do not have basic computer skills.
Input: Examine what resources are put into technology integration (Identify the educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result). •
Is the content selected for using technology right?
•
Have we used the right combination of media? (Internet, video-clips, etc).
Process: Assess how well the implementation works (Uncovers implementation issues). •
Did technology integration run smoothly?
•
Were there technology problems?
•
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What are the areas of curriculum in which most students experienced difficulty?
Product: Addresses outcomes of the learning (Gather information on the results of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit). •
Did the learners learn using technology? How do you know?
•
Does technology integration enhance higher order thinking?
ACTIVITY 8.2 With reference to Case Study 8.4.2 1.
Suggest other questions you would ask regarding process evaluation (i.e. implementation issues).
2.
What data collection techniques would you recommend for carrying out product evaluation to determine the teaching and learning outcomes of technology integration?
8.3.3
Stake's Countenance Model
The model proposed by Robert Stake (1967) suggests three phases of curriculum evaluation: the antecedent phase, the transaction phase and the outcome phase. The antecedent phase includes conditions existing prior to instruction that may relate to outcomes. The transaction phase constitutes the process of instruction while the outcome phase relates to the effects of the programme. Stake emphasises two operations; descriptions and judgements. Descriptions are divided according to whether they refer to what was intended or what actually was observed. Judgements are separated according to whether they refer to standards used in arriving at the judgements or to the actual judgements.
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Figure 8.2: StakeÊs Countenance Model
8.3.4
Eisner's Connoisseurship Model
Elliot Eisner, a well known art educator argued that learning was too complex to be broken down to a list of objectives and measured quantitatively to determine whether it has taken place. He argued that the teaching of small manageable pieces of information prohibits students from putting the pieces back together and applying them to new situations. As long as we evaluate students based on the small bits of information students we will only learn small bits of information. Eisner contends that evaluation has and will always drive the curriculum. If we want students to be able to solve problems and think critically then we must evaluate problem solving and critical thinking, skills which cannot be learned by rote practice. So, to evaluate a programme we must make an attempt to capture the richness and complexity of classroom events. He proposed the Connoisseurship Model in which he claimed that a knowledgeable evaluator can determine whether a curriculum programme has been successful, using a combination of skills and experience. The word 'connoisseurship comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning to know. For example, to be a connoisseur of food, paintings or films, you must have knowledge about and experience with different types of food, paintings or films before you are able to criticise. To be a food critic, you must be a connoisseur of different kinds of foods. To be a critic, you must be aware and appreciate the subtle differences in the phenomenon you are examining. In other words, the curriculum evaluator must seek to be an educational critic. When employing the procedure of educational criticism the following questions may be asked: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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•
What has happened in the classrooms as a result of implementation of the new curriculum?
•
What are some of the events that took place? (E.g. more students are participating in field work, more students are asking questions in class, even academically weak students are talking in group activities)
•
How did students and teachers organise themselves in these events?
•
What were the reactions of participants in these events? (E.g. students enjoyed working collaboratively in projects)
•
How can the experiences of learners be made more effective as suggested by students, teachers and administrators? (E.g. more resources are needed for fieldwork; more computers are needed to integrate the internet in teaching and learning).
You will notice that these questions places more emphasis on the process of learning and the quality of experiences by those involved in the implementation of the curriculum; namely, students, teachers and administrators. According to the Connoisseurship Model, evaluators provide a description and interpretation of the curriculum plan implemented: (a)
Description: The evaluator records the actions, the features of the environment and experiences of students, teachers and administrators. People who read the evaluation report will be able to visualise what the place looks like and the processes taking place. The aim here is to help the reader "see" the school or classroom and get a feel of what the curriculum evaluator or critic is attempting to understand and help others understand.
(b)
Interpretation: The evaluator explains the meaning of events reported by putting it in its context. For example, why academically weak students were motivated to ask questions; why reading comprehension skills improved; why enthusiasm for doing science experiments increased and so forth.
To be able to describe and interpret the implementation of a curriculum the evaluator has to collect data and the following are examples of activities an evaluator may engage in: •
The evaluator observes what is going on the classroom and records teachers and students in action using videotapes, audiotapes and photographs.
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•
The evaluator keeps notes of what is done, what is said and more importantly what is not said. The evaluator should strive to describe the tone of the curriculum in action (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
•
The evaluator interview students, teachers and administrators about the quality of the curriculum
•
The evaluator would analysis student's work.
One of the great benefits of Elliot W. Eisner's activities has been the way in which he has both made the case for a concern with connoisseurship and criticism, and mediated these concerns for educators and researchers. The importance of his advocacy of these ideas cannot be underestimated - especially at a time when rather narrow concerns with instrumental outcomes and an orientation to the technical dominate. Together they offer educators a more helpful and appropriate means to approach evaluation, for examples: •
Advocating moving beyond technocratic and behaviouristic modes of thinking and for having a concern for 'expressive outcomes'.
•
Calling to attend to fundamentals. Eisner has consistently warned against educational fads and fashion. He has criticised dominant paradigms and invited educators and others to ask questions such as 'what is basic in education?'
•
Arguing that schools should help children create meaning from experience, and that this requires an education devoted to the senses, to meaning-making and the imagination. Eisner argues for a curriculum that fosters multiple 'literacies' in students (especially by looking to non-verbal modes of learning and expression) and a deepening of the 'artistry' of teachers.
Over the time that Eisner has been writing there have been significant shifts in the context in which schools have to operate. While there have been other voices calling for changes in the culture of schooling (notably Howard Gardner in this arena), the impact of globalisation, growing centralisation in many schooling systems, reaction against more process-oriented forms of pedagogy and a growing instrumentalism education have served to make Eisner's message both more pertinent to schools and more difficult to respond to.
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PHASES OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Figure 8.3 shows the phases of curriculum evaluation.
Figure 8.3: Phases of curriculum evaluation
8.5
INSTRUMENTATION FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION
No matter what evaluation model is used in evaluating a curriculum, the methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar. The common instruments used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, survey, content analysis and portfolios (record of work or products).
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Questionnaires and Checklists
When you need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a non threatening way, questionnaire and checklist are useful data collection techniques. Questionnaires and checklists can complete anonymously and relatively inexpensive to administer. Since data collected is quantitative, it is easy to compare and analyse and can be administered to many people. Massive amount of data can be obtained. It is also easy to design as there are many sample questionnaires already in existence. However, the information obtained may not be accurate as it relies how truthfully subjects respond to the questions. There is also the fear that the wordings used can bias client's responses. Questionnaires are impersonal and since only a sample of subjects is given the instrument, we not get the full story.
8.5.2
Interviews
Interviews are usually one-on-one situations in which an individual asks questions to which a second individual (which may be a teacher, principal, student, parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the interviewer while the person giving answers to the questions is called the interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someone's impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires. There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the responses required are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and there is a great deal of flexibility in the responses. For example; "Why do you think the recommended textbook for the course is difficult for low ability learners? The teacher responding to such a question will give a variety of reasons. Some of the reasons given may be of a general nature while others may be specific to certain sections of the textbook. This makes the task of keeping track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will require that the interviewer record all responses and make sense of it later. The advantage of the unstructured interview is that it allows the evaluator to gather a variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewee's knowledge, beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation. In a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific responses. For example, "Is the recommended textbook difficult for low ability learners because: (a)
there is too much content;
(b)
the language used is beyond the comprehension of low ability learners; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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or there are too few examples and illustrations.
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each question is relevant for its intended purpose. In the end, the data must be translated into a form that can be analysed and this has to be dome carefully to preserve accuracy and to maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of interviews is that it can get a full range and depth of information and it develops a relationship with teachers and students and it is more flexible. However, interview can take much time, can be hard to analyze and compare, can be costly and interviewer can bias client's responses.
8.5.3
Observations
Observations are about gathering accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes: -view operations of a program as they are actually occurring -can adapt to events as they occur -can be difficult to interpret seen behaviours -can be complex to categorise observations -can influence behaviours of program participants -can be expensive.
8.5.4
Documents
When want impression of how program operates without interrupting the program; is from review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc -get comprehensive and historical information. •
Doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program
•
Information already exists
•
Few biases about information
•
Often takes much time
•
Info may be incomplete
•
Need to be quite clear about what looking for
•
Not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists
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Method
Overall Purpose
Questionnaires, Surveys, Checklists
When need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a non threatening way
Interviews
Documentation review
Observation
When want to fully understand someone's impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires When want impression of how program operates without interrupting the program; is from review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc.
To gather accurate
Advantages •
can complete anonymously
•
inexpensive to administer
•
easy to compare and analyse
•
administer to many people
•
can get lots of data
•
many sample questionnaires already exist
•
get full range and depth of information
•
develops relationship with client
•
can be flexible with client
•
get comprehensiv e and historical information
•
doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program
•
information already exists
•
few biases about information
•
view operations of
Challenges •
might not get careful feedback
•
wording can bias client's responses
•
are impersonal
•
in surveys, may need sampling expert
•
doesn't get full story
•
can take much time
•
can be hard to analyse and compare
•
can be costly
•
interviewer can bias client's responses
•
often takes much time
•
info may be incomplete
•
need to be quite clear about what looking for
•
not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists
•
can be difficult to
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information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes
Focus groups
Case studies
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
a program as they are actually occurring •
can adapt to events as they occur
Explore a topic in depth through group discussion, e.g., about reactions to an experience or suggestion, understanding common complaints, etc.; useful in evaluation and marketing
•
quickly and reliably get common impressions
•
can be efficient way to get much range and depth of information in short time
•
can convey key information about programs
To fully understand or depict client's experiences in a program, and conduct comprehensive examination through cross comparison of cases
•
fully depicts client's experience in program input, process and resultspowerful means to portray program to outsiders
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interpret seen behaviours •
can be complex to categorise observations
•
can influence behaviours of program participants
•
can be expensive
•
can be hard to analyse responses
•
need good facilitator for safety and closure
•
difficult to schedule 6-8 people together
•
usually quite time consuming to collect, organise and describe
•
represents depth of information, rather than breadth
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CASE STUDY: EVALUATION OF A MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN SOUTH AFRICA
Background: Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (MALATI) was commissioned by the Education Initiative of the Open Society Foundation for South Africa in 1996 to develop, pilot and disseminate alternative approaches and tools for teaching and learning mathematics. Method: Based on project workers' observation and written field notes made during the implementation of the MALATI curriculum the following findings were obtained: Findings: (a)
A number of teachers had not yet received the most basic communications issued to schools regarding Curriculum 2005.
(b)
Teachers had difficulty interpreting certain aspect of the official curriculum document. Lack of clarity led to confusion.
(c)
The curriculum document had content errors.
(d)
Content knowledge of teachers was not adequate to handle some of the topic in the curriculum such as statistics.
(e)
Learners did not have the prior experience assumed in the curriculum; e.g. in grade 9, the teaching of probability assumes that learner had done some statistics in the earlier grades.
(f)
Teachers are continuing to teach the topics they are used to and are reluctant to use the MALATI materials.
(g)
The curriculum suggested that group work be used in teaching probability and data handling. Learners were not accustomed to group discussion and listening to one another.
(h)
The teaching of the topic took a longer time as teachers struggled to deal with learners' everyday experiences in the teaching of probability.
Recommendations: (a)
Teachers need workshops on selected aspects of the content.
(b)
Selected parts of the curriculum documents need to be rewritten to reduce confusion.
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To convince teachers not to treat the teaching of probability and statistics as "new content" but teach it for its mathematical value. Source: Brodie, K., & Pournara, C. (2003). Towards a framework for developing and researching groupwork in mathematics classrooms. Available at http//www.hsrcpress.ac.za
ACTIVITY 8.3 1.
What are some of the problems identified with the implementation of the MALATI programme?
2.
Based on the findings list the recommendations made.
Curriculum implementation
Local curriculum
Curriculum in the classroom
National curriculum
Force field model • Driving forces • Restraining forces
Resistance to change
Forms of Curriculum change
Role of students Role teachers
Lesson plan
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1.
Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
2.
Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English was implemented in your school?
3.
"New curriculum often fail to become established in schools because the importance and complexity of the implementation phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State University of New York Press. Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher's involvement in the curriculum endeavour. Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues. Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development. [Available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Bennie, K., & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum. http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A classroom teacher's perspective. http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm
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9
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Curriculum Issues and Trends
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain how the information age, changing workplace, media and greater democracy impact curriculum development; 2. Evaluate efforts by schools in catering to individual difference; 3. Justify the importance of character education in the curriculum; 4. Support performance assessment as an alternative form of evaluating students;
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'Don't Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject' The task of developing a strong pool of technopreneurs in the country is important to ensure the sustainability of the information and communication technology (ICT) sector and to create wealth for the local sector in the future.
"As they have little life experiences, they have to learn by experience and doing, and also through mentoring by more experienced entrepreneurs who serve as their business coaches and models", said Tay.
According to Dr. Wilson Tay, Vice-President in-charge of Technopreneur Development, Industry Development, Division of Multimedia Development Corporation (MDC), "there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs are created by nature or nurtured".
Other skills and knowledge that can be picked up include how to develop a business plan and understanding of the commercial viability of the business venture and how to grow the venture.
These, according to Tay, can be taught through action learning and experimental programmes, and also The drive of entrepreneurship, through business coaching and which is needed to create mentoring. technopreneurs for the country, can be taught at schools and Apart from developing a culture for entrepreneurship, a universities through engaging learning students with a passion for conducive environment is also important to create and nurture business said Tay. technopreneurs for the local ICT Here various methods can be sector. introduced such as entrepreneurial or business projects for students to gain experience and learn to create, start-up, commercialise and manage their enterprises. Source: Sharifah Kasim (2005, March 3). Venturing into technopreneurship. CompuTimes, New Straits Times
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X INTRODUCTION In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed the factors influencing curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we examined the curriculum development process. In this topic we will focus on certain issues that concern curriculum which will bw discussed in Topic 10. There are different opinions on the direction education should take, and library shelves are filled with documents and books describing current and anticipated changes in society and how education and, more specifically curriculum should respond accordingly. Despite differing opinions, there is consensus on the broad trends that are likely to have a major impact on curriculum.
ACTIVITY 9.1 Read the newspaper report „Developing More Technopreneur‰ at the beginning of this chapter and answer the following questions:
"⁄..there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs are created by nature or nurtured". 1.
What is your opinion of the above statement?
2.
List the strategies suggested to develop technopreneurs?
3.
Suggest other ways of developing technopreneurs.
9.1
SOME CHALLENGES
The world is changing rapidly and each day the pace quickens. Many nations are striving to achieve the status of a modern and prosperous state. The rate at which such status is achieved varies, with some countries getting there earlier than others. Towards this goal, nations are pushing towards greater industrialisation, automation, computerisation and modernisation of agriculture. More countries are realising that to achieve the status of a developed nation, decentralisation and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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empowerment go hand-in-hand. As pointed by Naisbitt and Aburdence (1989) the shift will be towards self-help rather than welfare, networking rather than hierarchy, a global economy rather than a national economy. Decisions will have to be made based on consideration of multiple options rather than an either/or situation. These developments have prompted society to ask whether the next generation is adequately prepared to meet these challenges which invariably refers to the education system. Four main challenges face the education system (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Some challenges impacting curriculum
9.1.1
Information Age
It has been reported that more information has been produced in the last 30 years than the previous 5000 years. In the United States alone, as much as 50,000 books are published annually and the amount of information doubles every five years, and this doubling is predicted to be shortened to every 20 months. Not only is the stockpile of information increasing, its accessibility has been enhanced with the internet and advancements in telecommunications. With the millions of pages added on to the internet each month, all sorts of information are made available to anybody, anywhere and anytime. In a matter of seconds, one has at his or her fingertips a vast body of information covering various fields of information. A new disease called "information anxiety" has emerged which has been defined as the ever-widening gap between what one understand and what one thinks one should understand (Wurman, 1988). It is the feeling of helplessness of being unable to cope with abundance of information and feeling of frustration at never finding the time to mull over the mass of information. Has the present curriculum in educational institutions taken into consideration these developments? Do we know how to respond to these developments?
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Changing Workplace
Automation and computerisation is another development that is rapidly changing the workplace and types of jobs performed. It has been suggested that more individuals will change careers 5 to 8 times in their lifetime. The new generation will have to continuously learn, unlearn and relearn (Toffler, 1972). Occupations and careers in the information age and the knowledge-based economy will revolve around processing and management of information. The shift towards knowledge-based jobs will require people who are able to acquire new skills and knowledge efficiently and effectively. Brain power will be the dominant force and muscle-power will be performed by machines and automation. The workforce of the future will need to acquire skills in shorter periods of time and at a faster rate to keep pace with knowledge that is fast becoming obsolete; emphasising the need for lifelong learning to stay competitive and relevant.
9.1.3
Influence of the Media
Increasingly, more people are having access to many television channels and together with the internet entertainment is brought within easy reach of many households. The onslaught of the media 24 hours a day and 7 days a week has brought with it both positive and negative content. The average household is being bombarded with hours of Western and American movies, music and advertisements; some of which may challenge and erode traditional values held by many societies. Increasingly, violence, sex, horror, racism, extremism, stereotypes and misinformation are portrayed in the different types of media. Attempts to 'scramble' and censor transmission through the airwaves has been a loosing battle. A plethora of forces are competing for the attention of children, adolescents and adults. Are schools adequately preparing children with the skills and knowledge to make wise decisions?
9.1.4
Participation in the Democratic Process
More and more countries are moving towards a democratic system of government. Together with it comes the practice of free enterprise which may be alien to some people coming from a centrally planned economy. Democracy and the free enterprise system require greater involvement of ordinary citizens in the decision making process. Relying on a few selected leaders to decide what is best for the people is slowly giving way to more "bottom-up involvement". However, involvement in the governing process will only be effective if the young are prepared for such roles. The ability to think is imperative for participation in the democratic process because "it helps the citizen to form intelligent judgements on Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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public issues thus contribute democratically to the solution of social problems" (Glaser, 1985, p. 27). In a democracy, citizens have an obligation to think deeply about important issues affecting themselves directly and society at large. They should be able to think critically, transcending ethnic, cultural and religious barriers.
ACTIVITY 9.2 1.
How do you think the changing workplace will impact school curriculum development and design?
2.
List the kinds of knowledge and skills that will be required of students to effectively participate in the democratic process and counter the forces of the mass media?
9.2
CURRICULUM ISSUES
We often hear of educational systems making the claim that it caters for learner differences. Broadly, this would include gifted students, at-risk students and students with disabilities. Some schools have divided classes according to academic performance while others have grouped students of varying abilities in one class. Debate is continuing on the merits of each approach with its proponents arguing the benefits of each method. Though students have been divided according to ability, the one-size-fits-all curriculum continues to be implemented. Then, there is the issue of students with disabilities such as the physically challenged. Should they be kept in a class with others of similar abilities or should they be included with others who do not have such disabilities?
9.2.1
Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted
The purpose of a differentiated curriculum is to provide appropriate learning opportunities for gifted and talented students. The rationale for such an approach is because of the capacity of gifted students to learn faster, solve problems more readily, and grapple with abstract ideas. Gifted students need the opportunity to work through the curriculum at a quicker pace since they take less time to acquire the basics. When tasks are consistently too easy boredom sets in and inhibits a studentÊs motivation to learn and eventually may harm achievement. Students differ in readiness, needs, interest and abilities and a differentiated curriculum is designed to tap into these differences and academic diversity.
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What is the differentiated curriculum? It is not giving advanced students extra mathematics problems, extra readings, more independent study or to do their own thing since they have mastered the basics. Curriculum differentiation is a broad term referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to create appropriately different learning experiences for different students. It is a philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities of gifted and talented students. Gifted and talented students are those whose potential is distinctly above average in one or more of the following domains of human ability: intellectual, creative, social and physical that places them at least among the top 10% of age peers (Tomlinson, 2000). There are numerous models of curriculum differentiation that cater for the range of individual differences in the classroom. Basically, these models show how an existing curriculum such as science, economics or history can be modified, extended or adjusted to cater to the needs of gifted students. In this topic, the model proposed by C.J. Maker, which has been adopted in many American schools systems is discussed.
Figure 9.2: MakerÊs Differentiated Curriculum Model (1982) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 X TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
Maker (1982) devised a very practical model of curriculum differentiation which shows how content can be adjusted to accommodate the ability of gifted students to manipulate abstract ideas and deal with complexity (see Figure 9.2). The process component of the model involves the methods and learning activities used by teachers to present information, the questions asked of students and the mental and physical activities expected of them. The emphasis is on higher-level thinking, creative problem-solving, decision making, planning and forecasting. With regards to the product component, students would be allowed to create products that solve real-world problems. It is also important to provide students with the opportunity to present work to a variety of audiences for constructive appraisal. Gifted students benefit from negotiating evaluation criteria and being involved in the process of evaluation itself. However, Maker argues that not everything in the curriculum needs to be modified or adjusted; only those that will lead to meaningful outcomes for gifted students should be incorporated.
9.2.2
Compensatory Education
As primary education is made accessible to more children, more children from disadvantaged backgrounds are entering schools. These are students from poor socio-economic backgrounds who have low language and quantitative literacy skills, have limited English proficiency and learning styles which are not conducive for success in traditional learning environments. In the context of formal schooling, being different has too often meant being deficient, and being deficient has meant "being at risk of academic failure". What can be done to effectively engage and educate students who are at risk of low achievement, failure and, eventually, of dropping out of school? Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s to provide extra help to chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and opportunities across schools. Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that many students, because of poverty and low academic achievement, are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies adopted were: (a)
Grouping: Students are placed in homogeneous learning groups within a grade or within a classroom according to their academic performance. Among the labels used for this practice is "ability grouping" and "tracking". The grouping of students is designed to enable teachers to more efficiently match content with students' ability levels and learning paces. Ability grouping has been criticised because poor students and disadvantaged students are disproportionately represented in low ability classes. The stigma of being in such classes has produced poor climate for learning and Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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lower expectations for student achievement. Students in these classes are reported to have low self-esteem and the source of discipline problems. In addition, teachers have not been adequately trained to teach such groups and instead implement teaching-learning strategies that are similar to high ability groups. (b)
Retention: This is the practice of holding back students who fail to demonstrate required level of achievement. Research seems to indicate that retention, as it is currently practiced in most schools has few positive effects and mostly negative effects on student learning (Shepard and Smith, 1989).
Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and its strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the problem of academic under-achievement in schools are: (a)
Compensatory education programmes that have focused only on improving basic skills should emphasise higher order thinking and problem-solving skills.
(b)
Less emphasis should be on compensating what poor children lack, and greater emphasis on teaching-learning techniques that make use of studentsÊ strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning.
(c)
Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an educational method that includes many different kinds of learners (including students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom, instead of separating them according to their learning abilities. In the mainstreamed classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels learn together in the same classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give every student a typical classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to use teaching methods that provide different things for different students, making sure there is something for everyone. Students may be divided into groups and provided with different learning situations. Mainstreamed classrooms have specialised equipment and learning materials at hand. For example, there might be a variety of books for different reading levels.
(d)
Early Prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschool and kindergartens have to be been made more accessible to children from poor socioeconomic backgrounds. Preschool and kindergartens should aim to develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children to help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers. For example, in the United States the Head Start Project started in 1965 made available preschool and kindergarten opportunities to millions of young children to prepare them enter the main school system. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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SELF-CHECK 9.1 1.
What is the differentiated curriculum? What is the rationale for such a curriculum?
2.
Explain the TWO common strategies adopted to help low achievers in schools.
3.
What are some emerging trends in helping low achievers?
•
Four main challenges face the education system: the information age, the changing workplace, the mass media and participation in the democratic process.
•
The differentiated curriculum aims to provide appropriate learning opportunities for gifted and talented students. It is a philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities of gifted and talented students.
•
Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that many students are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies adopted were: grouping and retention.
Changing workplace
Information age
Compensatory education • Mainstreaming • Retention • Grouping
Participation in democracy Personalised schools Role of the mass media
Differentiated curriculum
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1.
Do you agree with mainstreaming? Give reasons.
2.
'No child left behind'. Discuss.
Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary]. Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London: Routledge. Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary]. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World. http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml Thornburg, D.D. (1998) Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June). www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html
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Future Directions
LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify some methods of studying the future; and 2. Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools.
10.1 CHARACTER EDUCATION Character education (also referred to as moral education or values education) has always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how curriculum can be designed to teach children about basic human values such as honesty, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, respect and so forth. The goal of character education is to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined citizens. It is a deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in students; or more simply, to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that right and wrong do exist, that there are objective moral standards that transcend individual choice; standards like respect, responsibility, honesty and fairness; and that we should teach these directly. Traditionally, good character is shaped by the family and religious institutions. With rising crime rates, violence among youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity, breakdown of the family unit, disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty and drug abuse; the move is for schools to seriously engage in character education. There is a kind of values vacuum which is further reinforced by the influence of television, advertising and the movies to the extent that traditional values have been challenged. Together with religious instruction (formal and informal) and parents, schools have also taken responsibility for character education in attempting to teach students right from wrong and teach them a core set of values that will guide their lives towards building a decent society. The development of good character is really part of every childÊs birthright. Parents, schools and the community have an obligation to meet that needs of children. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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You may have children who have not been brought up in environments where certain values are stressed. For example, there could be children who do not believe that honesty really is really important issue. However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools have tended to be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral individual or to act morally. A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when such beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good character knows the difference between right and wrong, knows the bases for his or behaviour, and chooses right over wrong, action that is of benefit to the person and society over that which is not. There is a difference between having a person engage in behaving rightly and behaving morally. The latter implies an awareness of the bases for action or nonaction. (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998. p.372) Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of developing moral character. Through role playing and discussions, students can see that their decisions affect other people and other things. It is only through such teaching-learning activities will students understand and internalise the desired values and habits that they will require for living and maintaining their well-being.
SELF-CHECK 10.1 1.
Why should schools engage in character education?
2.
What is the main weakness of teaching character education in schools?
10.2 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT An issue that has often been hotly debated relates to how students are assessed. We have not changed very much in the way students are assessed in schools. Paper and pencil tests continue to dominate from primary school until secondary school and even in higher education. Though there is consensus on the need to assess the overall development of the individual, assessment continues to be Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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confined to a segment of the abilities of learners. What about the affective or emotional outcomes of education? What about the problem solving and critical thinking skills of learners? They have been acknowledged as important learning outcomes but are not adequately assessed. What options do we have? One of these options is performance assessment. Performance assessment is assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do (Brandt & McBrien, 1997). Some performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their ability in applying knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students in an economic lesson examine the price trends and production figures of petroleum in the last five years to determine how supply and demand determines price per barrel. Performance tasks often have more than one acceptable solution. Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that relates to the real world. Learners are provided with opportunities to show their understanding and ability to use knowledge in different ways. The goal of performance assessment is not only to find out whether students understand but also whether they are able to do what they have learned after having left school. In other words, have the knowledge learned, skills acquired and values inculcated have long lasting or enduring effects. •
The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works backwards. In other words, think first about purpose of assessment and about the performances you want students to be able to do, and then work backwards. What concepts and skills do I want students to know? At what level should my students be performing? For example, you want primary school students to be able to write creatively.
•
Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to measure, than you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what skills need to be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be introduced that will provide opportunities for students to show what they can do. For example, if you want primary school students to show their creative writing skills, you should provide a topic, time and resources that allow them to show their creative writing skills.
•
After having determined the activity, you need to set the criteria that will indicate whether students have acquired the knowledge and skills.
Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and effectively what they know. We often hear of society complaining that students are not able to 'apply' their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. This is Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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because students are not provided with settings in which they can apply such knowledge and be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test students may indicate that they know that a story has an introduction, body and conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to give the link between school and the real-world and to give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the studentsÊ point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teacher and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the teacher is more of a coach. While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being that is teachers are not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is that earlier failures with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the approach and to implement performance assessment in the classroom.
SELF-CHECK 10.2 1.
What is performance assessment?
2.
What is the rationale for encouraging widespread use of performance assessment in the classroom?
3.
Briefly describe how performance assessment can br implemented in the classroom.
ACTIVITY 10.1 Critical Issues in Science Curriculum The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades. Often, the natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their surroundings is often diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry and discovery. Science instruction has become increasingly textbookcentred. Even though laboratory experiences are included, students are rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve problems relevant to their perception of the world.
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A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm for science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways that are not consistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and learning models calls for learning that is: •
Hands-on: students are actually allowed to perform science as they construct meaning and acquire understanding.
•
Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers that enhance their knowledge.
•
Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and generalizations to broader ideas and application.
This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate fully in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of knowledge and information. Technology (internet) becomes a tool, supporting the learning process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. Accordingly, teachers will use a variety of alternative assessment (eg. performance assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to allow students to demonstrate their understanding of science by solving authentic, real-life problems. Source: Adaptation from Christensen, M. (1995). North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL). Available at: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm
1.
What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2.
Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school system?
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10.3 RETOOLING SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE Mental models are ways, in which one views the world and how one makes decisions; which often goes unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the invisible assumptions or beliefs educators have about their studentÊs ability to learn. According to Senge (2000), current school systems evolved on a set of beliefs or "theories in use" that; •
children are deficient and schools fix them;
•
everyone learns or should learn in the same way;
•
learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world;
•
there are smart kids and dumb kids,
•
knowledge is inherently fragmented,
•
schools communicate Âthe truthÊ;
•
learning is primarily individualistic; and
•
competition accelerates learning.
These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the Melaka Sultanate to Newton's laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and motivated by grades. While, this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in cognitive science reveal that this approach is not compatible with how humans learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology.
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Human learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge of learners, is innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by emotions, is reinforced by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of cognition, is lead by the construction of reality and enhanced in authentic situations. Source: Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington. DC: National Academy Press
In other words, learning is dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world that is beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving elements of trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology, it is argued that retooling schools be based on four guiding principles, namely; schools for all, personalised schools with thinking and understanding being the main goal, and students immersed in a technology-based learning environment (see Figure 9.3).
10.3.1 Schools for All Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children, but there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and ironically acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say that "we can't educate all children because not all children are educable." The tests used pinned to a bell curve allows us to say that some will fail, some will succeed and the majority fall in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for inanimate objects and low level organisms and may not necessarily apply to human beings engaged in learning. It is common practice in our schools to label children early on and respond to them according to the labels that been have created because of the belief that in any classroom there is a certain percentage of gifted, average and low achievers. Four times a year newspapers, radio and television stations proudly announce schools that have obtained near perfect scores in the UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM examinations.
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Figure 10.1: Retooling Malaysian schools based on revised mental models about learning, thinking and technology
High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to the number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy skills. There is less concern with "Why Ahmad can't read?" and a decade later "Why Ahmad still can't read?" One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a class of low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not good enough. Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the system but unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted states that "those who need it don't get it and those who need it don't get". It is common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative, and not accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a nurturing environment and schools are obliged to foster a warm and caring environment in which children will bloom. It is from this realisation that the impetus comes to create schools that work for all children. Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read and write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the rest because of examination priorities. 'No child left behind' (Education Act, 2001) should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really work for all students, not just for some. "When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an option" (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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overtly or subtly by educators are immediately felt by students. Unfortunately, many educators and schools do not effectively communicate high expectations to all students either because they do not really have them or because they do not believe that all children can learn. Some believe that not all students need to realise their full potential as there are always jobs on the farms, in the factories and low level jobs in the service sector. These beliefs have to be revised and educators need to believe in the incredible potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in all children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind. Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially academically weak students, where 'learning how to learn' is embedded in all instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be grounded in a value system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the ethic of competition and individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how they are reached and with who is just as important. The value system of cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the context of cooperation and how people get along. In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right thing to do while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the very core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children.
ACTIVITY 10.2 1.
Do you agree with 'school of all' concept? Why?
2.
To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school?
3.
'When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an option'. Explain.
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10.3.2 Thinking Goes to School While some people would agree that developing the thinking skills of students is the main aim of education, there is less agreement on what is thinking. Over the decades a range of terms and definitions have been proposed which has led to further confusion. Among the common terms used to describe thinking are; reflective thinking, critical thinking, creative thinking, lateral thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical thinking, mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical thinking, deductive thinking, inductive thinking, analogical thinking to name a few.
Figure 9.4: RodinÊs sculpture ure of ÂThe ThinkerÊ
Fraenkel (1980) defined thinking as the formation of ideas, reorganisation of oneÊs experience and the organisation of information in a particular form. Chafee (1988) characterises thinking as an unusual process used in making decisions and solving problems. According to Bourne, Ekstrand and Dominowski, "Thinking is a complex, multifaceted process. It is essentially internal, involving symbolic representation of events and objects not immediately present, but is initiated by some external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour" (1971, p.5). Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) looked upon thinking as a collection of skills or mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a collection of mental skills, it can be performed well or poorly. In other words; all people classify, but not equally perceptively, all people make estimates, but not equally accurately, all people use analogies, but not equally appropriate, all people draw conclusions, but not with equal care, all people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency (Nickerson, 1987, p.28)
A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge because it is quite impossible to think in a vacuum; thinking involves the manipulation of mental skills; thinking is targeted at the solution of a problem; thinking is manifested in an overt behaviour or ability and thinking is also reflected in certain attitudes or dispositions that are indicative of good and poor thinking. For example, a good thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open to multiple possibilities, uses evidence skilfully, makes judgement after considering all angles, listens to other people's views, reflective and perseveres in searching for information (Glatthorn & Barron, 1985; Nickerson, 1987). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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(a)
(b)
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Why has thinking not been widely emphasised in schools? •
First, there is the belief among some educators that the development of thinking skills should be confined to academically superior students because they 'can think'. Teaching thinking to weak learners would be futile and even frustrating because it is a serious mental activity involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers.
•
Second, is the belief that students should have a complete understanding of a subject area before they can deliberate and think about the facts, concepts and principles. Educators who subscribe to this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than ensuring understanding. Understanding is the consequence of thinking and if learners are taught to think about the content, then understanding is enhanced.
•
Third, relates to assessment and in particular public examinations which tend to test the acquisition of facts and how well learners are able to remember the facts. There are few questions that demand higherorder thinking and so schools are rather reluctant to venture into teaching for higher-order outcomes.
What is a 'culture of thinking'? 'Thinking goes to schools' is the title of a book by Hans Furth and Harry Wachs (1975) which reports about a project aimed at developing the thinking ability of primary and secondary school students based on Piagetian principles. 'Thinking will go to school' to when a culture of thinking permeates all Malaysian schools where language, values, expectations, habits and behaviour reflect the enterprise of good thinking. Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified four ways of bringing the culture of thinking to the classroom. •
First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is available or tolerating ambiguity.
•
Second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when it is to be used and how the skill is to be used.
•
Third is through interaction with other students where opportunities are provided to work in groups when solving a problem, brainstorm, exchange and accept ideas. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Fourth is feedback, when teachers provide evaluative or corrective information about student's thinking processes. For instance, a teacher may praise a student for the way he or she arrived at a particular conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback provides students with information about their own thinking behaviours which helps them become better thinkers.
What is the role of teachers? Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are the ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning experiences and have almost complete power over the processes that take place in the classroom. Students from more affluent homes where parents level of education is higher, questions are more frequently asked and the language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg and Caruso, 1985). But, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their more affluent counterparts "succeed because of teachers who served as mediators of their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and teaching (Swartz and Lowery, 1989, p.4). Teachers have at their disposal a variety of ways to organise their classroom to stimulate thinking. The underlying principle of classroom organisation is to encourage greater participation of learners in the teaching-learning process; it would be quite impossible to develop the thinking skills of students if the teacher did most of the talking. Students need to be involved and this might take the form of teacher-led Socratic-type discussion, cooperative small-group or totalgroup investigations (Fisher, 1992). Teacher response behaviours have a significant effect in stimulating thinking. Most importantly is the manner in which teachers or even parents react to answers given by learners and whether these behaviours extend or terminate thinking. For example, what would happen when a teacher or parent responds to a child's ideas with such statements as "What a dumb idea" or "You're not good enough". The chances are, that child might be reluctant to give ideas in the future for fear of being ridiculed or humiliated. The language of thinking plays an important role in encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminology will show learners how to perform particular skills and when used repeatedly chances are they will become part of their repertoire of vocabularies (Costa & Marzano, 1987). For example, instead of saying "Let's look at these two pictures", it would be more precise to say "Let's compare these two pictures".
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SELF-CHECK 10.3 1.
What is thinking?
2.
Why has development thinking not been emphasised in schools?
3.
How does one create a culture of thinking?
4.
What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among students?
10.3.3 Personalised Schools Many schools have become too large and impersonal and students are just a statistic. This is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an enrolment of between 1000 to 2000 students and some with as many as 2500 students which inadvertently disconnects the majority of learners from teachers and other adults possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why should a teenager respect a teacher who knows nothing about him or her? Personalised schools are schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is inconclusive as to the appropriate size of such schools but there is some consensus that for a primary school it should not exceed 400 students and not more than 800 students for secondary schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools, teachers and students build strong relationships, and teachers can help students learn more effectively because they know their students as individuals. 'Everybody knows your name'. There is also greater bonding among students as they get to know and learn from each other. However, even though a school may be small, it need not necessarily be 'personalised'. Personalised school are learning communities where students, teachers, and parents know each other personally, and work together to help young people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for, nurtured, and supported and this is significant given the increasing number of students experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged adults when parents are working full-time. Partnerships between parents, teachers and administrators tend to be stronger because the opportunity to communicate and understand each other is enhanced. Generally, personalised schools have lower rates of negative social behaviour such as classroom disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance abuse or gang membership (Cotton, 1996). Such schools report higher school attendance and lower drop out rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller schools have a greater sense of belonging and relationship tends to be more cordial. With the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full time, students turn to teachers for advice and role models which may be more readily available in personalised schools.
10.3.4 Technology-Based Schools The unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia capabilities, is seeing the emergence of the Technology-Based Learning Environment which has given a new perspective to classroom learning. The Technology-Based Learning Environment based on a cognitive-constructivist theoretical perspective emphasises the following seven processes (Phillips, 2001). •
First, is situated cognition in which learning of certain knowledge and skills is best done in situations or contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life? In other words, students are introduced to authentic tasks and the many tools of technology enable the creation of microworlds (Jonassen, 1996). These are miniature environments that mimic situations in the real world providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts, principles and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the internet provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary databases, real-time phenomena, and social communities not accessible through print-based curricula.
•
The second process is cognitive flexibility which is the ability to represent knowledge from different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the learner. Multimedia technology such as virtual reality permits knowledge and skills to be presented in a variety of different ways, adapting content to individual student learning styles.
•
The third process is exploration wherein learners try out different hypotheses, methods and strategies to see their effects. The resources of the web and the related internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on their own. Computers and ancillary electronic devices facilitate the manipulation of data and visualisation which assists with experimenting and understanding actual, futuristic, and hypothetical concepts, principles, relationships and probabilities.
•
The fourth process is cooperative learning in which learners work in groups by questioning each other, discussing and sharing information towards the solution of a problem using communication tools such as e-mail and chat rooms.
•
The fifth process is collaborative learning in which learners or groups of learners discuss and try out their ideas and challenge the ideas of others across state and international borders. For example, a group of learners in Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on 'what teenagers do besides schooling' with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using both asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning practiced are skills required in the workplace. •
The sixth process is articulation which refers to methods of getting learners to make their tacit knowledge explicit through websites and electronic portfolios. When learners make available to others (even across long distances) what they have done, learners are able to compare strategies and provide insight into alternative perspectives.
•
The seventh process is reflection which refers to learners looking back over what they have done and analysing their performance. It enables them to see the thinking processes they used in solving problems and based on the product and be able to determine if their strategies were appropriate.
Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread because of insufficient equipment and internet connection, inadequate training of teachers and more importantly a lack of understanding on how to use the new technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient framework with a theoretical basis for realisation of technology-based schools.
SELF-CHECK 10.4 1.
What do you understand by personalised schools?
2.
What are processes emphasised in the Technology-Based Learning Environment?
•
Character education is designed to teach children about basic human values with the aim of raising children to become morally responsible and selfdisciplined citizens.
•
Performance assessment is assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do.
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•
Schools for all emphasises that an environment should be provided for all students to realise their potential and setting high expectations so that all students will be encouraged to excel.
•
A culture of thinking has to be created to encourage students to think.
•
The technology-based learning environment has to be developed in as many schools as possible.
Character education
Schools for all
Culture of thinking
Technology-based learning environment
Performance assessment
Thinking goes to school
Personalised schools
1.
To what extent is performance assessment practiced in your school?
2.
Do you agree that students are not provided with sufficient opportunities to develop their thinking skills?
3.
What do you think the curriculum of the future should be?
Alistair, R. (200). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press. Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary]. Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London: Routledge. Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary].
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FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products. Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World. http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml Thornburg, D.D. (1998) Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June). www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html
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