An Egyptian Primer To Learn To Read Egyptian Hieroglyphics
Version 2009-01-01
Robert Cowen, Jr.
An Egyptian Primer
THE WORLD OF BOOKS IS THE MOST REMARKABLE CREATION OF MAN NOTHING ELSE THAT HE BUILDS EVER LASTS MONUMENTS FALL NATIONS PERISH CIVILIZATIONS GROW OLD AND DIE OUT AND AFTER AN ERA OF DARKNESS NEW RACES BUILD OTHERS BUT IN THE WORLD OF BOOKS ARE VOLUMES THAT HAVE SEEN THIS HAPPEN AGAIN AND AGAIN AND YET LIVE ON STILL YOUNG STILL AS FRESH AS THE DAY THEY WERE WRITTEN STILL TELLING MEN'S HEARTS OF THE HEARTS OF MEN CENTURIES DEAD
From a pamphlet written by Clarence Day, Jr. in 1920 for his brother George, President of the Yale University Press, for a fund raising effort of the Yale University Press. George Macy, President of the George Macy Companies (The Heritage Press, The Limited Editions Club, etc.) divided the lines in the fashion of a wall-motto and persuaded Carl Purington Rollins, Printer to Yale University, to print it as a poster, which Macy then disseminated in 1938 to members of The Limited Editions Club and to libraries world-wide.1
1 The Monthly Letter of the Limited Editions Club, New York, December 1954, Number 257.
An Egyptian Primer
Those who came before, Their portals and mansions have crumbled, Their ka-servants are gone; Their tombstones are covered with soil, Their graves are forgotten. But writers' names are pronounced over their books, Which they made while they had being; Good is the memory of their makers, It is for ever and all time! Be a scribe, take it to heart, That your name may become as theirs. Better is a book than a graven stela, Than a solid tomb-enclosure. Books act as chapels and tombs In the heart of him who speaks their name; Surely useful in the graveyard Is a name in people's mouth! Man decays, his corpse is dust, All his kin have perished; But a book makes him remembered Through the mouth of his reciter. Better is a book than a well-built house, Better than tomb-chapels in the west, Better than a solid mansion, Better than a stela in the temple! Death made their names forgotten, But books made them remembered! 2
2 Adapted from M. Lichtheim's translation, "The Immortality of Writers" in Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom, Univ. of California Press, 1976, pp. 175-178. The original papyrus, Chester Beatty IV, is in the British Museum.
An Egyptian Primer
CONTENTS Introduction 1.
The Basic Instructional Chapter
2.
Nouns
3.
Plural Nouns
4.
Signs as Logograms
5.
Signs as Phonograms: Uniphonics
6.
Signs as Phonograms: Biphonics
7.
Signs as Phonograms: Triphonics
8.
Signs as Determinatives
9.
Plural Determinatives
10.
Dual Nouns
11.
Possessive Suffix Pronouns – Singular Form
12.
Possessive Suffix Pronouns – Plural Form
13.
Present/Future Tense Verb with Suffix Pronoun Subject
14.
Present/Future Tense Verb with Noun Subject
15.
Past Tense Verb Form
16.
Noun Subject + Noun Direct Object
17.
Suffix Pronoun Subject + Noun Direct Object
18.
Suffix Pronoun Subject + Singular Dependent Pronoun Direct Object
19.
Suffix Pronoun Subject + Plural Dependent Pronoun Direct Object
20.
Pronoun Direct Object with Noun Subject
21.
The Attributive Adjective
22.
The Predicate Adjective
23.
The Genitival Adjective
24.
The Demonstrative Adjective
25.
Quantifiers and Cardinal Numbers
26.
The Simple Preposition m
27.
Compound Prepositions with m
28.
The Preposition n
29.
The Noun Indirect Object
30.
The Suffix Pronoun Indirect Object
31.
The Simple Preposition r
32.
Compound Prepositions with r
33.
Nisbe Adjectives Formed from Nouns
34.
Nisbe Adjectives Formed from Prepositions
35.
The Adverb Phrase
An Egyptian Primer
CONTENTS (Continued) 36.
The Adverb Clause
37.
The Direct Genitive
38.
The Infinitive and the Gerund
39.
Negation
40.
The Passive
APPENDIX A – LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APPENDIX B – GLOSSARY APPENDIX C – EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY APPENDIX D – EGYPTIAN DICTIONARY APPENDIX E – CHAPTER WHERE SIGN FIRST DESCRIBED APPENDIX F – ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
PRINT BIBLIOGRPAHY
An Egyptian Primer
ARTICLES 2.4
Egyptian Cosmogony
3.4
Geographical Description of Egypt
4.4
Egyptian Chronology
5.4
The Paleolithic Period 700,000-14,000 BP
6.4
Egyptian Pre-History 12,500-3,500 BCE
7.4
The Language
8.4
Shu, Tefnut, Geb, and Nut
9.4
The Corvée and šbty [shwabty] Statues
10.4
The Calendar
11.4
The Fourth Dynasty
12.4
The Osiris Legend According to Plutarch
13.4
The Egyptian Concept of maat
14.4
The Scribe
15.4
The Step Pyramid Complex of King Djoser
16.4
Imhotep
17.4
Religious Organization
18.4
Osiris in the Egyptian Records
19.4
Sakkara
20.4
The Principal Crowns of Egypt
21.4
Honorific Transposition and Abbreviations
22.4
Pre-Dynastic and Early Old Kingdom Royal Names
23.4
The Development of the Mastaba Tomb
24.4
The Egyptian Concept of the Spirit
25.4
The Cubit
26.4
Abydos, The Burial Place of Osiris
27.4
Osiris and His Epithets
28.4
The Pyramid Texts, The Coffin Texts, and The Book of the Dead
29.4
The Faiyum
30.4
The First Intermediate Period 2181-2040
31.4
The Egyptian Legal System
32.4
The Amarna Period
33.4
The Second Intermediate Period 1786-1567
34.4
The ḥb-sd [Heb-Sed] Festival
35.4
Egyptian Vessels
36.4
Some Egyptian Titles from the Old Kingdom
37.4
The Nine Bows and Other Egyptian Enemies
38.4
Symbols of Royalty
39.4
The Design and Function of the Egyptian Temple
40.4
The Greeks in Egypt
An Egyptian Primer
ILLUSTRATIONS Photographs and figures published by courtesy of the museums which provided them to the author. Items from publications, individuals, and web sites are accredited accordingly. 2.4-1 3.4-1 4.4-1 6.4-1 6.4-2 6.4-3 7.4-1 7.4-2 8.1-1 9.4-1 10.4-1 11.4-1 12.4-1 13.4-1 14.4-1 14.4-2 15.4-1 15.4-2 19.4-1 19.4-2 19.4-3 20.4-1 20.4-2 21.4-1 23.4-1 24.4-1 24.4-2 25.4-1 25.4-2 26.4-1 32.4-1 32.4-2 35.4-1 35.4-2 37.4-1 38.4-1 38.4-2
The sky goddess Nut supported by the god Shu. BM 10554/87; neg. 037181. Nilometer on the east bank of the Nile at Kom Ombo, 40 km. north of Aswan. Robert Cowen, Jr., July 4, 1984. The king list of Usermaatre Ramesses from his temple in Abydos. BM 117, neg. 130053. Pre-dynastic ivory comb, MMA 1915 (30.8.224). MMA website, T.M. Davis Bequest. Pre-dynastic decorated ware. MMA 07.228.136, 10.176.14, 12.184.41, 15.2.34, 19.2.14, 20.2.10, 30.8.203; neg. 93248-B-L-S. Pre-dynastic burial. BM 32751; neg. 201106. Narmer's palette. EM JE 32169 (after C. Aldred's The Egyptians, pp. 82-3). The Rosetta Stone. BM neg. E/C 839. Hunting scene on the wall of the Dynasty 5tomb of Re-em-kuy. MMA 26327; neg. MM6421. Four green faience šwbty statues belonging to the Admiral of the Fleet Pa-n-hebu, Dynasty 26. MMA 10.130.1047 A-D; neg.8021-LS-B. Gift of Miss Helen Miller Gould, 1910. Astronomical scenes with 12 discs for months, tomb of Senenmut (T353), Dynasty 18, c. 1500 BCE, by Charles K. Wilkinson, MMA neg. 214724-tf-B. The Giza plateau necropolis. R. Cowen, Jr., July 12, 1984. Triad of deities: Isis, Osiris, and Horus-the-Child. Ptolemaic bronze statuette. MMA 42.2.3; neg. 129622-A-LS. MMA Rogers Fund, 1942. Weighing of the Heart Ceremony from Hunefer's Book of the Dead . BM 9901/3; neg. 212561. Seated scribe from Dynasty 5. EM JM 30252. Heather MacDonald, March 1993. Scribal palettes in the British Museum: (L) BM 12784 with brushes, (R) BM 5512, neg. E/D 1478. Djoser's mortuary complex (after N. Ionides in The Egyptians, C. Aldred, p. 96). Djoser's Step Pyramid at Sakkara showing a portion of the temenos wall in the foreground. R. Cowen, Jr., June 30, 1984. Constructing a wall from the Dynasty 18 tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt, c. 1450 BCE. From scholarsresource.com, Tomb of Rekhmire. Engraving and polishing vases in silver and gold from the Dynasty 18 tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt,c. 1450 BCE. From scholarsresource.com, tomb of Rekhmire. Fowling scene from the tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 BCE. British Museum website. Coronation scene at Edfu. R. Cowen, Jr., July 5, 1984. Facade of the relocated temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. R. Cowen Jr., July 2, 1984. Statues of the Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret, Dynasty 4. EM CG3/4. Robert I. Cowen, Sr., November 30, 1958. The five stages of construction of Djoser's Step Pyramid (after P. Winton in The Complete Pyramids, M. Lehner, p. 87). False door to the tomb of Ramka, Sakkara, Dynasty 5. MMA 08.20.1E; neg. 124459 LS. MMA Rogers Fund, 1908. Ba bird over the corpse of Ani, from his Book of the Dead. BM 10470/17; neg. E/E 1703. Cubit Rod of Maya, Treasurer of Tutankhamun, photo by J. Bodsworth, Journal of Creation, 20(3) 2006, p. 72., website. Close-up of Cubit Rod in Fig. 25.4-1. The entrance to the burial place of Osiris at Abydos. R. Cowen, Jr., July 8, 1984. King Akhenaten and his wife Queen Nefertiti offering to the Aten. EM RT 30.10.26.12; MMA neg. C(21- 22)11. Queen Nefertiti. Source: Nefertiti - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Fishing with nets from reed boats from the tomb of Meketre, Dynasty 11, c. 2000 BCE. EM 46715; neg. MMA neg. MC 135. The royal ship of Khufu, Giza. R. Cowen, Jr., July 12, 1984. Tutankhamun's sandals. MMA neg. TAA 600. Right side of head and bust of a red granite seated statue of Queen Maatkare Hatshepsut from her valley temple at Deir al-Bahri showing the pigtail-like appendage to her nemes. MMA 29.3.3; neg. 136038 B. MMA Rogers Fund and Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1929. Tutankhamun's gold mask. EM JE 60672; MMA neg. TAA 504.
An Egyptian Primer
ILLUSTRATIONS (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) 39.4-1 39.4-2 39.4-3 40.4-1 40.4-2
Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir al-Bahri. R. I. Cowen, December 4, 1958. Hypostyle hall at Karnak. R. I. Cowen, December 3, 1958. Holy-of-Holies of the relocated temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel. R. Cowen, Jr., July 2, 1984. Bust of Ptolemy I Soter. Source: Ptolemy I Soter – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Medical instruments at the temple of Sobek and Horus, Kom Ombo. R. Cowen, Jr., July 4, 1984.
MAPS All maps by author except where noted. 2.4-1
Important Religious Sites.
3.4-1
Egypt (after Aldred, The Egyptians, p. 26).
11.4-1 Dynasty 4 Pyramid Locations: Dahshur, Giza, Maidum, Sakkara. 15.4-1 Sites relevant to Djoser's Mortuary Complex: Abydos, Aswan, Giza, Nubia, Sakkara, Tura. 16.4-1 Sites relevant to Imhotep: Edfu, Esna, Giza, Heliopolis, Kom Ombo, Memphis, Sakkara. 17.4-1 Sites relevant to Religious Organization in Egypt: Heliopolis (Cairo), Karnak, Memphis, Thebes (Luxor). 18.4-1 Sites relevant to Osiris: Abydos, Biga, Busiris, Memphis, Philae, Sakkara. 19.4-1 Sites of the Memphis Necropolis: Abu Rawash, Abusir, Cairo, Dahshur, Giza, Sakkara, Zawyet el'Aryan. 19.4-2 Schematic of the Sakkara Necropolis 20.4-1 Sites relevant to the Principal Crowns of Egypt: Abu Simbel, Buto, Edfu, Elephantine (Aswan), Giza, Nekhen (Hierakonpolis), Nubia. 22.4-1 Sites relevant to Old Kingdom Royal Names: Luxor, nḫb (el-kab), pr-w3ḏyt (Buto). 23.2-1 Countries South of Egypt: Irtjet, Medja, Wawat, Yam. 23.4-1 Mastaba Development: Abydos, Aswan, Giza, Sakkara, Tura. 26.4-1 Abydos and This: Abydos, Elephantine, Heliopolis. 27.4-1 Osiris and His Epithets: Abydos, Busiris, Heliopolis, Memphis. 29.4-1 Location of the Faiyum. 29.4-2 Faiyum Region: Bahr Yusuf, Crocodopolis, Hawara, Herakleopolis, ìṯ-t3wy. 30.4-1 First Intermediate Period Capitals: Herakleopolis, Memphis, Thebes.
32.4-1 Amarna Period Sites: Abydos, 3ḫt-ìtn, Bubastis, Dendera, Edfu, Elephantine, Faiyum, Heliopolis, Hermopolis, Memphis, Sais, Thebes, Tuna el-Gebel.
33.4-1 Second Intermediate Period Sites: ḥwt-wrt (Avaris), ìṯ-t3wy, Thebes, Xois. 37.4-1 Old Kingdom Locations of the Nine Bows. 40.4-1 The Greeks in Egypt: Alexandria, Aswan, Defenneh, Edfu, the Faiyum, Karnak (Thebes), Kom Ombo, Memphis, Naucratis, Raphia, Siwa.
An Egyptian Primer
INTRODUCTION Most of the books written for the student of the ancient Egyptian language assume a working knowledge not only of English grammar but also of French and German.
In addition, references to many other
languages including Greek, Latin, Arabic, Coptic, Akkadian, and Hebrew are often found scattered throughout these texts. This book is written for the individual who is interested in the ancient Egyptian language but has no prior knowledge of any foreign language, nor a thorough grounding in English grammar. Therefore, each Egyptian grammatical point is introduced by first explaining its English equivalent. Moreover, each chapter contains a COMMENTARY which discusses the grammatical point presented. Initially, Egyptian words are shown with spaces between the signs, and not until the student has had a feel for the language are the spaces reduced in size, eventually being eliminated altogether. Similarly, the phonetic pronunciation is omitted once the student has learned how to sound out the words. To help the student, there are exercises at the end of each chapter, which review both the new and the previous material learned. Each chapter contains an ARTICLE concerning some aspect of ancient Egypt. In this way, the student is introduced to the Egyptian civilization as well as its language. The articles cover a broad range of topics and are not arranged in any particular order. In order to help learn the various time periods, dates are provided throughout. In addition, locations are geographically defined and maps provided to enable the student to develop a physical perspective of Egypt and her neighbors. At the end of the PRIMER are six APPENDICES: A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS commonly used in the field of Egyptology; A GLOSSARY GLOSSARY; A CHRONOL CHRONOLO RONOLOGY; A DICTIONARY DICTIONARY; A LIST OF WHERE EACH SIGN WAS WAS FIRST ENCOUNTERED; and ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES EXERCISES.
The PRINT BIBLIOGRAPHY represents the source books used and provides a
reference list for those students who desire more information on a particular topic or wish to expand their knowledge of ancient Egypt. As there are a large number of websites on ancient Egypt, I have not attempted to list any of the ones I consulted in the bibliography. THE EXERCISE DRILL PROGRAM PROGRAM replicates
not only the set of exercises found at the end of each chapter but
also many of the words and phrases found in the chapter studied. These drills may be used sequentially or randomly, as well as quickly or slowly, and they obviate the need to make flip cards for vocabulary drills. My thanks go to Nestor Sulikowski who wrote the program and designed the web site. He may be reached at
[email protected]. And finally, a note of thanks to my daughter, Peggy Ronn, who was my editor. Without her encouragement this PRIMER could not have been completed and her many suggestions and emendations were invaluable. Robert Cowen, Jr. Convent Station, NJ USA January 2009
i
An Egyptian Primer
CHAPTER 1 THE BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL CHAPTER 1.1 DEFINITION The basic instructional chapter is divided into 6 parts: 1. A definition of the topic to be discussed 2. Hieroglyphic examples of the topic 3. A grammatical or syntactical commentary 4. An article pertaining to the art, culture, history, or religion 5. A description of the new signs encountered in the chapter 6. An exercise pertaining to the material covered 1.2 EXAMPLES Examples of the grammatical points presented in each chapter are provided in hieroglyphic and transliterated forms with an accompanying English translation. 1.3 COMMENTARY A grammatical or syntactical analysis of the examples is presented. A review of the English grammar and syntax is presented prior to the discussion of a similar Egyptian grammatical point. 1.4 ARTICLES The pictographic style of written Egyptian was more intimately associated with the art, history, culture, and mores of its time than modern day languages. Therefore, the modern student must delve into the everyday life of ancient Egypt, not only to understand the language but also to appreciate its nuances. For this reason, each chapter includes an article containing some background information which will be helpful to the student for a more complete understanding of the civilization of ancient Egypt, and hence its language. 1.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE SIGNS SIGNS In this section, every new sign encountered either in the grammatical analysis or commentary is described. The descriptions were taken from the Sign List in Sir Alan Gardiner's EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR, 3RD EDITION, REVISED 1957, REPRINTED 1988, Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 1998, pp. 442-543. Henceforth referred to as EG 3. 1.6 EXERCISES Hieroglyphs encountered in the current chapter as well as in previous chapters are presented to be transliterated and translated. Answers to the exercises may be found in Appendix F. A drill exercise program may be downloaded which enables the student to review the glyphs presented in each chapter either sequentially or randomly in a "flip card" presentation.
1
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 2 NOUNS 2.1 NOUNS NAME PEOPLE PEOPLE, OPLE, PLACES PLACES, THINGS THINGS, QUALITIES, QUALITIES, OR IDEAS IDEAS. PROPER NOUNS are the names of specific people, places, or things: Tutankhamen, Egypt, Karnak Temple.1 COMMON COMMON NOUNS name general ideas, qualities, and things: hope, education, sand, money, bread, homework, chess, lightening, etc. Unlike English, Egyptian nouns are either masculine or feminine. 2.2 SINGULAR NOUNS
PROPER
MASCULINE
p ìp ì
FEMININE
Pepi (pronounced [pep-ee])
Ipt (pronounced [ee-pet])
ìpt
COMMON COMMON MASCULINE wall
ìnb
[ee-neb]2
nḏs
poor man [ned-jes]
s
FEMININE a type of bread
bIt
st
obelisk [tekh-en]
mš'
army [meh-sha]
expedition
n't
man [seh]
tḫ n
[beet]
[naht] woman [set]
dpt ḫt
water m w [moo]
r ḫt
boat [dep-et]
thing [khet] knowledge [rekh-et]
2.3 COMMENTARY A: Egyptian signs were read HORIZONTALLY either from left-to-right or right-to-left. Thus, the word for army, mš , might be written
or
, and were read from the direction in which they faced.
Alternatively, signs might also be written VERTICALLY from top-to-bottom, with the signs facing in either direction:
or
. Left-to-right horizontally was the most favored, but for artistic considerations
sometimes the right-to-left or top-to-bottom format was utilized.
Interestingly, some texts employed
the hieroglyhs facing either horizontally or vertically as well as left-to-right and right-to-left. 1 While English capitalizes all proper nouns, the ancient Egyptians had no indication for such usage. 2 Note that the word "pronounced" will be omitted henceforth; the word in brackets [ ] represents the conventional pronunciation of the transliteration. 2
An Egyptian Primer B: The Egyptian language has two genders: MASCULINE and FEMININE. Some words are obviously masculine,
e.g. man, s, or feminine, e.g. woman, most words.
For example, wall,
st. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to determine the gender of inb, is masculine and a boat, dpt, is feminine. While many nouns in
Egyptian are masculine, it is easy for the reader to spot most feminine nouns because they usually include a
, the sign for the letter t, as in "woman"
st.
C: In Egyptian, most words are TRILITERAL, i.e. they contain three letters, which are called the root letters of the word, e.g.
ìnb, bìt bìt, nḏs, n't, etc. ḫt, things, is an example of a word with only two root letters.
The
third root letter was probably a weak sound and was lost over the millennia of spoken Egyptian. D: Note that the letter
s is found
in two forms:
transliteration to indicate that it, rather than
and
. The high
s
is sometimes written
, appeared in the original text.
ś in
a
is always written s.
In the earliest stages of the language, the two letters were distinct and not interchangeable. 2.4 EGYPTIAN COSMOGONY COSMOGONY Egyptian beliefs about the creation of the world were expressed in several myths, the three most famous being identified with the three important cities of Heliopolis,3 Hermopolis,4 or Memphis,5 as noted in Map 2.4-1. The HELIOPOLITAN CREATION MYT MYTH H: Chaos, the universe before the creation, consisted of a vast ocean of 6
chaotic waters, called Nun [noon], from which ATUM [ah-tum] emerged, standing upon a sacred mound.
Then Atum through a combination of masturbating, spitting, and sneezing, created the first deity of the air, SHU, followed by Shu's wife, TEFNUT [tef-noot], the goddess of moisture. Shu and Tefnut begot the god of the earth, GEB, and the goddess of the sky, NUT [noot]. Geb and Nut, while brother and sister, were also husband and wife. They in turn engendered four children: OSIRIS and his wife ISIS, and SETH his wife NEPHTHYS. These nine gods, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys formed the great divine ENNEAD OF HELIOPOLIS, which many years later came to be known as a single divintiy and worhsipped as such.
3 Heliopolis is a Greek name ("helios" = "sun" and "polis" = "city") for the Egyptian city of On where the worship of Re, the sun god of the Egyptian pantheon, was centered. Heliopolis is located on the east bank of the river Nile in a northern suburb of modern Cairo. While the Heliopolitan cosmogony is attested in Dynasty 3 (c. 2700 BCE), it was probably developed c. 3000 BCE at the time of Dynasty 1. [The letter c., an abbreviation for the Latin "circa", indicates "about". BCE indicates "Before the Common Era".] 4 The ibis-headed god, Thoth, the inventor of writing and the scribe of the Egyptian pantheon, had his chief cult at Hermopolis. The Greeks identified Thoth with their god Hermes. In Egyptian, Hermopolis was called ḫmnw [khem-en-oo], "Eight Town", referring to the Ogdoad (a group of eight deities) which had originally ruled there. Hermopolis, the Greek for "Eight City" or "City of Hermes", was located about 275 kilometers (170 miles) south of Heliopolis on the west bank of the Nile. 5 Memphis was located on the west bank of the Nile approximately 24 km. (15 miles) southwest of Heliopolis and was the site of the royal residence for much of Egyptian history. 6 Called the bnbn,
. See Chapter 4 for signs such as 3
used as an ideogram.
An Egyptian Primer
FIG. 2.42.4-1. THE SKY GODDESS NUT NUT SUPPORTED BY THE AIR AIR GOD, SHU. The goddess Nut is usually portrayed nude, being physically supported by the standing Shu. In Fig. 2.4-1, Geb lies supine between Nut's hands and feet. Nut's representation stretches over the earth and the sky, encompassing the entire heavens. She is sometimes depicted with stars on her body. The Ennead was usually portrayed as a mythological judicial council which also had temporal power. For instance, in an inscription of Merneptah (19th Dynasty, 4th king, c. 1236-1223 BCE), he recorded that the Ennead condemned a Libyan prince, Merey, to defeat at his hands.7 The HERMOPOLIS CREATION MYTH MYTH:
On a sacred mound8 in Hermopolis, an egg was created from which the
sun god, RE, emerged. He then proceeded to create the other gods and goddesses that make up the balance of the Egyptian pantheon, as well as creating all life on earth. He brought order to chaos. Chaos was composed of four pairs of deities, each consisting of a male with his female complement: water (or primeval abyss) - NUN and NUNET; space (or infinity) – HEH and HEHET; darkness – KEK and KEKET; and invisibility (or hidden power) – AMUN and AMUNET.9 This divine group of eight was called the OGDOAD OF HERMOPOLIS.
7 Inscriptions were sometimes self-serving propaganda, full of assertions that were clearly prevarications, and often punctuated with solemn assertions of their veracity. 7 This primeval mound was called "the bnbn ,
.
9 Note that the four complementary deities of the Ogdoad represent the feminine forms of the masculine name of their consorts. 4
An Egyptian Primer The MEMPHITE CREATION CREATION MYTH MYTH: Our current knowledge about the Memphite theology is based on the Shabaka Stone, pharaoh
a basalt stela erected by the 25th Dynasty Shabaka (25-4, 713-698 BCE).
This stela
(which allegedly reproduced an Old Kingdom text supposedly found by the pharaoh Shabaka himself) incorporated a text which may date to Dynasty 5 (c. 2500-2400 BCE).10
This third creation story centers
around PTAH, both the creator god and chief god of the Memphite region.
When Ptah, who was self-
conceptualized in an unexplained fashion, conceived the idea of the cosmos, and spoke about it, the cosmos sprung into being.
Ptah gave birth to Atum in his
combined form as Ptah-Nun, "the father who begot Atum" and Ptah-Nunet, "the mother who gave birth to Atum".
As a consequence of Ptah giving birth to Atum, he was considered the father of all life.
After Atum was
created, the Ennead was created and finally "Ptah rested when he had made every thing and issued every divine command. He gave birth to the gods, he made the cities, he founded the nomes".11
Another of
Ptah's epithets was "Ptah the great, he is the heart and tongue of the Ennead". MAP 2.42.4-1. IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS RELIGIOUS SITES. Thus, eight gods were now contained within Ptah, some from the Ennead of Heliopolis and some from the Ogdoad of Hermopolis: ATUM, considered to hold a privileged position as a type of demiurge; NUN and NUNET, who were now part of Ptah; and TATENEN,12 a Memphite god who symbolized the emergence of the fertile Nile silt after each annual inundation (another example of order from chaos).
10 Recent scholarship casts doubt on Shabaka's claim and infers that the text of this stela is a late invention, cleverly imitating the form, diction, and grammar of an Old Kingdom inscription. Such pious forgeries appear throughout Egyptian history. 11 The political divisions of the country were called "nomes". The number and location of these districts varied, but they eventually totaled 42 in Roman times. Each was governed by a nomarch. 12 Tatenen, lit. "The Risen Land". 5
An Egyptian Primer Four additional deities (although their names are not known with certainty) were also incorporated within Ptah: HORUS, the falcon deity and son of Osiris and Isis; THOTH; NEFERTUM, god of the lotus and son of Ptah and SAKHMET, a lion-headed goddess worshipped in Memphis and the bringer of destruction to the enemies of Re. Some scholars believe that this third creation story may have been conceived when Memphis became the capital city of a unified Egypt, c. 3000 BCE. As the parent of Atum or Re, Ptah had to, a priori, pre-date the Ennead. It is not clear whether this theology was actually a genuine, independent cosmogony or was a consequence of the fact that the chief god of Memphis, Ptah, could not be subservient to Atum or Re, as both these cities now owed their allegiance to the pharaoh at Memphis. If the latter is valid, then this third creation story may be seen to contain some "political" compromises to appease the priests at Heliopolis and Hermopolis as a result of the loss of their hegemony to the priesthood of Ptah at Memphis.13
2.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D21:
r
[air]
MOUTH.
D36:
'
[ah]
FOREARM.
This letter corresponds to the Hebrew 'ayin or the Arabic 'ain. How the Egyptians pronounced it is unknown.14 Although Its true vocalization probably differed from them as "ah."
D46 D46:
d
HAND.
D58:
b
FOOT.
G1:
3
G17:
m
I10:
ḏ
M17:
ì, j
N35:
n
N37:
š
[ah]
(Sign G1), for our purposes we will vocalize both of
The letter corresponds to the Hebrew aleph and Arabic 'alif. See D36 for note on vocalization.
EGYPTIAN VULTURE.
OWL.
[dj] [ee]
COBRA IN REPOSE. FLOWERING REED.
Some authors use j. Doubled, see §5.2.
RIPPLE OF WATER.
[sh]
GARDEN POOL.
13 If the Memphite priesthood did insert Ptah at the inception of the Egyptian pantheon, then they neatly instituted their own primacy in the practical, operating, day-to-day functioning of the Egyptian religion, As the temples held large tracts of land and collected taxes, this theology increased the power of Ptah's priesthood politically, economically, and religiously. 14 For a discussion of vocalization, see W.V. Davies, Egyptian Hieroglyphs, pp. 36-7 or EG 3, pp. 428-433. 6
An Egyptian Primer
2.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION O25:
OBELISK.
Logogram15 or determinative16 in
O34:
s, z
DOOR BOLT.
Q3:
p
STOOL OF REED MATTING MATTING.
S29:
s, ś
FOLDED CLOTH.
X1:
t
BREAD LOAF.
Aa1:
ḫ
HUMAN PLACENTA PLACENTA?
, var.
tḫn, "obelisk".
Some authors use z.
Some authors use ś.
Pronounced roughly like the "ch" in "loch".
2.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
15 See Chapter 4 for a discussion of Logograms. 16 See Chapter 8 for a discussion of Determinatives. 7
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 3 PLURAL NOUNS 3.1 PLURAL NOUNS NAME MORE THAN ONE PERSON, PLACE, OR THING. 3.2 PLURAL NOUNS SINGULAR
ìnb
wall
poor man
nḏs sr
MASCULINE
official [sair]
tḫ n
army
water m w [moo]
SINGULAR
nht dpt ḫt
ìnbw
walls [ee-neb-oo]
nḏsw
poor men [ned-jes-oo]
officials [sair-oo]
sr w
obelisk [tekh-en]
mš'
PLURAL
tḫ n w
obelisks [tekh-en-oo]
mš' w
armies [meh-sha-oo]
mw
water1
FEMININE
PLURAL
sycamore fig tree [neh-et]
nhw nhwt
ship
dptwt
thing [khet]
ḫwt
sycamore fig trees [neh-oot] ships [dep-oot]
things [khoot]
1 In Egyptian, "water" can be either singular or plural, unlike in English where "water" is singular. 8
An Egyptian Primer
3.3 COMMENTARY
A: As you may have noticed, the masculine plural is expressed by the addition of the letter
srw,
the last root letter, as in
sr
. For the feminine,
after
w
is
dpwt, "boats", from the sing. dpt . If the word is masculine with a final root letter t , then the w is added after the final t . However, such masculine nouns inserted before the final
t
"officials", from the singular
w
as in
are rare.
3.4 GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF EGYPT Modern Egypt's boundaries are similar to ancient Egypt's. Egypt is located in the northeast corner of Africa
bordering
the
Mediterranean Sea. eastern
portion
of
eastern
portion
of
the
Its northern border is the the
southern
shore
of
the
Mediterranean Sea and is approximately the same latitude as the state of Florida's northern limit. To the south is the Sudan (ancient Nubia) and this border is roughly equivalent to the latitude of Key West, Florida.
Egypt's eastern boundary is the Sinai
Peninsula and the Red Sea, and
to
the
west
it
borders Libya. While Egypt is approximately the size of California, Nevada, and Oregon combined, only 3% of its 386,000 square miles are suitable for any sort of agriculture, the balance being desert. The country is divided into four geographic areas: the WESTERN DESERT (whose eastern segment is often referred to as the Libyan Desert), the NILE VALLEY, the EASTERN DESERT
(sometimes called the Arabian Desert),
and the SINAI PENINSULA. The WESTERN DESERT lies west of the Nile and covers about two-thirds of Egypt.
It is part of the Great
MAP 3.43.4-1. EGYPT.
Sahara Desert, which continues west across Africa, until it reaches the Atlantic Ocean.
There are a series of oases in the Western Desert (Bahariya, Farafra, el-Dakhla, and el-Kharga) which parallel the Nile River: the closest one is 85 kilometers (50 miles) from the river and the furthest is 400 kilometers (240 miles) west of the Nile. In the past, this land of the Western Desert was savannah filled with lakes, which over time either disappeared or were reduced to oases. These oases were destinations 9
An Egyptian Primer for Egyptian trading expeditions and sometimes even military conquest. Remains of early man have been found near the ancient shores of the many evaporated lakes deep in the desert. The EASTERN DESERT lies east of the Nile, between it and the Red Sea. Numerous wadis 2 are found in the Eastern Desert, the most famous being the Wadi Hammamat, which served as the major conduit between the Red Sea and the Nile Valley. Egyptian expeditions used this wadi to access the Sinai or sail down the Red Sea to Punt, a land believed to be located somewhere in the Horn of Africa. The triangular SINAI PENINSULA is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Aqaba and on the west by the Gulf of Suez. To its south lies the Red Sea, which separates Egypt from Saudi Arabia. In antiquity, its minerals and semi-precious stones were mined. The majority of Egyptians lived along the NILE VALLEY, which is further sub-divided into two distinct fertile areas: UPPER EGYPT stretching almost 1,000 miles from the Sudan to near Cairo, and LOWER EGYPT, which encompasses the NILE DELTA. 3 The first cataract 4 at Aswan was the nominal southern border of Egypt, until the country was expanded by military conquest southward. The 4,160 mile NILE is the world's longest river, beginning its journey from Lake Victoria in central Africa as the WHITE NILE. While draining central Africa, many streams and rivers add to its waters as it heads north, until it is joined by the BLUE NILE at Khartoum in the Sudan. From there the Nile flows steadily northward, receiving the water from only one other tributary, the Atbara, which drains central Ethiopia, until it empties into the Mediterranean.
The alluvial material from Central Africa was deposited by the
Nile in the surrounding countryside for millenia, prior to the construction of the modern dams at Aswan. As there is only minimal rainfall in Egypt, especially in the south, the Nile has been the main source of the fresh water necessary to sustain the life of the region and its fertile valley has been cultivated since ancient times. For millenia the Nile overflowed its banks annually between July and October, cresting sometime between late July and early August, depositing the soil it had been carrying onto the fields along its banks. The ancient Egyptians diverted part of the Nile's overflow into ponds from which they continued to release water for several months after the flooding had ceased, thus enabling agriculture to be sustained during the period of low water.5
2 A "wadi" is the channel of a watercourse that is dry except during periods of rainfall. 3 A river delta is plain of alluvial deposit between diverging branches of a mouth of a river, often, though not necessarily triangular. As it is similar to the shape of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, Δ, "delta", the word has been applied to this type of land mass which is created by a river at its discharge into a larger body of water. Naturally enough, the Greeks were the first to use the expression "delta" to describe this part of the Nile river system. 4 A "cataract" is where large blocks of stone impede a river's normal flow. In most cases, a ship cannot pass this obstacle. 5 This practice is called "basin irrigation". 10
An Egyptian Primer As a result of this yearly flooding, the Egyptians became adept at measuring the river's rise by constructing nilometers (see Fig. 3.4-1) at many places along its banks. The rise of the river was an indication of how much
alluvial
soil
and
water
would
be
deposited on the fields for the coming year, thus functioning not only as an indicator of the size of the harvest to be expected but also as a measure of the taxes to be collected.
Concomitantly,
the
Egyptians
became expert at measuring and surveying, as they were required to redefine their fields after
each
year's flooding.
With
the
construction of the two dams at Aswan in 1902 and 1971, this annual inundation became an event of the past.
FIG. 3.43.4-1. NILOMETER ON THE EAST BANK OF THE NILE AT KOM OMBO, 40 KILOMETERS NORTH OF ASWAN, 1984. 3.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION G43:
w
QUAIL CHICK.
(N35): (N35):
mw
THREE RIPPLES OF WATER WATER.
O4:
h
REED SHELTER IN FIELDS FIELDS.
11
An Egyptian Primer 3.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
12
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 4 SIGNS AS LOGOGRAMS 4.1
A SIGN (HIEROGLYPH)
MAY BE CLASSIFIED AS A LOGOGRAM,
A PHONOGRAM, PHONOGRAM, AND/OR A
DETERMINATIVE: DETERMINATIVE: 1] A logogram (sometimes called ideogram) pictorially represents its meaning; 2] A phonogram indicates the sound of all or part of the word; and 3] A determinative indicates a particular meaning or category of a word. If English was written without vowels, what would the word "fr fr" fair", far", fare", fir", fire", fr be? It could be "fair fair "far far "fare fare "fir fir "fire fire "for for", four", fur", for "four four "fur fur etc., and therefore an additional indication would be needed to determine the correct word. As Egyptian was written without vowels, it was often necessary for a logogram, a phonogram, and/or a determinative to be included with the written word. The translator needs how to interpret the sign in one of its three possible categories, because a sign can serve as a logogram in one context, as a phonogram in another context, and as a determinative in a third context. Additionally, a sign may do double duty in a given word, being both a logogram and a phonogram, or a phonogram and a determinative, or a logogram and a determinative. While English is composed of phonograms (the alphabet represents the sounds), logograms are often used on highway signs: e.g. to indicate that gasoline is available at the next exit. 4.2 SIGNS SERVING AS A LOGORAM LOGORAM represents a house pr [pair]
s
represents a man
dpt
r’ st
represents the sun or day [rah] or hrw [hair-oo] represents a woman
represents a boat
4.3 COMMENTARY A: When a short vertical stroke
appears beneath a sign, this may be an indication that the sign is
a logogram. Thus, the signs enumerated in §4.2 might appear in a text as
pr
or
r’
when serving
as a logogram. Other signs which are commonly used as logograms are: wall
inb
obelisk
tḫ n
army or soldier
papyrus book [medj-aht]
mš’ sr
mḏ mḏ3t
official
r
mouth
B: Many of the animal, fish, reptile, and bird signs generally serve as logograms and therefore may be found without a short vertical stroke beneath them. 13
An Egyptian Primer C: Two examples of signs found in combination as a single logogram are: N7 "prescribed ritual of a day", which is a combination of "treasury", a combination of O1
N5 and
T28,
ẖrtrt-hrw, [hair-et-hair-oo], a and O2 prpr-ḥḏ, [pair-hedj],
and T3 .
D: Signs may have more than one meaning, ex.
may mean
dpt,
"boat", or
ḥ’w
[ha-oo], "ships".
Therefore, context is most important when translating a text. Feminine words, when written logographically use both the ending t and the stroke, , together, as in mḏ3 t . 4.4 EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY 1 Egyptian chronology is divided into the following broad categories: Paleolithic PrePre-History PrePre-Dynastic Early Dynastic Old Kingdom (OK) 1st Intermediate Period (FIP) Middle Kingdom (MK) 2nd Intermediate Period (SIP) New Kingdom (NK) 3rd Intermediate Period (TIP) Saite Renaissance Late Dynastic/Persian Macedonian Domination Ptolemaic Dynasty Roman Emp Emperors
700,000-14,000 BP 2 c. 700,00012,000 12,000,000-3,500 BCE 35003500-3100 31 310000-2686 26862686-2181 21812181-2040 21332133-1786 17861786-1567 15671567-1085 10851085-664 664664-525 525525-332 332332-304 304304-30 30 BCEBCE-395 CE
Scholars have further subdivided each of the post Pre-Dynastic phases by dynasty or group of blood related rulers. A dynasty generally terminated when its line of rulers ended. In some cases, dynasty dates overlapped if differnet pharaohs ruled concurrently in other parts of the country. For example, note the FIP and MK overlap of dates, occasioned by the division of the country into two different kingdoms. A word of caution regarding ancient dates: the further back in time one probes, the greater the margin of error. Today, dates in the OK are known within ± 50 years, whereas most scholars agree dating in the NK falls within ± 4 years. From the Late Dynastic/Persian times, dates are considered accurate within a year. Henceforth, a date may not be qualified with the c. abbreviation. The student should keep in mind that almost all dates cited in reference to a particular event or reign decrease in accuracy the older the date. All dates will be BCE unless so indicated.
1 For a detailed chronology, see Appendix C. 2 BP indicates "Before the Present" and is used for a broad range of dates where the accuracy is assumed to be a few thousand years. Note that 14,000 BP and 12,000 BCE are equivalent. The dates shown here have been taken from CAH 3 , 1964-75, and rounded. 14
An Egyptian Primer
SEQUENCING EQUENCING OF THE DYNASTIES DYNASTIES AND INDIVIDUAL RULERS RULERS IS BASED ON SEVERAL SEVERAL ANCIENT SOURCES SOURCES: 1. THE PALERMO STONE. So-called because the largest piece of this stela is in the Museo Nazionale in Palermo, Sicily. Contiguous pieces in the Cairo Museum3 and University College, London, list the kings of the 1st through the 5th Dynasties (3100-2345) and for each regnal year the principal event (or events) as well as the height of the Nile inundation. Numerous gaps, called "lacunae", exist when all the known pieces are drawn to scale in a reassembled form in order to represent the complete stela. There are several proposed reconstructions, each supporting a different chronology. 2. THE TURIN ROYAL CANON papyrus (so-called because it is in the Egyptian Museum of the Accademia delle Scienze in Turin, Italy) was probably compiled during the reign of Ramesses II (19-3, 1324-1237). It follows a list of the reigns of the gods and spirits with the kings of the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890), beginning with Menes fl. 4 3100, and continuing through the 2nd Intermediate Period, which ended in 1567 BCE. The rulers are listed in chronological order and the length of each reign in years, months, and days is given. Lengths of dynasties are also shown, as well as groups of dynasties. As a result of its poor state of preservation, the Turin papyrus also contains sizable lacunae. 3. THE KING LIST OF MENMAATRE ENMAATRE SETI, also known as Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304), is in his temple at Abydos. 4. THE KING LIST OF USERMAATRE RAMESSES, also known as Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237), from his temple in Abydos and is now in the British Museum. See Fig. 4.4-1.
FIG. 4.44.4-1 THE KING LIST OF USERMAATRE USERMAATRE RAMESSES.
5. MANETHO'S CHRONOLOGY. Manetho, a High Priest in Heliopolis during the early part of the Ptolemaic period in the 3rd Century BCE, compiled a chronology. While his work is no longer extant, references to it have survived in the works of some ancient authors, particularly Josephus, the Jewish historian who chronicled the Roman assault on Israel in the 1st Century CE. Modern scholarship has determined that while Manetho’s king list contained some serious flaws, his division of the rulers of Egypt into 31 Dynasties was essentially valid and so it is still in use today. 6. TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT ANCIENT TEXTS FOUND IN OR ON TOMBS, TEMPLES TEMPLES, MONUMENTS, AND PAPYRUS DOCUMENTS DOCUMENTS. Contributing to fixing the reigns of rulers are instructions to Egyptian officers as well as letters to and from foreign rulers.
3 Fragments of this stela, which recorded rulers and major events in each reign, may be copies of the original stela. The pieces wherever located, are generically called "The Palermo Stone". 4 fl. abbr. for the Latin "floruit", the period in which a person flourished, especially when the exact birth and/or death dates are not known with certainty. 15
An Egyptian Primer It should be noted that the Egyptians did not reckon their history in consecutive years from a fixed point in the past. Thus, to accurately establish a chronology for Egypt, one is dependent on integrating data from numerous sources, often incomplete.5 Egyptian chronology is a field which continues to this day to reexamine and refine the generally accepted dates as new texts are discovered or old material reworked. One further caution about which the student should be aware: sometimes king lists were altered to remove the names of kings whom their successors believed for one reason or another should not be considered as legitimate rulers. The successors of Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362), for example, removed his name from various monuments as a result of his religious beliefs, which were considered heretical to those who came after him.
4.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A1:
SEATED MAN.
Rarely as a logo. "man", "I", "me". Det. for men, their occupations and relationships.
A12:
ms’
A21:
sr
[meh-sha] SOLDIER WITH BOW AND QUIVER. Logo. for "army" or "troops".
B1:
MAN HOLDING A STICK IN ONE HAND AND A HANDKERCHIEF HANDKERCHIEF IN THE OTHER OTHER.
"official" or "noble".
Logo. for
SEATED WOMAN.
Rarely as a logo. "woman". Det. for "women", their occupations and relationships.
N5:
r ’, hrw
SUN.
N7:
ẖrtrt-hrw
DAYTIME,
O1:
pr
HOUSE.
O2:
prpr-ḥḏ
TREASURY,
Logo.
r ’, "sun" and hrw , "day", "daytime".
lit. "what belongs to the day"; "The prescribed rituals performed during the day", is a combination of N5 and T28. Logo.
pr, "house".
lit. "white house".
5 Relative chronologies are developed from different sources, e.g., if a tomb description mentions a pharaoh and a cuneiform tablet from Mesopotamia mentions that same pharaoh in connection with a Babyonian king whose reign is known, it can be assumed that the pharaoh was his contemporary. Absolute methods of dating in use today are: Carbon 14 dating (a measure of radioactive decay found in once living cells, useful in measuring dates prior to 50,000 BP); Radioactive Potassium-Argon dating (a measure of the radioactive decay of potassium into argon, useful for a sample from 10,000 to 2,000,000 BP); Thermoluminescence (a measure of the radiation absorbed since the sample was last heated, useful for the range from 300-10,000 BP); and Dendrochronology (tree ring dating, useful from the present day to 10,000 BP). Each method has its own margin of error as well as being subject to mistakes arising from contamination of samples. 16
An Egyptian Primer 4.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION O36:
ìnb [ee-neb]
WALL.
P1:
dpt [dep-et], ḥ' w [hah-oo]
BOAT ON WATER.
T3:
ḥḏ
[hedj]
MACE WITH PEAR-SHAPED HEAD.
T28: T28:
ẖr
[hair]
Y1: Z1:
,
mḏ3t
[medj-aht]
Logo. "wall". Logo. "boat(s)", "ship(s)".
BUTCHER'S BLOCK. PAPYRUS ROLLED UP, TIED, AND SEALED.
found vertically.
Logo. "papyrus roll", "book".
A SINGLE STROKE, POSSIBLY A SINGLE DOWEL DOWEL.
the actual thing it depicts.
4.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
17
Also
After a logogram it indicates it is
An Egyptian Primer
CHAPTER 5 SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: UNIPHONICS 5.1 PHONOGRAMS1 ARE SIGNS WHICH INDICATE INDICATE THE SOUND(S) OF ALL OR PART OF A WORD. WORD. Phonograms may appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word. Sometimes their location is determined by artistic considerations rather than where they might normally fall in the proper vocalization of a word. Phonograms
may be divided
into
represent a single sound as in
pr
sounds as in
ì
three [ee],
categories: (1) UNIPHONIC or
n
b
[en [en],
alphabetic
signs which
[bee]; (2) BIPHONIC signs which combine two
[pair]; or (3) TRIPHONIC signs which combine three letters as in
nfr
[e [en-efef-er].
5.2 UNIPHONIC SIGNS NOT YET ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED IN THE PRIMER :y, f, ḥ, ẖ, ḳ , k, g, and ṯ . other, m. [kee]
ky
ḥbs
clothes [heb-ess]
ḳ3ḳ3w gmt
fdw ẖt
a type of boat [kah-kah-koo]
black ibis [gem-et]2
[fed-oo]
body [het]
ntk
you, m. [en-tek]
ntṯ ntṯ
you, f. [ent-tchet]
5.3 COMMENTARY COMMENTARY A: The Egyptian alphabet in modern, artificial, dictionary order, is:
ẖ, s, š, ḳ, k, g, t, ṯ, d, and ḏ.
the number 4
3, ì, y, ', w, b, p, f, m, n, r, h, ḥ, ḫ,
The alphabetic signs are all uniphonic.
B: In the modern Egyptian dictionary, the words are alphabetized according to their stem letters in the above sequence. Where a word is found in the dictionary can be confusing at times, as can be seen by the
st "it". Thus, is found before the words beginning with s3, as its stem letter is "s" and its letter "t " is merely a marker for the feminine, while the pronoun3 , "it", which is found after the words beginning with sg because its "t " is a true stem ending.
words
,
st,
"woman" and
,
1 Strictly speaking, the term phonogram is not entirely accurate because we actually have little or no idea how these syllables were pronounced. The terms uniliteral, biliteral, and triliteral, which focus merely on the numbers of letters involved, are often used to describe these different groupings. 2 The g in Egyptian is hard, pronounced like the g in "give". 3 A pronoun is a word used in place of one or more nouns, such as "he", "him", or "his". 18
An Egyptian Primer
5.4 THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD 700,000 – 14,000 BP
Egypt in the Paleolithic went through numerous weather changes, cycling between arid conditions similar to today and periods of intense rains and flooding. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS CONDITIONS IN EGYPT AND NUBIA NUBIA4 CONDITION pluvial semisemi-arid
DATE 700,000 BP 500,000
semisemi-pluvial pluvial arid
150,000 120,000 90,000
flooding arid arid/flooding arid/flooding semisemi-arid/flooding
30,000 BCE 24,000 17,500 14,500
The intermittent pluvial conditions occurring over the last 700,000 years changed the face of Egypt. During pluvial times, large lakes would form, the wet lands would expand, and a savannah would spread to encompass almost the entire land. In arid times, the lakes created earlier would shrink in size and the savannah would return to desert.
Present day remnants of the lakes created earlier during the last
period of extensive flooding and rains became the string of oases 85-400 kilometers (50-240 miles)5 west of the Nile valley and the FAIYUM, the intensively cultivated area of northern Upper Egypt, approximately 60 km. (40 miles) southwest of Cairo. The desert depressions of today are all that remain of the many lakes which dried up as the water table fell. Stone tools indicative of Neanderthal men (fl. 60,00030,000 BP) have been found not only on the edges of these depressions, which were once lake shores, but in the Nile Valley as well. The NILE DELTA, which was to become LOWER EGYPT, was affected not only by changes in the level of the Mediterranean Sea but also by the amount of Nile flooding. The DELTA began in its present form c. 17,000 years ago and its expansion continued until the construction of the dams on the Nile, the first of which was completed by the British at Aswan in 1902. These dams have caused a build up of almost all of the Nile's alluvial material, thus blocking large amounts of silt from being deposited on top of the fields along the river's edge, and all the way north throughout the DELTA.6
4 M.A. Hoffman, Egypt before the Pharaohs, p.21. 5 1 kilometer (abbreviated km.) = .62 miles. 6 An unintended consequence of the retention of silt by the upstream dams has been the infiltration of salt water into the fresh water table underneath the Delta, endangering the long term growth of crops in this richly fertile area of Egypt. Many ancient monuments are also in peril due to the lack of silt, which coated the sides of the water channels and prevented the local seepage of water into the ancient sites. These stone monuments, when subjected to continued dampness, tend to erode and the sandstone (from which many were constructed) once again becomes nothing but granules of sand. 19
An Egyptian Primer When the intense pluvial period from 90,000-120,000 years ago ended, it in turn was followed by an increase in moisture in the region until, between 30-50,000 years ago, the area included many springs, rivulets, and lakes as the desert became savannah once again. There is evidence of early man during this period, especially on the banks of the now dried up lakes. A ring of stones to anchor a tent, estimated to be between 40-50,000 years old, has been discovered at the Dunqul Oasis, some 120 km. west of the Nile between Abu Simbel and Aswan. Additionally, stone projectile points have been found at various locations throughout the desert. As indicated by their remains at butchering sites, animals roaming the savannah in this period included both herbivores such as elephant, giraffe, water buffalo, rhinoceros, camel, various gazelle, antelope, and hartebeest (a form of antelope) and predators such as fox, jackal, spotted hyenas. The last glacial period from 28,000-10,000 BP had its maximum advance about 20,000 BP and two distinct cultures began to emerge in the area: nomadic hunters of the savannah and the more static groups
inhabiting
the
Nile
valley.
During the latter part of this period, the savannah once again
returned to desert and some scholars believe that the "sand dwellers"7 may have resettled in the Nile valley while others remained and clung to the ever shrinking lakes and oases. Although during the late Paleolithic c. 15,000 BCE, Egypt was once again arid, this was then followed by a period of expansion of the savannah from 7,000 to 3,100 BCE during a short period of increased moisture. Since then, Egypt and North Africa have once more returned to an arid state and the savannah has been transformed into what we know today as the Sahara desert.8 The two cultures are evidenced by their different tools. The remains of the Nile riverine culture not only include the usual arrow points and knives, but also microlithic (small stone) flakes for insertion into wood or bone shafts for use as rudimentary scythes or sickles. By 15,000 BP, grinding stones and sickle blades were in use, having been found in numerous sites which have been dated to this time. During the period 15,000-12,500 BP, the number and size of inhabited sites increased dramatically, especially in southern Egypt and northern Nubia. After 12,500 BP, the grinding stones and sickle blades disappear, indicating a change in the population to hunter/gatherers. Whether the indigenous riverine population was replaced by another or whether they simply adapted to a period of Nile flooding with which their rudimentary agriculture could not cope, has not been determined.
7 "Sand Dwellers" was an Egyptian pejorative term for the nomads of the deserts surrounding ancient Egypt. 8 The Sahara is still expanding southwards at a rate of 20-30 miles per year. 20
An Egyptian Primer
5.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION F32:
ẖ
F35:
nfr
I9:
f
HORNED VIPER.
M17:
y
TWO FLOWERING REEDS.
N29:
ḳ, q
SANDY HILL SLOPE.
V3:
ṯ
ROPE FOR TETHERING ANIMALS.
V28:
ḥ
V31:
k
W11:
g
ANIMAL'S BELLY, SHOWING TEATS AND TAIL TAIL.
[en-ef-er]
[tch]
HEART AND WINDPIPE.
Sign M17 twice.
Some authors use q.
WICK OR TWISTED FLAX.
[eck]
WICKERWORK BASKET WITH WITH HANDLE.
(1) RING STAND FOR JARS; (2) RED EARTHENWARE POT, pronounced as a hard "g" as in guard.
5.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
21
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 6 SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: BIPHONICS 6.1 THERE ARE LESS THA THAN HAN 100 SIGNS WHICH ARE ARE BIPHONIC (COMBIN (COMBINING COMBINING TWO SOUNDS) SOUNDS). 6.2 BIPHONIC SIGNS
3w
as in
[ah-oo]
b3
3w
as in
[mee]
nb
[meet]
[khah]
s3
lord and in the masc. adjective2 nb, nb, all
nb
the number 1,000
ḫ3
as in
[sah]
b3
mw nb
son
maid servant
bakt
[bah-ket]
as in
mw
as in
water
nbt
lady and in the fem. adj. nbt, all
[neb-et]
as in
sw
s3
great house
[pair-ah-ah]
as in
[soo]
s3
prpr-'3 1
[bah]
copy of a document
[neb] as in
man servant
mì mìt
as in
ḫ3
'3
[bahk]
as in
as in
[ah-ah]
bak
[bah]
mì
long
swt
as in
6.3 COMMENTARY A: A biphonic is normally accompanied by a single consonant, ex.
s3t
but
daughter
[saht]
3w,
(
=
3w and
=
w ) which
complements one of the two letters, leading to its characterization as a "phonetic complement". Either the first letter, or the second letter, or both letters may be complemented. Usually, however, it is the second letter which is so complemented by a following uniphonic sign.3 There are occasions when the , may be preceded as well by a phonetic complement, ex. the
biphonic sign, e.g. follows as in
,
,
. In all cases it is transliterated simply as b3.
b precedes and
the
3
1 In the OK, the Egyptian referred to the palace as the pr-'3, and in some rare instances this term referred to the ruler himself. The word probably passed into English as "pharaoh" from either the Hebrew or the Greek. 2 An adjective is a word used to describe a noun. See Chapter 21. 3 In English we do not write in a repetitive manner, e.g. "That was a go- good -od idea." In Egyptian, the hieroglyphs might be repeated for artistic consideration by filling in an open space in the text. The extra sounds were not pronounced when read. 22
An Egyptian Primer B: The numerals usually follow the noun they were quantifying and that noun was expressed in its singular, not its plural form:
pr ḫ3
"house 1,000" meaning "1,000 houses".
6.4 EGYPTIAN PREPRE-HISTORY 12,500 – 3,500 BCE EGYPTIAN PRE-HISTORY IS DIVIDED INTO INTO THE FOLLOWING PERIODS PERIODS: Upper Paleolithic I Upper Paleolithic II Mesolithic Neolithic Neolithic
>12000 BCE 1200012000-8000 80008000-4500 45004500-3500
with cultures developing in the Mesolithic and Neolithic called: Badarian Naqada I Naqada II
55005500-4000 40004000-3500 35003500-3150 During the UPPER PALEOLITHIC I period, the population appeared to be composed of mainly nomadic food gatherers.
In UP II, II
however, both camps of fishermen along the banks of the lakes in the western desert and camps of rudimentary agricultural settlements along the banks of the Nile began.
One of the
noted advancements of the Mesolithic Age was the introduction of the bow and arrow. Towards the end of the period, copper came into widespread use, which is why this period is called the CHALCOLITHIC (or COPPER/STONE) AGE. The oldest culture discovered to date in Upper Egypt is called the BADARIAN, named after the excavations at the village of elBadari, located approximately 300 km. (185 miles) south of Cairo on the east bank of the Nile. Similar cultural remains have been found in the north close to el-Badari and as far as 250 km. (155 FIG. 6.46.4-1. PRE-DYNASTIC IVORY COMB, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK.
miles) to the south. The Badarians were farmers who cultivated wheat and barley, harvested the ripened plants with sickle blades, and stored their harvests in mat lined underground silos.
As a Stone Age people, the Badarians made their arrow points from chert, as well as hammers and maces from harder stones, and knives from flint (a form of chert). Needles and other tools were made from bone. Badarian cemeteries were often at the edge of the desert, outside the confines of their settlements. Generally, their graves were oval or circular pits with the bodies placed in a fetal position with the head to the north and the face to the east. The bodies were wrapped in animal skins or mats. Grave goods 23
An Egyptian Primer
FIG 6.46.4-2. PRE-DYNASTIC DECORATED WARE WARE, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NY.
placed next to the body included small pottery figurines and a variety of thin walled pottery shapes with a distinct red polished body and blackened rim. Pottery was made using the red Nile silt. Although not wheel made, it developed from a coarse ware into a thin walled red and black ware, pieces of which became the indicator sherds of their culture for the archaeologist of today.
Stone vases and slate
palettes for cosmetic use have also been found in the graves. The Badarians used plant oils as cleansing agents and the cosmetic palettes show remains of green eye-paint.
Other items accompanying the
deceased were personal articles such as bone and ivory combs, shell and ivory bracelets, stone and copper beads, and weapons. Remains of Badarian clothing indicate that they knew how to tan hides and weave linen. They were not hunter/gatherers as they domesticated cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and geese to maintain their sources of protein. In addition, bone fish hooks and barbs have been found indicating that the Badarians fished the Nile to supplement their food supply. Evidence of the NAQADA I culture has been discovered over a distance of some 360 km. (225 miles) in the Nile valley, encompassing all of the Badarian area of settlement as well as extending further south to the 1st Nile cataract at Aswan. Basaltic jars with flat or footed bases were copied in clay and fired. Naqada I graves were similar in construction to the Badarian, although in such burials the bodies were usually placed with the head to the south and the face to the west. Remains of the NAQADA II culture have been found in an area comprising all of Egypt and some of northern Nubia as well. Naqada II graves differed from the earlier Badarian and Naqada I in construction. They were larger and had matted roofs with walls lined with wood. Some tombs had plaster and brick lined walls. These burial structures were the precursors of the mastaba tombs which were the preferred 24
An Egyptian Primer method of burial in the Early Dynastic period (3500-3100). Naqada II bodies were still placed in a fetal position. Stone containers for grave goods were placed near the head while larger storage jars were placed near the feet. A pre-dynastic burial, which has been transported to the British Museum, is shown below.
FIG 6.46.4-3. PRE-DYNASTIC BURIAL, BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON. NOTE THE FETAL POSITON POSITON OF THE CORPSE AND THE LOCATION OF THE GRAVE GOODS SURROUNDING SURROUNDING IT.
6.5 DESCRIPTION OF OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION F40:
3w [ah-oo]
PORTION OF ANIMAL BACKBONE BACKBONE WITH SPINAL CORD CORD ISSUING AT BOTH ENDS.
G29:
b3
[bah]
STORK.
G39:
s3
[sah]
PINTAIL DUCK.
M12:
ḫ3
[khah]
LEAF, STALK, AND RHIZOME OF LOTUS LOTUS.
M23:
sw
[soo]
PLANT REGARDED AS TYPICAL TYPICAL OF UE.
'3
[ah-ah]
O29:
,
Logo. "soul". Logo. "son".
WOODEN COLUMN,
Logo. for the number 1,000.
also written vertically.
25
An Egyptian Primer
6.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANS DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION V30:
nb
[neb]
WICKERWORK BASKET,
W19:
mì
[mee]
MILK JUG CARRIED IN A NET.
"lord", masc. adj. "all".
6.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
26
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 7 SIGNS AS PHONOGRAMS: TRIPHONICS 7.1 THERE ARE APPROXIMATELY 50 50 TRIPHONIC SIGNS. 7.2 COMMON TRIPHONIC SIGNS SIGNS as in
'nh and
m3'
ḫrw
as in
as in
nfr
as in
ḥtp
as in
ḥpr
as in
sḏ m
as in
šm'
'nh
life [a-hen-kh] true of voice, i.e. deceased
or
m3'm3'-ḫrw [man-ah-kh-air-oo] nfr
beauty [en-ef-er]
ḥtp m 'nḫ 'nḫ ḥpr r sḏ sḏm
go to rest, i.e. die [het-ep em a-hen-kh]
dung beetle [kh-ep-er-er] hear [se-dj-em-em] ,
šm'w
šm'w m'w
, or
t3t3-šm'w m'w
Upper Egypt [tah-shem-oo]
7.3 COMMENTARY A: Triphonic signs may also be accompanied by a single consonant which complements the final sound, e.g. the
r
ḫpr
in
[kh-ep-er-er er] er or the
m
s ḏm
in
[se-dj-em-em em]. em As with the biliterals, any
combination of the three signs may appear with the triphonic as a complementary letter, as the f and r in
nfr.
Note that the Egyptians would write the feminine version of this word as
preserving the symmetrical appearance of the group, while not portraying Sign I9, B:
m3'm3'-ḫrw
nfrt, thus
.
was an epithet attached to the names of deceased persons, much as we would say "the
late" when referring to an individual who had recently died. C: Note that the seated man, A2, runnels N24
in
m3'm3'-ḫrw,
in
and the land marked with irrigation
t3t3-šm'w, do not contribute any sound value but they are used to help
"determine"1 what the word connotes. 7.4 THE LANGUAGE The Egyptian language went through many developments from its inception in Pre-Historic times (12,0003,500). Towards the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period (3200-3100), this spoken language began to be represented in pictorial form, an example of which may be found on slate pallet, attributed to the time of
1 See Chapter 8 for a discussion of Determinatives.. 27
An Egyptian Primer
FIG 7.47.4-1. NARMER'S PALETTE: OBVERSE (L), REVERSE (R).
Narmer (1-1, fl. 3100 BCE). Here, one finds a combination of pictorial art and signs, some of which may have evolved into hieroglyphs.2 Note also the signs on the ivory comb in Fig. 6.4-1 which fall into the same category as those on the Narmer Palette. Some scholars have divided the language of the ancient Egyptians into the following dialects: Old Egyptian, Dynasties 11-8 (3100(3100-2160) Middle Middle Egyptian, Dynasties 99-13 (2160(2160-1633) Late Egyptian, Dynasties 1818-24 (1567(1567-715) based on grammatical3, syntactical4, and artistical analysis.
2 For a discussion of the signs on the pallet, see W.A. Fairservis, Jr., "A Revised View of the Na'rmer Palette", JARCE XXVIII (1991), pp. 1-20. Another example, perhaps of an even earlier date, might be found on the socalled "Libyan Palette". O. Goelet has observed that the appears to have the r sign, D21, , beneath it.
, ḫpr, on that palette, although partially preserved,
3 Grammatical analysis of a language is based on its morphemes, defined as the smallest unit of sound which has meaning, e.g. "the", "write", or the "-ed" in "waited". 4 Syntactical analysis is based on the rules and patterns for the formation of sentences or clauses in a language. 28
An Egyptian Primer During the Old Kingdom (2686-2160), HIEROGLYPHIC writing came into its own. Composed of logograms, phonograms, and determinatives, it fully expressed the spoken language, even though the vowels were not written. As mentioned in §2.3, hieroglyphic texts were written horizontally either left-to-right or right-to-left, as well as vertically from top to bottom. Signs always faced in the direction they were to be read. It should be noted that the preferred direction was horizontally right-to-left.5 The expression "the sun is in the sky",
r ' m pt, consists of the following signs:
.
Compare the examples of these signs when presented in various orientations: RIGHT TO LEFT
LEFT TO RIGHT HORIZONTALLY
VERTICALLY
Notice how the hieroglyphics fill the space allotted for them. The artist usually attempted to fill the block in an artistically pleasing and satisfying manner, as the written language was truly an art form of the spoken language. When a text contained both orientations (right-to-left and left-to-right) of a group of signs, the artist usually made an effort to have the signs face each other, similar to the representations shown above. When reading a horizontal text, at the end of a given line, one drops down one line and moves to the beginning of that line as indicated by which way the glyphs are facing. When reading vertical texts, the orientation of the glyphs indicates which column is to be read next. Thus, if they face left, the next column to be read is to the right. If they face right, the next column is to the left of the column just read. The last known use of hieroglyphs is in a Roman temple, dated to 394 CE, from the Nile island of Philae6 at Aswan. As the Egyptian civilization developed, so too did a cursive writing called HIERATIC.7 Hieratic, 5 Some scholars believe this is due to the fact that right-handedness predominates in mankind. Thus, when a hieroglyph was being chiseled, the stone cutter held the chisel in his left hand and the striking mallet in his right. 6 After the construction in 1898-1902 of the first dam at Aswan, for most of the year the monuments were submerged in the waters impounded by the dam. With the building of the newer High Dam (1960-1971), all the monuments were relocated to a neighboring island, Agilkia, where they may be visited year round. 7 From the Greek hieratikos, "priestly". 29
An Egyptian Primer written from right to left, was also the precursor to a second cursive script, DEMOTIC,8 which came into use about 700 BCE. HIERATIC
was the script used by the scribes in their papyrus letters, it being far easier to write in this
cursive script than to draw individual signs. During the Old Kingdom, hieratic forms were quite similar to their hieroglyphic counterparts, differing only in that they were rounded and stylized as a result of being written with a pen rather than the angular form of the sign when chiseled in stone. As time went on, Hieratic developed a character of its own, until eventually it was used only in religious texts. It was almost always confined to papyri or ostraca,9 although Hieratic has been found in some graffiti and on some stelae. Towards the end of the 3rd Intermediate Period (1084-664), DEMOTIC came into common use. It was, what might be called, a "speed writing" or "shorthand" form of Hieratic. It became the writing of choice for documents and books. Demotic, however, is more than a mere cursive script – it is a distinct dialect, representing one of the last written forms of the ancient Egyptian tongue. From c. 200 CE on, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt spoke COPTIC, the final descendent of the Egyptian language. It was written in an adapted form of the Greek alphabet and included the vowels which had been omitted in the previous stages of the language. It became extinct 1,300 years later, Arabic having replaced it. The Rosetta Stone (see Fig. 7.4-2) was discovered by an officer of Napoleon's army in Egypt in 1799 near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. It was part of the war booty brought to England after the surrender of the French forces and is currently in the British Museum.
On it is carved a decree of Ptolemy V
HIEROGLYPHICS, DEMOTIC, and GREEK. The Greek inscribed on it Epiphanes (PT-5, 204-180) in three scripts: HIEROGLYPHICS
enabled a French scholar, Jean François Champollion le Jeune (1790-1832), to decipher the hieroglyphs. The stone is granodiorite and not black basalt,10 as was commonly believed for many years.
8 From the Greek demotikos, "of the people". 9 An ostracon, from the Greek ostrakon, is a potsherd, or scrap piece of pottery. In Greece they were sometimes used as a ballot upon which the name of a person voted to be ostracized was inscribed. 10 From a personal communication email received by the author from Dr. R. B. Parkinson, Assistant Keeper, Dept. of Ancient Egypt and Sudan, British Museum on April 30, 2002: "The Stone was conserved as part of the bicentenary celebrations in 1999 (see BM website on exhibition 'Cracking Codes'), following suspicions that it was not black basalt. The stone is granodiorite, but it has not been possible to suggest exactly which quarry it is from. The investigation was undertaken by the BM's Department of Scientific Research, in collaboration with Prof. D. Klemm. The French savants had used the Stone as a printing block to take copies of its inscriptions, and when it entered the museum it was covered in a layer of wax (a common practice at that time) to protect the surface. This [the wax] has subsequently absorbed the dirt from the London atmosphere." 30
An Egyptian Primer
FIG 7.47.4-2. THE ROSETTA STONE WITH THE UPPER UPPER SECTION IN HIEROGLYPHICS HIEROGLYPHICS, THE CENTER SECTION IN DEMOTIC, AND THE LOWER SECTION SECTION IN GREEK (COLORS REVERSED FOR BETTER VISIBILITY OF THE INSCRIPTION). 31
An Egyptian Primer
7.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A2:
MAN WITH HAND TO MOUTH MOUTH.
Det. in "eat", "hungry", "drink", "be silent", "relate", "think", "devise", "feel", "love" – all words concerned with emotions or activities of the mind or mouth.
F21:
sḏm [sedj-em]
EAR OF AN OX?
H6:
šw
[shoo]
FEATHER.
L1:
ḫpr
[khep-er] SCARAB or DUNG BEETLE BEETLE.
M26:
šm'
[shem-a] SEDGE GROWING FROMA SIGN FOR LAND RESEMBLING RESEMBLING N17
M27:
šm'
COMBINATION OF M26
N1:
pt
SKY.
N16:
t3 [tah]
FLAT ALLUVIAL LAND WITH WITH GRAINS OF SAND
N17:
t3
ALTERNATIVE FORM FORM OF
[pet]
N24:
N16
D36
,
BENEATH IT.
.
SAND OR OBJECT CONSISTING CONSISTING OF SMALL PARTICLES PARTICLES OR PIECES.
ḫrw
OAR,
often horizontally.
[het-ep]
LOAF
S34:
'nḫ 'nḫ
[ankh]
TIE or STRAP,
U1:
m3
[mah]
SICKLE.
U4:
X2 ON A REED MAT. Logo. "altar".
especially a sandal strap or floral garland, as a symbol of life. Known as the "the ankh".
COMINATION OF U1
related words.
t ,
Logo. or det. in "district", "nome",
š'y
ẖtp
X2:
.
.
"garden", etc.
R4:
Aa11:
AND
LAND MARKED OUT WITH IRRIGATION RUNNELS.
N33: P8
Logo. "feather", "truth".
m'3
and Aa11
. Found in m3't
"truth" and
LOAF.
[mah-ah] DOUBTFUL DOUBTFUL, POSSIBLY A STATUE BASE. Often written vertically. Used phon. in words related to "truth".
32
7.6 7.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
An Egyptian Primer
33
An Egyptian Primer
CHAPTER 8 SIGNS AS DETERMINATIVES DETERMINATIVES 8.1 A HIEROGLYPH SEVES AS A DETERMINATIVE WHEN IT PROVIDES INFORMATION INFORMATION ABOUT THE WORD TO WHICH IT IS ATTACHED. AS IT HAS NO VOCALIC MEANING, IT IS NEVER TRANSLITERAT TRANSLITERATED. TERATED. Words with the same root letters and different determinatives have different meanings. words
with
different
root
letters
and
the
same
determinatives
have
related
Thus,
meanings.
Determinatives are generally placed near or at the end of a word. Words may have more than one determinative in order to further define the word. Determinatives are needed to clarify a word, e.g. "prosperous"; in DETERMINATIVES DETERMINATIVES ,
,
= "go", "proceed"; and in , and
wḏ3,
as in
= "hale", "uninjured", or
= "storehouse" or "magazine".
The
are required to "determine" the meaning of the word.
FIG 8.18.1-1. HUNTING SCENE ON THE THE WALL OF THE DYNASTY DYNASTY 5 (2494(2494-2345) TOMB OF REM-EM-KUY, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK. From time-to-time rather than using a determinative, a picture may provide the clue as to the correct translation. Fig. 8.1-1 includes two such examples where instead of the determinative being in the word, it (E30). It is pictorially represented and is not part of the hieroglyphic spelling for the word spelling of
nw,
"hunter", is
, which contains two determinatives (D4
nì3, is n ì3 . A
,
is in the picture directly below the spelling of the word. The determinative for "ibex",
and A1
full to
indicate a man looking about as a hunter would look for game). In this depiction where the hunter is lassoing an ibex, the word
nw is represented
in the text by U20 and W24
, while the portrayal of
the hunter himself actually lassoing the ibex is used instead of the determinative for the word n w. 1 1 See Fisher's Egyptian Studies II, The Orientation of Hieroglyphs, Part 1, Reversals, p.4, Fig.1, for a further discussion of the illustration. Note the text spḥ nì3 ìn nw, "lassoing the ibex by the hunter", is over the scene of that action. 34
An Egyptian Primer
8.2 DETERMINATIVES
A. THE SAME ROOT LETTERS LETTERS WITH VARIED DETERMINATIVES: DETERMINATIVES:
mnt
daily [men-et]
mnt
swallow2
mnt
malady2
thigh of a man
mnt
B. THE SAME DETERMINATIVE DETERMINATIVE WITH DIFFERENT ROOT ROOT LETTERS:
3ḳ
perish [ahk]
mr
[mair]
ḥns
bad, evil
bìn [been]
ill
small
nḏs
narrow, defective [hen-ess]
šw
empty [shoo]
C. ADDITION OF A SECOND DETERMINATIVE TO CHANGE CHANGE A RELATED MEANING: MEANING: small
nḏs ḥḳr ḥḳr
nḏs
hungry [hek-er
ḥḳr ḥḳr
commoner, a small man, i.e. low status
hungry (man), the hungry one
8.3 COMMENTARY A: As there are many words with the same root letters, the sign which serves as a determinative enables the reader to distinguish among similar words. If no determinative is present, then the context must provide the clues for a proper translation. B: Notice that the words with the same determinative G37
, have a related meaning: "small", "narrow",
"defective", "bad", "empty", "ill", "perish", etc. When the seated man A1
nḏs, the meaning added to ḥḳr ḥḳr, the
is added to
changes to "commoner", "citizen", "poor man", "wretch", etc. Similarly when
is
meaning shifts from "hungry" to "the hungry" (a collective), "the hungry one", or "hungry man".
2 Note that the sparrow
(G37) has a rounded tail while the swallow 35
(G36) has a forked tail.
An Egyptian Primer C: Most likely, words with the same root letters but different determinatives were vocalized differently and were not homonyms, i.e. words that sound alike but differ in meaning. D:
mr, is a biphonic sign complementing the
in the word "ill".
8.4 SHU, TEFNUT, GEB, GEB, and NUT In the HELIOPOLITAN ELIOPOLITAN myth of creation, SHU, the god of sunlight and air, was the first deity created by ATUM. His sister and wife, TEFN UT, perhaps the goddess of moisture, was the second deity created by Atum. The first appearance of Shu is in the Old Kingdom, where he is depicted in human form with upraised arms supporting the nude sky goddess NUT, while separating her from her husband GEB, the earth god.3 On his head he wears a plume, the form of which is replicated in the typical headdress of the Egyptians. His bones, possibly a reference to the clouds in the sky, are the path which the king follows when he ascends to heaven at his death. The pharaoh was purified by the lakes of Shu, a possible identification with the early morning mists of the Nile. In the OK, Shu's responsibilities were enacted daily as he brought the sun god, Re, as well as the pharaoh, to life each morning. During the AMARNA PERIOD, the pharaoh Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362) worshipped the sun, the ATEN,4 in which Shu resided. Tefnut was also created by Atum's ejaculations and as he "spat her out", her symbolic representation is a pair of lips splitting. In the PYRAMID TEXTS5 she urinates pure water in which the king may wash his feet. In Lower Egypt, in some cases Tefnut and Shu were represented as a pair of lions and were worshipped as such. Other iconographic forms of Tefnut were as a serpent or scepter. She was worshipped at Heliopolis in a sanctuary of the temple to her father, Atum. In one myth, she quarreled with her father and departed for Nubia. The god Thoth (god of the moon, knowledge, and writing) was dispatched to retrieve her. As a means of coaxing her to return, he not only flattered her but also told her fables to entertain her on the journey back to Egypt.6 Shu and Tefnut were the parents of Geb and Nut. Geb was called "the eldest of Shu" and is portrayed in the OK with one arm raised to the sky and one arm on the earth. In the New Kingdom, he may be found reclining on his side, one arm bent at the elbow. A white fronted goose, G38
, was the OK hieroglyph
to indicate his name. As a chthonic deity, Geb's body was often colored green to indicate the fertility of the earth. At times he was shown with an erection, his phallus extended upwards towards his sister and wife, Nut. 3 See §2.4 and Fig. 2.4-1. 4 See §32.4. 5 See §28.4. 6 M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period, pp. 156-7. 36
An Egyptian Primer Geb's laughter was responsible for earthquakes and as he had the power to imprison the dead (thus preventing their movement in the land of the dead), he was dreaded. On the other side of the ledger, he was responsible for the food of the earth by which all mankind was sustained, especially barley which sprung from his ribs. He is also mentioned in magical texts where he could cause the curing of various ailments. Atum designated Geb as the one to preside over the feud of his grandsons, Horus and Seth, for the right to the throne of Egypt. Nut was usually depicted in human form but on occasion she was represented as the Sky Cow. In one OK text she is portrayed as a bee with great powers. Her children with Geb were Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. One of the myths regarding Nut was that she swallowed her children each night and gave birth to them each dawn, which angered Geb greatly.
As the sky goddess, she prevented the chaotic forces in the cosmos from destroying the earth. Her laughter was responsible for the thunder heard in the heavens. In the tombs of the kings of the 20th Dynasty (1200-1085), Nut is portrayed swallowing the sun god, who then traveled through her body, emerging at dawn from her vulva.
Some myths relating the same story differed significantly in their content, although existing concurrently in the Egyptian religion.
As there was no unique "holy book" which canonized the stories that were
acceptable and disregarded those that were not, the Egyptian felt no need to reconcile two or more religious views into a single "accepted" interpretation.
Their religion tended to include rather than
exclude disparate versions.
8.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D4:
ìr
D56: D56:
rd
[eer] [red]
E30: G36: G37:
wr
[wair]
EYE.
Logo. "eye". Det. in "see".
LEG.
Logo. "foot. Det. in "leg", parts of leg, actions of leg.
IBEX.
Det. in n3w, "ibex", OK form nì3.
SWALLOW or MARTIN.
Det. "great". Note the forked tail which differentiates the swallow from G37, the sparrow.
SPARROW.
Det. connoting "small", "bad", "ill", "narrow", "defective", "perish", "diseased", "empty" etc. Note rounded tail which differentiates the sparrow from G36, the swallow.
37
An Egyptian Primer
8.5 DE DESCRIPTION SCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION G38:
gb
WHITE FRONTED GOOSE.
M2:
ḥn
HERB.
U19:
nw
ADZE.
U20:
nw
ADZE.
U21:
st p
ADZE AT WORK ON A BLOCK BLOCK OF WOOD.
U23:
mr 3b
[mair], [ahb]
CHISEL?
U28:
ḏ3
[djä]
DRILL USED TO MAKE A FIRE.
W24:
nw
[noo]
Y5: Y5:
mn
U21.
OK det. for the god "Geb".
Det. "plant", "flower".
OK form of the adze
U19, and always distinct from the similar
Phon. in "remainder", "ferry across", "pillage".
Used as an abbr. for wḏ3 in the formula be prosperous, be healthy". BOWL. GAMING BOARD.
8.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
38
‘nh wḏ wḏ3 snb, "may he live,
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 9 PLURAL DETERMINATIVES DETERMINATIVES 9.1 IN OLD EGYPTIAN, WHICH FLOURISHED FROM FROM DYNASTIES 1 THOUGH THOUGH 8 (3100(3100-2160), THREE DETERMINATIVES INDICATED INDICATED THE PLURAL. PLURAL. BY MIDDLE EGYPTIAN TIMES, TIMES, DYNASTIES 99-13 (2160(21601633), THE TENDENCY WAS TO INDICATE A PLURAL PLURAL NOT ONLY WITH REPETITIVE REPETITIVE DETERMINATIVES DETERMINATIVES BUT ALSO WITH:
1) THREE SHORT PARALLEL PARALLEL STROKES
VERTICALLY
, 3) THREE SMALL CIRCLES SET HORIZONTALLY
or
, 2) THREE SHORT STROKES SET , 4) THREE SMALL CIRCLES
SET VERTICALLY , 5) A SMALL CIRCLE SET OVER THE THREE SHORT VERTICAL STROKES
.
9.2 PLURAL DETERMINATIVES DETERMINATIVES SINGULAR
pr
,
PLURAL ,
house
army
mš'
mš' w
god
n ṯr sr
houses
prw
nṯrw official
,
, armies [meh-sha-ōō]1 , gods [netch-er-ōō]
srw [sâr-ōō] nbw
,
officials
gold 2
9.3 COMMENTARY A: When writing plurals, it was quicker and easier for the three determinatives indicating the plural to be replaced by three strokes or circles, and as a result, such plural indicators came into widespread use. The three short horizontal plural indicators were set under the single sign, while the vertical representations were placed immediately following the determinative. B: Using three determinatives to indicate the plural enjoyed a rebirth from time-to-time, such as during the Saite Period (664-525), when it was revived as a deliberate archaism, particularly for use in religious texts. 1 From this point forward, long vowels will no longer be expressed as "-ah-", "air", "-ay-", "-ee-", or "oo-" but rather as ä as in "alms", "art", "calm"; â(r) as in "air", "dare", "Mary"; ā as in "aid", "cape", "way"; ē; or ōō; the symbols found in most dictionaries. Note that the letter "o" represents the sound "-oh-" and therefore is not used for "-ōō-", as in the English word "boot". 2 Gold could be either plural or singular. 39
An Egyptian Primer C: Note also that in one form of the plural for house,
prw,
the combination of the determinative
with the single vertical stroke following it and with the three plural strokes placed beneath them both. D: Plural writing varied according to the space available. In other words, depending on the space allotted for the glyphs, the scribes would fill the space either efficiently or in an artistically pleasing presentation, e.g. note the differences between
,
, and
, nṯ rw. rw
9.4 THE CORVÉ CORVÉE 3 and šbty STATUES Almost all ancient societies relied on both slave and conscript labor for public works construction as well as to provide other necessary services to the state, such as farming, husbandry, and military service. Slaves were originally obtained by force of arms and their descendants usually formed a distinct caste within their owner's society. They were bartered for goods and services just as any other commodity and had an economic value to their owner.4 Conscript labor5 also provided much of the manpower in ancient societies. Scholars call this system in which conscript labor is provided, the corvée. After each annual Nile inundations, the corvée provided the labor for the repairs necessary for the maintenance of the irrigation canals and the dikes bordering the fields. Corvée labor was utilized in both temple and pyramid construction. While artisans might be in the direct employ of the institution or the crown, the corvée supplied much of the part-time labor, such as fishermen, hunters, farmers, bakers, brewers, weavers, tanners, and construction workers. The local lord called upon his peasant work force to supply the labor for his corvée, just as the nomarch called upon him and the king upon the nomarch. Similarly, lower ranking priests were organized into four companies, or phyles, and served one month in each of the three seasons. translated as "wab-priests".
Such priests were called
w' b,
lit. "the pure ones" and
are
As well as the priests, groups of manual laborers were occasionally
organized into phyles or work gangs. Some individuals and sometimes entire villages would be exempt from the corvée, as is known from a decree of Pepi I (6-3, c. 2300 BCE), exempting two agricultural settlements in payment for maintaining the two pyramids constructed by the pharaoh Snoferu (4-1, 2613-2589):
3 Pronounced "corvāy", this French word is derived from the Latin "corrogata", "contribution". 4 In the Code of Laws of Hammurabi (king of Babylon c. 1750 BCE), values were promulgated for slaves and their services and expressed in gold, silver, or commodity equivalents. 5 While we think of labor as either free or slave, almost all labor in the ancient world was not free. Besides outright slavery (the usual fate of war captives and their families) in most ancient societies, each individual was generally under the jurisdiction of an immediate higher authority. Chattel slavery, i.e. one in which the individual could be sold to another individual, existed in the Middle Kingdom as well as under the Ptolemies. Chattel slavery in Egypt differed from European medieval serfdom. Under that system, the serf could not be sold individually, because he was considered an integral part of the estate on which he lived, much the same as the fields, houses, farm equipment, and animals. 40
An Egyptian Primer My majesty has commanded that these two pyramidpyramid-towns be exempt for him in the course of eternity from doing any work of the Palace, from doing any forced labor for any part of the Royal Residence in the course of eternity, or for doing any corvé anybody in the course of eternity. 6 corvée at the word of anybody As the corvée could take an individual away from home and livelihood,7 wealthier individuals often "paid" others to serve in their stead. Such an individual who would serve for another was originally called a
šwbty. [shwabty].
FIG 9.49.4-1. FOUR GREEN FAIENCE šwbty STATUES BELONGING TO THE ADMIRAL OF THE FLEET, PA-N-HABU, DYNASTY 26 (664(664-525), METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NY. Extension of this concept to the magical realm of the afterlife led to a small
šwbty wbty
statue,8 complete with tiny tools being placed in the tombs of many individuals and even those of the pharaohs. These figurines accompanied the mummy in order to perform any physical tasks required of the deceased in the next world. They were often inscribed with a supplication similar to the following: 6 J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 99. 7 This could be for an extended period of time, especially when called for service in the army. 8 By the New Kingdom, c. 1500, the term šwbty was applied to these figures and during the Late Dynastic/Persian c. 500 they were called wšbty. 41
An Egyptian Primer O shabti, allotted to me, if I be summoned or if I be detailed to do any work which has to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are impla implanted by you therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion of making making arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to west; 'Here am I, 'you shall say. 9 The oldest
šbty-statuettes were made of
wax and wood in the form of a mummy. Probably beginning in
Dynasty 18 (1567-1320) of the New Kingdom, these figurines were covered by a glazed material. Originally buried one to a tomb, the practice changed so that by the Late Dynastic/Persian (525-332), some individuals were buried with as many as 365
šbty-figurines plus "overseer" statuettes to supervise
this work force in the next world.10 9.5 9.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A6:
MAN RECEIVING PURIFICATION.
D60
in ME.
A53:
UPRIGHT MUMMY.
Det. in
D60:
COMBINATION OF
D58
, wì, "mummy". WITH A VASE FROM WHICH WHICH WATER FLOWS.
w'b.
"pure", "clean", var.
š3 [shä]
M8:
POOL WITH LOTUS FLOWERS.
in Group Writing,11 (N33):
,
or
Replaced the earlier OK Sign A6
, in ME.
Logo. for "meadow", "lotus pool". When used is used for š.
Represents the plural, and is found in both vertical and horizontal representations. Often used as a det. for "metal".
nṯr [netch-er]
CLOTH WOUND ON A POLE POLE,
S12:
nbw [neb-ew]
COLLAR OF BEADS.
V4:
w3 [wä]
LASSO.
Z2:
Z4:
Logo.
GRAINS OF SAND, PELLETS, OR THE LIKE.
R8:
Z3:
w'b. "pure", "clean", was replaced by
Logo.
,
emblem of divinity.
Logo. in
and
nbw, "gold".
STROKE
Z1, Z1, , REPEATED THREE TIMES HORIZONTALLY. Det. for "plurality".
STROKE
Z1, Z1, , REPEATED THREE TIMES TIMES VERTICALLY OR THREE THREE HORIZONTAL LINES Det. for "plurality".
STACKED VERTICALLY.
y
TWO DIAGONAL STROKES.
Semi-phonetic det. for "duality".
9 R.O. Faulkner, The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead, Spell 6, p.36. 10 The number indicates that the individual was taking no chances in having to perform physical labor on any given day after death. 11 Biphonic signs were sometimes used to express uniphonic signs. Such usage is called "Group Writing". For a further discussion, see §31.3. 42
An Egyptian Primer 9.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
43
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 10 DUAL NOUNS 10.1 A DUAL NOUN OR DOUBLE DOUBLE LOGOGRAM IS THE SAME SAME SIGN DRAWN TWICE AND REPRESENTS A PAIR OF THINGS OR PERSONS. PERSONS.
-wy
Other representations include the masculine dual ending of
[wē ē] and the feminine dual ending of
-ty
[tē ē].
10.2 DUAL NOUNS SINGULAR house
pr
foot
rd
land
t3
obelisk
tḫ n ìr t
, eye [ēr-et]
PLURAL
prw
DUAL
houses
two houses [pair-ōō-ē]
prwy
-----
t3w
rdwy
[two] feet [red-wē]
the two lands, i.e. Egypt
lands
t3wy t3wy [tä-wē]
obelisks
tḫnw [tekh-en-ōō]
tḫnwy
-----
ìrty
two obelisks [tekh-en-ōō-ē]
the [two] eyes [ēr-tē]
10.3 COMMENTARY A: Duals were expressed by the repetition of a logogram twice or the addition of the dual ending. Duals for the body parts were used for the eyes, ears, lips, arms, limbs, and feet. B: Duals were represented as a pair of logograms, either side by side, as in on top of the other, as in in
, or placed vertically one
. Logograms which are vertical by nature would always be placed side by side, as
.
44
An Egyptian Primer
C: Contrast b3k to b3kt (male and female servant) and plural, and dual forms: SINGULAR
PLURAL
servant (male)
b3k
b3kwt
brother
snt
servants
snwy
sisters
snwt [sen-ōōt]
snw
the
n
two servants
b3kwy [bä-kōō-ē] b3kty [bäk-tē]
snw [sen-ōō]
sister [sen-et]
In
servants
brothers
sn [sen]
(brother and sister) in the singular,
DUAL
b3kw
servant (female)
b3kt
sn and snt
snty
two brothers [sen-ōō-ē] two sisters [sen-tē]
is a phonetic complement for the biphonic
complement connecting the
n
and the
w.
two servants
sn
Note that the insertion of the
and the
nw
is a biphonic
serves not only for phonetic
purposes but for aesthetic ones as well by neatly filling in the space in the center of the word. 10.4 10.4 THE CALENDAR 1 FOR MOST OF THEIR HISTORY HISTORY, THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS EMPLOYED EMPLOYED THREE CALENDARS: 1. The Lunar Calendar 2. The Civil Calendar 3. The Lunar Civil Calendar UNLIKE OUR TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL FOUR SEASONS, THE EGYPTIANS DIVIDED THEIR THEIR 12 MONTH YEAR INTO THREE THREE PERIODS:
3ḫt prt
[ä-khet]
[per-et]
šm w
THE SEASON OF INUNDATION when the land was flooded (mid-July — mid-November)
THE SEASON OF PLANTING when the sowing was done (mid-November — mid-March)
THE SEASON OF HARVEST when the crops were gathered (mid-March — mid-July) [shä-mōō]
Normally each season was further divided into four months: Inundation;
3bd 1 3ḫt, month 1 of The Season of
3bd 2 3ḫ 3ḫt, month 2 of The Season of Inundation; etc.
The original LUNAR CALENDAR probably came into use in early Pre-dynastic times and in subsequent years its invention was attributed to the god Thoth. In this calendar, the beginning of the year was measured from
1 This article based primarily on R.A. Parker's The Calendars of Ancient Egypt. 45
An Egyptian Primer the first appearance of the star Sirius, also called "the Dog Star",2 just above the horizon before sunrise in mid-summer. An extra month was inserted into the calendar every 2-3 years within a 25 year cycle.3 This was necessary to synchronize the calendar with the reappearance of Sirius at dawn to signal the end of
šmw
and the beginning of
3ḫt .
These years of 13 lunar months were called "G Great Years" ears and the
intercalary month was dedicated to the god Thoth. It should be noted that as the Nile began to rise in midJuly, the original LUNAR CALENDAR was probably tied to this event, and only later became associated with the Sothic rising occurring at or near the same time. At some point, perhaps during Dynasty 1 (3100-2890), a more orderly calendar, the CIVIL CALENDAR was instituted in order to regularize dates within the year. The CIVIL CALENDAR ALENDAR was not dependent upon years containing 12 or 13 months, but was based on a total of 365 days as determined from the 25 year cycle mentioned earlier. This year was divided into three periods of four months each, each month containing 30 days. Before the new year began, a five day period was inserted after the 12th month of the old year (IV IV
šmw), as a short intercalary month in order to bring the total number of days in the year to 365. The CIVIL CALENDAR was probably introduced c. 3000 BCE and it became evident after several centuries had elapsed that the CIVIL CALENDAR and the original LUNAR CALENDAR were no longer synchronized, as the first lunar month and the first civil month no longer coincided.4 Rather than change either calendar, as the original LUNAR CALENDAR had deep roots in their culture and the 360 day calendar used by the bureaucrats for the administration of the country was firmly established, the Egyptians neatly solved the problem by instituting yet a third calendar, the LUNAR CIVIL CALENDAR, probably c. 2500 BCE.
This calendar was
represented by 59 deities, four for each lunar month5 totaling 354 days plus 11 to round up the year to 365 days. Thus, for the balance of their history, the ancient Egyptians measured time under three calendars: the original LUNAR CALENDAR, the CIVIL CALENDAR, and the LUNAR CIVIL CALENDAR. regarding the Egyptian calendars.
One further observation
Scholars traditionally have assumed that the month began with the
crescent of the new moon at sunset. As the Egyptians began their day at dawn, they most likely would have begun a new month at dawn on the first day of the new moon. As the moon continued to wane until its crescent was no longer visible at sunrise, that event (the moon's disappearance), would govern the beginning of the new month, rather than the next appearance of the moon's crescent in the evening.
2 The rising of Sirius at the same time as the sun is called its heliacal rising and occurs in mid-July. The Egyptians called the star spdt, which the Greeks translated as "Sothis". Sirius was not in view at any time for ≈70 days from the beginning of May until its reappearance in July. Its heliacal rising was called by the Egyptians wp rnpt, "Opener of the Year". 3 For the Egyptians 25 years contained 309 lunar months for a total of 9,125 days. Thus, the lunar lag between the Original Lunar Calendar and the solar year was only .04769 day every 25 years or 1 day per 500 years. 4 There was a discrepancy of 1 day every 4 years between the two calendars. 5 A lunar month varies from 29.26 to 29.80 days, depending on both the moon's distance from the earth and the earth's distance from the sun. 46
An Egyptian Primer
FIG. 10.410.4-1. ASTRONOMICAL SC SCENES WITH 12 DISCS FOR MONTHS, TOMB OF SENENMUT, c. HATSHEPSUT HATSHEPSUT (18(18-5, 15031503-1482). The present status of Egyptian Chronology is succinctly stated by William A. Ward: "The current debate on Egyptian chronology chronology is characterized by divergent opinions on the value of the Manethonian tradition, the lengths of reigns of individual Egyptian kings, the existence of coco-regencies, and the astronomical evidence. In each of these categories, there is little concensus [sic] and a wide range of possible solutions; a precise Egyptian chronology is therefore not possible. The present survey of this evidence and the theories derived therefrom emphasizes that modern scholarship wrongly assumes a precision the Egyptians Egyptians could not achieve, that it is incorrect to speak of astronomical observations made for other than purely local purposes, and that feast days, including the New Year, began on different days at different latitudes along the Nile Valley." 6
6 William A. Ward, "The Present Status of Egyptian Chronology", BASOR 288, p. 53. 47
An Egyptian Primer 10.5 10.5 DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION N11:
Logo. or det. in
Combined with
3bd, "month"; in dates abbr. as in
3bd 4, "month 4". N12: N14:
N14 in
CRESCENT CRESCENT MOON, alternate
sb3
[sebä]
N23:
STAR.
form of N11 beginning in Dynasty 18.
sb3, "star".
Logo. or det. in
IRRIGATION CANAL.
Det. in "irrigated land". Earlier form of N36
N36:
mr [mair]
CHANNEL FILLED WITH WATER.
T22:
sn
TWO-BARBED ARROW HEAD.
[sen]
ì'ḥ ì'ḥ, "moon".
CRESCENT MOON (also vertically).
10.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
48
.
Later form as det. "irrigated land" N23
Indicates "two".
.
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 11 POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS – SINGULAR FORM 11.1 A PRONOUN IS A WORD USED USED IN PLACE OF ONE OR OR MORE NOUNS. A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN USUALLY INDICATE POSSESSION OR OWNERSHIP ("my ("my book", "mine "mine"; mine"; "their "their horse", "theirs "theirs" theirs"). In English, the Possessive Pronouns are "mine "mine", mine", "your "yours yours", "his "his", his", "her "hers hers", "its "its", its", "ours "ours", ours", "theirs "theirs" theirs".1
THE THE EGYPTIAN
POSSESSIVE IS INDICATED BY THE USE OF A PRONOUN PRONOUN ATTACHED TO THE THE END OF A WORD. WORD.2 The Egyptian pronouns are divided between singular and plural, as well as masculine and feminine. The Egyptian singular possessive forms are: "my", "your", "his", "her", and "its". 11.2 POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS – SINGULAR FORM A. THE SINGULAR MASCULINE
⋅ì
, my [ē]
1st
, your
⋅k
FEMININE
⋅ì
2nd
3rd
, see '11.3)
[etch]
, her, its
⋅s
[eff]
, my (later [ē] , your
⋅ṯ
[eck] , his, its
⋅ff
PERSON
[ess]
B. USE OF THE SINGULAR SINGULAR FOR SINGULAR SINGULAR NOUNS MASCULINE
PERSON
pr⋅ pr⋅ì
, my house [pair-ē]
1st
ḫ t ⋅k
, your thing [khet-eck]
2nd
m wt⋅ wt⋅f
, his mother [mōōt-ef]
3rd
FEMININE
pr⋅ pr⋅ì
, my house [pâr-ē]3
ḫ t ⋅ṯ
, your thing [khet-etch]
ìt⋅ ìt⋅s
, her father [ēt-ess]
1 Many English grammarians refer to "my", "your", "his", "her", "its", "our", and "their" as Possessive Adjectives because, like adjectives, they modify a noun. 2 In transliteration it is separated from the noun by ⋅ (some authors use =). 3 Henceforth, the "air" sound will no longer be expressed as "-air-" but rather as â(r), the phonetic spelling found in most dictionaries. 49
An Egyptian Primer
C. USE OF THE SINGULAR SINGULAR FOR PLURAL PLURAL NOUNS MASCULINE , my trees ḫt(w)⋅ t(w)⋅ì [khet-ōō-ē]
ẖrd(w)⋅ rd(w)⋅k
, your children [hâr-dōō-eck]
, his/its walls ìnb(w)⋅ ìnb(w)⋅f [ē-neb-ōō-eff]
PERSON
FEMININE , my sycamore trees nh(w)t⋅ nh(w)t⋅ì [neh-ōōt-ē]
1st
2nd
dp(w)t⋅ dp(w)t⋅ṯ
, your ships [dep-ōōt-etch]
, her/its armies mš'(w)⋅ mš'(w)⋅s [meh-shä-ōō-ess]
3rd
11.3 COMMENTARY A: In transliteration, the possessive pronoun is attached to the end of a noun and preceded by a dot ⋅ .4 Note that the possessive pronoun expresses the owner's gender and is not affected by the gender of the noun it modifies. In the 1st person singular, B:
, the seated man is used for both genders.
, the seated woman does not occur for the feminine 1st person possessive pronoun before Dynasty 19
(1320-1200). In dating an archaeological site or ancient text, such usage, e.g. the employment of
as a
possessive, is identified as a terminus ante quem, i.e., a date before which a particular building, burial, object, text, wall, etc. could not or did not exist. Similarly, a terminus post quem, would be a date after which a particular building, burial, object, text, wall, etc. could not have been completed. Thus, if a text is found in which
is used for the feminine 1st person possessive, the text is probably no earlier than c. 1300
BCE (onset of the 19th Dynasty) and the context in which such a text was found, e.g. inscribed on a burial container, could help to establish a terminus ante quem for the burial. Similarly, if the burial chamber was built over a floor of a previously existing building, then a terminus post quem might possibly be established for that floor and, therefore, that building. C: Notice the difference in the writing of the plural for "ships": latter form being the norm. Although one might expect
,
,
-wt,
or
,
dpwt, and
-w,
,
dp(w)t, the
it is almost never present in
feminine plurals, except for calligraphic reasons. Feminine plurals are normally written showing only the ending
,
-t
with the addition of plural strokes to the determinative. In such cases where the
-w
is
omitted but should be part of the word, the transliteration is written with the w in brackets (w) to indicate its omission. D:
,
ìt,
"father", contains the I9 sign
, apparently as a determinative, as it is not expressed
phonetically. It is also one of the few masculine words ending in
(ì)t 4
and in both versions the final
Some authors used =.
is frequently omitted.
50
-t .
This word has a common variant,
,
An Egyptian Primer E: Another masculine word ending in words ending in
t
t is
,
ḫt, "wood", "tree".
The one other exception to the rule that
are feminine are foreign countries, which are grammatically feminine while masculine in
orthography. 11.4 THE FOURTH FOURTH DYNASTY RULERS OF THE 4TH DYNASTY (2613(2613-2498 BCE)
Ruler Ruler
Reign Length
4- 1 4- 2
Snoferu Khufu
24 years 23
4- 3 4- 4
Redjedef Khaefre
8 25 (?)
4- 5 4- 6
Baufre (?) Menkaure
4- 7 4- 8
Shepseskaf Dedefptah (?)
Reign
Greek Name
26132613-2589 2589--2566 Cheops 2589 2566--2558 Djedefre 2566 25582558-2533 Chephren
28 (?) 4
-2504 Mycerinus 2504--2500 2504
2
25002500-2498
Our knowledge of this group of kings is not derived from written documents, as no mummies or papyri have yet been found which date from the 4th Dynasty. Rather it is from their monuments (most notably the pyramids at Dahshur and on the plateau at Giza), the wall scenes in the many mastaba
MAP 11.411.4-1. DYNASTY 4 PYRAMID LOCATIONS LOCATIONS.
tombs, the Palermo stone,5 and references in works, primarily literary, of succeeding dynasties. Some scholars believe that Snoferu probably continued the development of the pyramid design of Dynasty 3, probably completing at Maidum6 the pyramid of his predecessor, Huni (3-5, 2636-2612), the last king of the 3rd Dynasty. He selected Dahshur, about 6.5 km (4 miles) south of Sakkara, to erect two additional stone pyramids, each over 94 m. (310 ft.) high, the largest constructed as of that time. Only a little over 3 km. (about 2 miles) separated the RED PYRAMID (or NORTHERN STONE PYRAMID) from its southern neighbor, the BENT PYRAMID, so called because of the change in incline of its sides. It is thought that the Bent Pyramid was probably the later construction, due to the angle of incline (54E) of its lower elements, while its upper courses were only 43E, indicating that perhaps the constructors wished to complete the pyramid more quickly, less stone being required with the change to a shallower angle.7 The interior design of the Bent Pyramid also indicates a further development over prior constructions.
The personnel who served the
funerary cult for the dead king at these two pyramids were exempted from certain required services to the pharaoh as indicated in a decree written on a stela dating to the reign of the Dynasty 6 monarch, Pepi I (63, fl. 2300). 5 See §4.4.1. 6 Maidum is 55 km. (34 miles) south of Sakkara [sä-kä-rä]. 7 It should be noted, however, that some scholars believe that the Bent Pyramid is of an earlier construction than the Red Pyramid. 51
An Egyptian Primer From the PALERMO STONE we learn that during Snoferu's reign, campaigns were conducted in Nubia and Libya, while south of Elephantine (modern Aswan) some 280 km. (175 miles), a frontier settlement at Buhen was established. Also in his reign, the arrival of ships carrying timber was recorded, indicating sea trade, possibly with Byblos on the Phoenician coast of Asia Minor. Excavations and inscriptions from the mastaba tomb of one of Snoferu's sons, Kanefer, appear to indicate that Snoferu's reign was not only a time of centralization of government to a degree not seen before, but it was also a time of consolidation of power within his immediate family. A further evidence of this is the fact that he not only might have completed the construction of the pyramid of Huni, but also could have erected two larger pyramids of his own. These acts, particularly the massive construction programs, could hardly have been carried to completion without a high degree of command and control over the country, effectively administered by a central bureaucracy. Snoferu's son, Khufu, constructed the largest stone building in the world on the plateau at Giza on the west bank of the Nile near modern Cairo.
Together with the other pyramids of Khaefre and Menkaure, it
constituted one of the SEVEN WONDERS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD.8 This pyramid, called either "T THE GREAT PYRAMID" or "T THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS", was constructed from some 2,300,000 limestone blocks with an average weight of 2.5 tons each, with some weighing as much as 15 tons. With its capstone intact, it originally stood about 147 m. (482 ft.) high on a base 230 m. (755 ft.) square.9 Pits parallel to the sides of the pyramid contained ships, one of which has been reassembled and is on display above the pit in which it was stored.10 Khufu's successor, Redjedef, started to build a pyramid some 8 km. (5 miles) north of Giza on the plateau at Abu Rawash. It probably was never completed and has been extensively vandalized. Although little of it remains today, it appears that it was similar to 3rd Dynasty construction in design. In its original state, Khaefre's pyramid was 256 m. (704 ft.) on each side and 144 m. (472 ft.) high. Although slightly smaller in size than Khufu's pyramid, it is situated on slightly higher ground, giving the impression that it is at least as large. It was standard procedure to encase the pyramids with a very fine limestone from the Tura quarries, located across the Nile Valley from the Giza plateau.
Khaefre's pyramid still
retains its capstone and some of this fine Tura limestone casing. THE SPHINX is thought to represent the head of Khaefre on a lion's body. It was constructed from a natural outcropping of sedimentary rock and has been the subject of several restoration attempts in recent years.
8 In chronological order of their completion, the Seven Wonders were: 1) Pyramids of Egypt at Giza, 2) Hanging Gardens of Babylon constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar, 3) Statue of Zeus at Olympia in Greece, 4) Temple of Diana at Ephesus, 5) Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Caria, Asia Minor, 6) Colossus of Rhodes, and 7) Pharos Lighthouse of Alexandria in Egypt. 9 The Egyptian unit of measure was the royal cubit, a distance from the king's elbow to the tip of his middle finger. While the length of the cubit varied for different dynasties and different localities, for Khufu's pyramid the dimensions given in cubits is 280 high and 440 per side at ground level. 10 See §35.4 and Illustration 35.4-2.
52
An Egyptian Primer Shepseskaf, the 7th ruler of the 4th Dynasty, did not attempt a tomb on the scale of his predecessors. Instead he constructed a large stone mastaba at Sakkara, whose appearance reminds one of a large stone sarcophagus. Perhaps his tomb was more a result of his short reign rather than a diminishment of the state's resources in manpower and crops.
In any case, this period of large pyramid construction ended
with Menkaure and was not to be seen in Egypt ever again.
Smaller pyramids and SUN TEMPLES were
constructed by the ensuing dynasties in a southward line from Sakkara along the edge of the Western Desert.
FIG. 11.411.4-1. THE GIZA PLATEAU NECROPOLIS NECROPOLIS:THE SPHINX SPHINX IN THE FOREGROUND FOREGROUND WITH KHAEFRE KHAEFRE'S PYRAMID AT REAR, 1984. 1984. The corridors and burial chambers of the 4th Dynasty pyramids were plain and devoid of writing. Such developments did not appear until the pyramid of Unas, the last king of the 5th Dynasty. However, the mastabas of the king's relatives, retinue, and high officials were decorated with scenes depicting daily living and religious practices. From these representations come almost all we know of how the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom lived, ate, played, hunted, farmed, traveled, and dressed. The 4th Dynasty was a time of relative peace and security for Egypt. The king, who became a divinity, appears to have further removed himself from the day to day operations of the government by the appointment of a vizier, or chief official, to administer the land on his behalf. As in life, so too in death, his family members and retainers continued their fealty by being buried in mastabas or much smaller pyramids at the foot of his overpowering pyramid. As the king associated himself more and more with the sun god, Re, the state religion began to shift its emphasis, giving way to the substantial changes found during the 5th Dynasty.
53
An Egyptian Primer 11.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A17:
ẖrd [hered], ms [mes]
CHILD SITTING (ON LAP) WITH HAND TO MOUTH MOUTH.
G14:
nr mt
VULTURE.
M1:
ì3m [ēäm], ìm [ēm]
TREE.
M3:
ḫt [khet]
BRANCH.
[nâr], [met]
tree.
Phon. and det. in
var.
Det. "young", "child", "orphan".
,
ì3m, an unknown kind of
Logo. "wood", "tree". Det. "wood", "ebony", "wooden objects", "palanquin", "column".
11.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
54
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 12 POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS PRONOUNS – PLURAL FORM 12.1 JUST LIKE THE SINGULAR SINGULAR POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS, THE PLURAL POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS ARE ATTACHED TO THE END OF THE EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN WORD. WORD. Plural possessive forms are: "our", "your", and "their". 12.2 POSSESSIVE SUFFIX PRONOUNS – PLURAL FORM A. THE PLURAL MASCULINE
PERSON
, our ⋅n [en]
FEMININE
1st
, your
2nd
, their ⋅sn [sen]
3rd
⋅ṯn [tchen]
, our
⋅n ⋅ṯn
, your
⋅sn
, their
B. USE OF THE PLURAL FOR SINGULAR NOUNS MASCULINE
PERSON
, our city
nì wt ⋅n
[nē-ōōt-en]
, your mother
m wt ⋅ṯn
1st
t3 ⋅n
, our land [tä-en]
2nd
, your father
ìt ⋅ṯn [ēt-tchen]
[mōōt-tchen]
, their road
mṯn ⋅sn
FEMININE
, their house
3rd
pr ⋅sn
[metch-en-sen]
C. USE OF THE PLURAL PLURAL FOR PLURAL NOUNS NOUNS MASCULINE
ḥ' w w ⋅n ḫ' w ⋅ṯn
, our ships
PERSON 1st
, your weapons [khä-ōō-tchen]
2nd
, their clothes
3rd
ḥbs(w) ⋅sn
[heb-sōō-sen]
FEMININE
ḫbsw ⋅n
, our farmed lands [kheb-sōō-en] , your countries
ḫ3s(w) ⋅ṯn [khä-sōōt-tchen] ìnb(w) ⋅sn 55
, their walls
12.3 COMMENTARY
An Egyptian Primer
A: Note that the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural possessives ("our", "your", "their") are identical for both genders. B: Note that these words refer to different types of land: country";
,
t3,
,
ḫ3st, to the "hill
to the "flat country" and is generic for "land"; and
country", i.e. "a foreign ,
ḫbsw,
to "cultivated
land" or "ploughlands". C: , Sign Z7, found its way into the sign list from the hieratic form for the quail chick, G43,
.
was not
used until c. 2150 (Dynasty 9) and by the reign of Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362) it was used quite commonly by scribes. 12.4 THE LEGEND OF THE GOD OSIRIS ACCORDING TO PLUTARCH 1 It is possible that a king by the name of OSIRIS ruled over Egypt in pre-dynastic times, although there is no record of such a ruler. There are many versions of the Osiris legend, one of which was preserved by Plutarch, a Greek biographer fl. 100 CE. It probably represented a late and somewhat corrupt version of the ancient Egyptian original. It ran as follows: Osiris was born near Memphis in Upper Egypt and at his birth was acclaimed by a mysterious voice as "Universal Lord". When his father, GEB, went to the Underworld, Osiris succeeded him as king of Egypt. He took his sister, ISIS, as his wife and queen. His first royal acts were to: to: abolish cannibalism, teach his subjects to make agricultural instruments, grow grain for bread and beer, and grow grow grapes to make wine. As the cult of the gods did not yet exist, he instituted their worship in the first temples in which he placed their statues and images. He was responsible for the invention of two kinds of flutes to be used in the religious songs to be sung to the gods. He built many cities in Egypt and provided a code of laws by which all Egyptians might live. Having brought civilization to Egypt, he left Egypt in the hands of Isis and set forth on the conquest of Asia, accompanied by Thoth,2 Anubis, wp--w3wt).4 After Anubis,3 and Wepwawet (wp traveling throughout the whole earth bringing peace and civilization to all lands, Osiris returned to Egypt. He found his kingdom had flourished because Isis had governed well in his absence. In the 28th year of his reign, his brother SETH attended a grand banquet at Memphis celebrating Osiris's return to Egypt. At the banquet, banquet, Seth presented his brother with a beautifully made chest and told the assembly that whomever the chest fitted exactly might have it. Osiris lay down in the box and it fit him perfectly. At that juncture, Seth, with the aid of 72 accomplices, closed and nailed down the lid. They threw it into the Nile and the chest was carried to the Mediterranean. It floated all the way to Byblos on the Phoenician Phoenician coast, coming to rest at the foot of a tamarisk tree. The tree miraculously grew rapidly, completely surrounding the chest. 1 Plutarch, a Greek who lived in the 1st Century CE, was an essayist and biographer who traveled extensively through Greece, Italy, and Egypt. 2 The moon god, also the god of scribes and knowledge. 3 The canine god of the cemetery and embalming. 4 The jackal god of Upper Egypt whose name means "Opener of Ways". His adze was used to ceremonially open the king's mouth at the time of burial to permit his continued life in the Underworld. A yearly ritual called "The Procession of Wepwawet" is described on the stela of Ikhernofret, fl. 1865 BCE, wherein enemies seeking to attack the deity sailing in his "neshmet bark" were driven off. 56
An Egyptian Primer
The king of Byblos was building a new palace and ordered the tree cut down to support his roof. As this was being done, the the tree gave off such an exquisite odor that when news of this reached Isis she immediately understood its significance. She traveled to Byblos and was able to reclaim the tree. She was able to draw the chest from the tree and then hurried back to Egypt where she hid it from Seth in a swamp. By chance Seth was able to locate the chest and chopped the body of Osiris into 14 pieces, pieces, which he scattered far and wide across Egypt. Isis, in a series of adventures, recovered all but one of the pieces, namely the the phallus of Osiris. She reassembled the body and then embalmed her husband and through the rites there performed for the first time, she restored her husband to eternal life. Moreover, through her womanly charms she was able to conceive a posthumous son, son, HORUS, from his corpse.5 She and Horus continued to hide from Seth, until Horus was of sufficient age and strength to engage in combat with Seth in order to regain the throne of his father.
FIG. 12.4.1. BRONZE STATUETTE OF OF TRIAD OF DEITIES: ISIS ISIS, OSIRIS, AND HORUS-THE-CHILD (NOTE THE CHILD’S HAIRLOCK), FROM THE PTOLEMAIC PERIOD PERIOD (304(304-30), METROPOLI METROPOLITAN ETROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART ART.
5 See §26.4. 57
An Egyptian Primer Some scholars believe that the Osiris legend is based on some actual facts from the dim past of predynastic history. Perhaps there were two brothers who contended for the throne of Upper Egypt, and after one killed the other through some subterfuge, ruled the country until his nephew in turn dispatched him. The Greek's called Horus-the-Child "Harpokrates" because that is how the Egyptian (ẖr-p3p3-ẖrd) sounded to them. 12.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION G41:
ḫn ṯn
K1:
ìn [ēn]
[khen] [tchen]
PINTAIL DUCK ALIGHTING ALIGHTING.
FISH.
Det. in
Det. in "road", "speech", "sentence".
ìnt, "fish".
Phon. in ìnb,
, "wall", and ìnt,
, "valley". SANDY HILL-COUNTRY OVER EDGE OF GREEN CULTIVATION CULTIVATION.
N25: N28:
country", "foreign land", "desert", "necropolis".
ḫ3 [khä]
HILL OVER WHICH ARE THE RAYS OF THE RISI RISING ISING SUN.
and "appear in glory".
Logo. or det. in "hill
Logo. "hill of the sunrise"
N31:
ROAD BORDERED BY SHRUBS SHRUBS.
O49:
VILLAGE WITH CROSS ROADS ROADS.
S28:
STRIP OF CLOTH WITH FRINGE, COMBINED WITH FOLDED FOLDED CLOTH,
"here", "that".
"village", "town".
, Z7:
w
[ōō]
Logo. "road" and related words. Det. in "road",
Logo. "village". Det. in "inhabited region",
S29, . Det. in
ḥbs, "clothing".
HIEROGLYPHIC ADAPTATION ADAPTATION OF THE HIERATIC HIERATIC ABBREVIATED FORM FORM OF G43, G43,
58
.
12.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
An Egyptian Primer
59
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 13 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT 13.1 A VERB EXPRESSES EXISTENCE ("is ("is"), is"), ACTION ("run ("runs runs"), OR OCCURANCE ("happens ("happens"). happens"). When the subject1 is a pronoun, it is attached as a suffix to the verb. The pronoun subject of the Egyptian verb is attached to the verb in a similar manner to the possessive pronoun's attachment to its noun (' '' 11, 12). In Egyptian, there was only one tense to express the present ("now") and future ("something that is going to occur"), and therefore only context determines whether the verb should be translated as present or future. This form of the Egyptian present/future verb tense with a suffix pronoun appended is called "the the
sḏm⋅f
verb form". form 2
13.2 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN PRONOUN SUBJECT MASCULINE
šm⋅ì
I go, I will go [shem-ē] you see, you will see
SINGULAR PERSON 1st
šm⋅ì
2nd
he says, he will say [djed-ef]
MASCULINE
rdì rdì⋅n ìt⋅ṯn
we give, we will give [red-ē-en] you take, you will take [ētch-tchen] they write, they will write
sš⋅sn [sesh-sen]
I go, I will go
you see, will see
m33⋅ m33⋅k [mä-ä-eck] ḏd⋅f
FEMININE
m33⋅ m33⋅ṯ
[mä-ä-etch]
she says, she will say [djed-ess]
3rd
ḏd⋅s
PLURAL PERSON 1st
FEMININE
rdì rdì⋅n
2nd
ìt⋅ṯn
3rd
sš⋅sn
1 The subject is the word or phrase the verb describes. 2 Pronounced "sedj-em-ef". 60
we give, we will give
you take, you will take
they write, they will write
An Egyptian Primer
13.3 COMMENTARY
A: The same suffix pronouns are used for both possessive pronouns and subject pronouns. The singular forms are:
, "I" (m.,f.);
, "you" (m.);
, "you" (f.);
feminine plural subject pronouns for both are:
"we";
,, "he"; and , "she". The masculine and the , "you"; and
, "their".
B: Whether the verb should be translated in the present or future tense is determined by context. C: The verb
, rdì rdì, "give", may be written with
is customary to write the transliteration as
, X8, alone. In such cases where the
(r)dì (r)dì, indicating to the reader that the
, r, is omitted, it
, r, was deliberately
omitted from the text. D: The verb "give" had two forms which were used interchangeably:
and
,
dì .
rdì rdì , as well as
and
,
13.4 THE EGYPTIAN CONCEPT OF maat The goddess Maat embodied the attributes implied in the word,
,
m3't,
which meant "truth",
"rightful order", "an ordered way of life", "justice", "righteousness", and "proper conduct".
In
combination together, they composed the ethical code of the gods. The pharaoh was entrusted with maat by the gods and was charged with insuring that Egypt and his kingship conducted their affairs according to these precepts embodied in the very meaning of her name. The first references of this concept to appear in connection with the pharaoh began in the 3rd Dynasty (2686-2613). The ruler was now accepted as Re incarnate, ruling the land through the precepts of maat. As the one entrusted with maat by the gods, when he spoke, his word was law. The orderliness of the state, of nature, of the sun, moon, and stars, everything that was good was a result of maat.
If something lacked maat, it was bad or evil.
Maat was often
characterized by a state of balance and fullness. Thus, the concept of maat encompassed every facet of life in ancient Egypt. Maat might be called "a code of ethics" and served Egypt well during the OK. Later generations would look back to this time as a Golden Age when truth, justice, and morality flourished. As the OK ended and the turmoil of the FIP seized the land, the plaintive cry for a return to the old values was expressed. As a result of this turbulence, maat was extended to the common people during the FIP (2181-2040). Whereas in the OK maat was primarily between the pharaoh and the gods, during the FIP, when anarchy was rampant and there was no central authority to stabilize society, the individual increasingly assumed more responsibility for maat. Following the chaos of the FIP, in the MK (2133-1786) the sense of
maat once again changed to include the proper conduct by which those in power should rule the people. Administrators were implored not only to govern by applying maat to their actions but the ruler was now also
61
An Egyptian Primer seen as the Good Shepherd responsible for his people. 3 This daily ritual of supplication to the goddess was to assure that she would be pleased and confer her benefits upon the gods who in turn would pass them onto Egypt and its inhabitants.
In THE BOOK OF THE DEAD,4 the central theme was the weighing of the deceased's heart against an ostrich feather, the symbol for maat. The Egyptians believed that a person's heart was where the mind and will resided. In the weighing of this seat of character against the feather of truth, if the heart was found wanting, this would prevent the individual from joining the gods in perpetual afterlife.
In fact, the
composite monster, Ammit, attended the ceremony for the sole purpose of devouring the deceased's heart should it be found to weigh more than the feather, presumably because it was laden with sin.
FIG. 13.413.4-1. WEIGHING WEIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONY, THE BOOK OF THE DEAD OF HUNEFER, THE BRITISH MUSEUM MUSEUM. Fig. 13.4-1 shows the WEIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONY of Hunefer, Royal Scribe and Steward of Menmaatre Seti (19-2, 1318-1304). At the left Hunefer is seen being led by Anubis to the weighing ceremony. Anubis then conducts the actual weighing while the monster, Ammit, sits nearby ready to devour Hunefer's heart should it be found to be sinful. The god Thoth records the results of the judgment. Hunefer is then brought by Horus before Osiris who is seated on a throne, attended by Isis and Nephthys. The four sons of Horus stand on a lotus plant before Osiris and welcome Hunefer to everlasting life in the company of Osiris.
3 In a MK text, known as "The Eloquent Peasant", an evil overseer, Nemtynakht, tricks a peasant, Khun-anup, into causing damage to his master's crops. Then the overseer beats up the peasant and seizes his donkey. Khun-anup pleads his case before the local magistrate, who is moved by this unlettered but articulate man. He reports it to the pharaoh who orders the magistrate not to grant the peasant justice just yet and to require him to put his pleas in writing only. After nine eloquent petitions, when Khun-anup is ready to give up trying, does justice prevail: the donkey is returned; Nemtynakht is stripped of his land and job which are given to Khun-anup in recompense (the overseer is now as poor as the peasant once was); and the principles of maat are served. 4 This name is used by modern scholars when referring to the collection of ancient Egyptian religious and magical texts which accompanied the deceased, and would ensure the deceased's living forever in the company of the gods. 62
An Egyptian Primer 13.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A24:
D37:
MAN STRIKING WITH STICK STICK.
"teach".
dì [dē], ìmì [ēmē]
D36 WITH HAND HOLDING phon. [d], [mē], or [m].
FOREARM FOREARM
LEGS WALKING.
D54:
Det. in "strike", strong", "take away", "plunder",
X8. X8. Sometimes employed as a
Logo. "come". Det. in "go", "hasten", "stop", "linger".
N40:
š [sh]
COMBINATION OF
U2:
m3 [mä]
SICKLE.
V15:
ìṯ [ētch]
COMBINATION OF V13
X8:
(r)dì [redē], dì [dē]
CONICAL LOAF?
Y3:
sš
SCRIBE'S OUTFIT, CONSISTING OF PALETTE PALETTE, BAG EITHER FOR POWDERED POWDERED PIGMENTS
[sesh]
N37 AND
D54. D54.
Det. in "reap", "crookedness". AND D54
.
Logo. "give".
OR WATER, AND REED HOLDER.
Logo. "scribe", "writings", and related words. Det. in "scribe", "writings", "write", "smooth", "red".
63
13.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE TRANSLATE: ANSLATE:
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64
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 14 PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH WITH NOUN SUBJECT 14.1
TWHILE IN AN ENGLISH SENTENCE, THE TYPICAL TYPICAL WORD ORDER IS SUBJECT, SUBJECT, VERB, IN
EGYPTIAN THE WORD ORDER ORDER IS THE VERB FOLLOWED BY THE SUBJECT, WHETHER THA THAT SUBJECT SUBJECT BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, OR NOUN PHRASE. PHRASE. Thus,
in Egyptian, just as the pronoun subject follows
the verb, so too does a noun subject. 14.2 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH NOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT the sun rises/will rise [web-en-rä]
wbn r ' ḫd sr
the official travels/will travel downstream, i.e. northwards [khed sâr]
ḫd sr(w)
the officials travel/will travel northward [khed sâr-ōō]
sḏm b3k(w)t šm ḥm⋅f ḏd b3kt
the maid servants hear/will hear [sed-jem bä-kōō-et]
His Majesty goes (walks)/will go (will walk) [shem hem-ef] the maid servant says/will say [djed bä-ket]
sb3 sš sš
the scribe teaches/will teach [seb-ä-sesh]
r ḫ sb3
the student learns/will learn [rekh-seb-ä]
14.3 COMMENTARY A: Note that the root letters of the verb do not change whether the noun subject is singular or plural. B: As mentioned in §13.1, whether the verb should be translated as a present or future tense is dependent entirely on the context. C: As discussed in §11.3, when the
,
w,
is omitted, as in
,
b3k(w)t,
it should be enclosed in
brackets to indicate that fact to the reader. It is customary in translations to use the following: < > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included ( ) to enclose a character usually omitted omitted but understood to belong in the word [ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.
65
14.4 THE SCRIBE
An Egyptian Primer
In contrast to Mesopotamia where the clay tablet was the medium of choice, papyrus1 was the primary material upon which the Egyptians wrote. The papyrus plant grew throughout the Nile Valley in ancient times but today exists in Egypt in limited areas only.
The plant was also extensively used throughout
Egyptian history for the construction of reed shelters, as in O4, P1,
, and for the construction of boats, as in
. While we do not have any ancient Egyptian description of papyrus making, what we do know of the
process is supplied to us largely in a description written by the Roman naturalist, Pliny the Elder, 23-79 CE. To make paper from papyrus, it was first cut into strips, peeled, and then slit into thin slices which were placed flat in a vertical direction. Another layer was placed horizontally on top of the first layer and then the two were pressed together. The two layers stuck together as a result of the fibers interlocking, with the natural juices of the plant also acting as a natural adhesive. The horizontal layer is called the "recto" and the under surface is called the "verso". Papyrus sheets were made ≅ 43 cms. (17 inches) in width by 48 cms. (19 inches) in height. Individual panels were pressed together at their edges to form a document of great length.2 Two rolls of blank papyrus were found in the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890) tomb of Den (1-5). An uninscribed roll was also discovered in the 1st Dynasty tomb of Hemaka in Sakkara, attesting to its usage 5,000 years ago. The earliest written samples discovered to date are temple accounts from the 5th Dynasty (24942345) found at Abusir. On the walls of the 6th Dynasty (2345-2181) tomb of Harkhuf is recorded his written message sent to the ruler Pepi II (6-5) as well as the pharaoh's reply regarding a pygmy which Harkhuf had obtained and was bringing to the king. Written records also survive in the form of ostraca, which in ancient Egypt were usually pieces or flakes of limestone upon which short messages or practice exercises were written. If manual labor was the driving force of ancient Egypt, then the scribe was the one who wrote the orders that managed that force and who recorded the results. The scribes were knowledgeable not only in reading and writing but in mathematics as well. These skills enabled them to occupy a unique place in Egyptian society, which was, like most ancient societies, predominantly illiterate. Many of their letters have survived and give the modern Egyptologist an insight into all facets of life in ancient Egypt. Scribal training was a prerequisite for the priesthood, for administrative positions, for the practice of medicine, and for the profession which we call civil engineering.
1 From the Greek papyros and from which the English word "paper" is derived. One possibility is that the Greeks derived their word from the Egyptian p3 pr-'3, have been a royal prerogative and monopoly.
, "that of the great house", as paper making may
2 The so-called "Harris Papyrus" in the British Museum is 41 meters (1342 feet) long. 66
An Egyptian Primer
FIG. 14.414.4-1 SEATED SCRIBE DATING DATING FROM DYNASTY 5 (2484(2484-2345).
FIG. 14.414.4-2 SCRIBAL PALETTES. NOTE INKWELLS.
The symbol for the scribe, sš, Y3,
, consists of his palette,3 a bag for pigments or water jar, and a brush
holder. Usually the scribe wrote on papyrus with brush and two inks: red 4 for section headings and deficits in accounts, and black for the body of the work. His writing instrument was stored in a slot on a palette (usually made of wood) which also contained holes for the storage of dried cakes of pigment used for the ink. The black ink was carbon based and the red was finely ground red ocher. The pigments were mixed with a gum so that they could dry into small cakes. These were used in a manner similar to the watercolor paints of today. The brushes were reeds, cut at an angle, with the end chewed by the scribe to form a point with multiple fiber strands.
3 The Egyptians believed that writing was devised by the god Thoth. As a result, he was worshipped by the scribes as their divine patron and invocations to him were often written on their palettes. 4 Our word "rubric" (red) refers to this practice. First started by the Egyptians, it is still in use today. 67
An Egyptian Primer The scribe held his hand away from the papyrus and painted the signs either in vertical columns or horizontal rows. When writing in a columnar manner, the scribe often started in the upper right-hand corner of the papyrus, working his way down the column until he reached the bottom of the document. After completing the first section, the scribe then rolled up the papyrus in his right hand, unrolled a blank area from his left hand, and began to write again at the top of the next column, continuing in this manner until the document was complete. The width of each section of horizontal rows would vary, depending both on the amount of the material to be written and the aesthetic factors. Hieratic writing, unlike hieroglyphic writing, always proceeded from right to left, dropping to the next row as each row was completed. One reference to the advantages of being a scribe is found in the so-called SATIRE OF THE TRADES.5 In this text, a father who is accompanying his young son to a scribal school, contrasts the benefits of being a scribe compared to other occupations. The papyrus begins:
I have seen many beatingsC beatingsC Set your heart on books! I watched those seized for laborC laborC There's nothing better than books! It's like a boat on water. And continues:
I'll make you love scribedom more than your mother, I'll make its beauties stand before you; It's the greatest of all callings, There's none like it in in the land. Barely grown, still a child, He is greeted, sent on errands, Hardly returned he wears a gown. I never saw a sculptor as envoy, Nor is a goldsmith ever sent; But I have seen the smith at work, At the opening of his furnace; With fingers like claws of a crocodile He stinks more than fish roe.
After comparing many other professions, the father says:
See, there's no profession without a boss, Except for the scribe: he is the boss. Hence if you know writing, It will do better for you Than those professions I've set before you, Each more wretched than the other.
5 See M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume 1: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, pp. 184-92, for the complete text. The earliest fragments of this text date to Dynasty 18 (1567-1320). 68
An Egyptian Primer
14.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION G40:
p3
U36:
ḥm
[pä]
PINTAIL DUCK FLYING. CLUB USED BY CLOTH MAKERS MAKERS.
ḥm ,
"slave", whereas
14.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
69
Logo. "cloth maker", "Majesty". Phon. in
ḥm⋅f, would most likely mean "His Majesty".
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 15 PAST TENSE VERB FORM 15.1 IN EGYPTIAN, EGYPTIAN, THE PAST TENSE IS INDICATED BY AFFIXING AFFIXING THE LETTER
,
n,
TO THE ROOT
LETTERS OF THE VERB BEFORE THE SUFFIX PRONOUN OR NOUN NOUN SUBJECT. In transliteration, this is separated from the verbal stem by a dot,, ⋅ e.g. heard". the
sd _ m⋅ n ⋅ f ,
"he heard" or
sd_m⋅n st,
n
"the woman
This construction, in which the verb in the past tense is followed by the subject, is called
s ḏ m⋅ n ⋅ f
form.1
15.2 PAST TENSE TENSE VERBS WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN OR NOUN SUBJECT A. PAST TENSE TERBS WITH SUFFIX SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTS SUBJECTS SINGULAR MASCULINE PERSON FEMININE PERSON
šm⋅ šm⋅n⋅ì m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅k
I went
1st
you saw
2nd
he said
ḏ d ⋅n ⋅f
MASCULINE we gave
(r)dì⋅ (r)dì⋅n⋅n ì ṯ ⋅n ⋅ṯ n sš⋅ sš⋅n⋅sn
you took
they wrote
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅ì
I loved [mâr-n-ē] you loved
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅ṯ
3rd
she loved
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅s
PLURAL PERSON N PERSO
FEMININE
1st
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅n
2nd
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅ṯn
3rd
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅sn
1 Pronounced "sedj-em-en-ef". 70
we loved
you loved
they loved
An Egyptian Primer B. PAST TENSE VERBS WITH NOUN SUBJECTS His Majesty went
šm⋅ šm⋅n ḥm⋅f
the maid servant said
ḏd⋅n b3kt
the sun rose
wb⋅ wb⋅n r '
the official traveled northward
ḫd⋅n sr
the officials traveled downstream
ḫd⋅n sr(w)
the servants heard
sḏm⋅n b3kw sš⋅ sš⋅n sš
the scribe wrote
pr⋅ pr⋅n ṯ3ty
the vizier went out
15.3 COMMENTARY COMMENTARY A: The
sḏm⋅n⋅f
form is indicated by
n, affixed immediately after the verb stem (i.e. the root letters)
or determinative. 15.4 15.4 THE STEP PYRAMID COMPLEX OF KING DJOSER DJOSER Imhotep was probably the designer of the STEP PYRAMID COMPLEX built for King Djoser2 (3-2, 2668-2649) at the edge of the western desert at Sakkara. This pyramid and its outlying buildings were surrounded by a rectangular temenos wall 10 m. (33 ft.) high, 500 m. (1,640 ft.) long on its eastern and western sides, and 250 m. (820 ft.) long on its northern and southern sides. The wall contained 13 artificial doors with only a single true portal. This entrance door lead to a long corridor before opening out into the center of the complex.
2 The name of the second king of the 3rd Dynasty was Netjerykhet. In time the walled complex was considered to be ḏsr, "holy" or "sanctified", and Netjerykhet was referred to only by that epithet. 71
An Egyptian Primer
FIG. 15.4DJOSER JOSER'S MORTUARY COMPLEX: 1-PYRAMID, 2-HOUSE OF LOWER EGYPT, 3-HOUSE OF UPPER EGYPT, 15.4-1. D 4-SERDAB, 5-ALTAR, 6-CHAPELS, 7-SOUTH COURT WITH MARKERS MARKERS, 8-SOUTH TOMB, 9-TEMENOS WALL, 1010-ENTRANCE PORTAL, 1111-ARTIFICIAL DOORS. The centerpiece of the entire monument was the six tiered pyramid,3 the first large scale building in the world made entirely of cut stone. The pyramid, which is almost 60 m. (200 ft.) high, duplicated the prior mud brick mastaba constructions in limestone blocks of similar size.4 The fine limestone quarries of Tura, located across the Nile on the east bank, were the source for the facing on the pyramid and the numerous buildings in the enclosure. These buildings included a mortuary temple with a serdab,5 chapels, several houses, magazines, storage chambers,6 a jubilee court7 with shrines to the nome gods of Upper and Lower Egypt, and a tomb adjacent to the inner southern wall facing Abydos.
In Iaddition to the Tura limestone, sandstone and red Aswan granite were also used throughout the complex, the latter being used extensively in the lining of the burial chambers. Black granite from Aswan was also used in the portrayal of the heads of foreigners (usually Nubians) in order to differentiate them from the indigenous Egyptians. Panels of blue faience8 tiles lined the subterranean gallery walls of the main pyramid, as well as the interior walls of the tomb embedded in the southern wall. Significant portions of the complex have been restored by a team directed by Jean-Philippe Lauer.9
3 Each face of the pyramid was aligned with a cardinal point of the compass. 4 For how this pyramid developed from its original modest mastaba to the pyramid as it now stands, see §23.4. 5 The small chamber in a mortuary temple containing the statue or statues of the deceased to which offerings were proffered. 6 Over 40,000 stone vessels were excavated from these chambers. 7 The Heb-Sed, or jubilee festival, was celebrated by the king after thirty years of rule. See '34.4 for a more complete discussion. 8 Glazed earthenware. 9 P-J. Lauer, 1902-2001, spent 70 years excavating at Sakkara. 72
An Egyptian Primer
FIG. 15.415.4-2. DJOSER'S STEP STEP PYRAMID SHOWING A PORTION OF THE TEMENOS TEMENOS WALL IN THE FOREGROUND, 1984. Placed in the courtyard, between this tomb and the southern face of the pyramid, were two sets of markers (see no. 7 in Fig. 15.4-1), each set being shaped like a pair of hooves. They were probably used at Djoser's jubilees when he ritually took possession of the land in a ceremony that included his running an encircling route around both markers.
This ritual, depicted on
panels buried under the pyramid and courtyard, portrays the king running the course around the markers.
Included in the monument were tombs for royal family members. The entire complex was in reality a city of the dead, cared for and attended to by a corps of priests endowed by Djoser to perpetuate his memory and to continue the worship of his k3, or soul. The engineering required for Djoser's Step Pyramid was the basis for all the ensuing monumental building works, especially those a century later at Giza. Those pyramids would not have been possible without the prior work done in Dynasty 3, particularly in the design, engineering, and construction of Djoser's Step Pyramid complex. 73
MAP 15.415.4-1. SITES RELEVANT TO §15.4.
An Egyptian Primer 15.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATI DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION G47:
ṯ3
U6:
mr [mâr]
HOE.
U7:
mr
ALTERNATIVE FORM OF U6
[tchä]
DUCKLING.
Logo. "nestling".
Det. in "cultivate", "hack up". Phon. in "love", "unguent".
15.6 15.6 EXERCISES EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
74
. Used interchangeably with U6.
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 16 NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT 16.1 16.1 A DIRECT OBJECT RECEIVES THE ACTION OF THE VERB AND MUST BE A NOUN, NOUN, NOUN PHRASE, OR A PRONOUN.1 It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" as shown in the following examples [the subject is in black, the verb in red, and the direct object in green]: The man sees the house. house The woman wore a dress. dress The boat struck a rock. rock The word order in an Egyptian sentence which contains both a noun subject and a noun direct object is:
VERB + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT 16.2 NOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT FOLLOWING NOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT
ìp⋅ ìp⋅n sr ṯswt
The official counted the troops. [ēp-en sâr tches-ōōt]
ìr⋅ ìr⋅n ḥm⋅f tḫn
His Majesty made an obelisk.
My brother loves our sister.
mr sn⋅ sn⋅ì snt⋅ snt⋅n sḫpr⋅ pr⋅n b3k⋅ b3k⋅k ḫt
Your servant made a fire. [seh-khep-är-en bäk-eck khet]
16.3 COMMENTARY A: As there are generally no articles in Old or Middle Egyptian, the words "a", "an", and "the" must be assumed from the context. B: The verb
,
sḫpr⋅ pr⋅n, "created" or "made" is used differently from
,
ìr⋅ ìr⋅n, "made". shpr is used
with direct objects which were brought into being or created, such as "fire", "the land", "the gods", etc., while ìr is used for direct objects which were constructed, such as a "ship".
1 Such a verb, takes an object, is called a transitive verb. Intransitive verbs, e.g. "arrive", "sleep", etc., do not take objects. Many verbs in English may be either transitive or intransitive. So too in Egyptian. 75
An Egyptian Primer 16.4 IMHOTEP Imhotep,
,
ìììì-m-htp, "The
One Who Comes in Peace", fl. 2700 BCE, was the high priest of the sun
god at Heliopolis (located slightly east of modern Cairo). In his office as counselor to Netjerykhet2 (3-2, 2668-2649), he wielded great power religiously and politically. He was later deified as a god of healing and wisdom and came to be considered as the individual from whom all Egyptian culture emanated. Couples who were barren and desired children prayed to him.
When their prayers were answered, they often
reciprocated by dedicating statues and chapels to him, thereby maintaining and enhancing the lore about Imhotep and his mystic powers. Long after his demise, the corpus of work attributed to Imhotep steadily increased. monuments,3
He was remembered for his design and construction of stone for his having revealed the secrets of astronomy (which the
priests jealously guarded), for his sage advice, and for his knowledge of medicine. He was the architect for Djoser's Step Pyramid, built at the edge of the western desert at Sakkara.4
Imhotep's true genius lay in the design and
engineering required for the construction of Djoser's Step Pyramid.
Its
assemblage was the basis for the 4th Dynasty, a century later, in the construction of the three great pyramids at Giza from monumental limestone blocks. MAP 16.416.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN '16.4.
Those buildings would not have been possible without the prior
structural and technological innovations incorporated in his Step Pyramid design. Imhotep became venerated as an author of WISDOM LITERATURE, a famous physician, architect, and counselor to the king. Though there are few written
records in which he is mentioned prior to the New Kingdom, during the intervening millennia, the memory of his accomplishments was probably kept alive through an oral tradition. One of the written records refers to an assembly point for an expedition during the reign of Pepi I (6-3, 2332-2283) in a section of Memphis called "The The Door of I(m)hotep". I(m)hotep
2 Djoser, see '15.4. 3 Tradition had it that the design for the temples built at Kom Ombo, Edfu, and Esna fell to earth at Sakkara in the days of Imhotep. An inscription on a statue base excavated at this complex, established Imhotep as its architect. Imhotep's titles on this base included: "Seal Bearer of the King of Lower Egypt", "Ruler of the Great Estate", "Chief Priest of Heliopolis", "Chief of the Sculptors, Masons, and of Producers of Stone Vessels". 4
76
An Egyptian Primer The First Intermediate Period (2160-1991) was a period of turmoil and extensive plundering of the ancient monuments and tombs. In the HARPER'S SONG, attributed to this time, Imhotep is remembered:
The gods who lived formerly rested in their pyramids; the beatified dead also, buried in their pyramids, and they who built houses - their places are no more. See what has been made of them! them! I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hordedef, with whose discourses men speak so much C (but) where are their places (now)? Their walls are broken apart, and their places are no more - as though they had never been. 5 In one of the records which has survived, Imhotep is mentioned indirectly in a fanciful tale in a papyrus 6 from the Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567), as the "Chief Lector Priest" of King Djoser. Found in a tomb from the time of Amenhotep III (18-9, 1417-1379), is the following text:
The wab-priest may give offerings to your ka. The wab-priests may stretch to you their arms with libations on the soil, as it is done for Imhotep with the remains of the water bowl. By the New Kingdom (1570-1200), Imhotep had become a cult figure for the scribes and was portrayed wearing a priest's apron, holding a papyrus roll, and wearing a cap symbolic of the god Ptah, his divine father as in , Sign C19, and
, Sign C20.
During the Late Dynastic period (525-30), Imhotep's popularity increased greatly. Many statues in bronze and stone have been found in which he holds a papyrus roll in his lap. A frequently found inscription on the open roll is: "Water from the water pot of every scribe for your ka, O Imhotep!". Although Imhotep was not deified until the Late Dynastic Period, there is little doubt that he did live during Djoser's reign and that after the king, perhaps was the second most important individual in the kingdom.
16.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLIT DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION C19:
ptḥ ptḥ
LOGO. FOR THE CREATOR GOD OF MEMPHIS, PTAH (Dynasty 19 or later).
C20:
ptḥ ptḥ
LOGO. FOR THE CREATOR GOD OF MEMPHIS, PTAH (Dynasty 19 or later).
D40:
FOREARM WITH HAND HOLDING HOLDING STICK.
M18:
COMBINATION OF M17, M17,
Q7:
BRAZIER WITH FLAME AND AND SMOKE RISING FROM IT.
AND D54, D54,
as in
"cook", "torch". Abbr. for "temperature".
ìì, "come". Det. "fire", "flame", "heat", "hot",
5 J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 109. Harper's Songs have been found on stelae and tomb walls. They provided advice to the deceased. 6 From the Papyrus Westcar. 77
An Egyptian Primer 16.5 DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION S24:
ṯs
KNOT ON A WAISTBAND.
logo. in
Phon. in
ṯs, "tie", "bind".
16.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
78
ṯst, coll. "troop", "battalion".
Semi-
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 17 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT 17.1 DIRECT OBJECTS OBJECTS RECEIVE RECEIVE THE ACTION OF A VERB. As shown below, the subject pronoun is in black, the verb in red, and the noun direct object noun in green. I saw the house. house She wore a new dress. dress It struck a rock. rock In an Egyptian sentence containing a suffix pronoun subject and a noun direct object, the word order is:
VERB + SUFFIX SUBJECT PRONOUN + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT 17.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT You will reach home.
pḥ⋅k ẖnw [peh-eck hen-ōō] sḫpr⋅ pr⋅n⋅sn ḫt
They made a fire. [seh-khep-âr-en-sen khet] We heard a woman.
sḏm⋅n⋅n st gm⋅ gm⋅n⋅ì d3bw
I found figs. [gem-enē dä-bōō]
17.3 COMMENTARY Remember that the pronunciation of the letter "g" is hard, as the "g" in "guard". The soft "g" as in "gem" is represented in Egyptian by the letter ḏ. 17.4 RELIGIOUS RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION The pharaoh ruled the land in his duality as both the temporal and spiritual leader of the country. He stood at the top of the religious hierarchy and represented Horus, the falcon headed god, who was the son of Osiris and Isis.
The local governors (nomarchs) reported to him in their dual capacity as the ruler of the
nome, as well as the head of the local priesthood. This highest level of priests under the god-king were called
,
ḥm-nṯr priests.1
temple of the local god.
As each nome had its own god, the nomarch served as the chief priest in the
In addition to his religious duties, the
ḥm-nṯr
was responsible for the
administration of all the temple properties and revenues.
1 Literally "servants of the god", sometimes translated "head priests", the Greeks called them "prophets". 79
An Egyptian Primer ,
The
ẖr(y)r(y)-ḥb(t) priests,
"lector-priests",2 were the priests who supervised the cult worship
and made prayerful recitations at each temple. They obtained additional power by having access to the sacred scrolls, thereby gaining not only a knowledge of the rituals required by the god, but also possession over the god's magical powers. ,
Each month a new phyle, or company, of
w'b
priests,3
assumed the day to day operation of the temple and its affairs. Four phyles served each temple on a rotating basis: one month on duty followed by three months off. The temples derived their income from several sources: yearly gifts and permanent endowments from the crown,4 spoils of war from a monarch thankful to a particular god for his victory, crop production from the lands they owned or rented, and donations from the local nobility and commoners.
Donations deposited daily at the temple for the god's
sustenance were placed before the cult statue to satisfy the needs of the god. A portion was sent to the cult statues of minor gods and the remainder was stored or consumed by the temple staff.
The priests
were paid from the temple revenues as well as from those donations left by the local parishioners. As the temple precinct was sacred, commoners were not permitted inside the temple proper, but they could leave their offerings at the temple entrance.
MAP 17.417.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §17.4.
At the larger temples, such as the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak Thebes, many permanent priests were needed not only to officiate in the temple's day to day activities, but also to administer its vast land holdings as well. As the most prominent temples received the largess from so many activities, over time they began to exert a greater influence in the temporal affairs of the land because of their strong economic position. Thus, by the time of the New Kingdom's last dynasty, Dynasty 20, drew to a close c. 1100 BCE, the
,
ḥm-nṯr-tpy,
the "High Priest" of the Amun-Re temple at Karnak had became the most
powerful man in Egypt, ruling Upper Egypt virtually as a monarch from Thebes.
2 Literally "he who is under (i.e. carries) the ritual book", or "holder of the ritual book". 3 wab-priests, lit. "the pure ones". 4 It is recorded that Ramesses III (20-2, 1198-1166) would annually donate the following, expressed in the standard gold measure, pounds Troy: Gold Silver Copper Temple of Amun at Karnak 139 2,676 6,422 Temple of Re at Heliopolis 143 307 Temple of Ptah at Memphis ____ 24 ______ Annual Total 139 2,842 6,729 Source: J.A. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, p. 273, citing Breasted, ARE. In ancient Egypt the value of gold to silver was set at approximately 2:1. 80
An Egyptian Primer 17.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D1:
LOGO. IN
tp, "HEAD"
AND
tpy, "CHIEF", "FIRST".
F22:
pḥ [peh]
HIND-QUARTERS OF LION OR LEOPARD.
F26:
ẖn(w)
GOAT SKIN.
Phon. in
G28:
gm [gem]
BLACK IBIS.
Phon. in
[hen-ōō]
M43: W3:
"strength".
Logo. "end". Det. "reach", "bottom",
ẖnw, "interior". gm, "find".
VINE ON PROPS.
Det. "vine", "wine", "gardener", "fruit", and various notions connected with vines.
ḥb [heb]
BASIN OF ALABASTER AS USED IN PURIFICATI PURIFICATIONS FICATIONS.
Abbr. of "ritual book" in W5,
, "lector priest". W5:
ẖryry-ḥbt
[hery-hebet]
T28, W3.. Abbr. for "lector priest", lit. "he who is T28, AND W3 under (i.e. carries) the ritual book".
COMBINATION OF
17.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
81
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 18 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + SINGULAR SINGULAR DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT 18.1 DIRECT OBJECTS MAY BE A PRONOUN AS WELL AS A NOUN. NOUN As shown in the following, the subject is indicated in black, the verb in red, and the direct object is the pronoun in green. He hea heard me. me. She saw you/ you/him/ im/her/ her/it. The Egyptians had a separate set of pronouns to express the direct object, which scholars call DEPENDENT PRONOUNS.
When both the subject and the direct object of an Egyptian sentence are
pronouns, then the word order is:
VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS DIRECT OBJECT 18.2 SINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUN PRONOUN USED AS DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT A. THE SINGULAR DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUNS MASCULINE PERSON
wì
me [wē]
1st
ṯw
you [tchōō]
2nd
him, it [sōō]
sw
FEMININE
wì
you [tchen]
ṯn
3rd
me
,
;
,
sy, sy; st, st
her, it [sē]; [set]
B. USE OF THE SINGULAR SINGULAR DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS A DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT MASCULINE PERSON FEMININE
pḥn⋅k wì
, You reached me. [pe-hen-eck wē]
m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅f ṯw sḏm⋅ì sw
, He saw you. [mä-ä-en-ef tchōō]
, I hear him/ him/it. it. [sedj-em-ē sōō]
, You loved me.
1st
mr⋅ mr⋅n⋅k wì
2nd
, He saw you.
m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅f ṯn
3rd
ḏ3⋅n⋅f sy wšb⋅ wšb⋅n⋅ì st
82
He ferried her/it across. [djä-n-eff sē] ,
, I answered her/it. [wa-shab-en-ē set]
An Egyptian Primer 18.3 COMMENTARY A: The dependent pronoun can never stand as the first word in an Egyptian sentence. B: The 3rd person singular feminine dependent pronoun was originally written as , s, then became and subsequently was written
,
st, or simply
. In this Primer,
,
sy,
are used for the 3rd person
and
singular feminine dependent pronoun. However, it should be remembered that the Egyptian language was not static, and continually changed over time. As indicated earlier, these changes are useful in helping to date a given text.
18.4 OSIRIS IN THE EGYPTIAN RECORDS The origin of the name of Osiris is obscure. One of the earliest forms for his name, written
,
, or
), is believed to have the phonetic value
wsìr.
(sometimes
Scholars have attempted to
develop derivations from a wide variety of sources, such as: the Assyrian gods Ashur and Ishtar identified with Osiris and his wife Isis, or "The The Eye of the Sun" Sun because the eye is interpreted to be the wḏ3t eye and signified the sun. Other epithets were "He He Who Occupies the Throne", The Seat of the Eye", "The The Mighty Throne "The Ey One", The Throne wst-ìrt, "The Throne that Bears the Crown". Crown One and wstOsiris is first attested at Sakkara in the pyramid of Unas, last king of the 5th Dynasty (5-9, 2375-2345). Shortly thereafter, cult centers dedicated to the worship of Osiris were located in Abydos in Upper Egypt and Busiris in Lower Egypt. In royal tombs of the same period, Osiris is found to be associated more often with Abydos than with Busiris.
However, in non-royal mastabas of the late 5th and 6th (2345-2181)
Dynasties, Osiris is referred to as "Foremost Foremost in Busiris, Busiris 1 Lord of the Thinite Nome". Nome Osiris was worshipped in Heliopolis as part of the Heliopolitan Ennead, while in the two cult centers of Abydos and Busiris, their earlier gods were eventually merged into Osiris. The Osiris cult is an excellent example of how an Egyptian god assimilated the attributes of other deities and their cults over the course of time. The original deity of Abydos and its region seemed to have been
ḫntyForemost of the nty-ìmntyw, "Foremost
Westerners", Westerners while in Busiris the god Andjety was worshipped. In both these centers, the cult of Osiris assumed the manifestations and prerogatives of these original gods, integrating them into his own persona.
1 Busiris, which seems to be a rendering of the Egyptian words, bw wsìr, "the place of Osiris", is the Greek name for the Egyptian town of
, ḏdw. 83
An Egyptian Primer As the necropolises were usually located at the edge of the Western Desert, Osiris was intimately associated with death and the rituals concerned with eternal life after death.
Therefore, he eventually
assumed the title "Foremost Foremost of the Westerners". Westerners Osiris was also connected with the funerary god of Memphis, Sokar, giving rise to the dual deity Sokar-Osiris, which eventually led to the trinity, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. In the COFFIN TEXTS, as well as the BOOK OF THE
DEAD, Osiris was shown as the judge at "the weighing of the heart
ritual". Another of his epithets was "Lord Lord of Truth (or Righteousness)" Righteousness from his association with the goddess of truth and justice, Maat. Osiris was also affiliated with fertility and the yearly Nile inundation. In tomb wall paintings, he was often painted dark green, or even black, to indicate this aspect of his godly powers. This association led to his MAP 18.418.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN '18.4.
being equated to Orion, Isis to Sothis, and their child Horus to
spdt, all
related to the annual summer Sothic rising 2 and the beginning of the Nile inundation.
Only fragments of the Egyptian versions of the Osiris legends have come down to our times. From the Pyramid texts we learn that Osiris was killed by his brother Seth.3 Then wife and sister Isis, and along with his other sister Nephthys, resurrected his body and at the trial following, Seth was convicted of the murder of Osiris. There are several different allegorical versions of this event. In one version, Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, contended with Seth and regained the kingship. In another version, Seth drowned Osiris, which led to the Egyptian belief that drowning was a good way to die. In any case, Osiris (or Horus) represented the forces of good and light, while Seth represented the forces of evil and darkness. Whereas Osiris represented the deceased king, Horus was expressed in the living pharaoh. Thus, the ruling king was referred to as "The The Living Horus". Horus The grave of Osiris was claimed by several localities: Abydos, Busiris, and Biga Island, adjacent to the island of Philae at the first cataract. On Biga was the Abaton, the mound that was thought to be the original mound of creation and the tomb of Osiris. At Abydos, Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) constructed a cenotaph to Osiris, which succeeding generations venerated as the tomb of Osiris.4 Also located at Abydos was the tomb of Djer of the 1st Dynasty (1-3, c. 3000), which came to be honored during New Kingdom times as the location of the tomb of Osiris.
2 See §10.4, The Calendar in Ancient Egypt. 3 See §12.4 for Plutarch's version. 4 See Fig. 26.4-1. 84
An Egyptian Primer
18.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A40:
SEATED GOD.
in
,
(Note the straight wig and slightly curved beard.) Det. "god", as
wsìr, "Osiris", and in
ptḥ ptḥ, "Ptah".
Q1:
st [set], ws [wes]
SEAT.
R11:
ḏd
COLUMN IMITATING A BUNDLE BUNDLE OF STALKS TIED TOGETHER.
Z9:
wp [wep], TWO STICKS CROSSED. Det. "break", "damage", "be united", "divide", "emit wr [wer], sound", "matter", "boundary", "cross over", "answer". Phon. in "pass by", sḏ [sedj], "cut off", "flame", "break", "ploughlands", "mixed", "various", "drink". sw3 [sōō-wä], ḫbs [kheb-ess], šbn [ sheb-en]
[djed]
Logo. in
st, "seat".
,
column".
18.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
85
Phon. in
,
wsìr, "Osiris". Logo. in
ḏd, "djed-
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 19 SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + PLURAL DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT 19.1 PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ARE USED AS DIRECT OBJECTS OBJECTS. As shown in the following, the subject is indicated in black, the verb in red, and the direct object is the pronoun in green. He hea us.. heard us She saw you/ you/them. them. As in other plural pronouns, both the masculine and the feminine forms are identical and only context can establish the gender of the dependent pronoun. The word order of the Egyptian sentence with a suffix pronoun subject is:
VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS DIRECT OBJECT 19.2 PLURAL DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN USED AS DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT A. PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNS MASCULINE
PERSON
FEMININE
us
1st
us
you
2nd
n ṯn
them
sn
n ṯn
3rd
sn
you
them
B. USE OF THE PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUN AS AS A DIRECT OBJECT MASCULINE
ḏ3⋅n⋅f n mr⋅ mr⋅s ṯ n
PERSON
He ferried us across.
She loves you.
I fought them.
' ḫ3n⋅ 3n⋅ì sn [ä-hä-nē sen]
FEMININE 1st
2nd
They saw us.
m33 ⋅n ⋅sn n
They sent you.
h3b ⋅n ⋅sn ṯn
3rd
You hear them.
sḏm⋅k sn
19.3 COMMENTARY A: There are many verbs in Egyptian that apparently at one time ended with , Egyptian those final letters were rarely written. These verbs, such as
86
-ì, or
,
-w, but by Middle
, mr, "love", some scholars
An Egyptian Primer transliterate with the final
-ì, e.g. mrì mrì.
Another example of a 3rd weak verb is
pr , "go
out", which
some also transliterate without the final -ì. However, in this Primer, these verbs will be written without the final -ì, e.g. mr. B: The final -ì has already been encountered with the verbs will be written with a final written out1 are:
-ì .
, dì, and
, rdì rdì, "give", and these two verbs
Some other examples of verbs where the third "weak" letter was normally
, smì smì, "report" and
, tnì tnì, "to grow old".
19.4 SAKKARA The ancient necropolis was located on the west bank of the Nile and stretched from Abu Rawash (directly west of modern Cairo) southward some 35 kilometers (22 miles) to Dahshur.
Scholars
have divided the necropolis into 6 geographical sections from north to south: 1) Abu Rawash, 2) Giza, 3) Zawyet el-'Aryan, 4) Abusir, 5) Sakkara, and 6) Dahshur.
South of Giza lies the ancient necropolis of Sakkara. It is located 20 kilometers (13 miles)
MAP 19.419.4-1 SITES MENTIONED IN §19.4
southwest of Cairo. and 5 kilometers (3 miles) west of the ancient city of Memphis, the administrative and religious center of the 1st nome of Lower Egypt. Sakkara probably derived its name from the god Sokar, the hawk god of the Memphite burial grounds. The earliest tombs at Sakkara date to Dynasty 1 (3100-2890) and the earliest royal name yet discovered there is that of Narmer (1-1), which was engraved on a porphyry bowl found in one of the storerooms of the STEP PYRAMID
of the pharaoh Netjerykhet2 (described in §15.4). In the center of the Sakkara necropolis
lies this Step Pyramid Complex of Djoser ([[A] in Fig. 19.4-2). Adjacent to its northeast corner lies the Pyramid of Userkaf (5-1, 2494-2487) [B]. [B] About 300 meters3 to its northeast, the Pyramid of Teti (6-1, 2345-2333) [C] [C] is located. In a V-shaped line [D] moving north from Teti's pyramid and returning in a southwesterly directions towards the northwest corner of Djoser's enclosure wall are to be found the
1 For a selection of the more commonly used third weak verbs where the final - was not written, see EG 3, §281, p. 214. 2 It is thought that Netjerkhet (3-2, 2667-2648) sought to entomb artifacts from an earlier time in his own magazines as a way of returning them to their original, albeit deceased, owners. 3 From now on the metric system will be used, as it is favored by scientists of all nations. The student can easily convert kilometers to miles by multiplying by .6 for a rough approximation and by multiplying meters by 1.1 to obtain the distance in yards. 87
An Egyptian Primer excavated tombs of officials and royalty of the Old Kingdom. Interconnecting galleries containing the mummified bodies of ibises, falcons, and baboons are located in the center of this V-shaped area of the burial grounds.4
Approximately 500 meters from the northwest corner of Djoser's monument are located the SERAPEUM and APIS BULL GALLERIES
[E] which date to the time of Ramesses II (19-3,
1304-1237). Here the mummified bodies of the sacred bulls were placed in large stone sarcophagi inserted into niches which were cut into long corridors under the desert floor. Immediately south of the Apis Bull burial field, about 500 meters west of the Djoser complex, is located an area called THE GREAT ENCLOSURE [F], F] which is not yet excavated but is believed to contain a monument of an OK ruler. Directly to the south of the centrally located Djoser monument is located the PYRAMID OF UNAS (5-9, 2375-2345) [G] with its causeway leading eastward to a valley temple.5 Immediately southwest of the Unas pyramid are the Map 19.4The Sakkara Necropolis 19.4-2. Sechmatic: Sechmatic: AA-Djoser Complex, BB-Userkaf, C-Teti, DD-OK Tombs, EE-Serapeum, FF-Great Enclosure, GG-Unas, HH-Sekhemkhet
remains of the STEP PYRAMID OF SEKHEMKHET SEKHEMKHET (3-3, 26482642) [H]. [H] Some 750-2,000 m. south are located Dynasty 6 (2345-
2181) pyramids and another 750 m. further south are the two pyramids of Sakkara dating from Dynasty 13 (1786-1633). Thus, the entire Sakkara necropolis is about 8 km. long and varies from 500-1,500 m. in width. The full form of a pyramid name generally included the name of the founding king in a CARTOUCHE, 6 which preceded the rest of the place name. Often these royal names were omitted and the pyramid city's name appeared in a shortened form.
4 P-J. Lauer has estimated that in these galleries alone there are over 1,000,0000 mummified ibises, most of which have not been excavated or examined. 5 Unas was the last king of the 5th Dynasty. His pyramid was the first one in which the interior walls were covered with hieroglyphics, the so-called "Pyramid Texts". 6 Cartouche is a French word for an ornamental tablet of stone, wood, or metal that contains an inscription. It is represented by the Sign V10, . The fourth and fifth names of a king's titulary were each enclosed in its own cartouche. The original cartouches were circular in shape, , Sign V9, but as the king's names grew in length, the design was adapted to the elongated configuration. The Egyptian cartouche represented a coiled double rope with its ends tied together. As it symbolically encircled the king's name, so too it probably represented the king as ruler of all "that which is encircled by the sun", as described in EG 3, p. 74. 88
An Egyptian Primer
THE NAMES OF THE 15 ROYAL PYRAMIDS FOUND FOUND AT SAKKARA ARE: PHAROAH
REPRESENT REPRESENTATION
NAME
NETJERYKHET (3(3-2)
THE STEP PYRAMID PYRAMID
SEKHEMKHET (3(3-3)
THE BURIED PYRAMID
UNKNOWN (DYNASTY 3?)
THE GREAT ENCLOSURE
SHEPSESKAF (4(4-7)
THE PURIFIED PYRAMID
USERKAF (5(5-1)
ISESI (5(5-8)
UNAS (5(5-9)
TETI (6(6-1)
PEPI I (6(6-3)
MERENRE (6(6-4)
PEPI II (6(6-5)
ḳbḥw w'b swt
THE PYRAMID WHICH IS PURE OF PLACES
THE BEAUTIFUL PYRAMID
nfr nfr swt ḏd swt m n nfr
ḫ' nfr mn 'nḫ
THE PYRAMID WHICH IS BEAUTIFUL OF PLACES
THE PYRAMID WHICH IS ENDURING OF PLACES THE PYRAMID WHICH IS ESTABLISHED AND BEAUTIFUL 7
THE THE SHINING AND BEAUTIFUL PYRAMID
THE ESTABLISHED AND LIVING PYRAMID
n
IBI (8(8-3) MERYKARE (10(10-?)
UNKNOWN
w3ḏ swt
THE PYRAMID WHICH IS FLOURISHIN FLOURISHING OF PLACES
KHENJER (13(13-?)
UNKNOWN
UNKNOWN 13?)
UNKNOWN
7 The great Egyptian city of Memphis, mn nfr, opposite Sakkara in the Nile Valley, derived its name from this pyramid of Pepi I. 89
An Egyptian Primer One of the most famous archaeologists to work at Sakkara, P-J. Lauer, aptly described the lively decoration of these Memphite tombs of the Old Kingdom:
re-They would depict most of the daily activities of the owner of the tomb so that his ka could re live them for ever thanks to the magical powers powers of the pictures placed at his disposal. The reliefs generally represented the deceased deceased with his wife at his side and his children at his feet, and only during the happier moments of his life, carefully chosen for the ka. I cannot do better 183--4), in which he has than quote from Alexandre Moret's Au temps des pharaons (pp. 183 authoritatively authoritatively explained the meaning of the development of these scenes: 'All around, servants bring provisions of food, clothing, and the necessary furniture; the making and origin of each offering is used for the decoration. Thus, to explain the offering of a leg of beef, they show animals feeding in the pasture, the mounting of the cow, the birth of the calf, and scenes of agricultural life up to the slaughter of the animal; the offering of bread made it necessary to have scenes of tilling, harvesting and baking; the offering of wine was the excuse to show vineyards and grapegrape-gathering; offerings of furred and feathered game and of fish made it necessary to show scenes of hunting in the desert and fishing by line or net. Each of the objects of the funerary furniture furniture – shrine, coffin, bed, vessels, clothing, arms or jewels – gave rise to descriptions of the methods of manufacture of these objects; thus we can see, plying their trades, carpenters, foundrymen, armourers, weavers and jewelers. Even the purchase of provisions provisions in the market and the drawing up of household accounts are used as decorative objects. The soul and the body of the deceased rere-lived perpetually the sculpted scenes: the act depicted became a reality, each picture of a being or object recaptured, for a moment, its ka and came to life according to the wish of the god who lived in the tomb ...' 8 These tomb scenes present a picture of the life and times of ancient Egypt in the OK, albeit idealized, but they are in many cases our only source for information regarding a particular individual or activity.
One of the more spectacular mastabas is that of Ti, a noble of Dynasty 5, located 500 meters northwest of the Djoser complex and about 200 meters northeast of the Serapeum. The walls of his tomb are covered with extensive reliefs of every day life in the OK, and include shipwrights at work, fishermen, sculptors, agricultural pursuits, and offering bearers with their gifts. In a similar fashion, the mastaba of the vizier Mereruka,9 which is located adjacent to the northwest corner of Teti's pyramid, contains representations of hunting and water scenes, watering gardens, goldsmiths and jewelers at work, adolescents playing various games, and the forced feeding of animals such as goats, antelopes, and hyenas.
8 P-J. Lauer, Saqqara, p. 14. 9 Mereruka was the husband of Princess Har-watet-khef, a daughter of Teti. 90
An Egyptian Primer
From the tomb of Rekhmire, Governor of Thebes and Vizier of Upper Egypt, Dynasty 18, c. 1450 BCE: FIG. 19.419.4-1. CONSTRUCTING A WALL WALL.
FIG. 19.419.4-2. ENGRAVING ENGRAVING AND POLISHING VASES VASES IN SILVER AND GOLD.
FIG. 19.419.4-3. FOWLING IN THE MARSHES MARSHES FROM THE TOMB OF OF NEBAMUN, C. 1350, BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.
91
An Egyptian Primer 19.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A19:
ìw ṯnì
[ēw]
BENT MAN LEANING ON A STICK STICK.
Cannot always be distinguished from A21,
[tchnē]
Logo. or det. in
, ì3w, "old". Det. in
D34: M13:
or
ARMS HOLDING SHIELD AND BATTLE AXE.
w3ḏ
[wädj]
STEM OF PAPYRUS.
Logo. in
ṯnì, "old man".
Logo. in "fight" and derivatives.
w3ḏ w3ḏ, "papyrus column".
O24:
PYRAMID WITH SIDE OF SURROUNDING WALL.
Q6:
COFFIN (VARIES MUCH IN FORM).
V9:
CARTOUCHE IN ROUND FORM FORM.
V10:
CARTOUCHE IN SECONDARY SECONDARY OVAL FORM.
W14:
TALL WATER POT.
names of specific royal pyramids.
Det. in mr, "pyramid", "tomb", and in
Det. in ḳrsw, "coffin", and in ḳrs, "bury".
Det. in šnw, "cartouche". Possibly a double rope encircling (šnI) the entire region ruled over by the sun or by the king as a later embodiment of the sun.
"praise". Det. in W15:
.
Logo. or det. in
snb(t), "jar".
Det. in šnw, "circuit", r n, "name".
ḥst, "water pot".
WATER POT, W14, WITH WATER POURING FROM IT.
"libate".
92
Phon. in
Logo. or det. in
ḥ sì , ḳb ḥ ,
An Egyptian Primer 19.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
93
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 20 PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT WITH NOUN SUBJECT 20.1 CHAPTERS 1616-19 SHOW THAT THE WORD ORDER IN THE EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN SENTENCE IS:
VERB + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT, CT, or OBJECT,, or VERB + PRONOUN SUBJECT + PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT. IN ENGLISH, THE WORD ORDER DOES NOT CHANGE CHANGE WHEN THE SUBJECT IS A NOUN AND THE DIRECT OBJECT IS A PRONOUN. PRONOUN. However, IN EGYPTIAN THE ORDER CHANGES WHEN THE SUBJECT IS A NOUN AND THE DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT IS A PRONOUN. PRONOUN. IN THIS CASE, THE PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE VERB AND PRECEDES THE NOUN NOUN SUBJECT. The word order is:
VERB VERB + PRONOUN PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT + NOUN NOUN SUBJECT THE RELATIONSHIP BETW BETWEEN SUBJECT AND DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT IS EXPRESSED EXPRESSED IN THIS THIS RULE:
A NOUN SUBJECT CANNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUN PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT
20.2 EXAMPLES OF THE DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT FOLLOWING FOLLOWING THE VERB AND PRECEDING THE NOUN NOUN SUBJECT A. SINGULAR DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUNS , His Majesty sent me.
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n wì ḥm⋅f
, Your lord will send you.
h3b ṯw nb⋅ nb⋅k sḏm sy sš sš
, The scribe hears her.
B. PLURAL DEPENDENT PRONOUNS
ì3š⋅n n ìmymy-r 'ww ì3s⋅ 3s⋅n ṯn ìmymy-r mš mš'w ì3š⋅n sn ìmymy-r ḥwt
, The caravan leaders summoned us.
, The general summoned you.
, The overseer of the estate summoned them.
94
An Egyptian Primer 20.3 COMMENTARY A: ìmymy-r TITLES:
ìmymy-r, "overseer", lit. "one
who is in the mouth", i.e. "the one who gives the word", is
a title usually followed by a particular office. Some of the offices where an administrator included:
or
ìmymy-r might represent the top
ìmymy-r pr, "steward", lit. "overseer of the house" and the OK title
ìmymy-r ḥm(w)m(w)-nṯr, "High High Priest", Priest lit. "overseer of priest(s)". Notice that the singular form for "priest", ḥm-nṯr was used even though it is clear that an overseer would administer more than one priest. ìmymy-r nì nìwt, "overseer
B:
is often represented by
of the city", a title normally held by the vizier. It should be noted that
, F20, the tongue of an ox. Since the tongue is "in the mouth", a phrase which
would translate into Egyptian as ìmy-r, such expressions are defined as "sportive writing" because of the implied visual pun. C:
is an Old Kingdom writing of
ìmymy-r .
From the Middle Kingdom on,
ìmymy-r
was often written
, and
thus this form can serve as a terminus ante quem (§11.3) for the text in which it is found. D:
ìmymy-r mš mš'w , while conventionally translated as "general", is lit. "an
overseer of the army".
'ww, were mercenary soldiers or caravaneers, very often from Nubia, the country immediately
E: The
to the south of Upper Egypt. F:
ḥwt, can be a temple, funeral chapel, administrative district, or an estate.
20.4 THE PRINCIPAL CROWNS OF EGYPT During the Late Pre-Dynastic period (3500-3150), Buto, located in the west central section of the Nile Delta, emerged as the capital of Lower Egypt. Its rulers wore the so-called RED CROWN,
dšrt.
Neith, the goddess of
war and hunting, is often portrayed wearing the Red Crown. At about the same time, Hierakonpolis which lay on the west bank of the Nile approximately 110 km. north of Elephantine (modern Aswan), became the capital of Upper Egypt. Its rulers wore a tall, conical crown, the WHITE CROWN,
,
ḥḏt ḥḏt.
It should be noted that Osiris was often shown wearing
the White Crown. One of the earliest portrayals of a king wearing the Red Crown is on the obverse of Narmer's Palette (see Fig. 7.4-1), while on the reverse he is depicted wearing the White Crown. These two scenes have led some scholars to equate Narmer (1-1, fl. 3100) with Menes, the king of Upper MAP 20.420.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §20.4.
Egypt who conquered Lower Egypt.
95
An Egyptian Primer After the unification of Egypt, when the ruler was functioning as the administrator of Upper Egypt, he wore the White Crown and while conducting affairs of state concerning Lower Egypt, he wore the Red Crown.
3tf,
the ATEF CROWN 1 consisted of a central
crown mounted upon two ram's horns and flanked by two ostrich feathers.
The central conical
piece, similar to the White Crown, was sometimes depicted as a bundle, knotted at the top. The king and Osiris were often depicted wearing the Atef Crown, as shown in Fig. 12.4-1. The first known appearance of the DOUBLE CROWN,
sḫmty, was in the reign of Den (1-5).
The god
Horus was frequently depicted wearing the Double
w3ḏ w3ḏt, goddess of Lower Egypt, wears the dšrt crown and nḫbt, goddess of Upper Egypt wears the ḥḏt ḥḏt crown, while the king wears the combined sḫmty crown. Crown. Note in Fig. 20.4-1 that
In the Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567), the BLUE CROWN,
ḫprš prš,
made its first
FIG. 20.420.4-1. CORONATION SCENE IN IN THE TEMPLE AT EDFU. THE YOUNG PHARAOH IS CROWNED BY THE GODDESS GODDESS OF LOWER EGYPT (L), UPPER w3ḏt, AND THE GODDESS OF UPPER EGYPT (R), nḫbt, 1984.
appearance, becoming quite common in the New Kingdom (1567-1085). It was probably a form of
war crown 2, made of leather with metal disks sewn upon it to serve as insignia to indicate the pharaoh.
The royal crowns were kept in special shrines under the direct care and supervision of a specific court official.
This procedure not only ensured their safety but also prevented them from falling into
unauthorized hands. Unfortunately, not one single example of an ancient Egyptian crown has been found.
1 The earliet depiction of this crown is from the reign of Sahure (5-2, 2494-2487). 2 In the temple of Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) at Abydos, there is a scene showing the king wearing the Blue Crown, while burning incense to the god Osiris-Andjety. 96
An Egyptian Primer Rulers were often depicted wearing the nemes, or royal headdress, which consisted of a head covering and two lappets, draped on either side of the head. An uraeus, a representation of the goddess
w3ḏ w3ḏt, Wadjet
in her form as an upraised cobra, normally adorned the king's brow when he was shown wearing the nemes. The earliest example of a nemes dates to Redjedef (4-3, 2566-2558).
Two particularly memorable
examples depicting the nemes are the Sphinx (Fig. 11.4-1), probably a statue of Khaefre (4-4, 2558-2533), and the gold mask of Tutankhamun (18-2, 1361-1352), as shown in Fig. 38.4-2. Fig. 20.4-2 shows four colossi of the seated Usermaatre Ramesses (19-3, 1304-1237). The statues are 20 meters high and each show the king wearing the
sḫmty crown with an uraeus affixed to his forehead.
The
side lappets of his nemes rest upon his shoulders. At his feet are smaller statues of his wives and children. An earthquake probably caused the fall of the upper section of the headless statue. The temple and its statues were moved from their original location by an international consortium from 1964 to 1968, when the rising waters of Lake Nasser threatened their submersion.
FIG. 20.420.4-2 FACADE OF THE RELOCATED RELOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMESSES RAMESSES II, ABU SIMBEL, 1984.
97
An Egyptian Primer 20.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATIO DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION A9: A9:
MAN HOLD BASKET W10
ON HEAD.
3tp , "load";
Det. in
3tpw, "cargo".
"work"; D28:
k3 [kä]
ARMS EXTENDED SO AS TO EMBRACE?
F20:
ns
PERHAPS AN OX TONGUE.
G27:
ḏsr [deshâr]
FLAMINGO.
k3t,
k3, "soul", "spirit:.
Logo. for
Logo. in "tongue". Det. in actions connected with the tongue. Sportive logo. in ìmymy-r , "overseer", lit. "one who is the mouth". Also used in "red" and derivatives.
O6:
RECTANGULAR ENCLOSURE ENCLOSURE VIEWED FROM ABOVE.
O39:
STONE SLAB OR BRICK (SOMETIMES LARGE LIKE
"temple", "tomb".
"stone" or
Logo. in "castle", "mansion",
N37) N37). Det. in
ìnr,
where N37 is similarly used.
ḥḏt ḥḏt , "the white crown".
S1:
THE WHITE WHITE CROWN OF UPPER EGYPT.
S3:
THE RE RED CROWN OF LOWER EGYPT EGYPT.
S5:
COMBINED WHITE AND RED RED CROWNS.
S7:
THE BLUE CROWN.
Logo/det. in
ḫprš prš, "the blue crown" or "the war
S8:
THE ATEF CROWN.
Logo/det. in
3tf, "the atef crown".
S25:
A GARMENT, POSSIBLY A SKIRT.
S42:
dšrt, "the red crown".
Logo/det. in
Det. in double crown, , sḫmty, "the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt", lit. "the two powerful ones". Note the two parallel strokes to indicate the dual.
crown".
"translator".
ḫrp [kherep], 'b3 b3 [äbä], sḫm [sekhem]
SCEPTER OF AUTHORITY.
In titles
ì'b [eäb], ḥnt [henet], wsḫ wsḫ [wesekh]
'w, "caravaneer", "mercenary",
Det. in
ḫrp, "be at the head of", "control". ḫrp k3t, "controller of the works".
Logo/det. in
is often read ḫrp as in
Logo/det. In
,
, 'b3, "the aba-scepter". Also referred to as the
"sekhem-scepter". Phon. det. in "power". W10:
Logo/det. in
'b3, "stela".
CUP (PROBABLY SOMETIMES ALSO ALSO A BASKET).
det. in wide".
ì'b, "unite".
98
Det. in
,
Phon. in
Det in
ḥnt, "cup".
sḫ m ,
ì'b, "cup". Phon. Det. in wsḫ wsḫ, "be
An Egyptian Primer 20.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
99
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 21 THE ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE 21.1 ADJECTIVES ARE WORDS WHICH DESCRIBE NOUNS NOUNS OR PRONOUNS. Adjectives indicate "what kind", "how many", "which one", etc.
THERE THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES TYPES OF ADJECTIVES AND THIS
CHAPTER FOCUSES ON THE LARGEST LARGEST GROUP, ATT ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.
In English, the
attributive adjective precedes the word it modifies, e.g. "small dogs", "small black dogs".
However,
in Egyptian, an attributive adjective usually follows the noun and agrees with it in number and gender for the masculine and feminine singular and the masculine plural nouns.
It should be noted that for
most feminine plural nouns, the feminine singular adjective is used. An exception to this rule that an adjective follows the noun it modifies is the adjective "other", which precedes the noun it modifies. 21.2 NOUN + ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE A. SINGULAR NOUN + SINGULAR ADJECTIVE MASCULINE
s nfr
the good man
ḫt ḳ3
FEMININE
a tall tree
sn w ìḳrw
the great lords
FEMININE the good countries
ḫ3s(w)t nfr t
the excellent brothers
prwy dšrwy
her little sisters
sn wt⋅ wt⋅s ktt
C. DUAL NOUN NOUN + DUAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE MASCULINE
sn wy nḫtwy
the vile country
ḫ3st ẖst
B. PLURAL NOUN + PLURAL ADJECTIVE MASCULINE
nbw wrw
the great lady
nbt wr t
FEMININE
a strong pair of brothers
two red houses
snty nfr(ty)
a beautiful pair of sisters
green eyes
ìrty w3ḏ w3ḏty
D. THE ADJECTIVE "OTHER "OTHER" OTHER" PRECEDES THE NOUN IT MODIFIES MODIFIES MASCULINE SINGULAR FEMININE
ky rn⋅ rn⋅f kywy smr(w)
his other name PLURAL the other courtiers
kt nì nìwt
the other city
kt snwt bint 100
the other bad sisters
An Egyptian Primer 21.3 COMMENTARY A: As a rule, the feminine plural nouns are used with the feminine singular adjective. However, there are a few exceptions in which the feminine plural noun is used with the feminine plural adjective:
(nfr(w)t).
or
It is not clear in such cases whether or not the plural strokes have any vocalic value or whether
they are simply graphic in nature. B: Dual adjectives are exceedingly rare in Egyptian and are shown here for illustrative purposes only. C: Note that the word and is not a feminine "champion", and
ḫt, "tree", is one of a small group of masculine nouns in which the stem ends in t noun. Other examples of such masculine nouns are nḫt, "strong man", ìt, "father father". father
D: The masculine adjectives
ky and kywy and
the feminine adjective
kt, "other",
precede the nouns they
describe. As is customary with feminine plural adjectives, the singular form is used for the plural. E: In English, the word "green" is normally an adjective. However, in a few situations it is a noun: "a putting
w3ḏ w3ḏ-wr,
green" or "a lawn bowling green". We find a similar usage in Egyptian, as in the word "the the sea", the great green". sea lit. "the green 21.4 HONORIFIC TRANSPOSITIONS TRANSPOSITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS
The ancient Egyptians emphasized references to their deities or kings by placing these glyphs, either as logograms or spelled out, before rather than after their expected place in a word or sentence. A typical example is found in the ḥtp king grants", is written
nswt),
dì dì nsw funerary cult offering formula. This expression, lit. "a favor which with the Sign M23 nsw (here an abbreviation for the fuller writing
placed at the beginning when its usual position would be directly after the verb, in this case
Contrast the normal word order in "nephew nephew", the son of your brother", brother nephew lit. "the
s3 nswt,
s3 sn⋅ sn⋅k, with
the
d ì.
"prince", lit. "son of the king". This latter construction is called an "honorific transposition".
Below are a few examples which demonstrate this formation:
ḥm nṯ nṯr
ẖwt nṯ nṯr, temple, lit. "house
priest, lit. "servant of god"
šs nsw(t), scribe of the king One further comment regarding
of god"
pr nswt, palace, lit. "house nswt.
The Sign M23
represents the sedge plant,
of the king"
swt,
which was a
w3ḏ w3ḏ, was the heraldic plant of Lower Egypt. The symbol for the king of Upper Egypt was probably derived from nì swt, "(the one) belonging to the sedge" or "(he who) belongs to the sedge". nì swt appeared as in its original spelling. However, as it was symbol for Upper Egypt, just as the papyrus plant, M13
such a common word, it soon compacted into
, which was not only more artistically pleasing, but also
required less space for its presentation. By the MK, most evidence suggests that the from the word's pronunciation but remained in the spelling.
101
t
had been dropped
Consequently, some scholars will
An Egyptian Primer transliterate
as
nswt
when dealing with Old Kingdom (2686-2181), texts but use
nsw
with those
texts from the MK and later. Some other examples of compaction or abbreviation are: FULL WRITING WRITING COMPACT FORM
'nḫ 'nḫ wḏ wḏ3 snb, "may he live, be prosperous, and healthy", in translation abbr. as l.p.h.
m3'm3'-ḫrw, deceased, lit. "true of voice".
or or
ẖry ḥbt, lector priest, lit. "he who is under the ritual book" or "holder of the ritual book".
nḥḥ, eternity.
(Note the omission of the initial n in the compacted form.)
nbty, (two) ladies. s3 r ', son of Re. Fig. 21.4-1 shows the two statues from the Dynasty 4 (2613-2498) mastaba of Prince Rahotep and his wife Nofret. The left most column (shown here on left) of the two groups of three vertical columns over each of
Rahotep's
titulary:
shoulders
concludes
s3 nswt n ẖt⋅f r ' ḥtp
his
Prince
Rahotep, lit. "Son of the king of his body, Rahotep". The title indicates that Rahotep was probably a true son of the king, possibly Snoferu (4-1, 2613-2589). The identical titulary glyphs over both of Nofret's shoulders (shown here on right) indicate that the king knew her:
nfrt,
rḫ nswt
"An acquaintance of the king,
Nofret".
Note
transposition. The title be transliterated
the
honorific can also
ìryry-ḫ(t) nswt,
FIG. 21.421.4-1. SEATED STATUES OF THE PRINCE RAHOTEP RAHOTEP AND HIS WIFE NOFRET NOFRET, THE CAIRO MUSEUM MUSEUM, 1958.
"one
pertaining to the king's property".
102
An Egyptian Primer 21.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A28:
MAN WITH WITH BOTH ARMS UPRAISED UPRAISED.
Det. in ḳ3, "high", ḥ'ì, "joy", ḥ3ì, "mourn".
A50:
šps [shep-es] [
A MAN OF RANK SEATED ON A CHAIR.
G21:
nḥ [neh]
GUINEA FOWL.
M14:
w3ḏ w3ḏ [wädj]
COMBINATION OF M13
honored or revered dead.
nḥḥ, "eternity".
Phon. in
"the great green".
Can also be found after the names of
AND I10
21.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
103
. Phon. in
w3ḏ w3ḏ-wr, "the sea", lit.
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 22 THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE 22.1 THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE DESCRIBES DESCRIBES THE SUBJECT OF THE THE SENTENCE. In English, it is called a predicate adjective because it follows a specific type of verb, known as a "linking verb" (e.g. "be", "become", "look", "seem"), which "connect" the adjective to the subject (ex. "He is tall."). The most common linking verbs in English are a form of the verb "to be": "am", "is", "are", "was", "were". IN EGYPTIAN, A PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE NOT ONLY ONLY PRECEDES THE WORD WORD IT DESCRIBES BUT ITS ITS NUMBER AND GENDER GENDER DO NOT NECESSARILY AGREE AGREE WITH THOSE OF THE NOUN NOUN/PRONOUN IT MODIFIES.
As there is no verb "to be" in Egyptian,
when an adjective precedes the subject it describes, it is an indication of the predicate adjective
bìn sr sr, "The
construction, e.g.
official is bad.", lit. "Bad [the] official [is]." It should be
noted that this predicate adjective construction (adjective + subject) is different from the attributive adjective, which follows the word it modifies (see Chapter 21). For example, we find predicate adjective usage in "the good
nfr s3t, "The daughter is good." but as an attributive daughter" (nfrt agreeing in number and gender with s3t ).
adjective
s3t nfrt nfrt,
When the subject is a pronoun, the Egyptians use the dependent pronoun, rather than the suffix pronoun ,
e.g. nfr wì
, "I am good".
22.2 PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE CONSTRUCTION A. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE + NOUN My path is good.
nfr mṯ mṯn⋅ì r npy s3t⋅ s3t⋅f bìn nḥ nḥsy
His daughter is young.
The Nubians are bad.
Amun-Re is mighty.
nḫt ìmnmn-r '
r npy s3t⋅ s3t⋅ṯn r npy s3w⋅ s3w⋅ṯn
Your (pl.) daughter is young.
Your (pl.) sons are young.
B. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE + DEPENDENT PRONOUN
spd wì wì spd ṯw bìn sw nfr st
I am skilled, lit. sharp.
You are skilled.
He is bad.
nfr n bì bìn ṯn nfr sn
It is beautiful.
104
We are happy.
You are bad.
They are good.
22.3 COMMENTARY A:
An Egyptian Primer
ḥns mṯ mṯn, "the
noun usage, while
road is narrow" is another example of the predicate adjective plus
mṯn ḥns,
"the narrow road" is the attributive adjectival form.
Remember, when used as a predicate adjective, the adjective is written in its root form, not changing in the gender or number for the subject it describes. B: While some adjectives were used either as an attributive or predicate adjective, others were not used
r npy
interchangeably. When referring to people
"be youthful" or "be young" was used as a
predicate adjective in the sense of rejuvenation but was not used to indicate "young". In other words, "My
r npy s3t⋅ s3t⋅ì,
daughter is young" would be written daughter",
ktt
whereas to indicate "my young
would be used as an attributive adjective, as in
s3t⋅ s3t⋅ì ktt,
"my young
daughter", lit. "my little daughter". 22.4 PREPRE-DYNASTIC AND EARLY OLD OLD KINGDOM ROYAL NAMES NAMES Few contemporaneous examples of Pre-Dynastic (3500-3100) royal names have survived. Those that are preserved were not written with phonograms but rather in logographic form. An example of this is the so-called "Scorpion King", whose name is inferred from the representation of a scorpion over his image on his mace head.
The traditional royal titulary consisted of a sequence of five names: THE HORUS NAME, THE TWO LADIES (OR NBTY) NAME, THE GOLDEN HORUS NAME, THE PRENOMEN,
and THE NOMEN.
(A useful mnemonic to
remember the sequence of the names is HEAR THE GREAT PHARAOH PHARAOH 'S NAMES:
where H = the Horus name, T = the Two Ladies name, G = the
Golden Horus name, P = the Prenomen, and N = the Nomen. The HORUS NAME is first in the king's titulary, usually following Sign G5,
, a falcon representing the god Horus.
Most modern
chronologies usually include only the Horus name of the rulers of MAP 22.422.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §22.4.
the early dynasties.
In later dynasties, the Horus name in a
titulary sometimes appears with the Horus falcon followed by the serekh.
105
An Egyptian Primer By Dynasty 1 (3100-2686), the HORUS NAME 1 of the king had become the most important of the royal names and titularies. During the early OK, Horus the falcon god was portrayed sitting atop a rectangular frame , O33, the serekh, srḫ srḫ, which contained the king's name.2 The name of the king was written in the upper register of the serekh while the lower register contained parallel vertical lines, probably representing a palace facade. Thus, the name of Aha (1-2), 'ḥ3 , "fight", is represented:
Note that the falcon's legs and talons holding the shield and mace are a variant (or more likely a precursor) of either Sign D34 or D34*, where the arms and hands are so employed. Note that in Aha's serekh, the top of the shield is rounded in contrast to D34 or D34*. The shield and horizontal mace T1
, phonetically
represent Aha's name.3
SIGN D34
SIGN D34*
The TWO LADIES NAME, or nebty name, in second position, follows G16,
, combining the vulture goddess
nḫbt, Sign G14, and the cobra goddess Wadjet w3ḏ w3ḏyt, Sign I12, each sitting atop V30 , the sign for lord, nb. This titulary addition began as early as Dynasty 1. nḫbt was the goddess of the Upper Egyptian city of Nekheb nḫb (in Arabic El-Kab) and w3ḏ w3ḏyt was the goddess of the Lower Egyptian city of prpr-w3ḏ w3ḏyt (Buto in Greek, in Arabic Tell el-Fara'in) in the central Delta. Nekhbet
1 According to various Egyptian legends, Horus, the son of Osiris, regained the throne of Egypt after defeating his uncle Seth in numerous trials and personal combat. By establishing his allegiance to Horus, an Egyptian ruler put the god's imprimatur (stamp of approval) upon his kingship and thus the legitimacy of his reign. The ruler was referred to as "the living Horus". 2 This format lead to scholar's calling the ruler's first name his "Horus name". 3 Possible translations of his name are: "The Fighter", "He Who Fights", "The Fighting Horus", "The Horus Who Fights", etc. Note that the feet of the falcon descend through the top of serekh to hold the shield and mace. 106
An Egyptian Primer The nebty name was inserted into the royal titulary between the Horus name and the nswt
ẖt, Semerkhet 4 (1-7)
Therefore,
ḫr smr ẖt nbty nswt nswt bì bì t, is translated as "The
bì bì t name by smr
Horus 'Friend-of-the-
God's-Body', Two Ladies, King of the Two Lands". Semerkhet's titulary serekh:
Note the little figure beneath the cobra and the vulture – possibly representing Semerkhet's
nebty name.
The translation of this figure is not known with any degree of certainty. In Dynasty 2, Peribsen (2-4) replaced the falcon on his serekh with the "Seth animal"
, E20.5 The use of
the representation of Seth for the ruler's first name is of interest because it may indicate a theological shift from an earlier tradition. Did Seth, the uncle and enemy of Horus, supplant him? Also note that Peribsen's Seth name is repeated in his nswt
stẖ stẖ pr ìb sn nswt bì bìt pr ib sn,
bì b ìt
name. His serekh:
possibly "The Seth 'Their-(Horus and Seth?, the King and Seth?)-
Heart-goes-Forth', the King of the Two Lands 'Their-Heart-Goes-Forth'". At least one other Dynasty 2 ruler combined Seth and Horus on his serekh. However, the kings of Dynasty 3 reverted to the Horus atop their serekhs and the use of the Seth animal in the predominant position of the royal titulary disappeared.
4 smr ẖt, possibly "Friend of the God's Body", from "body of men (or gods)".
smr, "friend" or "courtier" and
ẖt,
5 The Seth animal used in Peribsen's name is a variant of Sign E20. With a long curved snout and forked tail, the figure does not represent any known animal. Scholars refer to Peribsen's first name as his "Seth name" rather than his Horus name to indicate the use of this hieroglyph. When the falcon and Seth animal were combined in a royal titulary, Egyptologists refer to that name as a "Horus-Seth name". 107
An Egyptian Primer The GOLDEN HORUS NAME is third in the titulary and contains S12,
, the sign for gold.
The fourth name, the PRENOMEN,6 follows the Signs L2 and M23 on loaves of bread,
,
n-swsw-bìt (often it
contains some reference to Re) and is also called the THRONE NAME. Den (1-5) was probably the first to add it into his titulary. It is variously called by scholars "The King of the Two Lands Name", "The King of Upper and Lower Egypt", or "He of the Bee and the Sedge". It was sometimes used independently or in conjunction with the Horus name of the king. cartouche
In later dynasties, the prenomen was written within a
and was usually compounded with name of the god Re. Den's name was written:
To the right in the serekh are his Horus name as expressed by the two phonograms his Horus name is his nswt dual
ḫ3sty
bì b ìt
and
, dn. Facing
title, "The King of Upper and Lower Egypt", which surmounts the feminine
for "The (Two) Uplands", "The (Two) Deserts", or possibly even "The (Two) Foreign
Countries". Therefore,
ḥr dn nswt bì bìt ḫ3sty, might be translated "The
Horus 'Den': King of the Two
Deserts".7
The NOMEN, the fifth and final name, follows
s3 r ', "the
son of Re" and is possibly the name given to
the king at birth. It was the name by which the Egyptians themselves referred to their kings. The first four names were presumably adopted during the coronation ceremonies and sometimes state a monarch's religious and/or political program. For these reasons, some later kings changed their names during their reigns, e.g. Neferkheprure Amenhotep (Amenophis IV, 18-10, 1379-1362) to Neferkheperurewe Akhenaten. See §32.4.
6 As it preceded the ruler's nomen, or name. 7 dn may be a form of (w)dn, "offer", and his name might be translated as "The Horus Who Offers", "The Offering Horus", etc. Other scholars believe that dn is a form of d(w)n, "stretch out" or "spread out", i.e. "The Horus Who-Spreads-Out-(His-Wings)", implying protection over the land of Egypt. Possibly it refers to Den's hegemony over both Upper and Lower Egypt, the Eastern and Western Deserts, or even two foreign countries. As can be seen, the meaning of the names of the early kings is much disputed. 108
An Egyptian Primer 22.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D34*: D34*:
ARMS HOLDING SHIELD AND BATTLE AXE.
E20:
ANIMAL OF SETH.
G5:
FALCON.
G16:
off one.
nbty [neb-tē]
OK form of D34,
. Logo. in "fight".
Logo. for Seth.
ḥrw, "(The falcon god) Horus", perhaps meaning "the far-
Logo.
THE UE VULTURE GODDESS w3ḏyt, GODDESS nḫbt NEKHBET AND THE LE COBRA GODDESS w3ḏ WADJET, ON BASKETS,
V30. V30.
I12:
ERECT COBRA (OFTEN DISPLAYED ON THE THE FOREHEAD OF THE PHARAOH PHARAOH).
I13:
COBRA,
L2:
M4:
Det. "goddesses", esp. to those whom the appearance of a snake was attributed, e.g. w3ḏ w3ḏyt, Wadjet.
bìt
[bēt]
I12, I12,
ON THE BASKET V30
.
Logo. in bìt, "bee". Phon. and logo. in Upper and Lower Egypt".
BEE.
PALM BRANCH STRIPPED OF LEAVES AND NOTCHED NOTCHED TO SERVE AS A TALLY TALLY.
rnpy, "be young".
COMBINATION OF M4, M4,
branch planted in M6:
spd spd, "sharp".
THORN.
O33:
FACADE OF PALACE OR TOMB.
T14:
. With sportive logographic intention (palm
tr, "season".
M44:
T1:
With sportive logographic intention (palm
AND D21, D21,
), as in
Det. in
..
.
tr, "season".
), as in ,
COMBINATION OF M4, M4,
branch on
AND X1, X1,
or M6,
Det. in
tr, "time", "season", where it
Logo. in
usually appears in the form of M5, M5:
nswt bì bìt, "King of
king's Horus name.
Det. in
srḫ srḫ, a palace facade bearing the
mnw [men-ew] PRE-HISTORIC MACE WITH CUP CUP- OR DISH-SHAPED HEAD. (1) THROW STICK. Det. in WEAPON OF WARFARE.
Det. in
109
ḳm3, "throw". (2) CLUB AS A FOREIGN FOREIGN nḥsy, "Nubian".
An Egyptian Primer 22.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
110
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 23 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE 23.1 THE THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVES VES ARE "OF", "BELONGING TO", TO", OR "FOR". "FOR". IN EGYPTIAN, JUST LIKE THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVES IVES, THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES PRECEDE THE WORD THEY MODIFY. MODIFY. HOWEVER, UNLIKE PREDICATE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES, THEY AGREE WITH THE NOUN/PRONOUN THEY MODIFY IN GENDER AND NUMBER. NUMBER. In Middle Egyptian the Genitival Adjectives are: MASCULINE
n
FEMININE Singular Singular
nt
Plural
nt
nw
,
Note that the feminine singular and plural forms of the genitival adjective are identical. 23.2 THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE A. THE MASCULINE SINGULAR SINGULAR GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
, the king of Egypt
nsw n kmt mš'⋅f nḫ nḫt(w) pr n (ì (ì)t ⋅f
, his army of victory, lit. "victories"
, the house of his father
, the day of the festival of the king's coronation
hrw n ḥb ḫ'w'w-nswt
, I heard a secret of the royal apartment(s).
sḏm⋅n⋅ì sš sšt3 n ìptpt-nsw
B. THE PLURAL MASCULINE MASCULINE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
, princes, lit. "the great ones", of all the foreign lands
wrw nw ḫs(w)t nbt
MAP 23.223.2-1. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF EGYPT.
, the rulers of Irtjet, Wawat, Yam, and
ḥḳ3(w) ḥḳ3(w) nw ìrṯt w3w3t ì3m mḏ mḏ3
Medja.
, the great ones (i.e. "gods" or "dead ancestors") of Abydos.
wrw nw 3bḏ 3bḏw
C. THE FEMININE SINGULAR SINGULAR GENTIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
dpt nt mḥ mḥ 60
, a boat of 60 cubits
ì3t⋅ 3t⋅ì nt ḥryry-sšt3 111
, my office of keeper of the secrets
An Egyptian Primer
23.2 THE GENITIVAL ADJECT ADJECTIVE DJECTIVE (CONTINUED) PLURAL D. THE FEMININE PLUR AL GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE
, the cattle of Irtjet
mnmnt nt ìrṯt
, the cattle of Irtjet, Wawat, and Yam
mnmnt nt ìrṯt w3w3t ì3m , the wives of the chiefs
ḥm(w)t nt wrw
23.3 COMMENTARY A: Father,
ìt, was often written without the initial ì, as in
.
nbt is not nb(w)t because by Middle Egyptian, plural feminine adjectives were written in the singular form, nbt, without the plural w. 1 In fact, the evidence seems to suggest that by the MK there was
B: Note that
no such thing as a distinct form of the feminine plural adjective, except in very rare cases. C: Irtjet was located in the area of Yam, which was south and west of Upper Egypt. It is believed that Medja was located in the western desert and that Wawat was directly south of Egypt, bordering both the eastern and western banks of the Nile in what is present day Sudan. 23.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MASTABA 2 TOMB During the Pre-historic Period (c. 12,000-3,500 BCE) the indigenous people of the Nile Valley buried their dead in simple pits,3 Initially, the body was accompanied by a few grave goods but towards the end of the period, a grave might contain such items as pottery bowls, weapons, tools, beads, woven baskets, and clothing. These grave goods were possibly intended to be used by the deceased in the next world and were indicators of some form of belief in life after death. By the beginning of the Pre-Dynastic Period (c. 3500-3100), these simple pit burials gave way to a more developed structure: a pit lined with plaster side walls, a covering roof supported by logs, and the entire construction covered over with sand. This enlarged structure often contained simple furniture, as well as personal items of the deceased, and enabled him "to dwell for eternity" in familiar surroundings, possibly duplicating his home while alive.
1 See §21.1. 2 From the Arabic word for "bench". From a distance these structures resemble the low, stone or mud brick benches found outside the peasant homes throughout Egypt. Such benches may still be seen today. 3 See Fig. 6.4-2. 112
An Egyptian Primer st
The royal tombs of the 1 Dynasty (c. 3100-2890) at Abydos (about 2/3 the distance south between Cairo and the first cataract at Aswan) on the west bank of the Nile and the 2nd Dynasty (c. 2890-2686) tombs at Sakkara (described in §19.4) continued the development of the burial structures of the earlier period. The earliest tombs were built from mud brick and later on from cut stone. The pits became more elaborate in design and eventually contained several underground chambers.
The
superstructure no longer consisted of a simple log roof, but was made from quarried stone.
Eventually, the substructure was composed of five
chambers: a central burial room containing a wooden coffin and four storage rooms for funerary goods. Sometimes the walls of the burial chamber were decorated, and these painted scenes and sculptured walls are the source for almost all our knowledge of Old Kingdom history, every day living conditions, funerary practices, and religious beliefs. Over the centuries, the storage magazines became larger and their contents more varied and elaborate. In addition to the utilitarian items found earlier, such items as jewelry, games, and more extensive food supplies were interred with the corpse. An unusual feature in the design of the earlier tombs was that the rooms MAP 23.423.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §23.4.
could only be accessed from the top, there being no interconnecting doors or corridors. Some time during the reign of Den (1-5) a design change occurred which enabled the subterranean burial chamber to be assessed through a
stairway. This enabled the tomb to be completed before the death of its occupant in contrast to the earlier structures which do not appear to have been completed until after the death of the owner. The 1st Dynasty royal mastabas were built on ground level with their rectangular ground plan varying from 40-60 meters long, 15-25 meters wide, and 7-8 meters high.
Later, in non-royal tombs, there was a
separate room called a serdab,4 which contained one or more statues of the deceased. These were visible through a small opening from a "chapel" room, where offerings of food and drink might be deposited for the departed. The number of storage rooms increased from the four found in earlier versions to as many as 45 in later periods. As they were constructed above the desert floor, they were easily robbed, primarily because the stairway leading to the burial chamber under the edifice provided an access path for any robbers, even though blocking stones had been inserted into the passageway. The outer facade of these brick 1st Dynasty tombs consisted of vertical panels of varying width, represented by Sign O33,
.5 Stone was used sparingly in the earlier mastabas, being limited to the
4 From the Arabic for "cellar". The earliest known serdab has been found at the north face of the step pyramid built by Netjerykhet (3-2, c, 2668-2649) at Sakkara, see Fig. 16.4-1. 5 Recessed brick architecture utilizing interlocking mud bricks has been found throughout Mesopotamia, where it developed before its appearance in Egypt. This interlocking of the bricks strengthened a wall and was the forerunner of the "header/stretcher" technique used later in the building of high stone walls, such as found in the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. This interlocking technique was also used in Djoser's Step Pyramid but utilized small stone blocks. 113
An Egyptian Primer doorways, lintels and jams, and in the portcullises which blocked the entry way to the burial chamber. Beginning with Netjerykhet, the covering of the royal mastaba developed into a pyramidal form, constructed entirely of stone. As the overall structure increased in size, the quality of the workmanship improved, as evidenced by the reliefs and blue glazed tiles decorating some of the subterranean passageways and chambers. Excavations indicate that in its initial stage (1 in fig. 23.4-1), Djoser's step pyramid was actually a mastaba, covered by the fine limestone from the quarries at Tura, located across the Nile and slightly north of Sakkara. In its second stage, the original mastaba was surrounded by a limestone casing (2), some four meters thick. somewhat FIG. 23.423.4-1. FIVE STAGES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEP PYRAMID PYRAMID.
As this second stage addition was
lower
than
the
initial
mastaba,
the
construction appeared to be a "step" encompassing it. The western side of the monument was then extended (3) an additional eight meters, resulting in yet another
lower "step" on that face. At this point Imhotep (if indeed he was Djoser's architect and builder), changed the design once again by enclosing all the previous work with a pyramid of four larger steps, as indicated by the number 4 in Fig. 23.4-1. In time, this too was built upon so that the resultant pyramid contained six steps, all encased by the Tura limestone and rising some 60 meters above the desert floor. As the superstructure increased in size, so too did the underground passageways, magazines, and burial chamber which lay 27 meters deep in the earth and was sealed by a three ton granite block. In addition to Djoser's burial chamber, eleven other subterranean tombs have been located beneath the pyramid, probably intended for other royal family members. Other members of the royal family and some important officials associated with the ruler were often interred in their own mastabas adjacent to their royal master's pyramid or tomb.6 The deceased were originally entombed with victuals for their after-life journey. In time, the custom arose for daily food and drink to be left at the tomb.
Supposedly, a corps of priests devoted themselves to maintaining the
deceased's cult and its necessary daily offerings, although family members, notably the eldest son, performed this function on special occasions. The mortuary priests derived their sustenance from the right to cultivate the lands bequeathed by the deceased for the continuing care of his tomb and the perpetuation of his memory. Few professional priests, as we know them today, existed in Egypt before the New Kingdom (1567-1085). Priesthood was often a part-time occupation, which was supported by giving the individual land in
"usufruct",
i.e. a type of land-holding
where
the
priest
could
derive
the
benefits
of
6 An example of a 5th Dynasty mastaba may be found in the Egyptian collection of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. See §8.1. 114
An Egyptian Primer crops produced on the property but did not actually own it. This practice prevailed for both royal and private cults. Such priests and their land holdings were often partially or totally exempt from taxes and other obligations. As a result of this tax relief, over time the priests maintaining such lands became a powerful economic and political force in the ancient Egyptian economy. 23.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A41:
KING (NOTE URAEUS ON BROW, STRAIGHT BEARD, AND COIF).
ḥm, "Majesty";
nb, "the lord", i.e. "the king". or "me" when the king is speaking, ⋅ì , ⋅wì. "king";
D2:
ḥr
D42:
mḥ [meh]
[hâr]
FACE.
nsw,
Det. in
Logo. or det. "I"
Logo. in "face" and derivatives.
FOREARM WITH PALM OF HAND DOWNWARDS BUT WITH UPPER ARM STRAIGHT STRAIGHT.
Logo.
mḥ, "cubit".
or det. in
D52:
mt [met]
PHALLUS.
D53:
mt [met]
PHALLUS WITH LIQUID ISSUING FROM IT, SOMETIMES INTERCHANGEABLY INTERCHANGEABLY WITH WITH D52. D52.
Det. in ṯ3y, "male", "man". Det. in mtwt, "poison". In mtwt note the use of D53 as det. in contrast to D52 used as phon. BULL.
E1:
ṯ3y, "male", "man".
Det. in
k3, "bull";
Logo. "bull". Det. in
mnmnt, "cattle".
I6:
km [kem]
PIECE OF CROCODILE CROCODILE SKIN WITH SPINES.
N26:
ḏw [dju]
SAND COVERED MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN OVER EDGE OF GREEN CULTIVATION.
3bḏ 3bḏw, "Abydos".
"mountain". Phon. in N41:
ḥm [hem]
WELL FULL OF WATER.
Phon. in
ḥmt, "woman", "wife".
O44:
EMBLEM ERECTED OUTSIDE OUTSIDE THE THE TEMPLE OF MIN.
O45:
DOMED BUILDING.
"rank".
S38:
ḥḳ3 ḥḳ3 [hekä]
CROOK.
U29: U29:
ḏ3 [djä]
OK FORM OF U28
U30:
t3 [tä]
POTTER'S KILN.
Logo. or det. in
Logo. in ḏw,
Logo. or det. in
ì3t, "office",
ìptpt-nsw, "royal apartments".
Logo. or det. in ḥḳ3 ḥḳ3 , "rule"; ḥḳ(3)t ḥḳ(3)t, "scepter"; and in ẖḳ3t ẖḳ3t, "hekatmeasure". , FIRE DRILL.
Logo. in "kiln".
115
An Egyptian Primer 23.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION V19:
ṯm3 [tjemä], tm3 [temä]
HOBBLE FOR CATTLE.
V20:
mḏ [medj]
HOBBLE FOR CATTLE WITHOUT WITHOUT THE HORIZONTAL STROKE AS IN V19
V22:
mḥ [meh]
Logo. or det. in
mḏwt, "stables"; mḏ WHIP.
23.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
116
in
mḏt, "stable".
mḏw, "ten".
. Phon. in
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 24 THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE 24.1 DETERMINER DETERMINERS ETERMINERS ARE A TYPE OF ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE THAT MAKES THE REFERENCE OF THE NOUN NOUN MORE PRECISE. PRECISE. DETERMINERS DETERMINERS DIFFER FROM ATTRIBUTIVE ATTRIBUTIVE AD ADJECTIVES IN THAT ONLY ONE DETERMINER APPEARS IN A PHRASE PHRASE..1 ONE TYPE OF DETERMINER DETERMINER IS THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE WHICH SHOWS SHOWS WHETHER SOMETHING IS IS NEAR ("THIS ("THIS", THIS", "THESE "THESE") THESE") OR FAR ("THAT ("THAT", THAT", "THOSE "THOSE"). THOSE"). "This" and "that" are the singular forms, "these" and "those" the plural.
In Egyptian, the demonstrative
adjectives are: MASCULINE SINGULAR
pw pn p3 pf
FEMININE SINGULAR ULAR SING
this
tw
this (near me)
tn
this, the
t3
that
tf
COMMON PLURAL
this
these
nw
this (near me)
nn
this, the
n3
that
nf
,
these (near me)
these, the
those
The definite article, "the", and the indefinite articles "a" and "an" did not exist at all. However,
n3
were sometimes used for the definite article. Whether
p3, t3,
or
n3
p3, t3, and
was used as a demonstrative
adjective or a definite article depended on context. 24.2 DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES A. SINGULAR DEMONSTRATIVE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES WHICH FOLLOW THEIR NOUN
s pw
this man
ìw pn n k3 r ' tf
st tw
this mysterious island, lit. "this island of the k3"
that day
this woman
st tn
this place
mṯṯn pf št3
that difficult road
B. SINGULAR DEMONSTRATIVE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJ ADJECTIVE ECTIVES VES WHICH PRECEDE THEIR THEIR NOUN
p3 šfdw t3 ìnt
this papyrus roll
this valley
1 In English, as noted in §21.1, more than one attributive adjective may used in a phrase. 117
An Egyptian Primer
C. PLURAL DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES PRECEDE THEIR NOUN AND ARE CONNECTED TO IT WITH THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE, n. ADJECTIVE, these men servants
nw n b3kw
these maid servants
nw n b3kwt
these officials
nn n sr(w) n3 n dp(w)t
these ships
those children
nf n ẖrdw 24.3 COMMENTARY
A: Note that all the masculine Demonstrative Adjectives begin with the letter p, the feminine form with the letter t, and the plural with the letter n. The plurals had only one form to express both genders.
ḫrw pf ẖs,
B: When used as epithets (or in a perjorative sense e.g. enemy"), the Singular Demonstrative Adjectives usage the singulars
šfdw, "this
p3
and
t3
pf, tf,
and
nf,
"that vile
all followed their noun. However, in such
p3
invariably preceded the noun they described, e.g..
papyrus roll".
C: When written in a column,
t3,
might be seen as
rather than
in order to fill the space more
aesthetically. D: The
w in
ẖrdw
24.2, C. above, note that the
ẖrdw was normally written without a , w. In is missing in the glyphs for srw and dpwt. Therefore, the w in sr(w) and
is not in parentheses because
in dp(w)t are in parentheses to indicate the omission. 24.4 THE EGYPTIAN CONCEPT CONCEPT OF THE SPIRIT
The concept of soul was embodied by the ancient Egyptians in three separate, yet related, aspects of the spirit: the k3 ("life force", "soul", "spirit"); the b3 ("personality personality"); personality and the 3ḫ ("ghost").2 In the Heliopolitan creation myth, Aten emerged from Nun, the primeval waters, and created the first gods: Shu, god of the air and Tefnut, goddess of moisture. Then Atum, later identified with the sun as Atum-Re, enveloped Shu and Tefnut in his arms and transmitted his
k3
to them. By this act, Atum-Re passed life
itself from one generation to the next in perpetuity.
2 The k3 was represented by the sign D26 over Z1,
; the b3 by sign G29 under Z1,
; and the 3ḫ by sign
G25 under Z1, . In an earlier time the 3ḫ was a combination of the k3 and the b3 after the individual's death. The concept of the 3ḫ varied over the course of Egyptian religious life. Scholars still disagree as to the interpretation of these concepts. 118
An Egyptian Primer The k3 most closely resembled an individual's "life force". It accompanied the individual into his next life where its existence was ensured by the food and drink offerings placed in the tomb's serdab, the location of the statue of the deceased. The false door to a tomb provided a recess in which victuals might be deposited on a regular basis by either family members or a corps of priests devoted to this task. As the continued existence of the k3 depended on the sustenance it received, the wall paintings in the tomb3 served as surrogates to supply an endless source of food for those occasions when actual food and drink might not be supplied by those charged with that task. The
k3
seemed to have possessed a life of its
own. Initially, only the deities possessed a
k3.
In
time, it was assumed by the ruler, thus ensuring his own personal divine nature.
Eventually, his
subjects possessed their own k3 but their k3 was not as all encompassing as the king's the Old Kingdom, the
k3
k3.
During
of some of the nobles
appears to have been of the pharaoh himself, indicating that their life and fortune were inexorably tied to the well being of the ruler. The
3ḫ
was the individual's personality which
emerged upon his death to take up residence in
FIG. 24.424.4-1. FALSE DOOR TO THE DYNASTY DYNASTY 5 (2494(2494-2345) TOMB OF RAMKA, METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART.
the sky. Significantly, this term is related to words meaning "to be bright" and "to be effective". It is often taken to mean essentially "the glorified one", i.e. "the blessed dead". "making into an
s3ḫ s3ḫ,
"prayers". lit.
3ḫ ", and were said for the deceased so that his 3ḫ might continue as a personage in the
next world while still protecting his interests in this one. The Egyptians envisaged a man's
b3, portrayed from the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1600 and later)
as a bird with a human head, as indicative of a spirit which could both inhabit the real world as well as the
3 The tomb itself was referred to as "the house of the k3". 119
An Egyptian Primer deceased's corpse. It departed the deceased at the moment of death and thus might be equated to our
b3 had the ability to leave the corpse each morning to wander about in the real world offerings. When faced with difficulties in the after life, the b3 could by magical means
concept of soul. The to receive
transform itself into whatever manifestation it pleased. Each evening it would return to its home, the body of the deceased. Gods were believed to have more than one b3 as part of their divine personalities. In Fig. 24.4-2 the
b3
bird flying over Ani's corpse clutches a coil of rope,
, Sign V9, the
š nì ,
in his talons.
offering protection for the deceased.
FIG. 24.424.4-2 BA BIRD OVER THE CORPSE CORPSE OF ANI, FROM HIS BOOK OF THE THE DEAD, THE BRITISH MUSEUM.
Dating to the 12th Dynasty (1991-1786), a papyrus entitled "THE DISPU DISPUTE BA", tells ISPUTE BETWEEN A MAN AND HIS BA the following story: A man who suffers from life longs for death. Angered by his complaints, his ba threatens to leave him. This threat fills the man with horror, for to be abandoned by his ba would mean total annihilation, instead of the resurrection and immortal bliss that he envisages. He therefore implores his ba to remain with him, and not to oppose him in his longing for death, a death that he does not appear to contemplate as a suicide, but rather as a natural, though greatly welcomed, death, to be followed by a traditional burial. The ba counters his pleas by telling him that death is a sad business, and that those who have fine tombs are no better off than those who have none. It urges him to stop complaining and to enjoy life. And it tells two parables designed to drive home the point that life is worth living. The man's final answer is delivered through four exquisite poems, in which he deplores the miseries of life and exalts
death and resurrection. In a brief concluding speech the ba agrees to remain with him. 4
4 M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, p.163. 120
An Egyptian Primer 24.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A7:
MAN SINKING TO THE GROUND GROUND IN FATIGUE.
Det. in
bdš bdš, "faint". A15:
MAN FALLING.
Logo. or det. in
conquered) enemy"; also in sḫr
3ḫ [äkh]
G25: N18: M22:
V12:
,
nḫ [nekh], nn [nen]
ḫ r,
"fall". Det. in
Logo. for
3ḫ, "spirit".
SANDY TRACT.
Logo. in
ìw, "island".
Phon. in
ḫrw,
"fallen (i.e.
, "cause to overthrow".
CRESTED IBIS.
RUSH WITH SHOOTS.
wrd, "tire",
nḫbt, "vulture"; phon. in
"be weary". BAND OF STRING OR LINEN LINEN.
121
Det. in
šfdw, "papyrus book".
nny,
An Egyptian Primer 24.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
122
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 25 QUANTIFIERS AND CARDINAL NUMBERS NUMBERS 25.1 OTHER TYPES OF DETERMINERS DETERMINERS ARE QUANTIFIERS QUANTIFIERS AND CARDINAL CARDINAL NUMBERS.
While in
English quantifiers precede the noun, in Egyptian, they may precede or follow the noun, depending on the quantifier.
Cardinal numbers in Egyptian are also different from English in that they follow
the noun they clarify.
Moreover, cardinal numbers were considered to be nouns and not adjectives
in Egyptian. 25.2 DETERMINERS AND CARDINAL NUMBERS A. "MANY "MANY" MANY" + THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE n PRECEDE THE NOUN THEY THEY DESCRIBE MASCULINE FEMININE many times, often
ḥḥ n sp
a million years
ḥḥ n r np wt
B. "EACH", EACH", "EVERY "EVERY", EVERY", AND "A "ALL" LL" FOLLOW THE NOUNS THEY THEY DESCRIBE MASCULINE FEMININE each father, every father
ìt nb
every man
s nb
everyone, everybody, lit. "every face"
ḥr nb
all mankind
r mṯ nbt
every good thing
ḫt nb(t) nfrt nfrt ì3ḳt nbt
every vegetable
C. CARDINAL NUMBE NUMBER UMBERS FOLLOW THE NOUN THEY THEY QUANTIFY MASCULINE FEMININE
ẖrd w 5
five children
twenty ships
dpwt 20
25.3 COMMENTARY COMMENTARY
A: Determiners of "many" include the genitival adj. n, and precede the noun they describe. "Each", "every", and "all" follow the noun they describe. B:
r mṯ
was normally written without the m. Occasionally r mṯ was treated as a masculine.
C: Note that while context indicated a plural
ì3k(w)t.
ì3kt contains plural strokes, it is singular, similar to mš', "army". If the was required, ì3kt might be translated "(all) vegetables" and transliterated
123
An Egyptian Primer 25.4 THE CUBIT The cubit, the measure of the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, was one of the standards of measurement in the ancient world.. meters, depending on time and locality. fingers greater than the common cubit.
The length of ancient cubits varied from .44 to .50
Herodotus1 mentions that the royal cubits of Babylon were 3 In Egyptian, the determinative for the cubit was
D42,
representing the arm from the elbow to the finger tips. Measurements based on fragments of original measures of length indicate that the common Egyptian cubits from the New Kingdom (1567-1085) were approximately .45 m. long. A cubit rod, found in the intact tomb of the architect
ḥ'y, Khaye, was possibly a
gift from the pharaoh, Akhepure Amenhotep2 (18-7, 1450-1425) and may be seen in the Archaeological Museum of Turin,3 Italy. Royal cubits were divided into seven palms which were further subdivided into four fingers. Common cubits contained only six palms of four fingers each. FIG. 25.425.4-1. CUBIT CUBIT ROD BELONGING TO MAYA, TREASURER OF TUNTANKHAMUN TUNTANKHAMUN, DIVIDED INTO 7 PALMS OF 4 DIGITS EACH, LOUVRE, PARIS.
FIG. 25.425.4-2. CLOSE-UP OF MAYA'S CUBIT ROD. 1 Herodotus of Halicarnassus was a Greek historian who lived c. 484–425. Born in Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, he settled in southern Italy in Thurii in a colony established by the Athenians. Cicero, the famous Roman orator, called him "The Father of History" He traveled extensively throughout Asia Minor, the Fertile Crescent, and Egypt. Although his history contained many stories of which Herodotus himself had great doubts, he included them nevertheless for their entertainment value. 2 Amenophis II. 3 The Turin museum has a collection of Egyptian cubit rods in stone, metal, and wood. 124
An Egyptian Primer 25.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION C11:
ḥḥ [heh]
GOD WITH ARMS SUPPORTING SUPPORTING THE SKY (CAN BE WITH OR WITHOUT WITHOUT
O50:
sp [sep]
CIRCULAR THRESHING FLOOR FLOOR COVERED WITH GRAIN GRAIN.
25.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
125
Det. in
M4 ON HEAD).
sp, "time".
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 26
THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION m 26.1 A PREPOSITION IS IS A WORD WHICH IS USED TO SHOW SHOW THE RELATION (SUCH (SUCH AS "TIME", "TIME", "PLACE", "PLACE", OR "DIRECTION" "DIRECTION") NOUN OR PRONOUN TO ALL OR PART OF A SENTENCE. The preposition ECTION") OF A NOUN precedes the word it modifies (noun or pronoun) and this construction is called "a prepositional phrase".
Examples: "She stood near the horse.", "They will arrive on Saturday.", and "He stayed
with her.", where the subject and verb are in black, the prepositions in red and the modified noun or pronoun in green. In English, there are many prepositional words.
However, in Egyptian there are far fewer
prepositions and, therefore, each may be translated in more than one way. Egyptian prepositions are categorized as either "simple" (a single glyph) or "compound" (more than one glyph). Egyptian preposition
m,
The simple
may mean: "in", "for", "of", "as", "by", "together with", "go out from",
"begin from", "according to", "upon", "again", and "when". 26.2 THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION m
m 3w⋅s m šmw pf m sḫr⋅ì m ìnr
in its length
m m3't
in that summer
m hrw 6
by my plan
in truth
in 6 days, for 6 days
ìì⋅ ìì⋅k m ḥtp
You will return in safety.
of stone, lit. "in stone", i.e. "consisting of stone"
in the tent of His Majesty, l.p.h.
m ìm(3) w n ḥm⋅f 'nḫ 'nḫ wḏ wḏ3 snb
I sent my brother from that island.
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n⋅ì sn⋅ sn⋅ì m ì w pf ḫt⋅ì nbt m š3
all my things in the country, i.e. my country things
His Majesty appointed me as chief treasurer.
rdì rdì⋅n wì ḥm⋅f m ìmymy-r sḏ sḏ3wtyw 3wtyw ìr⋅n ṯ3ty dpt nt mḥ mḥ 120 ' w⋅s
The vizier made a boat 120 cubits long, lit. "of 120 cubits in its length".
126
An Egyptian Primer 26.3 COMMENTARY A: Note that often following
,
ḥm⋅f
"His Majesty" or "the king", is the grouping
, standing for
'nḫ 'nḫ wḏ wḏ3 snb, "may may he live, be prosperous, and healthy" healthy (abbr. in translation as l.p.h.). l.p.h. B: The preposition
m
is used to describe an individual's station in life. Thus, in the sentence "His Majesty
appointed me chief treasurer", the Egyptian is literally "His Majesty gave me [the office] as chief treasurer" or, "His Majesty placed me as chief treasurer". When the preposition manner, it is characterized as "the phrase
.....,
m ì3t⋅ 3t⋅ì
m
of predication". Another example of the
m
m
is used in this
of predication is the
....., "in my office of .....". This, or similar wording, is often found in an
individual's tomb in that section of the text in which the deceased describes his good deeds in his service for the king.
ìw⋅k m sš sš,
C: In Egyptian "you are a scribe", is written
lit. "you are as a scribe".
Egyptian, unlike English, cannot simply say, "you are a scribe". 26.4 ABYDOS, ABYDOS, THE BURIAL PLACE OF OSIRIS
3bḏ 3bḏw, Abydos, in the
t3t3-wr nome,1 is located 400 km. south
of Heliopolis, about 2/3 of the distance to the first cataract at Elephantine (modern Aswan). The exact nature of the
t3t3-wr
insignia,
R17, is not known.
Some scholars believe it is a stick supporting a wig which is adorned with a head band and plumage. Others believe that it represents a reliquary for the head of the dead Osiris.2 Beginning in the Pre-Dynastic period, Abydos was the most important burial site in Upper Egypt. The original local god seems to have been
ḫnty ìmntyw, Khentyamentiu, "FFOREMOST OF THE WESTERNERS", i.e. "R RULER OF THOSE WHO ARE IN THE
NECROPOLIS". Monuments of the kings from Dynasty 1
(3100-2890) and Dynasty 2 (2890-2686) have been found in the environs of Abydos, beginning with Narmer (1-1, c. 3100). Whether these monuments are the actual tombs of these rulers or cenotaphs3 is not certain.
MAP 26.426.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §26.4.
Over the
succeeding dynasties, the cenotaphs and/or tombs became larger and more detailed in design. The original faces of the rectangular mounds were built in a style similar to the palace facades, Sign O33
, possibly
surrounded by trees or with trees planted upon their upper surfaces. The temple of Khentyamentiu in Abydos was an important cult center in ancient Egypt. As the temple was built of brick, very little has survived to the present day.
1 t3-wr, lit. "the great land, or perhaps, "the oldest land". 2 Each of the 42 nomes had its own symbol, which was carried not only in ceremonial activities but also by its troops on campaign. 3 Memorials erected to honor individuals buried elsewhere. 127
An Egyptian Primer th
During the 5
th
and 6
Dynasties (c. 2500-2200) Khentyamentiu's attributes and epithets were assimilated
into those of Osiris. For the remainder of Egyptian history, Abydos was primarily associated with Osiris as the deity of the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2100-1800), pilgrims from all over Egypt would attend the rites, perhaps conducted annually, in which Osiris was ritually slain and then resurrected. Important people erected small brick tombs and cenotaphs along the path from the temple to the cemeteries in the Western Desert. One such cenotaph, which vividly described this spectacle, was erected by ìììì-ẖr-nfrt, Ikhernofret, the chief treasurer of the pharaoh Khakaure Senusert.4 Senusert had appointed Ikhernofret to refurbish the statue of Osiris Khentyamentiu and to oversee these rites, an accomplishment of which he was very proud.
FIG. 26.426.4-1. THE ENTRANCE TO THE THE BURIAL PLACE OF OSIRIS OSIRIS AT ABYDOS, 1984. The New Kingdom pharaohs, Menmaatre Seti 5 (19-2, 1318-1304) and Usermaatre Ramesses 6 (19-3, 13041237) also built major temples at Abydos. In Seti's temple is a king list of 76 of his predecessors. The list is not all inclusive as it contains only those rulers which he considered legitimate. Nevertheless, it is one of the primary sources for king names up to the 19th Dynasty.
4 Sesotris III (12-5, 1878-1843). 5 Seti I. 6 Ramesses II, aka "Ramesses The Great". 128
An Egyptian Primer 26.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION F4: G4:
FOREPART OF A LION.
tyw [tēōō]
Logo. in
THE LONG-LEGGED BUZZARD.
ḥ3t, "front".
Often difficult to distinguish from
Nome standard for t3t3-wr, called "This"
R17:
WIG WITH BAND AND PLUMES PLUMES ON A POLE.
R18:
VARIANT FORM OF OF R17 OVER
S19:
CYLINDER SEAL ATTACHED ATTACHED TO A BEAD NECKLACE NECKLACE.
by the Greeks.
, N24, t3-wr STANDARD. N24, AND USED AS t3Logo. in
sḏ3wtyw, "treasurers.
bearer", "chief treasurer";
Det. in ṯs, "tie"; nwḥ nwḥ, "rope"; rope of ship". Also used as the sign for the number "100".
COIL OF ROPE.
V1:
W17: W17
ḫnt
[khenet]
THREE WATER POTS IN A RACK RACK.
W18: W18:
ḫnt
[khenet]
FOUR WATER POTS IN A RACK.
26.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
129
G1.
Phon. in OK form of W17.
ḫnt, "in front of".
sḏ3w,
"seal
ḥ3tt, "prow
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 27
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS WITH m 27.1 A COMPOUND PREPOSITION IS THE COMBINATION OF A SIMPLE PREPOSI PREPOSITION + A NOUN OR VERB, VERB, WHICH FORMS FORMS A NEW PREPOSITION. Compound prepositions are generally alphabetized in the dictionary according to their second element. 27.2 COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITH m A. m + NOUNS arm, hand
'
m-'
together with, in the hand of, because of
m-' ⋅ì phallus
b3ḥ b3ḥ
time
h3w forefront
ḥ3t
interior
ẖnw
in my hand, in my charge, in my possession
in the presence of, lit. "in the foreskin of"
m-b3ḥ b3ḥ
at the time of Pepi
m-h3w pì pìpì m-ḥ3t
in front of, before
m-ẖnw
in the interior of, inside
B. m + VERBS
mr r ḫsf ḫt
love
drive away, repel, oppose
retire
m-mr r⋅ṯn 'nḫ 'nḫ m-ḫsfw m-ḫt
as you love life, as you truly love life
at the approach of
accompanying, afterwards, when
27.3 COMMENTARY A: The preposition m may be used with nouns or verbs to form a compound preposition. The m precedes the noun or verb when used in such a fashion. B:
, (m)-ẖnw, is cryptic writing for the compound preposition m-ẖnw.
130
An Egyptian Primer C: Note that the walking legs,
D54, might be reversed as in D55
, when used as a determinative1 to
ì w, "come", whereas sbh3, "cause to retreat". However, by convention, scholars use the letter k reversed to indicate that the original text was written in Hieratic,
indicate "backwards". Thus,
because Hieratic was written from right to left. This Primer displays all text reading from left to right.
mk pḥ pḥn⋅n⋅m ẖnw, "Behold, we have the k reversed, , in the transcription to
Therefore, in lines 2/3 from THE TALE OF THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR, reached home" is shown as
with
indicate the Hieratic original. 27.4 OSIRIS 2 AND HIS EPITHETS Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys were the four children of Geb and Nut. Their family tree is shown below:
These nine deities made up the Heliopolitan Ennead and this genealogy has been found in Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts from as early as Dynasty 5 (2494-2345). As the theology of Heliopolis gained ascendancy in Egypt, the Heliopolitan priests inserted Osiris into a generation twice removed from Atum, who was equivalent to their creator god Re. Thus, they effectively subordinated Osiris and his cult priests to their control. According to some texts,
wsì wsìr, Osiris, was born at the entrance to the Underworld,
dw3t, in the Western Desert near Memphis.
His Old kingdom epithets indicate his universality among the
Egyptian pantheons: 1. FOREMOST OF THE WESTERNERS WESTERNERS. ESTERNERS The original name of the mortuary deity at Abydos,
ḫnty ìmntyw, Khentyamentiu, which became syncretized with Osiris at a later date.
As the burial grounds
were all west of the Nile and the dead were considered "Westerners Westerners", gone West", Westerners i.e. those who have "gone West Osiris became the principal funerary god of ancient Egypt. Furthermore, Osiris became associated with the sun, probably because it sets in the West.
1 See §8.1 for a discussion of Determinatives. 2 See §18.4 for Osiris in the Egyptian records. 131
An Egyptian Primer 2. HE WHO DWELLS IN ANJDET.3 The god Andjety was worshipped in the Delta at the cult center of Busiris. He was an early funerary god and in time his cult was absorbed by Osiris. Osiris was also worshipped in his dual form of Osiris-Andjety. A scene in the temple of Seti I (19-2, 1318-1304) at Abydos displays the king wearing the Blue Crown, while burning incense to Osiris-Andjety. 3. HE WHO DWELLS IN HELIOPOLIS.4
Incorporates Osiris into the
Heliopolitan theology, which was centered around the worship of the sun as a creator deity. 4. HE WHO DWELLS IN ORION WITH A SEAS SEASON IN THE SKY AND A SEAS SEASON ON EARTH.5 Associates Osiris with the stars in contrast to his earthly connections. MAP 27.427.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §27.4.
5. HE WHO DWELLS IN THE HOUSE OF SELKET.6
srḳ srḳt 7
Selket,
the scorpion goddess, was one of the protectors of the king. In addition, she was associated with the embalming rituals and a safe passage through
the Underworld. Her statue was to be found as guardian at one of the four corners of the chest containing the canopic jars in which the viscera of the deceased was sealed. As Osiris was the most important god involved with the funerary cult, it was fitting that he and Selket should be in close proximity. 6. HE WHO IS IN THE GOD'S TENT (OR BOOT BOOTH). H).8 This refers to the embalmer's workshop where the corpse was prepared for mummification. His presence guaranteed the protection of the deceased on his journey into the Underworld. FUMIGATION THE BOX
Lesser epithets9 for Osiris in this function include: HE WHO IS IN THE THE
(refers to the incense burning accompanying the mummification process); HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT IN
(refers to the deceased's sarcophagus which is to be under Osiris's protection); HE WHO HAS BEEN
PUT IN THE SHRINE
(refers to the outer imitation shrine containers in which the sarcophagus was placed); and,
HE WHO HAS BEEN PUT IN THE CLOTH
(refers to the linen bandages in which the corpse was encased). In the
OK, these funerary epithets were for the king's protection only. Over time, they were extended to the royal family and retinue, eventually becoming available for commoners and royalty alike. 3 Pyramid Text, Utterance 219, §182 (here the symbol § is used to indicate the line number in the seminal transcriptions and translations by K. Sethe in 1910 and subsequent interpretation by G. Jéquier in 1921). The Pyramid Texts were religious texts found in the royal tombs, the earliest of which was found in the pyramid of Unas (5-9, 2365-2345) which is located adjacent to the Step Pyramid of Djoser. 4 Utterance 219, §181. 5 Utterance 219, §186. 6 Utterance 219, §183. 7 Pronounced "sel-ket" because the Copts and Greeks occasionally rendered the ancient Egyptian letter r as an "I". 8 Utterance 219, §184. 9 These four epithets are all found in Utterance 219, §184. 132
An Egyptian Primer
wnnwnn-nfrw, Wennefer, perhaps HE WHO EXISTS IN PERECT PERECT CONDITION, was applied to
Another epithet,
the resurrected Osiris. In the Middle and New Kingdoms, Osiris acquired additional titles, associating him more with life ever-lasting than with death. He is referred to as LORD OF THE LIVING, LORD OF THE UNIVERSE, and RULER OF ETERNITY, as his protection was expanded to include the most important bureaucrats of the palace and nome administrations. In the OK, the earthly death of the king was considered but a transition to his eternal life in OSIRIS KING OF THE UNDERWORLD UNDERWORLD,
dw3t
as
where he, i.e. the king, continued to rule from the throne of Osiris.
27.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D55: E34:
LEGS WALKING BACKWARDS BACKWARDS.
wn [wen]
DESERT HARE.
Det. indicating "reverse direction", "backwards".
wnn, "to be";
Phon. in
wn, "open";
wnì wnì, "pass by", "disregard". srḳ srḳt
Logo in
wnnwnn-nfrw, "Osiris";
L7:
SCORPION.
Serket, the scorpion goddess.
N15
STAR IN A CIRCLE.
O31:
DOOR.
R12:
STANDARD FOR CARRYING CARRYING RELIGIOUS RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS.
R13:
FALCON,
R14:
ABBREVIATED FORM OF
R13, R13, OMITTING THE FALCON AND ENLARGING THE
FEATHER FEATHER.
Logo. in
ìmnt, "west" and related words.
Phon. in
Logo. for dw3t, "netherworld".
'3, "door".
Logo. or det. in
standard as a logo.
G5, G5, ON STANDARD "west" and related words.
U34:
ḫsf
[khesef]
SPINDLE.
U35:
ḫsf
[khesef]
COMBINATION OF
V31*:
k [eck]
away".
Also used with a god upon the
R12, R12, WITH FEATHER. Logo. in
ìmnt,
ḫsf, "repel", "oppose", "drive away". U34 AND
I9. I9. Phon. in
ḫsf, "repel", "oppose", "drive
Normal form of k in Hieratic. Used by scholars to indicate that a hieroglyphic text has been transcribed from a hieratic original.
WICKERWORK BASKET WITH WITH HANDLE REVERSED.
133
An Egyptian Primer 27.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
134
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 28
THE PREPOSITION n 28.1 THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION "AT", AT", "WITHIN "WITHIN". WITHIN".
n
MAY MEAN "TO "TO", TO", "FOR "FOR", FOR", "OF "OF", OF", "BELONGING "BELONGING TO", TO", "THROUGH "THROUGH", THROUGH",
AS A COMPOUND COMPOUND PREPOSITION,1 USES INCLUDE "FOR "FOR THE SAKE OF" OF" AND
"THROUGH LACK OF". OF". 28.2 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND USAGE OF THE PREPOSTION PREPOSTION
n
A. THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION n to the official
n sr
n kmt
for the servant
n b3k
pḥwy n ms'⋅ ms'⋅f n nḫ nḫtw n snwy⋅ì
the rear of his army of victories
belonging to my two brothers
through hunger
n ḥkr
at the town
n dmI n 3bd 4
within 4 months
B. THE PREPOSITION n IN COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS
n-ìb
to Egypt
for the sake of, lit. "for the heart of"
n-g3w
through lack of
1 See §27.1. 135
An Egyptian Primer
28.3 COMMENTARY A:
n
is used with verbs of motion such as "go", "go down", and "come" to a person as in
spr⋅ spr⋅n⋅ì n smr w'ty, "I
approached the Unique Friend of the
King". 2 B: The Egyptians referred to their land as
dšrt, "the
kmt,
"the Black Land" in contrast to the desert
Red Land". The Black Land included the Delta, as well as the land covered by the
yearly Nile inundations. C: Most countries were grammatically feminine in Egyptian. D: When a verb, such as
ḥḳr ḥḳr,
ḥḳr ḥḳr, "to
"the hungry", note that Sign A1
be hungry", is nominalized, i.e. used as a noun, as in
, the man determinative, is used to indicate this usage.
28.4 THE PYRAMID TEXTS, TEXTS, THE COFFIN TEXTS, TEXTS, and THE BOOK OF THE DEAD DEAD The pyramids of Dynasties 3-5 (2686-2345) contained no written texts except for the last king of Dynasty 5, Unas (5-9, 2375-2345). Here, for the first time in a king's pyramid,3 the walls and ceilings of the antechambers and burial chamber were covered with religious spells and prayers, called by scholars THE PYRAMID TEXTS. The incorporation of these spoken prayers insured the king's
k3 4 a safe journey into the
underworld where he would become one with Osiris. Such writings became standard fare in later royal tombs and were also eventually inscribed on parts of the several coffins which held the royal mummy. As
m3' t
5
was originally the sole concern of the king, so too originally, these utterances applied only to the
king. After the end of the Old Kingdom, these texts were placed on the coffins of non-royal individuals as well; such later texts are called THE COFFIN TEXTS by Egyptologists. Eventually, this new corpus of spells was enlarged yet further, being written on papyrus rolls. These were then wrapped within the shrouds that protected the mummy in its travels through the netherworld and provided the deceased with a reference book to the after life. The popular phrase, THE BOOK OF THE DEAD, was given to these papyri by early scholars. It was derived from the Arabic "Kitâb al-Mayyit", THE THE BOOK OF THE DEAD MAN, a term used by the tomb robbers of the 19th Century to describe where these "books" were found. However, the ancient Egyptians referred to these scrolls by the more cheerful title THE THE BOOK (lit. SPELLS) OF GOING FORTH BY DAY.
2 The title, smr w'ty, is variously translated as "Unique Friend", "Sole Friend", or "Sole Companion" of the king. 3 Non-royal mastabas of the period contained titularies, biographies, and legal inscriptions among other texts. 4 See §24.4. 5 See §13.4. 136
An Egyptian Primer As the corpus of utterances grew, not all were used in every mummification or tomb. Each individual chose those spells which he or she deemed to be most beneficial. Many scholars have analyzed, sorted out, and published the Pyramid Texts, the most famous studies being: K. Sethe's Übersetzung und Kommentar zu den altägyptischen Pyramidentexten ("Translation and Commentary on the Old Egyptian Pyramid Texts"); G. Jéquier's Le monument funéraire de Pepi II (The funeral Monument of Pepi II), Les pyramides des reines Neit et Apouit ("The Pyramids of the Queens Neith and Ipwt"), and La pyramide d'Aba ("The Pyramid of Aba").
Scholars reference utterances by abbreviation, using the following system: Abbr.
Individual
Aba
Aba (8 (8-3)
Ap
Apouit (Wife (Wife of Pepi II, II, 66-5)
JPII 6
Pepi II (6 (6-5)
M
Merenre (6 (6-4)
N
Pepi II (6 (6-5)
Nt
Neith (Wife (Wife of Pepi II, II, 66-5)
Ou
Oudjebten (Daughter (Daughter of Pepi I (6(6-3) and wife of Pepi II (6(6-5))
P
Pepi I
T
Teti (6(6-1)
W
Unas (5 (5-9)
(6(6-3)
Standard general reference abbreviations: BD CT PT
Book of the Dead Coffin Text Pyramid Text
As spell No. 219 in Unas might be No. 284 in Neith as well as in Aba, a reference to a particular prayer might read W219AbaNt284. In order to simplify the coding and reference to a particular utterance, in 1969 R.O. Faulkner assembled the prayers and published this corpus under the title THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PYRAMID TEXTS. All the known incantations were incorporated in this work in an easy to reference format. Scholars have debated the proper sequencing of the Pyramid Texts, whether they should be read from the burial chamber outward through the antechamber or read from the entrance toward the burial chamber. Although Sethe began his sequencing in the burial chambers and proceeded outward, many scholars believe to the contrary - the texts should be read from the entrance portal towards the burial chamber.
6 The prefix J indicates Jéquier's study. 137
An Egyptian Primer
28.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATIO DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION F34: F42:
HEART.
spr
[sep-âr]
RIB.
Logo. in
ìb, "heart".
or
spr, "rib".
Logo. or det. in
N21:
TONGUE OF LAND.
Det. in
T21:
ONE-BARBED HARPOON HARPOON.
Logo. in
28.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
138
Det. in Phon. in
, ḥ3ty, "heart".
spr, "approach".
, dmI, "town".
w', "one person", "unique", "sole", etc.
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 29 THE NOUN INDIRECT OBJECT OBJECT 29.1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT OBJECT TELLS TO/FOR TO/FOR WHOM OR WHAT THE ACTION OF THE VERB VERB IS PERFORMED. PERFORMED. In English, the standard sentence word order is SUBJECTSUBJECT-VERBVERB-OBJECTS OBJECTS: TS "I gave the book to him." or "I gave him the book.", where the green indicates the direct object and the red the indirect object.
Note that in English, both objects follow the subject and verb.
However, in
Egyptian the word order is determined by whether the indirect object is a noun or a suffix pronoun.1 In addition, the indirect object is preceded by the preposition , rdì rdì⋅n⋅ì
hungry",
t n ḥḳr ḥḳr.
n,
"to", as in "I gave bread to the
IF THE THE INDIRECT OBJECT IS A NOUN, THE WORD ORDER ORDER FOR: FOR: A) A NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS: IS: VERB + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT (D.O.) + NOUN INDIRECT OBJECT (I.O.)
B) A NOUN SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT IS: VERB + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN I. I.O.
C) A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS: VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + NOUN D. D.O. + NOUN I. I.O.
D) A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT IS: VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D.O. + NOUN I.O.
29.2 EXAMPLES OF THE NOUN INDIRECT OBJECT OBJECT A) VERB + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN D. D.O. + NOUN I. I.O.
rdì rdì⋅n nswt pr n sš
The king gave the house to the scribe.
His Majesty sent 50 deben 2 of gold to the overseer of the treasury.
h3b⋅n ḥm⋅f nbw dbn 50 n ìmymy-r pr pr ḥḏ rdì rdì⋅n ìmymy-r ḥwtwt-nṯr ssmt n ìmymy-r pr
The overseer of the temple gave a horse to the overseer of the house.
1 When the Indirect Object is a suffix pronoun, see Chapter 30. 2 The deben was a unit of weight approximating 910 grams (2 lbs). From Dynasty 18 (1567-1085) on, the deben was the unit of measure for metals. 139
An Egyptian Primer B) VERB + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. + NOUN SUBJECT + NOUN I. I.O.
The king gave it to the scribe.
rdì rdì⋅n sw nsw n sš sš
The Sole Friend of the King reported it to the ruler of Wawat.
smì smì⋅n sw smr w'ty n ḥḳ3 ḥḳ3 n w3w3t
C) VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + NOUN D.O. D.O. + NOUN I. I.O.
rdì rdì⋅n⋅f sw n sš sš
He gave the house to the scribe.
I gave bread to the hungry.
rdì rdì⋅n⋅ì t n ẖḳr ẖḳr
D) VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. + NOUN I.O.
rdì rdì⋅n⋅f sw n sš sš ìp⋅k sn n ḥm⋅f
He gave it to the scribe.
You will count them for His Majesty.
29.3 COMMENTARY A:
n is used to indicate an individual
as an indirect object as in
ḏd⋅n⋅ì n ḥmt⋅ mt⋅k,
"I spoke to your wife". B: When the Egyptians recorded that "x wrote to y", they did not use a form of the verb "write", but
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n nsw n ìmymy-r mš mš'w, translated as "The
rather
King wrote to
the general of the army.", lit. "The King sent [scil. 3 a papyrus letter] to the overseer of the army". 29.4 THE FAIYUM The Faiyum4 is located 25 km. west of the Nile and continues westward for another 65 km. Today, the lake in its northern sector is called the Birket Qaran. During the Old Kingdom, the Faiyum region was known as the which
š rsy, "TTHE SOUTHERN OUTHERN LAKE". In later periods, the lake divided into smaller units, the largest of was called the , mr wr, "T THE GREAT LAKE". In classical antiquity, it was known as Lake
Moeris.5 The Faiyum was located in the Arsinoite Nome (Nome 20 of Upper Egypt). Its capital city was Arsinoe, called "Crocodopolis" by the Greeks, an indication of the presence of these reptiles in the past. It was only natural that the crocodile god
sbk, "Sobek", was the god of the nome.
3 From the Latin scire licet, "to know is permitted", meaning what is left out is understood. Here, it is obviously a "papyrus letter". 4 From the Coptic word for "sea", peiom. 5 Probably from the sound of the Egyptian mr wr as heard by the Greeks. 140
An Egyptian Primer The lake was fed by the Bahr Yusuf,6 a branch of the Nile. The Bahr Yusuf leaves the Nile about 250 km. south of the beginning of the Delta, paralleling the river to its west. Near the Faiyum, the Hawara Channel from the Bahr Yusuf winds between the hills before emptying into the depression. In ancient times, the lake was considerably larger than today.7 Its surface is now about 45 meters below sea level. See Maps 29.4-1 and -2. The earliest neolithic settlements yet found in Egypt are in the Faiyum.
The presence of game, fish, fowl, and a plentiful
vegetation made the Faiyum a most habitable place for a hunter/gatherer society. In later times, vines were cultivated as well as olives, wheat, and vegetables which were grown in abundance in this fertile depression in the desert. As a result of its unusual properties, the Faiyum served as the bread basket of Egypt during several periods in history.8 During the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040), Dynasty 11 MAP 29.429.4-1. LOCATION OF THE FAIYUM.
kings ruled from a city about 12 km. west of the Nile in the Faiyum nome called King".
ḥryry-š⋅f,
nnì nnì-nswt, possibly meaning "Child
of the
The sound of the name of the city's ram headed god
"He Who is upon his Lake", led the Greeks to call the city Herakleopolis ("The City
of Herakles"), because the god's name sounded close to the name of their mythical hero Herakles (Hercules). Sehetepibre Amenemhat9 (12-1, 1991-1982), the founder of Dynasty 12, realized the importance of the Faiyum area. He and his son (and successor) Kheperkare Senusert10 (12-2, 1971-1928), established their
ìmnmn-m-ḥ3t ìṯ-t3wy,
new capital city nearby at Conqueror of the Two
Lands".11
"It is Amenemhat who is the
Probably during the FIP (2181-2040) the Bahr Yusuf stopped feeding the
Faiyum, and the lake, having no inlet, slowly evaporated, shrinking in size.
6 Arabic for "The River of Joseph". See Map 29.4-1. 7 It was originally assumed that the lake was shrinking in size and that therefore the earlier human habitation sites were up the slopes from the current lake level. However, the natural fluctuation of the lake level led to the misdating of many of these ancient sites (which tended to be located at the lake edge), the earlier sites being lower than the most recent. 8 The annual grain tribute shipped to Rome from Egypt during the 1st to 3rd Centuries of the C.E. is estimated to be some 150,000 tons, a good proportion of which was grown in the Faiyum. 9 Ammenemes I. 10 Sesostris I. 11 Probably near modern el-Lisht, the city was often referred to simply as ìṯ-t3wy. 141
An Egyptian Primer
MAP 29.429.4-2. THE FAIYUM REGION. Nimaatre Amenemhat12 (12-6, 1843-1797) may have had the Hawara Channel cleared and recut,13 thus reconnecting the Bahr Yusuf once again to the Faiyum. In any case, a huge embankment14 was also built to contain the annual Nile flood waters, serving as a reservoir for the fields throughout the year. The result was a substantial increase in the agricultural production of the area, as more of the desert was turned into food production.15 From the estimated 150 square km. of arable land in Dynasty 12, the cultivated portion of the Faiyum grew to over 1,200 sq. km. during the time of the Ptolemies (304-30) by restricting the amount of water that flowed into the lake, thus increasing the arable land. The area was used by the Ptolemies to settle many Macedonian mercenaries and their families, as a reward for their military service, as well as to assure their future loyalty to the crown.
12 Ammenemes III. 13 Perhaps the channel had silted up during the chaos of the First Intermediate Period when the central government had ceased to function. 14 Prior to the building of the embankment, when the Nile reached flood stage, water flowed into the Faiyum, and when the Nile receded, the lake emptied into the Nile, reversing the flow of water in the Hawara Channel. 14 At least two crops per year could now be produced 142
An Egyptian Primer
29.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION E6: F46:
HORSE.
pẖr [peh-âr]
ssmt, "horse".
Logo. or det. in
INTESTINE.
ḳ3b, "intestine". Logo/phon. in m-ḳ3b, "in the midst of", "in
Logo. in
round", "turn", etc.; of". Logo. in
pẖr ,
the presence
dbn, "weight".
F47:
INTESTINE, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF F46. F46.
F48:
INTESTINE, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF F46. F46.
F49:
INTESTINE, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF OF F46. F46.
F51:
PIECE OF FLESH.
I5*:
ARCHAIC STONE (?) IMAGE OF A CROCODILE CROCODILE.
Det. in
't, "limb";
ḥ', "flesh". Logo. or det. in
"Sobek, the crocodile god". M24:
rsw [resōō]
COMBINATION OF
M23 M23 AND
29.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
143
D21. D21. Phon. in
"go
rswt, "South".
sbk,
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 30 THE SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT INDIRECT OBJECT 30.1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT TELLS TO/FOR TO/FOR WHOM OR TO WHAT THE ACTION OF THE THE VERB IS DONE. DONE. As discussed in Chapter 29, when both the Direct Object and the Indirect Object are nouns, the
rdì rdì⋅n⋅ì t n ḥḳr ḥḳr,
word order in the Egyptian sentence is:
"I gave
bread to the hungry." where "bread" is the direct object and "to the hungry" is the indirect object. IN SUCH USAGE, THE DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT NOUN PRECEDES PRECEDES THE INDIRECT OBJECT. IN ADDITION, JUST AS WITH NOUN INDIRECT INDIRECT OBJECTS, THE THE SUFFIX PRONOUN PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECT IS PRECEDED BY THE
n.
PREPOSITION
HOWEVER, THE WORD ORDER ORDER FOR SUFFIX PRONOUN PRONOUN INDIRECT OBJECTS AND AND
NOUN INDIRECT OBJECTS OBJECTS DIFFERS DIFFERS.
IF THE INDIRECT OBJECT OBJECT IS A SUFFIX PRONOUN, PRONOUN, THE WORD ORDER FOR: FOR: A) A NOUN SUBJECT AND NOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS: IS: VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT INDIRECT OBJECT (I.O.) + NOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + NOUN DIRECT OBJECT (D.O.)
B) A NOUN SUBJECT AND DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT DIRECT IS: IS:
VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. + NOUN SUBJECT
C) A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT AND NOUN NOUN DIRECT OBJECT IS: IS:
VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + NOUN D. D.O.
D) A SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT AND DEPENDENT DEPENDENT PRONOUN DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT IS: IS:
VERB + SUFFIX SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT + SUFFIX PRONOUN I.O. + DEPENDENT PRONOUN PRONOUN D. D.O.
The eight possibilities (the four enumerated here plus the four enumerated for noun indirect objects in §29.1) may be summarized in two simple rules: RULE 1: A NOUN CANNOT CANNOT PRECEDE A PRONOUN. PRONOUN. RULE 2: A DEPENDENT PRONOUN CANNOT PRECEDE A SUFFIX SUFFIX PRONOUN USED AS EITHER A SUBJECT OR AN INDIRECT OBJECT. OBJECT. 30.2 SUFFIX PRONOUN INDIRECT INDIRECT OBJECT WORD ORDER IN THE EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN SENTENCE A) VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + NOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + NOUN D. D.O.
rdì rdì⋅n n⋅f nsw pr ìr⋅n⋅ì n⋅f ìmymy-r šm'w m'w
The king gave the house to him.
I performed the office of overseer of Upper Egypt for him, lit. "did".
B) VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. + NOUN SUBJECT
rdì rdì⋅n n⋅f sw nswt
The king gave it to him.
144
An Egyptian Primer
C) VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + NOUN D.O.
rdì rdì⋅n⋅f n⋅f pr
He gave the house to him.
He sent me this altar in 17 days.
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n⋅f n⋅ì ḫ3wt tn n hrw 17
D) VERB + SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT + SUFFIX PRONOUN I. I.O. + DEPENDENT PRONOUN D. D.O. He gave it to him.
rdì rdì⋅n⋅f n⋅f sw ìp⋅ì n⋅k sn
I will count them for you.
30.3 COMMENTARY In Example C above, while the literal translation of
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n⋅f n⋅ n⋅ì ḫ3wt tn ... is "He sent to me this altar ...",
the more acceptable English translation omits the "to", as in "He sent me this altar ...". 30.4 THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 21812181-2040 The Old Kingdom ended with Dynasty 6 (2345-2181) and the period between the OK and the Middle Kingdom is defined as the First Intermediate Period (FIP). Its actual opening date is debated by scholars, but all agree that it represents the period commencing with the decline of the central authority in Egypt, and it came to a close with the re-emergence of a unified country once again. The FIP probably began sometime between the death of Pepi II (6-5, who may have ruled for as much as 94 years, ending c. 2200) and a queen Nitikerre1 (6-8), in 2181 BCE. As Dynasty 6 drew to a close, the authority of the central government in Memphis weakened and the local nomarchs began to fill this vacuum by exercising greater and greater power. Dynasty 7 (2181-2173), which contained 9 rulers in only 8 years, was symptomatic of these troubled times.
Dynasty 8 (2173-2160)
continued to rule in Memphis. Dynasty 9 (2160-2130) and Dynasty 10 (2130-2040) ruled from Herakleopolis. Dynasty 11 ruled in Thebes from 2133 to 1991 BCE. Some of these dynasties may have been ruling at the same time. Egypt disintegrated during the FIP into numerous city/states, each ruled by a petty prince from the most important city in the nome. Shifting alliances bound the southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt in alliance with Lower Egypt against the Theban controlled center of the country. Hard facts regarding the history of this period still await discovery and chronological problems abound. 2 Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II (11-4, 2066-2010) defeated the Herakleopolitan monarchs c. 2050 and reunited the two lands under a central authority once again.3
1 Called Nitocris by the Greeks, neither her Egyptian name nor the length of her rule is known with certainty. She may have been the last ruler of Dynasty 6. 2 The warrior prince/kings known from this period are generally found in Manetho's chronology compiled during the early part of the Ptolemaic period in the 3rd Century BCE. See §4.4. 3 After conquering the north, he took the Horus name sm3-t3wy, "He who unites the Two Lands". 145
An Egyptian Primer Some literary sources, which many scholars attribute to the period of the FIP, reflect the unsafe travel conditions, the general lack of law and order, the oppression of the poor by the rich and powerful, invasions from the east, and even criticism of the king for his lack of concern for the welfare of his subjects.
One text set in this time, THE TALE OF THE ELOQUENT PEASANT,
describes the misfortune which befalls a common man and his attempts to seek redress for his plight. The pharaoh, although eventually restoring the man to his own property, seems to enjoy the peasant's wordy petitions when describing his treatment at the hands of the pharaoh's appointed official. Biographies from tomb texts and stelae, on the other hand, glorify the works of the local nomarchs in their attempts to provide for their people as the pharaoh once had done. In THE INSTRUCTIONS ADDRESSED TO KING MERYKARE, MAP 30.430.4-1. CAPITALS MENTIONED IN §30.4.
the king's father instructs him on kingship: "How to put down rebellions", "How to deal with your nobles and commoners", "How to raise an army", "How to perform religious duties", etc. Its conclusion indicates how the
king is the chosen one of God, that supreme being who created the earth and man. As he is so chosen, the king must follow the divine teachings of doing that which is right. The INSTRUCTIONS express a yearning for a return to the glorious past and its perceived tranquility and good works. It was also a time for religious change. Spells from THE BOOK OF THE DEAD once were the province of the king only, then extended to the king's family during the course of the OK, and during the FIP, were finally obtained by those wealthy enough to own a coffin. It was also a time when men began to take responsibility for their own acts as the result of the decline of the formal state structure. The concept of
maat, 4 formerly the concept by which the pharaoh governed,
was now conceived as the manner in which the non-royal segments of society governed their own actions and lives. The era drew to a close with the reestablishment of the central authority under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II.
One of the results of the discomfort of the FIP was the 10 year co-regency5 established by
Sehetepibre Amenemhat 6 (12-1, 1991-1962) with his son Kheperkare Senusert 7 (12-2, 1971-1928) in order to ensure an orderly transfer of power. These Dynasty 12 rulers remembered the former years of anarchy and sought by this method to avoid a return to those chaotic times.
4 See §13.4. 5 This was the first instance in Egyptian history of a co-regency. 6 Ammenemes I. 7 Sesostris I. 146
An Egyptian Primer 30.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION R1:
TABLE WITH LOAVES (X3,X6) X3,X6) AND JUG (W22) W22).
W22:
BEER JUG.
X3:
LOAF.
X6:
A ROUND LOAF BEARING THE MARK OF THE BAKER BAKER'S FINGERS.
"altar", "table of offerings".
ḫ3wt,
ḥnḳt, "beer".
Logo. or det. in
Alternative form of
Logo. or det. in
X2.
Found in the OK offering-lists as well as on the offering tables, sometimes without the finger marks.
30.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
147
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 31
THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION r
r
31.1
MAY MEAN: "T "TO", "FOR "FOR", FOR", "BY "BY" BY" (AS (AS IN MEASUREMENT), MEASUREMENT), "ACCORDING TO", TO", "FROM", FROM",
"CONCERNING". CONCERNING". IT CAN ALSO MEAN "MORE THAN". THAN". 31.2 EXAMPLES OF THE THE SIMPLE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION r to the ship
r dpt
for 3 days
r hrw 3
10 r 10
according to the law
r hp r b3k⋅f nb
spr⋅n⋅n r ẖnw ì ṯ⋅n⋅f wì wì r st⋅ st⋅f nt snḏ snḏm r dmì dmì n 'rwn3 prì prì⋅f r t3'n3k spr⋅ spr⋅n ḥm⋅f r rsy mktì mktì
to this island
r ìw pn
10 by 10 (cubits)
more than any thing
r ḫt nbt
more than any (other) servant of his
We reached home.
He took me to his dwelling place.
at the town of Aruna
It emerges at Taanach.1
His Majesty reached the south of Megiddo.
31.3 COMMENTARY A:
r
is used to indicate motion "to" or "toward" a thing, whereas
n
is generally used to indicate direction
towards a person.
1 From Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums, Abteilung IV: Urkunden der 18. Dynastie, eds. K. Sethe and W. Helck, Leipzig and Berlin, 1906-1958; 650-9/10, lines 33 and 34. "It" refers to mṯn, "road", in line 33-"One road, behold, it is excellent for our lord." Line 34-"It emerges at Taanach." In this section of the Annals of Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450), the generals are trying to persuade the king to go north and south around the mountain range, rather than over it, to attack the city of Megiddo. Instead, he led his army on a narrow path over the mountains, surprised the enemy which was deployed at both ends of the Megiddo valley to defend the city, and defeated the army of the prince of Kadesh, who had come to the aid of the king of Megiddo. After a seven month siege, Megiddo surrendered. 148
An Egyptian Primer
r b3k⋅ b3k⋅f nb, "more
B: In translating the expression
than any [other] servant of
his", note that the Egyptians did not use the word "other" as in English, rather it was implied. C: Note the use of the preposition
spr⋅ spr⋅n⋅n r ẖnw, "we
r
to indicate motion towards a place , e.g. in
reached home", lit. "we reached to home".
D: In the expression
st nt snḏ snḏm, "dwelling
place", lit. "place of dwelling", note the unusual use of
A17,
the seated child as a determinative.
t3, (not ), in text were columnar and the t normally would precede the 3.
E: Note also the reversal of
,
t3`n3k.
This might occur if the original
It might also occur if the text were horizontal
but the artist felt that the space would be more aesthetically filled by placing the
t over
the shoulder of
the vulture. F: O29
, the biliteral sign for
'3
'rwn3,
in
stands only for the alphabetic sign
'.
Such a
situation, where a biliteral is transliterated as a single alphabetic, i.e. a uniliteral, is called GROUP WRITING. Group Writing is found very often in foreign words and place names. Sometimes the same word was spelled differently in the same text, e.g. the town of Taanach is written in THE ANNALS OF THUTMOS HUTMOSE TMOSES III in line 34 as and in line 63 as
. 2 The difference in spelling may be explained by the fact
that the Egyptians were not able to accurately portray how they heard the pronunciation of Taanach by the local citizenry. In transcription, while the three root letters t,
n, k, might be written correctly, we cannot
determine accurately what the vocalization was due to the variance in the vowels and their placement. Thus,
t3'n3k, t'n3k, t3'n3k3 t3'n3k3, etc. might be correct.
References to Taanach are found in the Old Testament and
so provide another basis for the possible pronunciation of the word. The name has survived to the present day as Taanach in Hebrew and as Tell Ti'innik in Arabic.3 G: A foreign country was considered feminine, even if its name was written with no final
hrw pf n nhrn h_st, "that
t, e.g.
enemy of vile Naharin". Naharin,
also known as Mitanni, was located east of the Euphrates River in what is today eastern Syria, Northern Iraq, and southern Turkey. This cited text is also from THE ANNALS OF THUTHOSE UTHOSES OSES III, III 4 "The Campaign to the Euphrates", Urk, IV, 697,9. Note also the use of Group Writing in the spelling of nhrn.
2 Urk. IV. Line 34 is 650, 10 and line 63 is 653, 11. 3 The word "tell" or "tel" in Arabic indicates a mound or small hill, which in Egypt and the Near East often represents the accumulated remains of one or more ancient settlements. 4 By the end of the 20th Century C.E., most scholars preferred Thutmose or Thutmoses to Tuthmosis or Thutmosis. 149
An Egyptian Primer 31.4 THE LEGAL SYSTEM Royal decrees, contracts, wills, bills of sale, and the transactions of special courts of inquiry from ancient Egypt have survived to the present day. The tomb of the vizier Rekhmire displays on its walls the duties of the position of vizier which included that of chief judge of the judicial system. Yet, to date, no written Egyptian Code of Laws has been found. The codes of laws of Mesopotamian societies have been preserved in individual cuneiform tablets as well as carved into multiple stone stelae. Such stelae were customarily erected throughout the countries so that all who could read might know the law. Nevertheless, no such stelae have been found in Egypt, although some royal decrees have been preserved. Laws of the ancients were concerned not only with the relationship of man-to-man but also of man-to-god. So too in Egypt, crimes against a god or a god's property were treated most severely. In the Old Kingdom, the god and pharaoh were theoretically one. He ruled by divine decree, and his word was the law of the land, both religiously and temporally. One of the earliest surviving decrees from the OK is from the reign of Neferirkare (5-3, 2473-2463) regarding the exemption of certain priests in Abydos from the corvée: "(I "(I) The Horus: UserUser-khau. Royal Decree (to) the Chief Prophet HemHem-ur. I do not permit that any man have the right to C take away any prophets (5) who are in the nome in which you are, for the corvée, as well as any construction work work of the nome, except to do service for his god who is in the temple in which he is, and to conserve the temples in which they are; levy the corvée for any construction work against any god's fields (15) on which there is priestly service by any prophets; prophets; (17) take away any serfs who are thereon for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the nome. (II) (II) They are exempt in the length of eternity by command of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nefer--iriNefer iri-kaka-Re. You have no title to them in any (kind (kind of) service. As for any man of the nome who shall take away (20) any prophets who are on god's fields on which they do priestly service in this nome, (26) or the serfs who are on god's fields CC (22) for the corvée, as well as any construction work of the nome CC you shall send him to the law court, court, he being placed ...labor ...labor...plowing. labor...plowing. (28) Any official, royal intimate, or agricultural officer who shall act contrary to this which my majesty has decreed, which has been delivered to the law court, the house, house, fields, people, and everything that is in his possession shall be removed, he being put on any (kind of) corvée. The royal person was present at the sealing. Second month of the third season, day 24+." 5
5 K. Baer in J.B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 672. Prophet = ḥm-nṯr priest. The numbers in brackets, e.g. (17), indicate the line number in the original text. The + sign indicates that the date was at the very least, day 24, and possibly later. 150
An Egyptian Primer At Thebes in the tomb of the vizier Rekhmire,6 we have a description of the judicial duties of the vizier much later in Dynasty 18: (1) The regulations for the sitting of the Mayor and Vizier of the Southern City and of the Residence in the Hall of the Vizier. As for everything which this official, official, the Vizier, shall do while holding hearings in the Hall of the VizierC VizierCChe shall sit upon a judgment-chair, with a matting on the floor, a matting over him, a cushion under his back and a cushion under his feet, a [cape] upon him, a sceptre at his hand, and the forty leather straps spread out in front of him, the Chiefs of the Southern Tens on two sides in front of him, the Overseer of the Cabinet on his right hand, the Supervisor of Clients on his left hand, and the scribe of the Vizier beside him, one confronting, another, with every man opposite him. 7 The tomb scene shows forty tubular objects lying before Rekhmire on a mat. Originally, some scholars believed them to be cases holding papyrus rolls containing the laws of the land, but more recent research has suggested that they were probably whips by which the law would be carried out. For classes of comparable offenses, sentences in the Old Kingdom were less harsh than during the latter years of the New Kingdom. By that time, the pharaoh had lost much of his religious control, surrendering more and more of his political power to the priesthood. He was now more of a religious functionary, carrying out a great number of daily religious ceremonies as prescribed by the priests. In order to enforce his remaining authority, the decrees of the kings now authorized not only the lands, servants, and personal property of the miscreants to be seized, but also more cruel punishments, e.g. whipping until a prescribed number of wounds were opened, the cutting off of a nose or ear, or impalement on a stake. Banishment to border posts in the eastern Delta or to forced labor in the south in the Nubian mines was frequently ordered. Examples of these punishments survive in the papyri describing a palace coup during the reign of Ramesses III (20-2, 1198-1166). Whether the plotters were successful or not in assassinating the king is not known, but his successor, Ramesses IV (20-3, 1166-1160) had the conspirators tried. In his instructions to the special court convened to try the accused, Ramesses IV charged the judges to try them and those individuals of noble rank who were found guilty were to die by their own hands. Servants and lower ranking functionaries were to be executed. The pharaoh wanted no knowledge of who the guilty were or what happened to them. The text recorded what happened, "They examined his crimes. They found him guilty. They caused his sentence to overtake him".
6 Rekhmire was the vizier of Upper Egypt during the reign of Thutmosis III (18-6, 1504-1450). 7 Pritchard, ANET, p. 213. The "Chiefs of the Southern Tens" was a body of magistrates. 151
An Egyptian Primer Another reference to a judge:
m rn rn n nsw n ìptìpt-nsw n hwtwt-wrt
68
"[I acted] in the name of the king in the royal apartments and in The Six Great Houses". The chief judge of the Six Great Houses was the vizier while the nomarchs were the most important judges locally in their nomes. In addition, each of the "Thirty Great Men of the South" was also a judge in his home district. Individual judges were called a
m3`t
"dignitary" or "worthy", or when prefixed to titles
s3b ìry nḫ nḫn, "senior
indicated "senior", as in served the goddess
s3b,
warden for Nekhen". All judges were priests who
(Maat, the embodiment of truth, justice, and rightful order, see §13.4). The
chief justice suspended a figurine of the deity from his neck as a badge of his office. As there are references in some inscriptions to prior cases in lawsuits, there can be little doubt that extensive legal records were maintained and that a written code of law existed and was referred to by the judges. The Persian king and conqueror of Egypt, Cambyses (27-1, 525-522) and his successor, Darius I (272, 522-485) ordered a codification of the Egyptian laws. As was mentioned, to date, no written record has been found of that or any other codex. 31.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION D38:
mì [mē], m [em]
FOREARM WITH HAND HOLDING A ROUNDED LOAF.
JACKAL.
E17:
Logo. or det. in
prefix in titles,
s3b,
"dignitary", "worthy". Also used as a
s3b šs, "senior scribe".
E23:
r w [rōō]
RECUMBENT LION. In
Group Writing E23 is used for r, as in
M29:
nḏm [nedjem]
POD FROM SOME SWEET SMELLING TREE.
O46:
DOMED BUILDING, AN OLDER FORM OF O45, O45,
.
O47:
A PREHISTORIC BUILDING BUILDING AT HIERACONPOLIS HIERACONPOLIS.
Logo. in
O48:
DOMED BUILDING, ALTERNATIVE FORM OF
S39:
PEASANT'S CROOK (N.B. NOT CURVED BACKWARD LIKE
U33:
"Hieraconpolis".
tì
[tē]
or
, 'rwn3.
nḫn, "Nekhen",
, O47. S38) S38).
PESTLE.
8 Note that the final glyph is G36 inside O6 to indicate "great house". These hieroglyphs are from a limestone stone slab and its inscription recounting the life of Weni, an OK vizier c. 2200. Cited in Urk. I, 99,6. 152
An Egyptian Primer 31.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
153
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 32
COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONS WITH r
r
32.1 A COMPOUND PREPOSITION PREPOSITION 1 MAY BE FORMED BY
FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.
32.2 EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS WITH WITH r FOLLOWED BY A NOUN.
r-'
besides, near
in front of
r-ḥ3t
r-s3 r-gs
r-m3w n ḥm⋅f
under the authority of
towards the back of
r-r ḫt n (ì)t⋅s mwt⋅s r-ḫt n ìmymy-r mḥ mḥw r-s3 pr⋅f
at the side of, in the presence of, in the company of
in the sight of His Majesty
in front of the town of Sharuhen
r-ḥ3t š3rḫ 3rḫ3n
to t the knowledge of
r-r ḫt n r-ḫt n
r-' mnmn-nfr in the sight of
r-m3w n
near Memphis
to the knowledge of her father and her mother under the authority of the overseer of Lower Egypt
towards the back of his house
r-gs srw nbw
in the presence of all the officials
32.3 COMMENTARY A:
mnmn-nfr,
lit. "established and beautiful", was the shortened version of the name of the
pyramid city
, mnmn-nf r-pìpì, built by Pepi I (6-3, c. 2300 BCE) at Sakkara.
B: The Egyptians had no word for the coordinating conjunction "and"; rather it was expressed by context
r-r ḫt n (ì)t⋅ )t⋅s mwt mwt⋅s
and two adjoining words, as in
"to the knowledge of her
father and mother".
1 Defined in §27.1.
r
may also form compound prepositions with verbs and adverbs. 154
An Egyptian Primer
32.4 THE AMARNA PERIOD PERIOD
Dating to Pre-Dynastic times, each town had one or more patron deities. A partial list includes: TOWN Abydos Bubastis Dendera Edfu Elephantine The Faiyum Heliopolis Heliopolis Hermopolis Memphis Sais Thebes Thebes
FORM 2
DEITY Osiris, god of the dead Bastet, daughter of sun god Hathor, symbolic mother of the pharaoh Horus, lord of the sky Khnum, creator of life from clay Sobek, symbol of pharaonic power Atum, sun god and creator of the cosmos Re, sun god and creator Thoth, moon god Ptah, creator god Neith, creator goddess Montu, war god Amun, primeval deity and supreme god
mummy cat cow falcon ram crocodile man sun ibis, baboon man woman falcon falcon ram
Over the millenia, these gods tended to coalesce, e.g. Re amalgamated Amun of Thebes, Horus of Edfu, Khnum of Elephantine, and Atum of Heliopolis. It can be assumed that at times, members of the priesthoods of these lesser deities were opposed to such an amalgamation with a more powerful cult.
The subsumed's political, religious, and financial
controls might well have been substantially weakened or totally eliminated, while the priesthood of the surviving compound deity was enriched at the expense of the losers. In any case, the result was that by the Middle Kingdom the Amun temple at Karnak had emerged as the most powerful in the land. Thus, Amun-(Re) of Karnak, by dint of large scale royal support for this cult, eventually became a "state god". By then, the Amun temple held large amounts of property, situated not only in the Theban region but throughout Egypt, and by the end of the New Kingdom, it had become a "state within a state" wielding great political power.
MAP 32.432.4-1. SITES SITES MENTIONED IN §32.4
2 Often shown in anthropomorphic form, i.e. with the head of an animal (almost always wearing a wig) and body of a man or woman. 155
An Egyptian Primer During
the
New
Kingdom
reign
of
Nebmaatre
Amenhotep (18-9, 1417-1379), Egyptian religious belief had become increasingly "solarized" and sun-theology was the predominant religious belief as it now included the sun disk, the Aten, along with the lesser deities. It was Neferkheprure Amenhotep3 (18-10, 1379-1362) who would take the concept one step further, and promulgated a new religion with only one god
ìtn,
the Aten, "The Sun Disk", from which flowed the cosmos, the earth, and all life. All other gods were now excluded from Amenhotep's concept of religion. He erected a new capital dedicated to the Aten at
3ḫt-ìtn.
Akhetaten, "The Horizon of the
Aten". Known today as Tell el-Amarna, it was located on the east bank of the Nile equidistant between Memphis and Thebes. Neferkheprure Amenhotep adopted a new name in concert
with
his
change
in
theology:
,4 changing his prenomen to
n-swsw-bìt nfr ḫprwprw-r '-w'w'-n-r ',
"the King of
Upper and Lower Egypt: Beautiful are the Forms of Re, the Unique One of Re"; and changing his nomen to
s3 r ' 3ḫ 3ḫ-n-itn,
Akhenaten, "the Son of Re: the
Spirit of the Aten" or "the Son of Re: the One who is beneficial to the Aten". The pharaoh had become the worldly counterpart to FIG. 32.432.4-1. KING AKHENATEN AND HIS WIFE QUEEN NEFERT I T I OFFERING TO THE ATEN ATEN.
the sun disk, and as such, became the heavenly pharaoh as well. The glyph for Re,
, was replaced by the
sun disk with rays of light issuing forth from it, as shown in Fig. 32.4-1. Each ray ended in a hand which touched all living things as the source for their lives.
3 Also referred to as Amenophis IV or Amenhotep IV. His wife, the queen Nefertiti, is known not only from several wall representations and statues but also from a sculptured head, currently in the Dahlem Museum in Berlin. It is one of the most famous pieces from all of antiquity because of her beauty. See Fig. 32.4-2. 4 Note that the Aten received honorific transposition, just as Re in his cartouche, but not in the writing of the town name 3ẖt-ìtn. 156
An Egyptian Primer In the Amarna tombs of several courtiers of the period, there are variations of a new hymn to the Aten. This hymn differs significantly from earlier Dynasty 18 sun hymns and is the source for much of our understanding of how the worship of the Aten contrasted to earlier concepts. In the traditional Egyptian worship, the sun god circled around the earth.
BY DAY HE HAD THREE FORMS FORMS: in the morning,
Khepri;5 throughout the day, day, ReRe-Harakhti;6 and in the evening, Atum. Atum In his diurnal journey, Re was accompanied by many deities, and in his nocturnal travels through the underworld, he was accompanied by Osiris and all the dead. Now, in Akhenaten's concept, the Aten sailed through the sky alone, unaccompanied; there were no other gods. Therefore, no other gods could celebrate his coming and going, only human beings could worship his rising and setting. Akhenaten's reign attempted to end a theology and worship developed over several millenia. Roughly at the same time, to secure the Aten's supremacy in the
FIG. 32.432.4-2. QUEEN NEFERTITI.
land, Amun's name was expunged from monuments and temples throughout the land in a paroxysm of fanaticism. All public and private displays of his name were removed as well as those of his consort, the goddess Mut. Even sealed tombs were opened to erase Amun's name and change the spelling of the word "mother".7 The word avoid using the sign for the "Goddess of Truth", forbidden, and only the singular form
m3't was now
spelled out alphabetically in order to
, C10. The plural for "gods",
nṯrw
or
was now
, nṯr, was permitted, referring to the one god, the Aten.
The process of establishing the Aten as the one and only supreme being was undoubtedly resisted by the entrenched priesthoods, bringing them into direct conflict with the king.
The sanctuaries of Amun in
Thebes and Osiris in Abydos were particular targets of Akhenaten's reordering of Egyptian religious life. He closed many other temples, seized their lands, revenues, and treasures, enhancing his royal treasury in order to finance his ambitious building program at 3ḫt-ìtn.
5 Khepri, in the form of a dung beetle, represented the sun in the morning as it came into being for the new day. Khepri pushed the sun disk up into the sky, in a manner similar to the Egyptian beetle rolling animal dung into a small ball and pushing it into a hole it had dug in the earth. Khepri was represented by glyph L1,
.
6 Harakhti, "Horus of the Horizon" is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. This form of Horus coalesced with the Heliopolitan sun god to become Re-Harakhti, representing a combination of several complex theological concepts about the divine nature of the sun. He is literally "Re Horus of the Two Horizons". 7 The official spelling of "mother", mwt, was changed from the goddess Mut,
. 157
to
in order to remove any reminder of
An Egyptian Primer With the full resources of all religious establishments under his command, Akhenaten became very active at Karnak, building no less than five temples there. He then switched his attentions to the construction of his new capital city, probably begun in the fifth year of his reign. At about this time, he moved to Akhetaten from Thebes and, according to the boundary stelae erected by Akhenaten, never strayed from Akhetaten for the remainder of his reign. Boundary stelae of the ancient city have been found cut into the cliffs on both the east and west banks of the Nile, the furthest of which is some 20 km. to the northwest on the west bank of the Nile at Tuna el-Gebel. Thus, Akhenaten envisioned it to be a very large city. Excavations, however, indicate that only a small portion of the city was ever completed, stretching about 6 km. along the Nile and 1 km. to its east. Akhenaten's dream of completing this new city died with him in 1362 BCE, as did the worship of the Aten as the sole god. The temples dedicated to the Aten were eventually abandoned. His successors, Smenkhkare (18-11, 1364-1361)8 and Tutankhamun (18-12, 1362-1352) ordered the old temples rehabilitated and their priesthoods reinstated in a return to the old, established order of religion. The actual dismantling of Akhenaten's works began under the last king of Dynasty 18, Horemheb (18-14, 1348-1320). Finally, Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) would level the city of
3ḫt-ìtn
completely, using the
stones from this site along with the temple to the Aten at Karnak, for his massive building programs. Ironically, many of these blocks of stone which had been used in Akhenaten's works, survived the destruction intended for them as they were used as core fillers in new constructions during Dynasty 19, and were found by modern excavators at these later sites. A portion of Akhenaten's royal correspondence survived the destruction by Ramesses. As many as 377 cuneiform tablets (mostly written in Akkadian9 from the reigns of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten) have been found and translated. Generally, they were letters to and from other contemporary kings and officials. They give us a particularly illuminating view into a narrow period in history, especially the calls for military assistance from Egyptian officials stationed abroad, and from Egyptian vassal princes of foreign lands, an indication that Egyptian hegemony was on the wane at the time. Some of the legacies of Akhenaten's reign were: a temporary eclipse of Egyptian power abroad 10 in Upper and Lower
rṯnw, Retjenew (present day Syria, Lebanon, and Israel) and in
k3š k3š Cush
(northern Sudan); the increased use of mercenaries in the armed forces (Nubians, Libyans, Canaanites, and Sudanese were extensively employed); and the centralization of the economic power in the kinship, albeit over a steadily weakening centralized secular authority. In literature, it has been noted that Psalm 104 of THE
OLD TESTAMENT bears some resemblance to portions of THE GREAT HYMN TO THE ATEN found in the tomb
of Ay in the cliffs at Amarna. Ay was a powerful court figure during Akhenaten's reign, and later king himself (18-13, 1352-1348). Whether or not the Hebrew psalmist knew of the Egyptian hymn is not known,
8 Possibly a co-regent with Akhenaten. 9 Akkadian was the lingua franca of the near-Eastern ancient world. 10 Some scholars believe that this was caused by Akhenaten's concentration on his domestic programs. 158
An Egyptian Primer nor is it known whether Akhenaten was familiar with the incipient Hebrew concept of one god. In any case, succeeding generations would consider Akhenaten a heretic as the old order reestablished itself in Egypt with a vengeance. His name and the name of the Aten were erased throughout the land and that of Re and Amun were restored to their rightful places. It would remain for the Ramessides of Dynasty 19 (13201200) to restore Egypt's military power, its fortunes overseas, and to bring domestic tranquility once again to the land of the Nile. The last kings of the 18th Dynasty comprised:
[Modern Name]
18Nebmaatre Amenhotep 18-9 1818-10〱 10〱Neferkheprure Neferkheprure Amenhotep 〱Neferkheperurewe Akhenaten 1818-11 (Ankhheprure) Smenkare 1818-12 Nebkheprure Tutankhamun 1818-13 Kheperkheprure Ay 1818-14 Djeserkheprure Horemheb
[Amenophis III] [Akhenaten]
14171417-1379 13791379-1362 1362 13641364-1361 13611361-1352 13521352-1348 13481348-1320
32.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION C10:
GODDESS WITH FEATHER ON HEAD.
G15:
VULTURE WITH FLAGELLUM FLAGELLUM.
M15:
CLUMP OF PAPYRUS REEDS REEDS WITH BUDS BENT DOWN DOWN.
goddess of Truth".
water regions,
ḏyt, "papyrus marsh". M16:
ḥ3
[hâ]
CLUMP OF PAPYRUS.
Logo. in
, "(the goddess) Mut".
ḥ3ḳ, "seize", "capture".
Phon. in
N27:
SUN RISING OVER A MOUNTAIN.
U3:
cOMBINATION OF U1
Logo. in
AND D4
AS IN
Aa13:
ìm, m, m gs
UNKNOWN FIGURE.
Aa17:
s3
UNCERTAIN, POSSIBLY BACK OF SOMETHING SOMETHING
[sä]
Logo.
in s3, "back". Phon. in
159
Det. in papyrus and
ìdḥw, "swamps (of the Delta)", Det. in t3t3-mḥw, "Lower Egypt".
t3t3-mḥw, "Lower Egypt".
[ēm, em, ges]
m3't, "the
Logo. or det.
OK det.
3ḫt, "horizon". m33, "see".
(?) IN THE OK AND MK FORM FORM.
s3wt, "walls".
An Egyptian Primer 32.6 32.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
160
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 33 NISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM FROM NOUNS 33.1 A NISBE (A TERM FROM ARABIC GRAMMAR) IS AN ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE FORMED FROM A NOUN OR PREPOSITION BY THE ADDITION OF
-y AT THE END OF A WORD. WORD Nisbes are defined as "adjectives
of relationship". In English, Nisbes do not exist as such, but the idea is similar to the addition of a "y" at the end of the word "luck" (a noun), which becomes "lucky" (an adjective). The "y " sound occasionally appears in the fuller writing in the earlier stages of the Egyptian language, particularly in the PYRAMID and COFFIN texts.
However, by the Middle Kingdom, the "y " was rarely
written. For this reason, scholars prefer to transliterate all but the masculine singular nisbes without the "y " for any Middle Egyptian text or later. 33.2 NISBE ADJECTIVES A. THE PARADIGMS
r sw, "SOUTH WIND", FROM WHICH THE NISBE ADJECTIVE
1. A MASCULINE NOUN "SOUTHERN" IS DERIVED. DERIVED.
AS A MASCULINE NISBE 1 SINGULAR
PLURAL
r sy
r s(y)w transliterated rsw
r s(y) transliterated rsy
r s(y)w transliterated rsw
AS A FEMININE NISBE SINGULAR
PLURAL
r s(y)t
>
r st
r s(y)wt
>
r swt
r s(y)t
>
rst
r s(yw)t
>
rst
2. FROM A FEMININE NOUN NOUN "NORTHERN" IS DERIVED. DERIVED.
(or r st)
mḥyt, "NORTH WIND", FROM WHICH THE NISBE
AS AS A MASCULINE NISBE SINGULAR
PLURAL
mḥyty transliterated mḥty
mḥytyw > mḥ mḥtyw
mḥyty > mḥ mḥty
mḥytyw > mḥ mḥtyw
mḥyt(y)
ADJECTIVE
> mḥty
1 The more complicated versions are presented first, followed by the simpler ones which are preferred. 161
An Egyptian Primer AS A FEMININE NISBE SINGULAR
PLURAL
mḥyt(y)t > mḥ mḥtt
mḥyt(y)wt > mḥ mḥtwt (or mḥtt)
mḥyt(y)t > mḥ mḥtt
mḥyt(yw)t > mḥ mḥtwt (or mḥtt)
B. EXAMPLES OF NISBES 1. SING SINGULAR INGULAR MASC. NOUN, š ,
+ NISBE DERIVED DERIVED FROM A MASC. NOUN , r sw
We went to the Southern Lake, i.e. the Faiyum.
šmn⋅ mn⋅n⋅n r š rsy
2. SINGULAR SINGULAR MASC. NOUN , ìdb,
+ NISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. FEM. NOUN, ìmnt I will cross over to the western bank of the river at the temple of Karnak.
ḏ3⋅ì r ìdb ìmnty n ìtrw ḥr ìptpt-swt 3. SING SINGULAR INGULAR FEM. FEM. NOUN, NOUN, nì wt,
+ NISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC. MASC. NOUN, NOUN, r sw
The ship sailed to Thebes, lit. "the southern city".
n'⋅ n'⋅n dpt r nì nì wt r st
4. SING SINGULAR INGULAR FEM. FEM. NOUN, NOUN, 3ḫt, + NISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. NOUN, NOUN, ì3bt The ship sailed to the eastern horizon.
n'⋅n dpt r 3ḫ 3ḫt ì3btt
5. PL PLURAL MASC. MASC. NOUN, NOUN, pr w, + NISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC. MASC. NOUN, NOUN, tp I built my first houses in Abydos.
ìr⋅n⋅ì prw⋅ì tpw m 3bḏ 3bḏw
6. PL PLURAL MASC. MASC. NOUN, NOUN, ìww, + NISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. NOUN, NOUN, ì3bt I dispatched them to the eastern islands.
m3'⋅n⋅ì sn r ìww ì3btyw 7. PLURAL FEM. NOUN, 3swt, NOUN, ḫ3swt
+ NISBE DERIVED FROM A MASC. MASC. NOUN, NOUN, rsw
His Majesty overthrew the southern foreign lands.
sḫr⋅n ḥm⋅f ḫswt rst
8. PL PLURAL FEM. FEM. NOUN, NOUN, ḫ3swt,
+ NISBE DERIVED FROM A FEM. FEM. NOUN, NOUN, ì3bt
His Majesty overthrew the eastern foreign lands.
sḫr⋅n ḥm⋅f ḫswt ì3btt
9. NISBE ADJECTIVES FROM PREPOSITIONS 2
ḫnt, in
front of, foremost
￫ tp, upon ￫ ḫr, under
ḫry, tpy,
￫
ḫnty,
which/who is foremost
which/who is under
which/who is upon
2 See Chapter 34 for a discussion of nisbes derived from prepositions. 162
An Egyptian Primer
33.3 COMMENTARY
A: In nisbes derived from masculine nouns which describe masculine singular nouns, the nisbe indicator
y, may or may not be written, e.g.
or
, rsy.
B: In nisbes derived from feminine nouns which describe masculine singular words, the written, e.g.
,
, or
,
-
may or may not be
mḥty.
C: For all other forms of the nisbe, i.e. masculine plurals and all feminine (either singular or plural), the –y is never written.
transliterated rsw and
mḥytyw
written as mḥtyw.
mḥyt(yw)t
is written as mḥtt.
rs(y)wt mḥyt(yw)t as mḥtt.
E: The feminine plural
is transliterated
by convention, would be
rs(y)t is transliterated as rst, while the nisbe
D: When describing a feminine singular word, the nisbe
mḥtwt ; and
rs(y)w
Thus, when describing a masculine plural noun,
rswt ;
rs(yw)t
as
rst ;
mḥyt(y)wt
as
F: As a reminder, note that the feminine singular and plural for nisbes derived from either gender can be identical. The feminine, of course, include its characteristic G: Since a nisbe adjective may omit its characteristic ending
. , it may be difficult to determine if a word
is a nisbe ; context alone, many times, will indicate whether it is indeed a nisbe or not. H: Usually the Nile River was simply called stage during
3 ḫ t,
,
, or
ìtrw, "the
"The Season of Inundation", it was called
River". In its flood
ḥ'py,
"the High Nile",
indicating its higher level. The Egyptian measure of length equal to 20,000 cubits (10.5 km) was called the
ìtrw, "the I: The nisbe
tpy
River Measure".
(in the singular) and
tpw
(in the plural), "first", is derived from the noun
tp,
"head", "chief", "principal".
nìwt rst, or even simply
J: Thebes was also known as "the Southern City",
, nìwt, "the City".
33.4 THE SECOND INT INTERMEDIATE PERIOD The Second Intermediate Period (SIP) is the name given by scholars to the period from 1786-1567 BCE, when Egypt, once again, was no longer ruled by a strong central authority. It was a period of turmoil, as petty dynasts arose in many of the nomes. Changing alliances among them and the stronger princes were characteristic of the period.
That the country functioned at all during the SIP was a result of the
continuing oversight of the bureaucracy headed by the viziers (some holding office through hereditary titles), the priests, the scribes, and the administrators.
163
An Egyptian Primer During the disintegration of the central authority as Dynasty 12 ended c. 1800 BCE, new power centers arose alongside the old. By the middle of Dynasty 13, c. 1700 BCE, many Asiatics lived in Egypt — some as slaves, some as mercenaries, some as traders, and some as officials in the Egyptian bureaucracy.3
Near the Faiyum in Middle Egypt, Dynasty 13
(1786-1633) kings continued to rule from the old capital of
ìṯ-t3wy,
Itjtawy, and may have controlled parts of the eastern Delta.
In the
western Delta, Dynasty 14 (1786-c. 1603), comprised some 76 kings in 184 years, ruling from Xois.
Dynasty 15 (1674-1567), the "Hyksos",
ḥwtwt-wrt,
ruled from
"Avaris".
Recent excavations have
suggested that this capital city may have been located at Tel el-Dab'a in the eastern Delta. The Hyksos was a name given by Manetho to the rulers of the eastern Delta of Dynasties 15 and 16 (c. 1684-1567). It was derived from
ḥḳ3w ḥḳ3w ḫ3swt,
"the rulers of foreign
lands", the Greek pronunciation of which approximates "hyksos". Dynasty 15 comprised: 1515-1 1515-2 4 1515-3 4 1515-4 1515-5 1515-6
Mayebre Sheshi Meruserre Yakubher Seuserernre Khyan Auserre Ipepi Aqenenre Ipepi Asehre Khamudy
Modern Name Length of Rule Salitas [1?]3 years 8 years Iannas Apophis 40+ years Apophis I Apophis II
MAP 33.433.4-1. CAPITALS MENTIONED IN §33.4.
It is not certain where the eight rulers of Dynasty 16 resided. The Hyksos reigned concurrently with the Dynasty 17 kings in Thebes and the latter kings of Dynasty 17 ruled portions of Upper Egypt. The final ruler of Dynasty 17, Kamose, along with his brother Ahmose (18-1, 1570-1546), managed to overthrow the last of the Hyksos rulers, bringing the SIP to a close. During the SIP, Nubia slipped out of Egyptian control. The SIP saw the introduction into Egypt of the horse, the chariot, scale armor, the composite bow (one made from different woods laminated together), as well as the widespread use of bronze5 for improved weaponry, utensils, and hardware. Few monuments or tombs have been discovered from this period. Literature, too, is scarce. Among the few extant pieces of literature, one has survived in which the Hyksos king Apophis complains to the Theban king, Seqenre, that the snorting of the animals in Seqenre's hippopotamus pool in Thebes was keeping him awake
3 The Old Testament story of Joseph recounts the life of one such individual. 4 Exact order of Yakubher and Iannas is uncertain. 5 Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The lack of tin in Egypt, as well as in the lands controlled by the Egyptians, probably accounted for its late entry into the Bronze Age. 164
An Egyptian Primer at night. Seqenre summoned his top officials and senior army officers to acquaint them with the request of Apophis. How they resolved the problem is not known, for the papyrus is incomplete.6 The SIP came to an end with the reuniting of the land under Dynasty 18, the first dynasty of the period called the New Kingdom (1567-1085), during which Egyptian power and hegemony would reach its zenith. 33.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITE DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION P5:
mḥyt, "north wind" and in ṯ3w, ḥt3 "sail". Logo. in nfw, "captain",
SAIL. Det. "wind" in "breath", "wind"; in "admiral".
R15:
SPEAR DECKED OUT AS A STANDARD. As emblem of the "East", logo. in
ì3bt, "east".
T31:
KNIFE SHARPENER (?). Phon. sšm in "lead", and derivatives.
T32:
COMBINATION OF T31 "lead
AND D54
or in . Phon. sšm in
, "guide", , "guide",
33.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
6 As Thebes was some 550 km. due south of Avaris, the problem posed by Apophis to his vassal Seqenre was obviously one to test Seqenre's ability to resolve a most difficult question. Many folk tales have such a riddle or vexing problem to be solved by one of the protagonists. 165
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 34 NISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM FROM PREPOSITIONS 34.1 NIS NISBE PREPOSITIONS AND ARE OFTEN FOUND IN THE BE ADJECTIVES MAY ALSO BE FORMED FROM PREPOSITIONS TITLES OF INDIVIDUALS. They may be written in many different ways.
34.2 EXAMPLES OF NISBE ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM FROM PREPOSITIONS A. FROM THE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION ìr (THE ORIGINAL FORM FORM OF THE PREPOSITION TRANSLITERATED AS "RELATING TO" OR "CONNECTED WITH". SINGULAR
ìry
,
,
ìr(y) ìr(y)
MASCULINE
relating to, connected with FEMININE
SINGULAR SINGULAR
ìr(y)t
relating to, connected with
r ), AND
PLURAL
Ir(y)w PLURAL
ìr(yw)t
SOME TITLES COMBINING ìry ARE:: door-keeper, lit. "one connected with the door"
ìryry-'3
one in attendance, lit. "one relating to/at the two feet" (of a superior)
ìryry-rd wy ìryry-hp
custodian of laws, lit. "one connected with the laws"
ìryry-ḥ3t ìryry-ḫt
pilot, lit. "one relating to the prow/front"
overseer, administrator, lit. "one connected with things"
ìryry-sšm ìryry-sšr prpr-'3
functionary, lit. "one connected with procedure" or "one connected with conduct"
keeper of the cloth of the pr pr--'3
166
An Egyptian Primer B. FROM THE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION TRANSLATED AS "BEING IN".
ìm (A FORM OF THE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION MASCULINE
SINGULAR
being in
ìmy
EXAMPLE:
,
ìmymy- r n ⋅f
PLURAL
PLURAL
being in
ìm(y)t
AND
ìm(y)w
FEMININE
SINGULAR
WHEN USED WITH A SUFFIX)
ìm(y)wt
list of persons, lit. "being in his name"
SOME TITLES COMBINING COMBINING ìmy ARE: captain of a ship, lit. "one who is at both eyes"
ìmymy-ìrty
counselor, lit. "one who is in the council chamber"
ìmymy-ìs ìmymy-wt
embalmed, lit. "one who is in the place of embalming" or "one who is in the bandages"
C. WHEN THE NISBE
ìmy
IS USED IN CONNECTION WITH TITLES TITLES FOR AN "OVERSEER", "OVERSEER", IT IS TO INDICATE "ONE WHO WHO IS IN THE MOUTH", i.e.
USUALLY USUALLY SHORTENED TO AND COMBINED WITH "THE INDIVIDUAL WHO GIVES THE ORDERS".
my--r ìmy
MAY BE WRITTEN IN A VARIETY OF WAYS:
,
,
, or
SOME TITLES COMBINING ìmymy-r ARE :
ìmymy-r 'w
caravan leader, captain of mercenaries
ìmymy-r pr wr m t3 rr-ḏr⋅f keeper of the seal
ìmymy-r sḏ sḏ3wty
steward, lit. "overseer of the house"
ìmymy-r pr
chief steward of the entire land, lit. "in the land to its end"
ìmymy-r šn'w 167
overseer of the warehouses
An Egyptian Primer
ẖr, "UNDER", "CARRYING", "CARRYING", "AT THE HEAD OF", "AT THE FOOT OF", THE THE
D. FROM THE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION
NISBE FORM ẖry IS OFTEN EXPRESSED BY BY T28
ALONE.
SOME TITLES COMBINING ẖry ARE:
ẖryry-ḥbt
, abbreviated form , lector priest, lit. "he who is under the ritual book", i.e. the individual who carries the ritual book in a religious procession while intoning its prayers
, lector priest who is in the year (of duty)
, chamberlain, lit. "he who is at the head of the king"
ẖryry-ḥbt ìmy rnpt
E. FROM THE PREPOSITION PREPOSITION SOME TITLES COMBINING ḥry ARE:
ẖryry-tptp-nsw
ḥr, "UPON", THE NISBE
FORM
ḥry, "ABOVE" IS DERIVED.
, master of the ceremonies of the temple, lit. "master of the secrets of the temple"
ḥryry-sšt3 m ḥwtwt-nṯr
, privy to the secret of the Lord of the Two Lands, i.e. the king
ḥryry-sšt3 n nb t3wy
, nomarch, lit. "he who is above the great (ones)"
ḥryry-tp '3
, nomarch of the Thinite nome
ḥryry-tp '3 n t3t3-wr
, chief lector priest in his city
ḥryry-tp ẖryry-ḥbt m nì nìwt⋅ wt⋅f
34.3 COMMENTARY A: Any of the above titles may appear with or without an appropriate determinative. B: Note that in the titles, which are essentially nisbes derived from nouns, the
"y " is only written in the
masculine singular form. It is the usual practice not to place the omitted "y " within parentheses ( ) in the transliteration of titles. C: It was common for ancient ships to have an eye painted on each side of the bow, possibly in the belief that they might help the ship avoid danger. D: The expression
r-ḏr⋅f,
E: Note that the tongue, F20,
"entire", literally "to its end", is a compound preposition with r.
has the same connotation as
ìmymy-r because the tongue, after all, "is
in
the mouth", and as such, is a graphic pun for ìmymy-r . Such writings are known as "sportive writings" (§20.3).
168
An Egyptian Primer
ḥryry-sšt3 m ḥwtwt-nṯr, note the use of
F: In the title usage of
Y2
indicates an OK title. The version of the title using Y1
rather than Y1
does not occur until Dynasty 12
(1991-1786) and thus may be used as terminus ante quem (§11.3). Note also that N17 included in the title. When
sšt3 m ḥwtwt-nṯr
. Such
was omitted, Y1 or Y2 was used vertically, e.g.
t3 was not always . The ḥryry-
was responsible for all the ritual equipment and costumes used in the temple for the
different rites being celebrated. 34.4 THE ḥb-sd FESTIVAL
The ḥb-sd, Heb Sed or Sed festival, is also called the Jubilee Festival. It marked not only the anniversary of the coronation of the king but also the continuing union of Upper and Lower Egypt under his rule. The tradition may date back to Narmer (1-1, c. 3100), the king under whom Egypt was initially unified. The ceremony was normally held during the 30th year 1 of a king's reign and thereafter at 2 to 4 year intervals until his death. As the king was usually crowned in Memphis, the celebration was supposedly always held there, originally under a special canopy, and later in a special stone pavilion of the
sd
O23.2
Participating in the
ceremonies were the nome gods throughout the land; the statues representing these deities were transported to the ceremony in special traveling shrines in order to pay homage to the king. For the ceremonies, the king wore a short cloak colored in a diamond pattern, peculiar to the festival. During this reenactment of his coronation of 30 years earlier, the ruler once again was crowned king of both Upper and Lower Egypt. The king not only performed a ritual dance but also ran a prescribed course "to the four corners", symbolic of his hegemony over the four cardinal points — north, east, south, and west. He was also carried in a litter to visit the chapels of Horus and Seth, where he was given four arrows to be shot towards the enemies of Egypt, from stations located at the four cardinal points. Some rulers built special obelisks to commemorate their jubilees, such as Kheperkare Senusert3 (12-2, 19711928), who erected more than one in a new temple he constructed at Heliopolis.
1 Some examples of the occasions when it was held in other years: the 18th year of Pepi II (6-5, c. 2237); the 2nd year of Mentuhotep II (11-4, c. 2058); the 15th year of the queen Hatshepsut (18-5, c. 1845); sometime around his 6th year, Amenhotep IV (18-10, c. 1373) held a jubilee for himself in conjunction with the Aten, a departure from past practices; Osorkon II (22-4, c. 852) in his 22nd year. When a year less than 30 was selected for the ceremony, it is possible it commemorated another anniversary such as the 30th year since the ruler was named crown prince. Mentuhotep II also celebrated one in his 39th year of rule. Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) celebrated eleven jubilees: his first in his 30th year of rule, a second in his 34th year, a third in his 37th year, and his eleventh and last in his 61st year of rule. 2 The sign shows two stylized thrones under a canopy. 3 Sesostris I. 169
An Egyptian Primer 34.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATIO DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION Logo/det. ìry in
BEARDLESS MAN (OR WOMAN?) HOLDING A KNIFE (?).
A48:
, "relating to", "belonging to". D35:
n
ARMS IN GESTURE OF NEGATION NEGATION.
nnš nnšm, "spleen".
Phon. in F31:
ms
[mes]
ḥs, "excrement".
Det. in
ḏr
[djâr]
BUNDLE OF FLAX STEMS SHOWING THE SEED PODS PODS.
M40:
ìs
[ēs]
BUNDLE OF REEDS.
M41:
"since".
ìswt, "crew".
Det. wood as in "cedar" (more properly "pine" or "fir"). Later replaced by Aa2
wḏb
N22:
wḏb
[wedjeb]
TONGUE OF LAND.
sḥ [sh]
wḏb, "sand bank", "shore".
SANDY TONGUE OF LAND (OK PROTOTYPE OF BOTH
wḏb, "shore", "sand bank";
OPEN BOOTH SUPPORTED BY A POLE.
N20
Phon. in
HALL USED IN THE SED-FESTIVAL.
"jubilee", "Sed-festival".
Logo/det. in
šn'
[shenä]
PLOUGH.
V24:
wḏ
[wedj]
CORD WOUND ON STICK (OK AND MK FORM).
V32:
msn (?) [mesen]
N21
).
sḥ ,
"booth";
ḥb-sd,
Logo/det. in
U13:
AND
wḏb, "turn back".
sḥ, "counsel".
phon. in O23:
Det. in
'š,
.
wḏb, "turn back". From OK onward a sign of like appearance is used in ḥb-sd, "jubilee", "Sed-festival". Det. in
O22:
ìs, "tomb";
.
ḏ r,
Phon, det.
LOG OF WOOD STRIPPED OF ITS BRANCHES BRANCHES.
N20:
"not".
May be replaced by Aa2
M36:
Phon. in
nn,
and in
mst , AN "APRON OF FOX SKINS".
THREE FOX SKINS TIED TOGETHER IN EXCREMENT.
F52:
n
Logo in
šn', "storehouse", "magazine".
Det in
"command".
Phon. in
wḏ,
WICKERWORK BASKET (POSSIBLY ALSO USED AS AS A FLOAT BY HIPPOPOTAMUS HIPPOPOTAMUS HUNTERS).
by Aa2
.
msnw, "harpooners".
Det. in
V38:
BANDAGE.
W4:
COMBINATION OF
wt, "bandage".
Det. in
O22 AND
W6:
OK SIGN FOR A PARTICULAR PARTICULAR VESSEL.
W7:
GRANITE BOWL.
170
Later replaced by Aa2
W3. W3. Logo/det. in
.
ḥb, "feast",
tptp-rnpt, "feast of the first of the year".
"festival". Det. in replaced by Aa2
Later replaced
.
In
wḥt, "cauldron".
Later
m3t, "red granite". Later replaced by Aa2
.
An Egyptian Primer 34.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION Y2:
PAPYRUS ROLL, TIED AND SEALED.
Z10:
CROSSED STICKS.
Z11:
ìmì [ēmē], wn [wen]
OK form of Z9
PISTULE OR GLAND (?).
, V32;
wt,
Det. in
.
. Sometimes replaced by Aa2
, ìmì , "not be". Phon. in
wt, "embalmer".
Det. in the verb
Logo. in
,
, and
"to bandage". Sometimes replaces:
W6, as in
34.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
171
.
ìmy , wnm,
TWO PLANKS CROSSED AND AND JOINED.
"who is in". Phon. in "eat". Aa2:
OK form of Y1
wḥt, "cauldron";
W7; or
F52; Z10.
M41;
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 35 THE ADVERB PHRASE 35.1 ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL PHRASES PHRASES ARE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE PHRASES SES (PREPOSITION + NOUN PHRASE) THAT THAT DESCRIBE VERBS VERBS. The adverbial phrase can tell "how?", "when?", "where?", etc. about the verb it describes. In the following examples, the subject is in black, the verb is in red, the adjectival phrase is in green, and the adverbial phrase is in blue. A VERB MODIFIED BY AN ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL PHRASE How: I sailed in a boat. When: After December, the show will travel. Where: He stumbled on the curb. A VERB MODIFIED BY TWO ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL PHRASES The show will travel after 15 days in December. A VERB MODIFIED BY AN ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL PHRASE, PHRASE, IN TURN MODIFIED BY AN ADJECTIVAL ADJECTIVAL PHRASE I sailed in a boat of 30 cubits. 35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERB ADVERBIAL ERBIAL PHRASES
ḫntì ntì⋅n sḏ sḏ3wty bìty
The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream.1
ḫntì ntì⋅n sḏ sḏ3wty bìty m dpt
The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat.
ḫntì ntì⋅n sḏ sḏ3wty bì bìty m dpt n mḥ mḥ 20
The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits.
ḫntì ntì⋅n sḏ sḏ3wty bìty m dpt n mḥ mḥ 20 r hrw 8
The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits for 8 days.
ḫntì ntì⋅n sḏ sḏ3wty bìty m dpt n mḥ mḥ 20 r hrw 8 r nḫ nḫn
The seal bearer of the Lower Egyptian King sailed upstream in a boat of 20 cubits for 8 days to Nekhen.
1 In Egyptian, the verb ḫntì has the adverb "upstream" implicit in its meaning, and therefore no adverb is present in the Egyptian. 172
An Egyptian Primer
35.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL PHRASES (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED)
ḏb3⋅ b3⋅n⋅ì nṯr m ḫ'w⋅ 'w⋅f m ì3t⋅ 3t⋅ì nt ḥryry-sšt3 ìrt⋅ rt⋅ì nt sm3
I clothed the god 2 with his regalia in my rank of master of secrets, in my function as stolist.
pr⋅ pr⋅n⋅ì m t3t3-wr ḥr w3t wḥ wḥ3t
I went forth from the Thinite nome upon the oasis road.
rdI⋅ rdI⋅n wì ḥm⋅f m ḥ3ty3ty-' m šmw pf
His Majesty appointed me 2 (lit. "placed placed me as") as a local prince in that summer. 35.3 COMMENTARY A: In additon to
ḫntì ntì, "sail
upstream" or "travel southward", some other Egyptian verbs which
ḫd, "go
require an adverb in an English translation are:
pr, "go
forth" or "come out";
h3, "come
downstream" or "travel northward";
down" or "go down"; and
ḥrty, "to
travel overland".
B: As mentioned in §2.3, most Egyptian words were triliteral, but ḫntì ntì belongs to that small group of Egyptian verbs which were quadriliteral. As the fourth root letter, weak" or "4th infirmae", and ends in either ì or w. C: Note also that P2,
ì,
is seldom written, scholars call this type of verb "4th
, is a ship with its sail catching the wind, whereas P1,
ḫd ,
erected or a sail. As traveling downstream,
, has neither a mast
was with the river current, no sail was required,
while when traveling upstream against the current, a sail was used to power the boat. D: Some observations regarding line 16 from Ihernofret's stela: 3
ḏb3⋅ b3⋅n⋅ì nṯ nṯr m ḫ'w⋅ 'w⋅f m ì3t⋅ 3t⋅ì nt ḥryry-sšt3 ìrt⋅ rt⋅ì nt sm3 I clothed the god with his regalia in my rank of master of secrets, in my function as stolist. ,
ḏb3, a verb meaning "clothe", "adorn", "dress". ḫ'w, translated as "regalia" is lit. "appears
in glory". Here "appears in glory" is a euphemism for the clothing and crown which the priest placed upon the cult statue of the god.
ìrt, "duty", "use", or "purpose" of something. the sm3 priest, or stolist, was an individual who dressed the statue of the god for ceremonial functions. 2 Direct object. 3 From a stela found in the cenotaph of
ì-ẖr-nfrt, Ikhernofret, at Abydos, near the sacred precinct of
ḫnty-ìmntyw, "Foremost of the Westerners", an epithet for Osiris. Ikhernofret was a high official under Khakaure Senusert (12-5, 1878-1843), known to the Greeks as Sesostris III. Ikhernofret was responsible for organizing the annual festival dedicated to Osiris which commemorated the god's life, death, and resurrection. 173
35.4 EGYPTIAN VESSELS VESSELS
An Egyptian Primer c
Egyptian ships evolved over the millenia from bundles of papyrus reeds lashed together to form a small skiff to ocean going vessels. This earliest type of boat was poled through the shallow waters of the marshes of the Delta or along the Nile River banks. It was used for hunting, fowling, fishing, and local transportation, as attested to in many tomb wall paintings and models. Old Kingdom tomb walls show nobles on papyrus rafts, punting through the marshes for a day of hunting, fishing, or relaxation.4 Often, the scenes show their wives accompanying them on the outing.
FIG. 35.435.4-1 MODELS OF TWO REED VESSELS DRAWING A FISHING FISHING NET BETWEEN THEM THEM FROM THE TOMB OF OF MEKETRE MEKETRE (DYNASTY 11, C. 2000), EGYPTIAN MUSEUM #46715 IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART. The earliest depiction of an Egyptian vessel found to date is on a Pre-dynastic pot dating to the Naqada II culture (3500-3150). It shows what is possibly a wooden raft with two small shelters erected upon it.5 Old Kingdom tomb paintings and ship models enable the scholar to see the many kinds of craft from small reed rafts to large wooden ships constructed in ancient Egypt. Later temple carvings display oceangoing vessels, 6 as well as recording sea battles between Egyptian warships and foreign invaders.
4 See Fig. 19.4-3 for just such a vessel. 5 See Fig. 6.4-1, second pot from left. Other depictions are found on the first and last pots. 6 The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut (18-5, 1503-1482) at Deir el-Baheri displays such vessels on a trading voyage to Punt. 174
An Egyptian Primer Some papyrus reed vessels were large and sturdy enough to transport large blocks of stone, sarcophagi, goods and produce, as well as farm animals as large as oxen. The art of reed ship construction reached its zenith during the Old Kingdom.7
For the
remainder of Egyptian history wooden ship construction was favored. The largest OK vessel yet recovered has been excavated from a pit adjacent to the southern face of the pyramid built by Khufu (4-2, 2589-2566) at Giza. The 1,224 pieces making up the craft had been carefully stored by Khufu's workmen but without the plans
for
its
re-assembly.
From
its
discovery in 1954, the ship was reassembled five times before the team of restorers felt that it properly represented its original form. The vessel was then positioned in a specially prepared air conditioned building erected over the pit in which the royal barge had been buried initially.8 During Dynasty 6 (2345-2181) wooden ships as large as 60 cubits (30 m.) in length and 30 cubits wide were built.
Many models of
boats may be found in Egyptian tombs, especially from the Middle Kingdom (21331786) and in one relief from that period, a boat is shown with a crew of 32 rowers, a helmsmen, and a captain. In the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut (18-5, 1503-
FIG. 35.435.4-2. THE ROYAL SHIP OF KHUFU, 1984.
1482) at Deir al-Bahri painted reliefs of sailing ships are found from a voyage to Punt. 7 In replicas of such vessels, the Norwegian, Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002), attempted two Atlantic Ocean crossings from Africa. His first attempt in 1969 on the Ra I proved that a transoceanic voyage was possible, as he and his crew sailed almost 2/3 of the way across the Atlantic Ocean before their craft foundered. His second attempt in 1970 on the Ra II was successful, reaching the West Indian island of Barbados after a voyage of 57 days from the African coast. His trips are recounted in The Ra Expeditions, published in 1971. Peruvian Indians constructed the Ra II based on the techniques learned from their fathers on Lake Titicaca in the Andes Mountains of South America. 8 Numerous other boat graves have been discovered throughout Egypt. Most have not been excavated due to a paucity of funds not only for their excavation but also for the safe storage of the reassembled vessels. 175
An Egyptian Primer High quality wood was a scarce commodity in Egypt and had to be imported, generally from Lebanon. Since tall timbers for masts were particularly hard to come by, the earliest masts were constructed from small trees mounted in pairs about 1 meter apart at their base and joined at the top. These double masts were held in place by a rope running from their top to the bow and several to the stern (similar to a modern sail boat's fore and aft stays). A rectangular sail was suspended from a yardarm attached to the top of the dual mast. The mast was designed to be lowered when not in use.
Long flat sailing boats for quick river travel sported small deck cabins for the use of the master or passengers. Travel was not conducted at night, but rather the ship was beached and a camp made on the riverbank when the landing was between inhabited localities.
As Egyptians traveled by Nile boat, so too did their gods. When a statue of a god departed from its "Holy of Holies", it was transported in a portable shrine, or naos, which sat on a small boat or bark. Carried on the shoulders of 20-30 priests, the icon was carried in a ceremonial procession to another temple, or around its own city, or even to another city. In the ceremony described by Ikhernofret, the sacred "neshmet bark" of Osiris was defended by priests from ritualistic attackers as part of the annual ritual of Osiris at Abydos.
There were many different types of vessels. The generic words for a boat or ship were:
ìmw
boat, ship
dpt
boat, ship
ḥ' ww
collective for "ships"
SMALL BOATS, USUALLY TRANSLATED AS "BARKS", USED FOR A GOD'S TRAVEL WERE:
wì3 m'nḏ m'nḏt msktt nšmt ḥnw
a sacred bark
,
,
the day bark of the sun (god), i.e. the ship in which the sun disk sailed through the sky by day; the mandjet bark
the night bark of the sun (god), i.e. the ship in which the sun disk sailed through the netherworld at night; the mesket bark the sacred bark of the god Osiris, the neshmet, bark
the sacred bark of the hawk god Sokar, the henew bark
176
An Egyptian Primer SOME SPECIFIC TYPES OF OF VESSEL VESSELS INCLUDED:
' ḥ' w
, MK sea boats and NK Nile boats
,
, galley or pleasure craft
b3 w mnš mnš
wsḫ wsḫt br
, NK freighter or warship
9
ẖn-ìnw
, tow boat
, a large barge, lit. "a (wide) boat"
, scow
, oxen ferry boats, wine transports
, an unknown type of boat
s3 ṯ
ḳ3ḳ3 w
SOME BOAT NAMES HAVE SURVIVED, FOR EXAMPLE:
s3ṯ s3ṯ '3 pḥ pḥt(y) ìssì ssì rn⋅f
,
, "the large boat called 'The Power of Isesi' ", or possibly "the boat called 'The Power of Isesi is Great' ", or possibly even "the large boat called 'The Power of Isesi is Great' ".11
, "Appearing in Glory in Memphis"
ḫ'ì m mnmn-nfr sb3 t3wy
10
"The Star of the Two Lands". This traditional name for the king's bark has been found in a Dynasty 4 (2612-2498) reference as well as in Dynasty 18 (1567-1085), indicating at least a 1,000 year usage.
In the New Kingdom, the main center for Egyptian maritime operations was located near Memphis, strategically located on the Nile just south of the apex of the Delta. This naval base, called
pr w nfr, lit.
"The The Good Journey The Good Journey" ourney or "The Good Departure", eparture was developed by Menkheperre Thutmose (Thutmosis III, 186, 1504-1450) and his son and successor, Akheprure Amenhotep (Amenophis II, 18-7, 1450-1425).
Its
central location provided easy access up the Nile as well as through various Delta branches northward to the Mediterranean Sea.
An extensive sea trade was conducted from this port along the Mediterranean's
eastern littoral as well as with the island of Cyprus.
9 In this instance, indicates a foreign sound and is an example of Group Writing (§31.3), here associated with use of the signs b, b3, and 3 for b. 10 Often a boat's name was followed by
, rn ⋅f, "its name".
11 Depends on how '3 is interpreted. In the first translation, it is an adjective "large" describing s3ṯ, "boat". In the second '3, is an adjective "great" describing the noun phrase pḥty ìssì, "the Power of Isesi". Finally, in the third translation '3 does double duty, serving both as an adjective describing s3ṯ as well as pḥty ìssì. 177
An Egyptian Primer 35.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION D33: D33:
ẖn
ARMS ENGAGED IN ROWING ROWING.
ẖnnw, "turmoil". HEAD OF A LEOPARD.
G10:
FALCON ON A SPECIAL SACRED BARK.
king".
Det. in
P3:
skr, "the hawk god
Det. in
ḥnw, "the henew bark (of Sokar)".
Sokar". Det. in
ḫntì ntì
Phon. in
pḥty, "strength", "power of the
F9: F9:
P2:
ẖnì, "row".
Logo. in
SHIP UNDER SAIL.
ḫntì ntì, "sail upstream".
Det in
SACRED BARK (DETAILS VARY GREATLY IN DIFFERENT CASES).
wì3,
Logo/det. in
nšmt, m'nḏ m'nḏt,
"sacred bark". Det. in divine boats:
"the neshmet bark", i.e. "the sacred boat of Abydos"; "the bark of the dawn". FISHERMAN'S BOAT WITH NET.
P4:
wḥ',
Semi-logo. in
wḥ' ḥ'py, "the loosening of the Nile" = "the start of
the inundation". P6:
'ḥ'
MAST.
P7:
'ḥ'
COMBINATION OF P6
T25:
ḏb3
REED FLOATS USED IN FISHING AND HUNTING OF THE
'ḥ', "stand".
Phon. in
ḥn
AND D36
HOE, WITHOUT THE ROPE ROPE CONNECTING THE TWO PIECES.
ḥnn, "hoe". Phon. ḥn in
'ḏ , nḏ
NETTING NEEDLE FILLED FILLED WITH TWINE.
in V27:
V29:
Det. in
'ḏ
Logo. in
bark (of
"spool". Phon.
m'nḏ m'nḏt, "the morning bark of the sun (god)".
'ḏ , nḏ
NETTING NEEDLE FILLED FILLED WITH TWINE, OK FORM OF V26. V26.
sk, w3ḥ w3ḥ
SWAB MADE FROM A HANK HANK OF FIVER.
Phon. in
m'nḏ m'nḏt, "the morning bark of the sun (god)".
phon. in Aa25:
HIPPOPOTAMUS.
ḥnw, "the henew
Sokar)".
V26:
'ḥ'w, "ships".
. Used in
ḏb3, "clothe", "adorn".
Phon. in U8:
"loosen" as in
skì skì, "perish".
Phon. in
Det. in
sk, "wipe", hence
w3ḥ w3ḥ, "place".
Logo. in sm3, title of a priest whose function consisted in clothing the statue of a god. It is not clear what connection
UNKNOWN OBJECT.
this title may have had with the have been similar. 178
sm priest whose duties may
35.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
An Egyptian Primer
179
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 36 THE ADVERB CLAUSE 36.1 ADVERB CLAUSES ACT AS A SINGLE PART OF SPEECH SPEECH, WHICH MUST BE ATTACHED TO A MAIN CLAUSE THAT COMPLETES COMPLETES THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE SENTENCE. CE. IN ENGLISH, ADVERB CLAUSES BEGIN WITH A SUBORDINATE CONJUN CONJUNCTION, CTION,1 (SUCH AS "after", after", "although "although", although", "if "if", if", "though "though", though", "while "while") while"), "), and MAY INCLUDE A SUBJECT AND/OR AND/OR A VERB. MOREOVER, in English, the adverb clause can either precede or follow the main clause.
IN EGYPTIAN, EGYPTIAN, ON THE OTHER HAND, THERE MAY OR MAY NOT BE A
SUBORDINATE SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION TO INTRODUCE INTRODUCE THE ADVERB CLAUSE CLAUSE, USE,2 clause in a sentence.
which tends to follow the main
In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated in black and the
adverbial phrases in blue. 36.2 EXAMPLES OF ADVERB ADVERB CLAUSES
h3b⋅k sš sš ḏd⋅f sḫ sḫr⋅k You will send the scribe (so that) he may say your plan. Note that the adverbial clause explains the reason why the scribe is sent. Such a clause is referred to as a "clause of purpose".
ìr⋅n⋅ì prt wpwp-w3wt swḏ swḏ3⋅f r nḏ nḏ (ì (ì)t⋅ )t⋅f
I conducted, lit. "did", the Procession of Wepwawet, (when) he goes forth to protect his father.3
m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅sn nfrw nš nšmt sm3⋅ sm3⋅n⋅s t3 r 3bḏ 3bḏw
They saw the beauty of the neshmet-bark, (after) it landed at Abydos.4
šm⋅n ḥm⋅f db mḥ mḥty n ḫrw pf ẖs m ḳ'ḥ rsy n t3 ìnt ḳny His Majesty set out (while) the northern wing of that vile enemy (was) in the southern bend of the stream in the Qina Valley.
ìnì⋅n⋅sn nswt ìnw pḫ pḫ⋅n⋅sn ẖnw They brought the king gifts (when) they reached the residence.
1 Some examples of English subordinating conjunctions are: "after", "although", "if", "though", "while", etc. 2 For a detailed discussion of Adverb Clauses, see §211 in EG 3. 3 Adapted from the stela of Ikhernofret, line 17. 4 Adapted from the stela of Ikhernofret, line 23. 180
An Egyptian Primer
However, when the adverb clause follows
ìst ,
it may precede the verb:
ìst pḥwy n mš mš' nḫ nḫtw n ḥm⋅f r dmì dmì n 'rwn3 pr⋅ pr⋅n ḥ3ty r t3 ìnt ḳny While the rearguard of the valiant army, lit. "army of victories", of His Majesty (was) in the town of Aruna, the vanguard emerged, lit. "went forth", into the Qina valley.
ìsṯ wì m s3b ìry nḫ nḫn rdì rdì wì wì ḥm⋅f m smr w'ty ḫntywntyw-š prpr-'3 While I was senior warden of Nekhen, His Majesty appointed me (as) sole companion and overseer of the royal tenants, lit. "tenants of the palace". 36.3 COMMENTARY A: As has been mentioned, in Egyptian, in contrast to English, no subordinating conjunction was required to introduce an adverb clause.
Therefore, when one clause followed another, the second clause could be
adverbial in nature. Sometimes the adverbial clause was introduced by a word such as When serving as an adverbial indicator,
ìst
or
ìsṯ
ìst, or
ì sṯ .
should be translated as "while".
B: In Egyptian, the adverbial clause was often a "clause of purpose".
ẖntywntyw-š , Khentyw-she, were probably individuals who worked the crown lands and paid a
C: The
tax to the king or temple for the privilege of doing so. Most likely they did not own the land they farmed. Such a form of land usage is termed "land in usufruct", and the right of using the land might be paid for in either produce, goods, or services. D:
prt, "a
pr, "go
ritual procession" is derived from
up", "ascend";
pr r, "go
up to", "advance
against" a position in war. E: The Procession of Wepwawet inaugurated the annual MYSTERIES OF OSIRIS OSIRIS at Abydos. This first procession was led by a priest portraying the god,
wpwp-w3wt, who acted as the herald for Osiris.
Other parts
of this ritual drama consisted of the defense of Osiris from "attackers", his death, and his resurrection.
Wepwawet, a jackal-headed deity,5 was a god of Upper Egypt. His name meant
OPENER OF THE WAYS
and
referred to his leading the dead into the underworld. At the conclusion of a royal funeral, a special adze, which wp-w3wt carried, was used to open the deceased monarch's mouth to enable his continued life after death.
5 The Greeks interpretation of wp-w3t was as a "wolf". 181
An Egyptian Primer F:
m33⋅ m33⋅n ḥm⋅f db mḥ mḥty n ḫrw pf ẖs m ḳ'ḥ rsy n t3 ìnt ḳny
His Majesty saw (that) the northern wing of that vile enemy (was) in the southern bend of the stream in the Qina valley. We could also translate the clause not as an adverb clause but rather as a noun direct object clause of the verb m33⋅ m33⋅n "saw".
db,
G: Note that the word
"wing", lit. "horn", refers to how an army arrayed itself for battle.
The front of the army generally curved away from the center towards either flank, so that if viewed from above the entire assemblage would be shaped like a pair of "horns". The Latin word cornus, "horn", was used by the Romans as well to indicate their army's wings. Similarly, we use such terms as "wing", "flank", and "corps" (originally from the Latin corpus, "body", via the French word of similar meaning). H: The Qina valley and Qina brook, where Menkheperre Thutmose (18-6, 1504-1450) fought a coalition headed by the king of Kadesh, are obviously foreign words in Egyptian.
In the Urk. IV (645-667)
transcription of the text (in the "Hall of Annals" in the temple at Karnak where the battle of Megiddo 6 was recorded), Qina probably appeared four times: Line 64
Line 73
Line 83
Line 85
and in the transcription of Gebel Barkal stela,7 line 19 in Urk. IV (1234,13): where it is written completely and not restored. In the places where the text is missing and "Qina" might logically belong, Sethe has restored the missing hieroglyphs (as indicated by the shaded areas), based on his judgment of the space available in which the signs could be written. Pparticular attention should be paid to any text where a restoration has been made because there may be more than one possible alternative suggestion for the missing text. In any case, it is possible that to the Egyptian on campaign, the name of the stream may have sounded either like ḳyn, ḳn3, or
ḳny [kēn, kēn-â, or kēn-ē].
6 Megiddo was the site of two other famous battles: in 609 BCE between the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (26-2, 610-595) and the Jewish king of Judea, Josiah, who was killed, and again in 1918 CE between the British army and the Ottoman Empire. It is predicted in the Book of Revelations in the New Testament, that the final battle called Armageddon, between good and evil (God and Satan), will take place here. 7 Gebel Barkal is located on the Nile some 100 km. north of the fourth cataract and about 600 km. south of the first cataract at Aswan. Here, Thutmoses III erected a granite stela c. 1457, which mentioned some of the more important historical events of his reign. 182
An Egyptian Primer
I: nḫtw, the adjective describing mš' , "army", means "victory". Thus, "army of victories", "victorious army", and "valiant army", are all suitable translations. J: The infrequent use of the article
(or
when written vertically),
t3,
does not appear until late
Middle Egyptian, beginning with Dynasty 13 (1786). At that time, the demonstrative adjectives8
t3, and
n3, began to be used for the article "the".
p3,
36.4 SOME EGYPT EGYPTIAN PTIAN TITLES TITLES FROM THE OLD OLD KINGDOM Numerous Old Kingdom titles have been found in the mastabas and tombs of officials. While such titularies varied in content, many contained the same titles. Besides the opening titularies, titles were scattered throughout the tomb texts whenever the individual described his rise through the Egyptian bureaucracy. The shaded restorations, transliterated in brackets [ ], can be made confidently on the basis of parallel texts in the same or contemporary tombs. OPENING TITULARY FROM THE TOMB CHAPEL CHAPEL OF WENI:9
[ḥ3ty3ty-' ìmymy-r šm' w] ìmymy-ìs s3 w nḫ nḫn ḥryry-tp nḫ nḫb smr w'ty [The Prince, Overseer of Upper Egypt], Chamberlain, Warden of Nekhen, Mayor of Nekheb, Sole Companion FROM THE FACADE OF HARKHUF'S TOMB:10
[ḥ3ty]-' ìmymy-r šm'w sḏ sḏ3wty bì bìty smr [w' ]ty ẖryry-ḥbt ìmymy-r ' w(w) [The Count], Governor of Upper Egypt, Royal Seal-bearer, Sole Companion, Lector Priest, Chief of Scouts (or Translators) FROM THE TOMB OF PEPYNAKHT EPYNAKHT:11
ḥ3ty3ty-' sḏ sḏ3wty 3wty bì bìty 12smr w' ty ẖryry-ḥbt ppì ppì-nẖt smr w' ty ìmymy-ìs s3w nḫ nḫn ḥryry-tp nḫ nḫb ìmymy-r 'ww The Count, Seal-bearer of the king of UE, Sole Friend, Lector Priest, Pepynakht, Unique Companion, Counselor, Mayor of Nekhen, Mayor of Nekheb, Leader of Scouts (or Translators) A. TITLE OFTEN OFTEN FOUND IN THE TITULARY OF THE VIZIER:
ìmymy-r k3t nbt nt nsw Superintendent of all the works of the King
8 See §24. 9 Urk. I, 98.8. Weni was probably born during the reign of Teti (6-1, 2345-2333). He served in the bureaucracy of Meryre Pepi (Pepi I, 6-3) and Merenre Antyemsaf I (Merenre, 6-4). 10 Urk. I, 120.14. Harkhuf served Merenre and Neferkare Pepi (Pepi II, 6-5). 11 Urk. I, 132,5. The tomb of Pepynakht was constructed during the reign of Pepi II. 12 Note the honorific transposition in sḏ3wty bìty. The sign, 183
, S19, can also be read ḫtmw.
An Egyptian Primer B. COMMONLY COMMONLY USED IN OK TITULARIES TITULARIES WERE: ,
ìmymy-ìs,13 Counselor, lit. "he
,
who is in the chamber"
ìmymy-r, Overseer, lit. "he who is in the mouth", i.e. "the one who gives orders" , ìmymy-r 'w(w), Chief of Scouts, Chief of Translators, Caravan Leader,
,
,
,
ìmymy-r šm'w, Overseer
ḥ3ty3ty-', Local ,
s3w nḫ nḫn,
ẖry ḥbt, Lector
,
,
,
ḥryry-tp nḫ nḫb, Mayor
of Nekheb
Priest
Guardian of Nekhen, Protector of Nekhen, Warden of Nekhen
smr smr w'ty, Sole
,
of Upper Egypt
Prince, Nomarch, Mayor ,
Chief Dragoman14
,
Companion (of the king), Sole Friend (of the king), Unique Friend (of the king)
sḏ3wt bì bìty (or ḫtmw bì bìty), Seal-bearer
of the king of Lower Egypt
Egyptians loved titles, and as the years went by, the tendency was for the tomb owners to list more and more of them, whether or not they actually held the position. In a FIP tomb in Dendera of an official
mrrì mrrì, he states "I
named
overthrew all his enemies in truth; this is not said as offices of the
(necropolis)." 15 36.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A47:
SHEPHERD SEATED AND WRAPPED IN A MANTLE, HOLDING A STICK WITH WITH APPENDAGE.
Logo. in mnì mnìw, "herdsman". Logo. or det. in "guard", "protect". E18:
WOLF (?) ON THE STANDARD R12, R12,
14
and
wpwp-w3wt, "(the wolf-god) Wepwawet", lit. "the opener of the ways".
13 The more common is as
. Logo/det. in
s3w,
,
,
,
. Note that the order is graphically reversed. When writing words with birds such
, etc., it was often the practice to place the more vertical sign of the two signs first. , ' w, "scout". While
, ' w, is one of the plurals of ' w,
, is also probably a plural, as the ìmy-r
would not likely be the overseer of only a single scout. Note also the use of , A2, rather than , A1 in 'w, an indication that he probably not only gave orders but also spoke more than one language. In a similar vein, the , ḫm-nṯr, "head priest", lit. "chief of priest(s)", would hardly be the overseer of only a single priest. 15 This practice is called by scholars "Title Inflation". For other examples of the expression "offices of the necropolis" used in the sense of an act or an office attributed to a person posthumously, see Fischer, Dendera in the Third Millenium B.C., pp. 142, 145 note i. Dendera is located on the west bank of the Nile 50 km. north of Luxor. 184
An Egyptian Primer 36.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION F13:
wp
HORNS OF OX.
F16:
'b
HORN.
F36:
sm3
LUNG AND WINDPIPE.
db, "horn".
Logo/det. in
"unite".
AND D54
"bring".
nḏ
DOUBTFUL.
16 From the MK on, inexplicably
, W24, accompanies
, Aa27.
185
sm3, "lung";
. Phon. or phon. det. in
For an unknown reason, phon. in "ask", "inquire".
36.6 36.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
'b, "horn".
Phon. in
Phon. or phon. det. in
COMBINATION OF W24
W25:
Aa27:
wpt, "horns", "brow". Phon. in , wp, "open", "inaugurate"; wpwty, "messenger". (Later there were some variant writings in which the sign seems to be read ìp.) Logo. in
,
sm3,
ìnì, "fetch", ,
nḏ, 16
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 37 THE DIRECT GENITIVE 37.1 37.1 THE DIRECT GENITIVE GENITIVE IS DEFINED AS A NOUN NOUN WHICH IMMEDIATELY IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWS ANOTHER NOU NOUN AND DESCRIBES THAT NOUN AND INDICATES "POSSESSION", POSSESSION", "ORIGIN "ORIGIN", ORIGIN", "CHARACTERISTIC "CHARACTERISTIC", CHARACTERISTIC", ETC. THE USE OF THE POSSESSIVE "s", e.g. "the king's house" house" OR "the "the house of the king" king" IS THE ENGLISH EQUIVALENT OF SUCH A CONSTRUCTION. CONSTRUCTION.
IN GENERAL, THE GENITIVAL ADJECTIVES S1 "OF GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE "OF", OF",
"BELONGING TO", TO", AND "FOR "FOR" FOR" ARE REQUIRED IN ENGLISH. ENGLISH. HOWEVER, EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN CAN HAVE TWO OR THREE SEQUENTIAL NOUNS WITHOUT ANY CONNECTING LINK TO SHOW POSSESSION. POSSESSION.
37.2 37.2 EXAMPLES OF THE DIRECT DIRECT GENITIVE A. USE IN ROYAL NAMES
ḥry 'nḫ 'nḫ mswt; mswt; nbty 'nḫ 'nḫ mswt; mswt; ḥr nbw 'nḫ 'nḫ mswt mswt; swt; n-swsw-bì t ḫprpr-k3-r '; s3 r ' ss-n-wsrt, dì dì 'nḫ 'nḫ ḏdt w3s mì r ' ḏt Horus Name: Life of Births; Two Ladies name: Life of Births; Golden Horus Name: Life of Births; Prenomen: King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Kheperkare; Nomen: Son of Re, Se-n-wosret, May (he) be Granted Life, Stability, and Wealth like Re Eternally2
ḥr k3 nḫ nḫt ḫ' m w3st; w3st; nbty w3ḥ w3ḥ nsyt 3 mì r ' m pt; pt; ḥr nbw sḫ sḫm pḥ pḥty ḏsr ḫ'w; n-swsw-bì t mnmn-ḫprpr-r ' ; s3 r ' ḏḥwty ḏḥwtywty-msms-nfrnfr-ḫpr(w), mry ḥt-ḥr nbt mfk3t Horus Name: Strong-Bull-Arising-in-Thebes; Two Ladies Name: Enduring-of-Kingship-like-Re-inHeaven; Golden Horus Name: Powerful-of-Strength, Holy-of-Diadems; Prenomen: King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Menkheperre; Nomen: Son of Re, Thutmoses, Beautiful-of-Forms, Beloved-ofHathor, Lady-of-the-Turquoise4 B. USE IN TITLES AND AND LAUDATORY EPITHETS (NOUN + NOUN) steward, lit. "overseer of the house"
ìmymy-r pr
priest, lit. "servant of god"
ḥm-nṯ r
sš pr
temple library scribe, lit. "scribe of the House of 'nḫ Life" 'nḫ venerable, lit. "possessor of veneration"
nb ìm3h
1 For other examples that are similar to the Direct Genitive, see §23.1, the Genitival Adjective. 2 Titulary of Kheperkare Senusert or Sesostris I (12-2, 1971-1928). 3 The translation of nsyt, "kingship", is uncertain. 4 Titulary of Menkheperre Thutmose or Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450). 186
An Egyptian Primer C. USE IN COMPO COMPOUND NOUNS (NOUN + NOUN) NOUN)
prpr-ns w
palace, lit. "house of the king"
temple, lit. "house of god"
ḥ wtwt-nṯr
prince, lit. "son of the king"
s3s3-ns w
t3š t3š kmt
frontier, lit. "the boundary of Egypt"
D. USE IN EPITHETS (ADJECTIVE (ADJECTIVE + NOUN)
m3'm3'-ḫr w
deceased (m.), lit. "true of voice", abbr.
or
deceased (f.), lit. "true of voice", abbr.
m3'tm3't-ḫr w
37.3 COMMENTARY A: Honorific transposition is found not only in the cartouches of royal titularies, but in the titles or epithets as well, which incorporate a function of the king, his palace staff, or a god. Note in the titulary of Thutmoses III that the
mI
, "like", follows the
ḥt-ḥr nbt mfk3t, "beloved
r'
and that the
mry
follows after
of Hathor, Lady of the Turquoise".
B: It is the custom to translate the prenomens and the nomens in the king's titulary in their transliterated form.
Thus, in the titulary of Thutmoses III, the prenomen
"the form of Re endures" is translated as "Menkheperre". Similarly, in his nomen
nfrnfr-ḫpr(w), his birth name ḏḥwty ḏḥwtywty-ms (which in a more complete spelling is
mnmn-ḫprpr-r ', lit. ḏḥwty ḏḥwtywty-msms) is not translated
in its literal meaning, "Thoth is born", but either as "djhwtyms" or "Thutmoses". This is followed by the epithet consisting of an adjective plus noun,
nfrnfr-ḫpr(w), "beautiful
of forms". It is quite common to
insert such epithets into a titulary. C:
, var.
D:
nb, "lord" or "master" can also mean a "possessor" or "owner". m3'm3'-ḫrw,
and
m3'tm3't-ḫrw
were very common epithets in texts to indicate a deceased
individual. 37.4 THE NINE BOWS AND OTHER EGYPTIAN ENEMIES ENEMIES The NINE BOWS,5 a term first used during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181), referred to the enemies encircling the Nile Valley. While the groups encompassing the Nine Bows varied throughout Egyptian history, what was to become the standard listing of these enemies appeared during the reign of Nebmaatre Amenhotep6 (18-9, 1417-1379). The list found in tombs as well on the dais of his sed-festival pavilion, included: 5 For a more detailed discussion, see E. Uphill, "The Nine Bows", JEOL 19 (1966), pp. 393-420. 6 Amenophis III. 187
An Egyptian Primer 1. , ḥ3(w) nbwt , located in the north, possibly a seafaring people from the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, ranging from the coast of Lebanon to the islands of Rhodes and Crete. 2. , , , š3t(yw), who were located in northern Nubia and south of the ìwntyw sty. , t3
3.
, sḫt(yw)
4. 5. 6. Delta.
šm'w, the land of Upper Egypt.
,
ìm, located in the southwestern desert.
ṯḥnw ṯḥnw, located to the west in the Libyan desert.
,
,
, t3
mḥ mḥw, the land of Lower Egypt, the
7.
,
pḏtyw šw, located in the east.
8.
,
ìwntyw sty, located in northern Nubia and north of the
š3tyw. 9.
,
mntyw nw stt,
located to the northeast indicating
bedouins of Asia. and ithe ithe New Kingdom (1567(1567-1085), 1085), may have referred to
MAP 37.437.4-1. OLD KINGDOM KINGDOM LOCATION OF THE NINE BOWS.
Naharin. Naharin. The nine groups were represented by T10, a bow, ,7 and were often portrayed as individual captives, their arms tied behind their back, and with an identifying name associated with each figure. Interestingly enough, the list included some of the groups living within both Upper and Lower Egypt. The earliest mention of the Nine Bows may be on a mace head of the Scorpion king (pre-dynastic), where nine bows were depicted hanging from the nome standards and thus were symbolically subjugated. The mace head is only partially preserved and no names are present. In the Old Kingdom the list of enemies was limited to small areas or kingdoms, while in later years it not only encompassed individual enemies but also entire countries and geographic areas as they came under Egyptian domination. During the OK, the desert peoples were scornfully referred to as
ḥrywryw-š'y,
"sand dwellers". In the tomb of Weni, fl. 2300 BCE, reference is made to the "Asiatic sand
'3mw '3mw ḥrywryw-š' , as well as "the
dwellers",
š,
land of the sand dwellers",
t3 ḥrywryw-
.
Beginning in Dynasty 12 (1991-1786) during the Middle Kingdom (2133-1786), the Egyptians referred to their enemies with the perjorative
ẖs .
The epithet indicated "vile", "defeated", or "wretched",
depending on context. In the annals of the Asiatic Campaigns of Thutmoses III, there are several
7 See Fig. 37.4-1. 188
An Egyptian Primer
ḫrw pf ẖs n ḳdšw, "that
references to "that vile enemy", e.g.
vile
enemy of Kadesh".8 From the earliest day, nomadic peoples were found in the Eastern and Western Deserts. To the south, were numerous petty kingdoms which eventually came under Egyptian hegemony or were absorbed into the Nubian kingdom. For example, in a picture of the seated king Akheprure Amenhotep9 (18-7, 1438-1412), 11 names are found on the dais under his throne. The obvious significance is that they are under the king's feet, i.e. subject to him. These names included seven10 from the standard listing of the Nine Bows and with the addition of: , , , nhr nhr n, Naharin, approximating modern day northeast Syria, Iraq, and the portion of Turkey bordering those two countries. ,
kf tyw, Crete. Crete.
, , r ṯn w, Retjenew, encompassing modern day central and western Syria, Syria, Lebanon, western Jordan, and Israel. Sometimes divided into "Upper" and "Lower" sections. ,
m nṯ w, bedouins.
On the so-called Israel stela of Merneptah (19-7, 1209-1200) are the lines: "The princes are prostrate, saying 'Mercy!' Not one raises his head among the Nine Bows, Desolation is for Tehenu; Hatti is pacified; Plundered is the Canaan with every evil; Carried off is Ashkelon; seized upon upon is Gezer; Yanoam is made as that which does not exist; Israel is laid waste, his seed is not; not; Hurru is become a widow for Egypt! All lands lands together, they are pacified; Everyone who was restless, he has been bound." 11 This the only mention of Israel in an Egyptian text. On the other hand, there are many references to the Nine Bows throughout Egyptian history.
8 Adapted from Urk. IV, 649,5 and discussed in §24.3, B. 9 Amenoophis II. 10 Omitted were the ḥ3(w) nbwt and the š3tyw. 11 Pritchard, p.378. Frank Yurco in "3,200-Year-Old Picture of Israelite Found in Egypt", BAR, Vol. 16, No. 5., pp. 19-38, suggests that some battle scenes on the walls of the Amun-Re Karnak temple previously attributed to Ramesses II (19-3, 1304-1237) portray Merneptah's Israel campaign. Anson Rainey in "Shasu or Habiru, Who Were the Early Israelites?", BAR, Vol. 34, No. 6., pp. 51-55, argues that references to the shasu in Egyptian texts actually refer to early Israelites. Furthermore, he believes that Israelites are actually shown on another panel in the Amun-Re temple among captured shasu from Merneptah's campaign. 189
An Egyptian Primer A pair of sandals found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (18-12, 1361-1352) have the upper surface of their soles decorated with two bound captives from Nubia and Asia and eight "Bow" hieroglyphs. With each step that the king took, he literally and figuratively crushed his enemies with the bottoms of his feet. Note that there are a total of Ten Bows if the two captives are counted. The number "nine" could also indicate "many" and while the number of the traditional enemies did vary from time to time, the Nine Bows indicated that group regardless of the actual size. Similarly, the gods of the Ennead, meaning nine gods, sometimes only numbered as few as six, but such groupings of less than nine were still referred to as "The Ennead".
FIG 37.437.4-1. SANDALS OF TUTANKHAMUN TUTANKHAMUN WITH IMAGES OF THE
TRADITIONAL ENEMIES ENEMIES OF EGYPT UNDER UNDER HIS FEET.
In the series of scenes depicting the conflict between the Egyptians and the Sea People in the mortuary temple of Usermaatre-meryamun Ramesses (20-2, 1198-1166) at Medinet Habu near the Valley of the Kings, is this inscription: "His horses are like falcons in the midst of small birds [before] the Nine
190
An Egyptian Primer Bows, bearing victory". Moreover, the king is addressed at the victory celebration with "Your strength crushes the Nine Bows, and every land trembles at your name.", evidence that over time, the Nine Bows had become equated with the enemy of the hour and, as the Nine Bows had been defeated since time immemorial, so too was the latest enemy of Egypt.
37.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A35:
MAN BUILDING A WALL.
Logo/det. in
B3:
WOMAN GIVING BIRTH.
Logo/det. in
D45:
ARM WITH HAND HOLDING HOLDING THE nḥbt-WAND.
F12:
words.
F39:
HEAD AND NECK OF A CANINE CANINE ANIMAL.
Logo. in
BACKBONE WITH SPINAL CORD CORD ISSUING FROM IT.
G8:
, var.
nbw, "Horus of Gold".
SACRED IBIS ON THE STANDARD STANDARD R12, R12,
ḏḥwty ḏḥwty, "(the) ibis god) Thoth".
š3
wsr t, "neck".
,
CLAW.
Phon. š3 in
REEDS GROWING SIDE BY BY SIDE.
O10:
COMBINATION OF O6
hb, "ibis".
. Det. in
AND
Logo/det. in
G5
.
ḥt-ḥr, "(the goddess) Hathor".
COLUMN WITH TENON AT TOP.
R19:
W3S, ì3tt
THE w3s-SCEPTER WITH BINDING STRIP AND FEATHER.
sṯ , st
"Heliopolis".
Logo. in
emblem of its town
ì3tt, "milk", "cream".
SHOULDER-KNOT.
Logo. in
sḫt, "marshland".
ìwn
S22:
ḥr n
, S12. S12. In title of the king,
O28:
also in
ìm3ḫ m3ḫ, "spinal
Logo. in
š3t, "(the land of) Shat".
M20:
ìwny ;12
Phon. in
, "venerated state", "honored".
FALCON OF HORUS ON SIG SIGN IGN FOR GOLD,
G26:
ḏsr, "holy",
Logo/det. in
wsr, "powerful". cord"; also in
H7:
msì msì, "bear", "give birth", and related
"sacred".
wsr
ḳd, "build".
,
Phon. in
ìwn, "column".
w3st, "Thebes".
Phon. in
ìwnw,
Emblem of Nome 4 of UE,
For unknown reasons,
See also S40 below.
sṯt and
stt, "Asia".
12 The Greeks called Nome 4 of UE "Hermonthis", which was derived from ìwny-mnṯw, "(the war god) Montu of Iwny". 191
An Egyptian Primer 37.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERAT DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION RANSLITERATION S40:
T9:
T9*:
W3S , ì3tt
SCEPTER WITH STRAIGHT STRAIGHT SHAFT AND HEAD OF SETH (?) ANIMAL.
w3s, "was-scepter".
Phon. in
Logo/det. in
ì3tt, "milk", "cream".
,
See also R19.
pḏ
BOW CONSISTING OF ORYX ORYX HORMS JOINED BY A WOODEN CENTERPIECE CENTERPIECE.
pḏ
OK FORM OF T9
Logo/det. in
pḏt. "bow". .
T10:
COMPOSITE BOW WITH MIDDLE MIDDLE TIED TO BOWSTRING BOWSTRING WHEN OUT OF USE.
T15:
(1) THROW-STICK, (2) CLUB AS A FOREIGN WEAPON WEAPON OF WARFARE. OK form of T14 .
Aa28:
BRICKLAYERS INSTRUMENT (?). (?).
ìwnt, "bow".
"reputation" (of a person); Aa32:
ARCHAIC TYPE OF BOW.
Logo. in
192
ḳd ,
"form", "character" or
ḳd, "build", "fashion (pots)".
Logo/det. in
37.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE NSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRA TRANSLATE:
,
Det. in
t3t3-st(ì st(ì), "(the land of) Sti", "Nubia".
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 38 THE INFINITIVE AND THE GERUND 38.1 IN ENGLISH, ENGLISH, THE INFINITIVE IS "TO" TO" + THE STEM FORM OF A VERB ("TO ("TO GO", GO", "TO "TO SIT", SIT", "TO "TO THINK"). THINK"). THE GERUND IS A NOUN FORMED FROM THE VERB STEM + "ING "ING" ("GOING", "SITTING", "THINKING ING" ("GOING GOING", "SITTING SITTING", "THIN THINKING"). KING"). In English, certain verbs must be followd by the infinitive form ("agreed to ask", "decided to go"), while others must be followed by the gerund form ("deny knowing", "dislike eating").
Some verbs
can take both with no change in meaning: "love to read" or "love reading", "start to work" or "start working".
Others, however, have a change in meaning: "I stopped to smoke" or "I stopped
smoking". THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE INFINITIVE OR GERUND SERVES IN VARIOUS WAYS WAYS: As SUBJECT :
To sail/sailing is fun. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the subject of the verb "is".
As OBJECT :
I like to sail/sailing. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the direct object of the verb "like".
As ADVERB :
A strong wind is good to sail/for sailing. Here, "to sail/for sailing" modifies "good".
As ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE :
I bought a ship to sail or I bought a sailing ship. Here, "to sail/sailing" modifies "ship".
The Egyptian usage is similar, especially in an adjectival phrase after the preposition
n.
Notice that in the prior four examples, the infinitive "to sail" could be replaced by the noun "sailing" and the sense of the sentence would be unchanged. AN INFINITIVE OR GERUND PHRASE CONSISTS OF AN AN INFINITVE OR GERUND AND ITS MODIFIERS:
The direct object of "to 1. INFINITIVE OR GERUND with NOUN OBJECT OBJECT: I like to sail/sailing a boat. sail/sailing" is "a boat". The entire phrase "to sail/sailing a boat" is the direct object of the verb "like". 2. INFINITIVE OR GERUND with ADVERB MODIFIER: The captain liked to sail/sailing swiftly. The adverb describing "to sail/sailing" is "swiftly". The entire phrase "to sail/sailing swiftly" is the direct object of the verb "liked". 3. INFINITIVE OR GERUND + A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE PHRASE: I like to sail/sailing in a small boat. Here, "to sail/sailing" is the object of the prepositional phrase "in a small boat" and "to sail/sailing in a small boat" is the direct object of the verb "like".
NOTE: IN EGYPTIAN, THE THE INFINITIVE AND THE THE GERUND HAVE THE SAME SAME FORM. IT IS ONLY IN THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION WHERE IT MUST MUST BE DECIDED WHETHER TO TRANSLATE THE HIEROGLYPHS HIEROGLYPHS AS AN INFINITIVE OR GERUND.
193
An Egyptian Primer
38.2 FORMS OF THE EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN INFINITIVE OR GERUND GERUND
In Egyptian, the two consonant verbs sometimes add the feminine infinitive. Triliteral verbs ending in
,
– t,
to the verb to indicate the
– ì 1 (or more rarely – w ) add the feminine – t,
the triliterals with different root letters do not.
while the balance of
They are called feminine and masculine infinitives
respectively. A. INFINITIVE OR GERUND WITH VARIATION IN ROOT LETTERS LETTERS 1. INFINITIVE OR GERUND OF BILITERAL VERB WITH DIFFERENT ROOT LETTERS
wn
, open
, go
šm
wn
, to open, opening (masc.)
šmt
, to go, going (fem.)
2. INFINITIVE OR GERUND OF TRILITERAL VERB ENDING IN -ì OR –w 2 , go forth
pr, pr(ì pr(ì)
, rejoice
rš, rš rš(w)
, find
gm, gm(ì gm(ì)
, praise (someone)
ḥs, ḥs(ì s(ì) rdì rdì
, give
smì smì dmì dmì s3w
, to go forth, going forth
prt ršwt gmt ḥst
, to rejoice, rejoicing
, to find, finding
, to praise, praising (someone)
, to give, giving
rdì rdì t
, report
, touch
, guard
smì smì t dmì dmìt s3wt
, to report, reporting
, to touch, touching
, to guard, guarding
1 As mentioned in §19.3, up to this point some Egyptian verbs have been consistently treated as though they were biliterals, except for those which were genuinely triliteral. Many Egyptian verbs, while written with only two letters, were actually triliteral, and their final –ì, while vocalized, was only rarely written. , which has been treated as pr, may also be transliterated as prì. From now on, the full writing with a final -ì will be shown for some roots which formerly have been presented as if they were biliterals. 2 Many of the most commonly used verbs belong to this 3rd weak class. The final ì appears very rarely but is occasionally found in the sḏm⋅f form during the FIP and MK. Scholars include this ì in the writing of the infinitive. 194
An Egyptian Primer 3. INFINITIVE OR GERUND OF TRILITERAL VERB WITH DIFFERENT ROOT LETTERS
wḏ3 sḏ m
, prosper
wḏ3
, hear
sḏ m
, to prosper, prospering
, to hear, hearing
B. INFINITIVE OR GERUND PARTS OF SPEECH 1. AS SUBJECT
nfr ìrt m3't
, To do m3't is good.
2. AS DIRECT OBJECT , His Majesty commanded to sail downstream to Thebes.
wḏ⋅n ḥm⋅f ḫdìt r w3st w3st wḏ⋅n ìmymy-r ìrty ẖnt m wsr w
, The captain commanded to row with strength.
3. AFTER GENITIVAL ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
s ìḳr n wb3 n⋅ n⋅f ìb
, an excellent man to be confided in, lit. "of opening to him the heart" 3
4. AFTER PREPOSITION
r ìnt n⋅ n⋅ì ḳrsw pn m rr-3ww
, in order to bring me this sarcophagus from Tura 4
, His Majesty proceeds north to overthrow the Bedouins of Asia.5
wḏ3 ḥm⋅f m ḫdìt r sḫ sḫrt mnṯ mnṯw sṯ sṯ t
Note that this example contains two infinitives after prepositions: (lit. "to travel downstream", or "in traveling downstream"), and
m ḫdìt, "to travel north, r sḫ sḫrt, "to overthrow". ,
5. AS AS VERB WITH ITS SUBJCET
rdì rdìt ìn ḥm⋅f pr ḳn nb n mš mš'⋅f
, His Majesty caused every brave (man) of his army to go forth. 6
3 EG 3, p. 229, note 6 citing Volume II, p.21, line 4 of El Bersheh in Archaeological Survey of Egypt by P.E. Newberry. 4 Based on Urk. I, 99/14. 5 Based on EG 3, p. 228, n. 8 citing "The Stela of Sebek-khu" in The Manchester Museum Handbooks, T.E. Peet. 6 Ibid., p. 230, n. 3, citing Urk. IV, 894. 195
An Egyptian Primer 6. AS VERB WITH DIRECT DIRECT OBJECT a. WITH NOUN DIRECT OBJECT OBJECT , My brother loves our sister.
mrì mrìt snt⋅ snt⋅n ìn sn⋅ sn⋅ì
Compare this construction to the normal VERB-NOUN SUBJECT-NOUN DIRECT OBJECT construction:
mrì mrì sn⋅ sn⋅ì snt⋅ snt⋅n
, My brother loves our sister.
b. WITH PRONOUN PRONOUN DIRECT OBJECT Note in the following examples that a pronoun direct object of the infinitive will normally be a suffix pronoun and not a dependent pronoun. The only common exception to this rule is the singular dependent pronoun st.
ìì.n.ì ḥr šms .f
, I returned accompanying him.7
, He put me down without hurting me.8
w3ḥ w3ḥ .n .f wì nn dmì dmìt.ì gmt.f ìn sn.s
, Her brother found him.
šm.n.ì r smì smìt st
, I went to report it.9
7. IN NARRATIVE HEADINGS HEADINGS
ìrt mẖ mẖr w sr w wḥ wḥ'w n šmsw
, Giving provisions to the officers (and) rations to the followers, i.e. the army.10 , Posting the sentries of the army; saying to them, "Be "B steadfast, be steadfast! Be vigilant, be vigilant!"11
sš rsw n ms' ḏd n .sn mnmn-ìb sp sn rsrs-tp sp sn
ììt ììt m ḥtpw ìn wrw nw kftyw
, Coming in peace by the chieftains of Crete.12
7 Ibid., p. 225, n. 3, citing volume I, p. 8., line 10, of "Beni Hasan" in Archaeological Survey of Egypt, P.E. Newberry and F.L. Griffith. 8 Based on A. De Buck's transcription of The Shipwrecked Sailor, p. 102, 78-79. 9 Ibid., p. 104, 157. 10 Urk. IV, 656, 7-8 from the Hall of Annals at Karnak describing the Asiatic campaign of Thutmoses III (18-6, 1504-1450). This and the next example may represent actual excerpts from a military log or "day book" of a campaign. 11 Ibid. 9-12. 12 Ibid., p.233, n. 1 citing Urk. IV, 1098, from the tomb of Rekhmire, vizier during the reign of Thutmoses III. 196
An Egyptian Primer 38.3 COMMENTARY A: To sum up, the infinitive/gerund is a verb form which can serve as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In translation, the gerund form often supplies the better meaning.
– t, when forming the infinitive/gerund. This class of verbs is called "3rd weak" or "3ae inf.", i.e. triliteral verbs ending in – ì, also add the – t when forming the infinitive. Triliteral verbs not ending in – í do not affix any letter when forming the infinitive.
B: Many biliteral verbs affix
C: Only a few of the third weak class retain the final give
rdì rdì
>
rdì rdìt
to give
report
>
smì smì
–í
in the infinitive/gerund as in:
to report
smì smìt
touch
dmì dmì
>
to touch
dmì dmìt
D: Sometimes the agent13 can be an inanimate object, as demonstrated in the story of THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR: , I was brought to this island by a wave of the sea.14
ìn .n .ì r ì w pn ìn w3 w n w3ḏ w3ḏ-wr E: The infinitive or gerund
íb, lit. "enduring
or
endure/enduring" may be used in compound usage as in
of the heart", i.e. "be steadfast". Similarly, the infinitive/gerund
alert" in compound usage F:
mn, "to
sp sn,
rsrs-tp, lit. "to
rs, "to
mnmnbe
alert the head" or "alerting the head", i.e. "be vigilant".
lit. "two times", indicates that the word or words immediately preceding it are to be
repeated twice. G:
, Coming in peace by the chieftains of Crete
í í t m ḥtpw ín wr w nw kf tyw
If the infinitive or gerund of a verb has a suffix pronoun attached, that suffix pronoun is the subject of the infinitive or gerund. 38.4 SYMBOLS OF ROYALTY ROYALTY In addition to the four crowns worn by the king, plus the war crown and the uraeus,15 other royal symbols included: THE AWET-SCEPTER:
,
' wt ;
THE FLAIL (FORM OF A WHIP): THE SICKLE SHAPED SWORD SWORD
or SCIMITAR:
,
nḫ3ḫ3 or
,
ḫpš .
13 The grammatical term for an inanimate agent is an "instrument". 14 Ibid. p.102, 109-110. 15 See §20.4. 197
,
nḫḫw ḫḫw ; and
An Egyptian Primer While the king was almost always clean shaven, he was usually represented wearing a wig and beard, as in Signs A41, A42, A45, and A46:
,
,
, and
. See also Fig. 20.4-2. This artificial beard was also worn
by ruling queens as well, e.g. the representations of Maatkare Hatshepsut (18-6, 1503-1482) sporting a beard. The nemes,16 a blue and gold striped cloth headdress was another royal symbol. At the front it had two lappet-like appendages extending to the shoulders (Fig. 38.4-2) while in the rear it was gathered together. See Fig. 38.4-1. The ruler was often depicted wearing a robe and kilt from which a bull's tail hung down at the back.
FIG. 38.438.4-1. A SEATED BEARDLESS STATUE OF QUEEN HATSHEPSUT HATSHEPSUT, WEARING A nemes, FROM DEIR AL-BAHRI.
FIG. 38.438.4-2. TUTANKHAMUN'S GOLD MASK WITH A Uraeus ON HIS FOREHEAD FOREHEAD AND UNDER HIS CHIN AN ATTACHMENT FOR A BEARD.
Many Old Kingdom (2682-2182) titles attest to the king's way of life – his dress, his accoutrements, hsi food, his department supervisors. represented as
or even as
The king's palace, the
prpr-'3,
lit. "the great house", could be
. Sometimes the palace was referred to as the
the king"). 16 The Sphinx at Giza is also portrayed wearing the nemes, see Fig. 11.4-1. 198
prpr-nswt
("house of
An Egyptian Primer Some examples of those attending the king in this period included: , Unique Friend of the King
, Royal Noble of the Palace
smr w'ty prpr-'3
špsw nswt prpr-'3
, a royal acquaintance of the king, see §21.4.
rḫ nswt prpr-'3
, Keeper of, lit. "the one pertaining to", the Property of the Palace
ìryry-ḫt prpr-'3
ìmymy-r k3t nbt nt nsw
, Superintendent of all the Works of the King
, Judge and Boundary Official of the Palace
'ḏ-mr prpr-'3
, Overseer of the Apartments of the Palace
ìmymy-r ìpt prpr-'3
ìmymy-r sḫ sḫtyw n prpr-nsw ìmymy-r
, Overseer of Field Workers of the Palace
, Overseer of Ten (men) of the Palace 10 prpr-'3
, Keeper of the Diadem
ìry nfrnfr-ḥ3t
, Director of the Hairdressers of the Palace
ḫrp ìrywryw-šnw prpr-'3
, Keeper of the Cloth of the Palace
ìryry-šsr prpr-'3
, Keeper of the Oil of the Palace
ìryry-mrḥ mrḥt prpr-'3
ìmymy-r sš sš n nsw
, Scribe of the Butchers of the Palace
, Overseer of the Writing of the King
, Herdsman of the Palace
sš bḥ bḥw(w) prpr-'3
mìnw prpr-'3
, Q2, another symbol of royalty.
When the king appeared in public, he was carried in a portable chair,
The chair was surrounded by fan bearers who were members of the court, carrying sunshades made from ostrich feathers,
, S35. When the king went forth from his palace in his chariot,
,
wrr(y)t, he
was accompanied by an armed guard, some whom ran before him to clear his path while others trotted at his side for his protection. The public rarely came in direct contact with the king. 38.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A27:
ín
MAN HASTENING WITH ONE ONE ARM RAISED RAISED.
Phon.
A42:
KING, SAME AS
, A41, A41, BUT WITH FLAGELLUM,
A45:
KING WEARING CROWN OF OF LOWER EGYPT,
of Lower Egypt. 199
, ìn, "by". , S45. S45.
, S3. S3. Logo. or det in
bìty, king
An Egyptian Primer
38.5 38.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION A46:
KING, SAME AS
, A45, A45, BUT WITH FLAGELLUM,
D3:
HAIR.
D19: D19:
NOSE, EYE AND CHEEK.
Det in
"nose". Det. in
ẖnt, "face", "joy"; D41:
K3:
, S45. S45.
, šny, "hair". Logo/det. in
,
, šrt, "nose", "nostril";
, fnḏ fnḏ, in OK, later
, sn, "smell", "kiss";
, ḫntš ntš, "take pleasure";
nì
FOREARM WITH PALM OF HAND DOWNWARDS.
'd ('ḏ?)
FISH.
, fnd , ,
, rš(w), "rejoice". , gb3, "arm",
Det. in
, r mn, "shoulder", "arm".
Det. in 'dw, the bûrì fish. Phon. in the title , 'd'd-mr, "Administrator of a Province", probably lit. "Excavator of Canal(s)"
Q2:
PORTABLE SEAT (SOMETIMES REVERSED).
S35:
SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH OSTRICH FEATHERS.
Logo/det. in
Logo. in
, šwt, "shadow", "shade".
, sryt, "military standard".
S36:
SUNSHADE OF OSTRICH FEATHERS.
OK form of
, S35.
S44:
WALKING STICK WITH FLAIL FLAIL,
S45:
FLAIL FLAIL; PERHAPS ORIGINALLY AN INSTRUMENT USED BY BY GOAT-HERDS FOR COLLECTING
, 3ms, "club", "mace".
, S45. S45. Logo/det. in
MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES FROM PLANTS.
, nḫḫw ḫḫw, var.
Logo. or det. in
nḫ3ḫ3, "flail", "flagellum", "whip".
PIECES OF WOOD JOINED JOINED TOGETHER AND LASHED LASHED TO MAKE A JOINT.
T13:
Logo. (?) in
, rs, "be wakeful", "vigilant". , ḫpš, "scimitar".
T16:
SCIMITAR.
Det. in
T17:
CHARIOT.
Logo. or det. in
T18:
CROOK,
, wrrt, wrr(y)t, "chariot".
, S39, S39, WITH A PACKAGE CONTAINING CONTAINING A KNIFE, ETC. LASHED TO IT. Logo. in
, šms, "follow", "accompany". U26: V7:
Z8:
šn
DRILL USED TO BORE A HOLE IN A BEAD.
Logo. in
, wb3, "open".
LOOP OF CORD WITH WITH ENDS DOWNWARD.
Phon. in
, šnì, "encircle";
šn, "tree"; OVAL.
Det. in
, šn', "repel".
, šnw, "circuit". A different sign from
200
, N18.
,
38.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
An Egyptian Primer
201
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 39 NEGATION 39.1 EGYPTIANS EXPRESSED EXPRESSED NEGATION IN A WIDE VARIETY OF WAYS, WAYS, DEPENDING ON WHETHER WHETHER THE NEGATION TOOK PLACE IN THE PAST, PRESENT, PRESENT, OR FUTURE : A. NEGATION FOR PAST EVENTS: EVENTS: a
sḏm⋅f verb was preceded by an n,
:
, "He did not hear ..... ";
n sḏ sḏm⋅f
B. NEGATION FOR PRESENT PRESENT EVENTS: a
sḏm⋅n⋅f verb was preceded by an n,
:
, "He does not hear .....";
n sḏ sḏm⋅n⋅f
C. NEGATION FOR FUTURE EVENTS: EVENTS: a
sḏm⋅f verb was preceded by an nn,
:
, "He will not hear .....".
nn sḏ sḏm⋅f
D.TO EXPRESS "NEVER , WAS USED "NEVER", NEVER", n sp, USED AS AN EMPHATIC FORM, FORM, INDICATING THAT A PARTICULAR EVENT NEVER HAPPENED:
n sp sḏ sḏm⋅f
, "He never heard .....".
39.2 EXAMPLES OF NEGATION A. NEGATION OF PAST EVENTS
n m33⋅ m33⋅ì t3yty s3b ṯ3ty sr sr nb ìm n r dì⋅f wI 'ntyw nbw n wš wšb⋅sn sw
, I did not see the t3yty, the senior official vizier, (or) any magistrate there.
, He did not give me any myrrh.
, They did not answer him.
B. NEGATION OF OF PRESENT PRESENT EVENTS
n m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅ì t3yty s3b ṯ3ty sr nb ìm
, I do not see the t3yty, the senior official vizier, (or) any magistrate there. , While the rear guard stands here in Aruna and does not fight.
ì w n3 n pḥ pḥwy ' ḥ' '3 m 'rwn3 n ' ḥ3⋅n⋅sn n gm⋅ gm⋅n⋅f ḫr w w'
, He does not find a single enemy.
202
An Egyptian Primer
C. NEGATION OF OF FUTURE EVENTS
, I will not see the t3yty, the senior official vizier, (or) any magistrate there.
nn m33⋅ m33⋅ì t3yty s3b ṯ3ty sr nb ìm
, I will not mention to you a little daughter.1
nn sḫ sḫ3⋅ì n⋅ n⋅k s3t ktt
, I will not cause that my army of victory go forth before me in this place.
nn (r)d⋅ (r)d⋅ì prì prì mš mš'⋅ì n nḫ nḫtyw ẖr-ḥ3t ḥm⋅ì m st sn D. NEVER
, I never saw the t3yty, the senior official vizier, (or) any magistrate there.
n sp m33⋅ m33⋅ì t3yty s3b ṯ3ty sr nb ìm , I never answered him.
n sp wš wšb⋅ì sw
n sp ḏd⋅ì ḫt nb(t) ḏw(t) n sḫ sḫm
, I never said anything evil to a superior, lit. "a powerful one".
39.3 COMMENTARY A: The
n sḏ sḏm⋅n⋅f
form often carried an additional nuance, namely that of "cannot". Thus, in the example
in B. above: B:
ì w n3 n pḥ pḥwy ' ḥ' '3 m 'rwn3 n ' ḥ3⋅n⋅sn "While the rear guard stands here in Aruna and does not fight." could be better translated as "While the rear guard stands here in Aruna and cannot fight." C: "Never" was indicated by the use of
n sp preceding the present tense verb.
t3yty, s3b ṯ3ty, and sr nb were often grouped together in the vizier's titulary. The , , or , the t3yty, was probably a very high OK official, possibly the "Chief Judge". A s3b was a dignitary of unknown rank, sometimes prefixed to titles as in s3b sš sš, "Senior Scribe". The sr w, were probably lower court judges as well as advisors to local government officials. In THE TALE OF THE ELOQUENT PEASANT the duties of the srw srw, may be inferred from the
D: The three titles,
peasant's accusations that they have failed to protect him from an evil official. 2
1 From De Buck's translation of The Shipwrecked Sailor, 103/9. The sailor is listening to the talking snake relating his tale of survival after the death of his brethren and daughter. Note reversed V31, to indicate original text in Hieratic. 2 For a detailed look into the Egyptian legal system, see Shupak, N., "A New Source for the Study of Judiciary and Law in Ancient Egypt: 'The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant ' ", JNES 51 (1966), 1-18. 203
An Egyptian Primer E: In the discussion of "Never" above,
n sp ḏd⋅ì ḫt nb(t) both nbt and ḏwt, must be ,
ḏw(t) n sḫ sḫm, note that .... ḫt nb(t) ḏw(t) ..., "... feminine because they must agree with ḫt.
anything evil ....", that
39.4 THE DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF THE EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE Egyptian temples can be divided into two types: 1] The houses of worship dedicated to the local deity which were called a
ḥwtwt-nṯr, lit. "mansion
of the god"; and, 2] The mortuary temples which contained not
only a chapel for worship dedicated to the deceased ruler, but also quarters to house the priests.
In the Old (2686-2182) and Middle (2133-1786) Kingdoms, the mortuary temples were usually built adjacent to the king's pyramid. In the New Kingdom (1567-1085), they were built as separate monuments because the rulers were now buried in the Valley of the Kings in tombs cut into the cliff and valley floor.3 During the NK, the mortuary temple also served as a state temple.
FIG. 39.439.4-1. THE MORTUARY TEMPLEOF TEMPLEOF QUEEN HATSHEPSUT HATSHEPSUT (18(18-5, 15031503-1482) AT DEIR ALAL-BAHRI, NEAR THE VALLEY VALLEY OF THE KINGS, 1958. The building of a temple often followed a set procedure: the king was ordered by the god to build a temple; a site was selected, prepared, and sanctified; the king himself laid a line on the earth to indicate the outline
3 The robbing of the mastaba and pyramid tombs forced the pharaohs to seek a more secure location in which to be buried. Even so, many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were plundered in antiquity. 204
An Egyptian Primer of the building;4 and then the erection of the temple commenced. A description of the procedure may be found in the BUILDING INSCRIPTION OF KHEPERKARE SENUSERT (12-2, 1971-1928).5 Foundation deposits, similar to our modern practice of inserting memorabilia into cornerstones, were placed by the Egyptians in the corners and/or under doorways of a new structure. These deposits varied from site to site, but usually included ceremonial bricks of clay, faience or metal; food; tools; and sometimes even bird and animal offerings to the god.
FIG. 39.439.4-2. HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK. NOTE
FIG. 39.439.4-3. HOLY-OF-HOLIES IN THE RELOCATED RELOCATED TEMPLE OF RAMESSES II AT ABU SIMBEL, 1984
FLORAL COLUMNS COLUMNS AND CLERESTORY WINDOW, 1958.
4 A ritual called "the stretching of the cord" in which the goddess Seshat is often shown helping the king to drive in the guide stakes. She was the goddess of writing and the library. In representations of campaigns of war, she is portrayed counting and recording the enemies slain and captured. 5 A translation of this leather roll in the Berlin Museum may be found in M. Lichtheim, "The Building Inscription of Sesostris I", Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms, pp. 115-8. The leather roll is itself a copy of the original text which was probably carved on a wall of the temple of Atum in Heliopolis. 205
An Egyptian Primer The area in which the cult statues resided was towards the rear of the edifice 6 and was called by the Egyptians the
or
,
ḏsr ḏsrw,
translated by modern scholars as "the Holy-of-Holies".
This area was a separate house within the temple proper and sometimes was on a higher level than the entrance floor. Some temples had chapels on their roof tops. Temple design changed over the millennia. The final design of the Ptolemaic period usually consisted of a pylon through which one entered a courtyard. To the rear of the courtyard was a hypostyle hall and to its rear an inner sanctum of the "Holy-of-Holies". Around the hypostyle hall and the inner sanctuary were smaller rooms which served as libraries, chapels, offices, meeting rooms, store rooms, etc. The hypostyle halls often had a row of clerestory windows around their upper part which admitted some sunlight during the day. The hypostyle hall at Karnak is probably the most impressive of all the temples remaining today. Egyptian columns imitated bundled papyrus reeds growing along the banks of the Nile. The cylindrically shaped columns similarly replicated the palm, the lotus, or papyrus forms with the capital representing the appropriate plant head.
This decorative motif probably came about because the prehistoric and
archaic Egyptian temples had supporting columns fabricated from reeds gathered together in bundles. When stone became the building material of choice, the architects copied the earlier form, much the same way the latter potters copied the earlier stone vessels. Occasionally, some temples were flooded so deeply during the annual inundation, their hypostyle halls looked like papyrus thickets. Surrounding each temple complex was a temenos wall which enclosed a miniature city led by a head priest. He supervised a corps of priests who in turn supervised the laborers and artisans who toiled in the service of the god. A sacred lake was also situated in the enclosure and was used in monthly or annual services to the deity.
39.5 39.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION O16:
GATEWAY
(?) SURMOUNTED BY PROTECTING PROTECTING SERPENTS. Logo/det. in
t3yt, "curtain". vizier.
W23:
JAR WITH HANDLES FOR LIQUIDS.
with beer, as in
t3yty, "he of the curtain.
Semi-logo. in
Used as
ḳrḥt, "vessel";
6 Note the statues in the rear of the Holy-of-Holies in Fig. 39.4-3. 206
Also a sign for the
W22, but not specially in connection
wrḫ wrḫ, "anoint".
39.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
An Egyptian Primer
207
An Egyptian Primer
Chapter 40 THE PASSIVE VOICE 40.1 40.1 THE PASSIVE VOICE IS IS EXPRESSED WHEN AN ACTION IS PE PERFORMED UPON A SUBJECT OR WHEN THE SUBJECT IS THE RESULT OF AN ACTION: The ball
was thrown
by the boy.
In the illustration above, "the boy" is referred to as "the agent".
If instead, something inanimate
performs the action of the verb, e.g. "The ball was hit by the bat.", then the bat is referred to as "the instrument". Note that agents and instruments are usually preceded by the preposition "by". Passives may omit the agent or instrument altogether, e.g. "The window was broken." Egyptian also had agentless/instrumentless passives. Passives in English are constructed with a form of the verb "to be" followed by the past participle: The ship
was sailed
by an excellent captain.
The verb "sail" is expressed as a past participle, "was sailed", and the subject "ship", is acted upon by the verb. In Egyptian, the passive is not expressed in this manner. One way in which the passive is expressed is by the insertion of the indefinite pronoun,
tw, "one", between the verb and the subject:
FOR PRONOUN SUBJECTS: sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅f or sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅f , and FOR NOUN SUBJECTS: sḏm⋅tw Often the passive suffix was not written
šs
or sḏm ⋅n ⋅tw
but simply
šs .
t(w).
Agents in Egyptian were preceded by the preposition
m,
Instruments were preceded by the preposition (something)".
ḫr
(sometimes by
A. AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE CLAUSE MAY FOLLOW A PASSIVE PASSIVE VERB: when the program was written.
B. A NOUN CLAUSE MAY PRECEDE PRECEDE A PASSIVE VERB: That the general died
was concealed
by the officer.
208
ìn ,
"by (someone)".
"by" or "with (something)", or
was also used to introduce an agent.
Mistakes were made
)
ḫr ,
"with
An Egyptian Primer 40.2 EXAMPLES OF THE PASSIVE PASSIVE A. PARADIGM FOR THE sḏm⋅f PASSIVE WITH A PRONOUN PRONOUN SUBJECT MASCULINE
SINGULAR
FEMININE
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ì
1st I am heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ì
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅k
2nd You are heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯ
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅f
3rd He/She/It is heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅s
MASCULINE
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅n
PLURAL
FEMININE
1st We are heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅n
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯn
2nd You are heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯn
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅sn
3rd They are heard
sḏm⋅tw⋅ tw⋅sn
B. PARADIGM FOR THE sḏm⋅n⋅f PASSIVE WITH A PRONOUN PRONOUN SUBJECT MASCULINE
SINGULAR
FEMININE
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ì
1st I was heard
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ì
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅k
2nd You were heard
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯ
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅f
3rd He/She/It was heard
sḏm⋅n ⋅tw⋅ tw⋅s
MASCULINE
PLURAL
FEMININE
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅n
1st We were heard
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅n
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯn
2nd You were heard
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅ṯn
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅sn
3rd They were heard
sḏm⋅n⋅tw⋅ tw⋅sn
209
An Egyptian Primer C. PARADIGM FOR THE sḏm⋅f PASSIVE WITH A NOUN SUBJECT
sḏm⋅tw ḫrw
m33 ⋅tw s
The voice is heard.
The man is seen.
w nm⋅tw w nmt
ìṯ⋅tw sḳ sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ r nẖ nẖn
h3b⋅ h3b⋅tw ḥm w-nṯr r ḥwtwt-nṯr
šnì⋅tw dmì dmì
The food is eaten.
The prisoner is taken to Nekhen.
The ḥmw mw--nṯr priests are sent to the temple. The town is surrounded.
D. PARADIGM FOR THE sḏm⋅n⋅f PASSIVE WITH A NOUN SUBJECT
sḏm⋅n⋅tw ḫrw
m33⋅ m33⋅n⋅tw s
The voice was heard.
The man was seen.
wnm⋅ wnm⋅n⋅tw wnmt
ìṯ⋅n⋅tw sḳ sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ r nẖ nẖn
h3b⋅ h3b⋅n⋅t(w) ḥm w-nṯr r ḥwtwt-nṯr
šnì⋅n⋅tw dmì dmì
The food was eaten.
The prisoner was taken to Nekhen.
The ḥm w-nṯr priests were sent to the temple. The town was surrounded.
E. PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVE WITH AN AGENT AGENT
ìṯ⋅n⋅t(w) sḳ sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ ìn ìmymy-r šm'w r nḫ nḫn The prisoner was taken by the Overseer of Upper Egypt to Nekhen.
wnm⋅ wnm⋅n⋅tw bḥ bḥs ìn sn⋅ sn⋅ì
The calf was eaten by my brother.
F. PARADIGM PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVE WITH AN INSTRUMENT
ìṯ⋅n⋅tw sḳ sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ m dpt r nḫ nḫn
The prisoner was taken by boat to Nekhen.
ẖdb⋅ db⋅n⋅t(w) bḥ bḥs m šsr
The calf was killed by the arrow.
210
An Egyptian Primer
G. PARADIGM FOR THE PASSIVE PASSIVE WITH A NOUN CLAUSE
rdI⋅t(w) 'ḳ 'ḳ⋅ì r ḥwtwt-nṯr
[That] I entered the temple was allowed.
rdì rdì⋅t(w) ì wt [ḥ3ty3ty-' ] smr w'ty ìmymy-r prwy ḳbb(wy) ḫnwì nwì m ḫsf⋅ sf⋅ì
One, [i.e. the king], caused the coming of the prince, unique friend, overseer of the two slaughter houses, Khuni, to meet me.1
šnì⋅t(w) ḫt m ìptpt-nsw r ḥmtmt-nsw m sš sšt3
Proceeding were instituted in the royal apartments against the queen in secret.2
40.3 COMMENTARY A: In Egyptian, a noun clause after the passive form of the verb r dì, usually is translated "cause". In such cases it was a common way to express an action of the king, the translation beginning, "One, [i.e. the king], caused .....". The words "the king" are enclosed in [ ] to indicate that they do not appear in the Egyptian sentence. B: Note in the passive the masculine and feminine plural suffix pronouns are identical. C: In the sentence "The house is built, lit. 'made', by my father.", note the omission of the
a
common Egyptian practice when writing the passive form in the second example below: (1) (2)
ìr⋅tw pr ìn ìt⋅ì ìr⋅t(w) pr ìn ìt⋅ì
If the second sentence had been in a descriptive heading over a tomb wall drawing rather than in a written document, the "it" could also be transliterated as house by my father.", with
ìrt
ìrt pr ìn ìt⋅ì
and translated as "Making the
being the infinitive of the third weak verb
ìrì.
As mentioned earlier,
context is always important when translating an ancient text. D: An example of the omission of the w in the passive is taken from THE SHIPWRECKED SAILOR, lines 14-15:
wšb⋅k wš wšd⋅t(w)⋅ t(w)⋅k E: "Prisoner", F: Note that
, You shall answer when you are questioned.
sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ, is lit. "to ḳbb,
be smitten alive".
"cool", appears in the place name,
ḳbbwy prwy,
"the two slaughter
houses", lit. "the two cool houses". Alternatively, they might have been meat storage houses. 1 Adapted from Urk. I, 127/13. 2 Ibid. 100/13. 211
An Egyptian Primer 40. 40.4 THE GREEKS IN EGYPT Probably the earliest Greek reference to Egypt is in the ILIAD of Homer, where in Book IX, 381 is found, "... all that is brought in to Thebes of Egypt, where the greatest possessions lie up in the houses, Thebes of the hundred gates, where through each of the gates two hundred fighting men come forth to war with horses and chariots ...".3 During Dynasty 26 (664-525),4 Greek mercenary soldiers served the pharaohs in fighting against the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In the eastern Delta at the fortress of Defenneh, called Daphnae by the Greeks, Wahibre Psammetichus I5 (26-1, 664-610) settled those Greeks who had helped him to unify Egypt after his expulsion of the Assyrian king, Ashurbannipal (668-626). Greek soldiers were known to have fought for Psammetichus II (26-3, 595-589) in an Ethiopian campaign.
Under
Khnemibre Amosis6 (26-5, 570-526), the Greeks were permitted to establish a trading colony at Naucratis on the western edge of the Delta.
The colony consisted primarily
of Greeks from the Asiatic coast of the Aegean Sea and they conducted an extensive trade between Egypt and their mother cities.
Greek mercenary soldiers also served the
kings of Dynasty 29 (399-380) and of Dynasty 30 (380-342), prior to the 2nd Persian conquest of Artaxerxes III in 342 BCE. The often quoted expression, "Egypt is the gift of the Nile",7 was first written by Herodotus. Until the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332, the description of Egypt by Herodotus remained the standard for the Greek world. Within a century after the death of Herodotus, a king of Macedon, Philip II (c. 359-336) had conquered all of Greece. It remained for his son and successor, Alexander (336-323) to
MAP 40.440.4-1. SITES MENTIONED IN §40.4. §40.4.
conquer the Persian Empire. In his final campaign southward on
3 Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer, p. 208. 4 Based in Sais in the western Delta, the period is called "The Saite Era". 5 Also known as Psamtik I, first king of the Saite Dynasty, he reunified Egypt by pushing the Libyans westward, the Nubians southward, establishing his control over Lower Egypt, and expanding his frontier in the northeast as well. 6 He was called Amasis by the Greeks. 7 The actual quote from Book II,5 is that it is "the gift of the river". 212
An Egyptian Primer the eastern Mediterranean littoral, Alexander wrested Egypt from its Persian domination. He founded the city of Alexandria in c. 332 BCE on the Mediterranean coast at the western edge of the Nile delta, before journeying to the Oasis of Siwa , some 500 km. west of the Nile in the western desert. There he received an oracle from the god in the temple of Amun that he was indeed the god's son and therefore the legitimate pharaoh of Egypt.
In Memphis, he sacrificed to the sacred Apis bull in order to
consolidate his spiritual hold over Egypt. Alexander then turned his attention eastward in order to attack Persia and in 331 decisively routed Darius III (336-332) at the battle of Arbela in Assyria. From then until his death in 323, he never returned to Egypt, although he was worshipped there as pharaoh and god. He was buried in Memphis and later reburied in Alexandria.
FIG. 40.440.4-1. BUST OF PTOLEMY I (PT-1, 305305-282) AS PHARAOH.
213
An Egyptian Primer While nominally governed from Macedon, Alexander's empire quickly fell into a chaotic period after his death as various individuals and groups attempted to seize control.
During this anarchy, one of
Alexander's trusted generals, Ptolemy, ruled Egypt, first as a satrap (continuing the Persian system of provincial rule), and in 305 declared himself as an independent ruler and king under the name Ptolemy I Soter. The twenty-one Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt were: Ptolemaic Dynasty 8 PTPT-1 Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") PTPT-2 Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("Brother Loving") PTPT-3 Ptolemy III Euergetes I ("Benefactor") 9 PTPT-4 Ptolemy IV Philopator ("Father("Father-Loving") PTPT-5 Ptolemy V Epiphanes ("God("God-manifest") PTPT-6 Ptolemy VI Philometor ("Mother("Mother-loving") PTPT-7 Cleopatra II PTPT-8 Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator PTPT-9 Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Physcon ("Potbelly") PT10 Ptolemy IX Soter II Lathyros ("Chick("Chick-pea") PTPT-11 Cleopatra III PTPT-12 Ptolemy Ptolemy X Alexander I PTPT-13 Cleopatra Berenike III ("Victorious") PTPT-14 Ptolemy XI Alexander II PTPT-15 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes ("Piper") PTPT-16 Berenike IV PTPT-17 Cleopatra VI Tryphaena ("Luxurious" PTPT-18 Cleopatra VII Philopator PTPT-19 Ptolemy XIII PTPT-20 Ptolemy XIV PTPT-21 Ptolemy XV Caesarion
304304-30 305305-282 285285-246 246246-222 222222-205 204204-180 180180-164, 145145-145 176176-164 Queen 145145-145 145145-116 115115-110, 108108-107, 8888-80 115115-101 Queen 110110-108, 107107-88 107107-80 Queen 8080-80 8080-58, 5555-51 5757-55 Queen 5757-57 Queen 5151-30 Queen 5151-47 4747-42 4242-41, 3636-30
The familial harmony of the Ptolemies towards their immediate family and the people they governed was expressed in the cultcult-names under which they were worshipped: ("God--manifest"), Euergetes ("Benefactor"), Philadel Philadelphus Berenike ("Victorious"), Epiphanes ("God phus ("Brother/ SisterSisterloving"), Philometor ("Mother("Mother-loving"), Philopator ("Father("Father-loving"), and Soter ("Savior"); and in their nicknames: Auletes ("Flute Player" or "Piper"), Lathyros ("Chick("Chick-pea"), Neos Dionysos ("The New Dionysos", i.e. the god of wine and debauchery), Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Fatty", as he was overly corpulent), and Tryphaena ("Luxurious"). With the accession of Ptolemy I Soter (PT-1, 305-282), Alexandria was firmly established as the capital of Egypt. Under his rule, Egypt developed a large commercial presence in the eastern Mediterranean as he extended his rule to Cyrene (eastern modern Libya), Crete, and Cyprus. During his reign, the world famous library10 and museum at Alexandria was created, and the city's fame as a center of learning 8 Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs, pp. 236-7. The Roman numerals after the names are modern scholar's designations used to identify the various rulers of this dynasty. 9 His wife, Berenike, was reputed to have promised the Greek goddess Aphrodite that if her husband won an impending battle, she would cut off her beautiful long tresses. When Ptolemy III returned home victorious, according to the legend, she cut off her hair and laid it on the altar in the temple to Aphrodite. She is the only historical figure to have a constellation named for her. Coma Berenices, "Berenices's Hair", is a constellation estimated to be 370 million light-years from earth and represents the hair she had trimmed off. 10 In 2003, a modern library was inaugurated near the spot where the ancient library existed. It is the goal of this institution to digitize the ancient texts in its collection for easy access by scholars and general public. 214
An Egyptian Primer began, continuing well past the Arab conquest in 642 CE. Ptolemy I Soter encouraged Greek, as well as other foreign soldiers, to settle in Egypt. They formed a solid corps of supporters upon which his power base rested. At the same time, construction of the lighthouse at Alexandria on the island of Pharaos, one of the Seven Wonders11 of the ancient world, was begun. After his death, in keeping with the ancient Egyptian tradition, he was deified, as was his wife, Berenike. Ptolemy II Philadelphus (PT-2, 285-246), a son of Ptolemy I Soter, married his sister, Arsinoe II Philadelphus.12
They were both deified in 271 BCE, even though they were both still alive.
The
Alexandrian lighthouse, over 130 meters high, was completed during his kingship and was still in use 1,500 years later. Part of its base still remains today as the Qeit bey Fort in Alexandria harbor. Ptolemy II Philadelphus reestablished Egyptian rule over Nubia and attempted to expand his hegemony over Syria. Many Greek and Macedonian soldiers and their families were settled in the Faiyum during his reign. One of his public works was the restoration of Nile-Red Sea canal, which ran some 85 km. northwards from what is today the city of Suez to a branch of the Nile. Ptolemy III Euergetes (PT-3, 246-222) sent his army on campaign in western Asia in order to retrieve the tribute sent to Persia by Darius III (31-3, 336332) during the Second Persian Period of 343-332. Ptolemy III restored to Egypt the statues of the gods sent to Persia and in the course of his reign built many temples.
It is believed that he undertook this building program to assuage the increasing
restlessness among the native Egyptians. The maximum extent of Ptolemaic power occurred during his reign and that of his successor, Ptolemy IV (PT-4, 222-205), when they exercised control of almost the entire southern Mediterranean from Cyrenaica (modern eastern Libya) as far west as Tripoli, and in the eastern Mediterranean to Byblos in The Lebanon including the island of Cyprus, and the adjoining southern coast of what is now Turkey. The reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator marked a turning point in the Ptolemaic rule over Egypt, when the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (223-187) attacked Egypt in 217 BCE. Antiochus was also descended from one of Alexander's generals and ruled an empire stretching from Macedonia to India. In the battle of Raphia,13 Ptolemy was just barely victorious because of the support of his Egyptian units after the Greek portion of his army was in retreat.
From that moment on, the native population became increasingly
influential in the Ptolemaic state.
11 See §11.4, fn. 4, for the complete list. 12 Called "Philadelphus" because of their relationship as brother-sister and husband-wife. 13 The two armies, totaling over 110,000 men, met a little south of Gaza on June 22, 217 BCE at the town of Raphia. This was the first time a Ptolemaic army had incorporated and utilized native Egyptian soldiers. After Ptolemy's Greek soldiers and mercenaries had been routed, these Egyptian troops overwhelmed the GrecoMacedonian center of the army of Antiochus III, snatching victory from defeat for the Ptolemaic army. 215
An Egyptian Primer Ptolemy V (PT-5, 204-180) came to the throne as an infant and was dominated by the regents who governed Egypt in his name. The Rosetta Stone contains one of his decrees, issued in 196 BCE, granting concessions to the priests. The temple of Sobek and Horus at Kom Ombo, one of the best surviving Egyptian temples, was completed by troops stationed there during his reign.
FIG. 40.440.4-2. ANCIENT MEDICAL INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS PORTRAYED ON THE NORTHEAST OUTER OUTER CORRIDOR WALL OF THE PTOLEMAICPTOLEMAIC-ROMAN TEMPLE AT KOM OMBO, 1984. THIS TEMPLE OF SOBEK AND HORUS WAS VISITED BY MANY PILGRIMS SEEKING MEDICAL TREATMENT TREATMENT FROM TH THE TEMPLE PRIESTS. PRIESTS. The concluding years of the Ptolemaic Period were ones of turmoil both within Egypt and in the Roman Empire. Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes (PT-15, 80-58, 55-51) was supported on his throne by the Romans as they extended their influence in Africa. He died in exile in Rome, and by the terms of his will, his daughter, Cleopatra VII Philopator14 (PT-18, 51-30), was named to the throne as co-regent with her younger brother, Ptolemy XIII (PT-19, 51-47), then about ten years old.
She was to prove a most
resourceful ruler, who could boast that she, unlike any other ruler of her dynasty, could actually speak Egyptian. Around 49 BCE, the guardians of Ptolemy XIII drove Cleopatra from the throne. When Julius Caesar (c. 100-44) arrived in Egypt in 48 BCE in pursuit of Pompey15 (106-48) and his army, she fell in love with Caesar.
Caesar's legions made short work of Ptolemy XIII's supporters and Ptolemy himself
drowned while trying to escape the legions. Cleopatra's younger brother, Ptolemy XIV (PT-20, 47-42) was then installed as her co-ruler. She traveled with Caesar to Rome in 46 and stayed there until his 14 Known to the public at large as the one and only Cleopatra. 15 Pompey and Caesar were contenders in a civil war, the victor to rule the Roman Empire. Pompey was assassinated by two Roman soldiers in the employ of Ptolemy XIII. 216
An Egyptian Primer assassination in 44. Returning to Egypt, she had her younger brother killed and installed her son by Caesar, Caesarion, as Ptolemy XV (PT-21, 42-41, 36-30). Octavian (the future emperor Augustus).
She supported Antony in his war against
After the defeat of the combined forces of Antony and
Cleopatra at the naval battle at Actium on the west coast of Greece in 31 BCE, she and Antony fled to Egypt. Octavian pursued them and upon his arrival in Egypt, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra then tried to ingratiate herself with Octavian, but to no avail. She, too, committed suicide on August 12, 30 BCE and shortly afterwards Octavian had Ptolemy XV executed in order to prevent his claim to the Roman Empire as Caesar's son and heir.
Under the Ptolemies, Egypt knew relative peace and security. During this period, Alexandria became the cultural capital of the ancient world. The arts and sciences flourished and the city became known as a great religious center. Trade and agriculture prospered to such an extent that the country became the primary grain producer in the Roman Empire, feeding the city of Rome for centuries. Major public works of the Ptolemies, in addition to those previously mentioned, included: the temples of Isis and Hathor on Philae Island at Aswan; the addition of the propylons of the great religious complex at the Karnak temple in Luxor, and the major temples at Edfu, Kom Ombo, and Alexandria. So ended 3,000 years of Egyptian dynastic rule. 40.5 40.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION A13:
MAN WITH ARMS TIED BEHIND BEHIND HIS BACK.
sbì sbì, "rebel";
F18:
sḳr-'nḫ 'nḫ, "prisoner". bḥs, "calf";
CALF. Logo. in "goat", etc.
E3:
bḥ
ELEPHANT ELEPHANT TUSK.
COW'S SKIN.
Det. in
Det in
wnš wnš, "wolf"; F30:
šd
WATER-SKIN.
G35:
'ḳ
CORMORANT.
,
sbḥ sbḥ, "cry".
Phon. det. in F27:
ḫfty,
Det. in
wnḏ wnḏw, "short horned cattle", "calf", ìb ḥ ,
"tooth";
dḥr, "leather", "hide"; pnw, "mouse".
Det. in šdw, "water-skin". Phon. in "address" (someone), "question".
"provisions".
Phon. in
217
'ḳ , "enter";
"enemy";
sbt,
"laugh".
msk3, "skin"; w šd ,
'ḳḳw, "income", "revenues",
An Egyptian Primer 40.5 40.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS SIGNS ENCOUNTERED (CONTINUED) SIGN TRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTION TRANSLITERATION M42:
wn
FLOWER
(?). Phon. in
wnm, "eat".
young"; N42:
ḥm
ARROW.
T11: V6: Aa7:
WELL FULL OF WATER.
šs
Use as
Det. in
LOOPED CORD.
"alabaster".
wnḏ wnḏw, "short-horned cattle";
ḥwn, "be
N41.
šsr, "arrow".
Logo. in
šs, "cord", "rope".
OBJECT IN DOUBT (IN DYNASTY
sḳr, "smite". 40.6 40.6 EXERCISES TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATE: TRANSLATE:
218
Phon. det. in
18 (15671567-1085) OFTEN REVERSED
šs , ). Det. in
An Egyptian Primer
Appendices
An Egyptian Primer
APPENDIX A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS AÄG abbr. adj. adv. AJA aka ANET AnOr AR, ARE aux. vb.
Altägyptische Grammatik
BACE BAR BCE BES BM BP
Bulletin of the Australian Center of Egyptology Biblical Archaeological Review
c.
common gender about (from the Latin circa) Cambridge Ancient History, 3rd Edition causative
c., ca.
CAH3 caus. CDME CE cf. CM coll. comp. conj. CT d. dep. pn. det. d.o. Dyn.
abbreviated, abbreviation adjective adverb
American Journal of Archaeology also known as
Ancient Near Eastern Texts by J.B. Pritchard Analecta Orientalia Ancient Records of Egypt, by J.H. Breasted auxiliary verb
Before the Common Era
Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar British Museum Before the Present
A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian by R.O, Faulkner Common Era compare (from the Latin confer) Cairo Museum collective compound conjunction Coffin Texts deity, divinity dependent pronoun determinative direct object Dynasty
EG 3 e.g.
Egyptian Grammar, 3rd Edition by A. Gardiner for example (from the Latin exempli gratia)
f., fem. ff. fig. FIP fl. fn. foll. Fs
feminine folios, (and the) following (pages, verses, etc.) figure First Intermediate Period flourished (from the Latin floruit) footnote followed or following Festschrift
EM encl. part. esp. ex(s).
Egyptian Museum enclitic particle especially example(s)
A-1
Geol. GM gram.
Ibid.
Geology
An Egyptian Primer
Göttinger Miszellen
grammar or grammatical
imper. imperf. indep. indef. inf. infin. interj. interrog. intrans. i.o.
in the same book, chapter, page (from the Latin ibidem) ideogram that is (from the Latin id est) imperative imperfective independent indefinite weak (from the Latin infirma) infinitive interjection interrogative intransitive indirect object
JARCE JCS JEA JEOL JNES JSSEA
Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Journal of Cuneiform Studies Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Jaarbericht von het Vooraziatish-Egyptisch Genootschap, `Ex Oriente Lux' Journal of Near Eastern Studies Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities
km. KMT
kilometer KMT magazine
LDÄ LE LHAEE lit. logo.
Lexikon der Ägyptologie
m. masc. MDAIK MK MMA
masculine, meter, mile masculine
ideo.
i.e.
Lower Egypt
La littérature historique sous l'Ancien Empire égyptien literally logogram
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo Middle Kingdom Metropolitan Museum of Art
n. n.b. neg. NK
noun note well, take notice (from the Latin nota bene) negative New Kingdom n. loc. place name (from the Latin nomen loci) no., nos. number, numbers non-encl. part. non-enclitic particle NSSEA Newsletter of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities obj. OK OP
op. cit. Or.
object Old Kingdom Old Perfective in the work cited (from the Latin opere citato)
Orientalia
A-2
& p. P. part. perf. pers. phon. phon. det. pl. pn. PN poss. pp. pred. prep. PT
paragraph page Papyrus participle perfect or perfective person phonetic phonetic determinative plural pronoun Personal Name possessive pages, past participle predicate preposition Pyramid Texts
rel. RdÉ RdSO RN
Revue d'Égyptologie Revista degli Studi Orientali
' SAK SAOC
scil. sg.
sic.
An Egyptian Primer
relative
Royal Name
section, spell, utterance, line
Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations namely (from the Latin scire licet) singular so, thus (Latin sic) Second Intermediate Period square
SIP sq. SSEA suff. subj.
Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities
TIP trans.
Third Intermediate Period transitive
UE UGAÄ Urk.
Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums by K. Sethe
var. vb. v.i. v.t.
variety, variation verb verb, intransitive verb, transitive
w/ Wb.
Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache
ZÄS
Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde
suffix subject
Upper Egypt
with
A-3
An Egyptian Primer
APPENDIX B GLOSSARY addorsed, addorsed adj. (of) emblems or figures back to back. adze, adze n. a tool with a blade (initially of stone, later of metal) that is at right angles to the haft (handle) that was probably used to shape wood. In ancient Egypt the jackal headed deity Wepwawet was represented opening the mouth of the dead monarch with a special ceremonial adze, enabling the deceased to continue his life in the afterworld. Akh, Akh n. an aspect of the individual's personality which emerged upon death to take up residence in the sky, see '24.4. androgynous, androgynous adj. being both male and female, hermaphroditic. anthropomorphic, anthropomorphic adj. 1. ascribing human form or attributes to a being or a thing not human, esp. to a deity, normally in animal form. 2. resembling or made to resemble a human form. apologue, apologue n. an allegorical narrative usually intended to convey a moral. apotropaic, apotropaic adj. intended to ward off evil.
a priori, Latin. from cause to effect; from a general law to a particular instance; valid independently of observation. Lit., "from the one before".
Archimedes' Screw, Screw n. a device consisting of a spiral passage within in an inclined cylinder for raising water from a canal or river to the level of a cultivated field. autochthonous, autochthonous n. native, aboriginal, indigenous, lit., "sprung from the earth". Ba, Ba n. one of several spiritual elements of an individual, somewhat akin to our notion of "soul", appearing in the form of a human-headed bird. Logogram for the ba in hieroglyphic form was expressed by Sign G29,
, see '24.4.
basalt, basalt n. a dark, dense igneous rock, usually black, from a lava flow which was especially favored by the Egyptians for use in stelae. Book of the Dead, Dead a popular phrase given to the papyrus scroll found buried with an Egyptian mummy, derived from the Arabic "Kit ~b al-Mayyit", "The Book of the Dead Man", which was used by the tomb robbers of the 19th Century to describe where these "books" were found. The Egyptians themselves referred to these scrolls by the title "The Book (lit. Spells) of Going Forth by Day". These papyri contained the spells to be uttered by the deceased in the afterlife. boustrophedon, boustrophedon n. a text where the lines run alternately right to left and then left to right. From the Greek "bou" (ox) + "strophe" (a twist, a turning about) + "don" (an adverbial suffix), lit. "like the ox-turning (when plowing a field)". Although Egyptian stelae may have texts in both directions, none are in boustrophedon. burin, burin n. a prehistoric pointed or chisel like tool made from stone, usually flint. cadastral, cadastral adj. of a map or survey showing boundaries or property lines. Canopic jars, jars the storage containers in which the preserved internal organs of the deceased where stored after removal from the body. The set of four contained the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver. B-1
An Egyptian Primer
cartouche, cartouche n. an oval or oblong figure enclosing the name of the sovereign.
casus belli, Latin. an event or political occurrence that brings about a declaration of war. catamite, catamite n. a boy kept for the sexual pleasures of an older man. cavetto cornice, cornice a typical Egyptian architectural element consisting of an incurving cornice with stylized palm fronds. cenotaph, cenotaph n. a sepulchral monument erected in memory of a deceased person whose body is buried elsewhere. Chalcolithic Chalcolithic, colithic n. a period during which tools were made of copper concurrently with stone, approximately 3,0004,000 BCE in the ancient Near East. chert, chert n. a particularly hard stone that chips easily. Shaped by Stone Age men for use in tools and weapons. chiastic chiastic, iastic adj. characterized as a reversal in the order of words in two otherwise parallel phrases as in "He went to the country, to the town went she". chthonic, chthonic adj. pertaining to the deities, spirits, and other beings dwelling under the earth.
circa, prep., adv. Latin, about, used esp. in approximate dates, abbr. c. or ca. clerestory, clerestory n. a portion of an interior rising above adjacent rooftops and having windows admitting daylight to the interior. coeval, coeval adj. of the same age, date, or duration. A synonym for contemporaneous. Coffin texts, texts the name applied by Egyptologists to the religious spells originally written on the coffin of the deceased pharaoh only (after the Old Kingdom on non-royal coffins as well) which were to insure the safe journey of the ka through the underworld to become one with Osiris. colophon, colophon n. in the Ancient Near East an inscription at the end of a text which might include the title, subject, author, admonition, or curse. In Egypt the custom was that the scribe's name and titles only were given. colossus, colossus n. in Egypt an over life-sized figure of a king or god (or in other cultures occasionally a private individual) which usually stood in front of or inside a temple. corvée, corvée n. French, a conscripted work force. cosmogony, cosmogony n. a theory or story of the genesis and development of the world and/or the universe. criosphinx, criosphinx n. a figure with the head of a ram and the body of a lion. cubit, cubit n. a varying measure of length used in the ancient Near East as determined by the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. See '25.4. deben, deben n. an ancient Egyptian unit of weight approximating 910 grams (2 lbs).
de facto, Latin, 1. in fact; in reality; 2. actually existing, esp. when without lawful authority (distinguished from de jure), lit. "from the fact". de jure, Latin, by right, according to law (distinguished from de facto), lit. "from the law".
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delta, delta n. the nearly flat plain of alluvial deposit between diverging branches of the mouth of a river, often, though not necessarily triangular. Because of its similarity to the shape of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet, Δ, delta, the word has been applied to the land created by the river at its discharge into a larger body of water. When capitalized, it refers the delta of the Nile specifically. demiurge, demiurge n. in Egyptian religion, a creator or fashioner deity of the cosmos, other deities, mankind, plants, and animals. distich, distich n. a group of two lines of verse, usually making complete sense; couplet. djed pillar, pillar a hieroglyphic sign, R11, stability and duration.
, perhaps representing the spine of Osiris, a symbol of
dromos, dromos n. an approach road or causeway to a tomb, monument, or temple. ellipsis, ellipsis n. the omission from a sentence of a word or words that would complete or clarify the construction. encomium, encomium n. a formal expression of high praise; eulogy. ennead, ennead n. a group of nine persons or gods. The Heliopolitan ennead, for example, consisted of Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys. entasis, entasis n. a slight convexity given to a column to make its sides appear vertical rather than concave. epagomenal days, days days added to the end of a calendar year to bring the total number of days up to 365. Similar to a short intercalary month. eponym, eponym n. 1. a person, real or imaginary, from whom something, as a tribe, nation, or place, takes or is said to takes its name: Romulus, the supposed founder of Rome, is the eponym of the Romans. 2. any ancient official whose name was used to designate his year of office, [back formation from eponymous]. eponymic, adj. eponymous, eponymous adj. giving one's name to a tribe, nation, place. etc., e.g. Romulus, the eponymous founder of Rome. eschatology, eschatology n. any system of doctrines concerning last, or final matters, as death, judgment, the future state, etc. etiological, etiological adj. the causation of a disease, philosophical thought, development of a myth, etc.
ex cathedra, Latin, from the seat of authority, with authority, lit. "from the chair". ex officio, officio Latin, by virtue of office or official position. ex voto, Latin, from a vow, e.g. "O God, if you grant me a son I promise to ...". exempli gratia, Latin, for the sake of example, abbr. e.g. exergue, exergue n. the space below the main sequence of glyphs, sometimes separated by a line. faience, faience n. quartz paste with vitrified surface. false door, door an architectural element (usually found in a tomb) imitating a door through which the deceased could communicate with the world of the living. Festschrift, Festschrift n. German, a volume of articles, essays, etc. contributed by many authors in honor of a colleague, usually published on the occasion of a retirement, an important anniversary, or the like.
floruit, Latin, the period during which a person flourished, esp. when the exact birth and/or death dates are not known, abbr. fl. B-3
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gloss, gloss n. an explanation, by means of a marginal or interlinear note, of a technical or unusual expression in a manuscript text. group writing, writing biphonic sign used to express uniphonic signs. See §9.5, Sign M8; §31.3. grammar, grammar n. the sounds, morphemes (the minimal grammatical unit of a language, each constituting a word or meaningful part of a word, that cannot be divided into smaller independent grammatical parts, as "the", "write", or the "-ed" of "waited"), words, or sentences and the manner in which they are constructed.
hapax legomenon, Greek, a word or phrase which appears only once in all known documents, lit., "something said only once".
HebHeb-Sed, Sed the so-called jubilee festival which the king celebrated after thirty years of rule. henotheism, henotheism n. 1. the worship of one god as a superior deity in a group of gods, in contrast to monotheism which teaches that only one God exists. 2. ascription of supreme divine attributes to whichever one of several gods is addressed at the time. hermaphrodite, hermaphrodite n. 1. being both male and female. 2. combining two opposite qualities. hermetic, hermetic adj. made airtight by fusion or sealing.
histeron proteron, Greek, a sentence in which the latest action is expressed first and the earlier action expressed last, ex. "This army returned in safety, after it flattened the land of the Sand Dwellers".
homonym, homonym n. a word like another in sound and spelling but different in meaning. See §8.3. hypocoristicon, hypocoristicon n. a pet name, sometimes in a diminutive form. hypostyle, hypostyle adj. having many columns supporting the roof or ceiling. Most Egyptian temples, starting with the New Kingdom (1567-1085), contained a hypostyle court.
ibidem ibid em, Latin, in the same book, chapter, page, etc., lit., "there the same", abbr. ibid. iconography, iconography n. a symbolic representation attached to an image, or the usual attributes which accompany the representation of a god, a person, or a thing itself, ex. the goddess Hathor is usually portrayed with a crown composed of a solar disk between her horns and an uraeus.
id est, Latin, that is, abbr. i.e. ideogram, n. a hieroglyphic sign which pictorially represents its meaning.
in media res, Latin, in the middle of things. ineffable, ineffable adj., incapable of being expressed or described.
infirma, Latin, weak, abbr. inf. infra, infra adv. below, esp. when used in referring to parts of text. intercalary month, month a month inserted into a year in order to bring the total number of days to 365. ithyphallic, ithyphallic adj. of or pertaining to an erect phallic representation carried in ancient Greek festivals or portrayed in an image, as in the portrayal of the Egyptian god Min.
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Ka, Ka one of the several elements constituting both human and divine personality representing the vital force of an individual, often erroneously thought to be the equivalent of a "soul". The hieroglyphic sign, D28, , is a pair of arms uplifted toward the heavens or as if to embrace, see '24.4. kohl, kohl n. a cosmetic usually applied around the eyes. lacuna, lacuna n, a gap or missing part, as in a manuscript. lacustrine, lacustrine adj. of or pertaining to a lake. lingua lingua franca, franca any language that is widely used as a means of communication among speakers of other languages. littoral, littoral adj. pertaining to the shore of a lake, sea, or ocean. logogram, n. a hieroglyphic sign which pictorially represents its meaning. mammas mammas, mas n. a small chapel attached to a temple as the birthplace of the god. mastaba, mastaba n. Arabic, bench. In ancient Egypt, a rectangular tomb with sloping sides and a flat roof, often with subterranean chambers. Common burial monument for the pharaoh's family members and important personages. The name is derived from the similarity to the bench found outside the home of the Egyptian peasant. Mesolithic, Mesolithic adj. of, pertaining to, or characteristic of a transitional period of the Stone Age between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic periods. metathesis, metathesis n. the transposition of letters, syllables, or sounds in a word, e.g. written "Wednesday" but pronounced "Wednesday", etc. metrological relief, relief a projection inscribed in stone used as a standard measure. modes, modes n. a circular base placed upon the head to support a headdress, such as the one usually displayed on the head of the god Amun upon which two feathered plumes were attached. morpheme, morpheme n. a minimal grammatical unit of a language. See §7.4, fn. 2.
mutatis mutandis, Latin, the necessary changes having been made. nonporous statue, statue a statue placed in temples beginning in the New Kingdom consisting of a donor holding a small naos with a deity represented within it, thereby placing the donor under that god's protection. naos, naos n. a small inner sanctum, sanctuary, or chapel, a holy of holies, usually used for a divine statue in Egypt.
ne plus ultra, Latin, to the ultimate, lit. "not more beyond". nilometer, nilometer n. a structure with inscribed walls in the Nile river bank which measured the rise in the level of the river during the yearly inundation. The high water mark was an indication of the size of the harvest to be expected.
nolo me tangere, Latin, one who or that which must not be touched, lit. "do not touch me". nomarch, nomarch n. governor of a nome. nome, nome n. adapted from the Greek for "pasture", an administrative district, analogous to a province or state. nominalize, nominalize v. to convert (another part of speech) into a noun. See §8.3. B-5
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obelisk, obelisk n. a tapering, four-sided shaft of stone, usually monolithic, and having a pyramidal apex. Expressed in hieroglyphics as Sign O25, . obverse, obverse n. the side of a stele that bears the principal design (opposed to reverse). ogdoad, ogdoad n. a group of eight gods. The Hermopolitan ogdoad consists of Nun and Nunet, Heh and Hehet, Kek and Keket, and Amun and Amunet. onomasticon, onomasticon n. a study of the origin and history of proper nouns, in Egyptology a list of nouns or names.
opere citato, Latin, in the work cited, abbr. op. cit. optative optative, tive adj. of or pertaining to a verb mood that expresses a wish. orthography, orthography n. writing words with the proper letters, according to accepted usage; usually in the sense of correct spelling. ostracon, ostracon n. in ancient Greece, a potsherd, esp. one used as a ballot on which the name of the person voted to be ostracized (excluded or banished from the community) was inscribed. ouroboros, ouroboros Greek, a figure of a serpent devouring its own tail, occasionally seen as a decorative motif. palanquin, palanquin n. a seat on two or more poles, which rest upon the shoulders of several men, upon which an individual might be carried, sometimes the seat being enclosed in small box. palimpsest, palimpsest n. a reused document. In Egypt, usually a papyrus which has had the original writing removed so that it might be employed again. Faint traces of the original writing may often be seen underlaying the new inscription. Greek, lit., "scraped again". pantheon, pantheon n. the gods of a particular mythology considered collectively. paradigm, paradigm n. a set of forms all of which contain a particular element, esp. the set of all inflected forms based on a single stem or theme.
passim, Latin, here and there, used to indicate the repetition of an idea, phrase, etc. in many places throughout a work.
pectoral, pectoral n.
a pendant,
often trapezoidal in shape, hung from the neck and adorning the chest at
the height of the pectoral muscles. Expressed in Sign S15,
.
periphrasis, periphrasis n. a roundabout way of speaking; circumlocution. peristyle hall, hall an open court with a roofed arcade around the inner walls. phyle, phyle n. from the Greek for "tribe", a group of priests or members of a work gang. portcullis, portcullis n. in ancient Egypt, a blocking device in which a very large stone was inserted into vertical grooves on either side of an entrance passageway into a tomb, effectively blocking entrance. pronaos, pronaos n. an open vestibule before the central closed chamber in a classical temple. propylon, propylon n. a vestibule or entrance way to a temple area, lit. the gateway before the entrance pylon. prosopographical prosopographical, pographical adj. pertaining to personal names and the people who held those names. pylon, pylon n. a tall structure at the side of a gate or avenue marking an entrance or approach. In ancient Egypt, often formed by a pair of monumental towers in front of a temple. B-6
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Pyramid Texts, Texts religious spells written on the walls and ceilings of the antechambers and burial chamber in a pyramid. pyramidon, pyramidon n. capstone of a pyramid or obelisk.
raison d'être, French, reason or justification for being or existence. recto, recto n. the right-hand page of an open book or manuscript, hence the front of a page (opposed to verso). reliquary, reliquary n. a repository or receptacle for a relic or relics.
res judicata, Latin, a thing adjudicated; a case that has been decided. rhizome, rhizome n. a root like subterranean stem, commonly horizontal in position, which usually produces roots below and sends up shoots progressively from the upper service. See §6.5, Sign M12. rubric, rubric n., a title, heading, direction, negative amounts, or the like, in a text or account written in red in order to distinguish it from the rest of the text. The practice of indicating negative amounts in red originated in Egypt. satrap, satrap n. a governor of a province in the ancient Persian empire. scarab, scarab n. a dung beetle usually portrayed in amuletic form for use as a seal or as a protective device. It was also the aspect of the sun in the morning as well as the god Kheperi. Expressed in Sign L1,
.
scil . abbr. for scire licet. scire licet, to wit, namely, from the Latin "to know is permitted". sebakh, sebakh n. Arabic, fertilizer. In Egyptology refers to a fertilizer composed of the moldy bricks found in a tell. sebakheen, sebakheen pl. n. individuals who remove the moldy bricks from a tell for use as fertilizer in their fields. serdab, serdab n. Arabic, cellar, the small chamber in a mortuary temple containing the statue or statues of the deceased to which offerings were proffered. serekh, serekh n., a rectangular enclosure wall and paneled facade of the royal palace. Expressed in Sign O33,
.
shadoof, shadoof n. from the Arabic, a device consisting of a long suspended rod with a bucket attached to one end and a weight, usually a stone, attached to the other end, to raise water from an irrigation canal or river to the level of a cultivated field. shawabti, n. a figurine or statuette placed in a tomb to perform menial tasks for the deceased in the next world.
sic, adv. Latin, so, thus. Usually written parenthetically to denote that a word, phrase, passage, etc. which may appear strange or incorrect has been written intentionally or has been quoted verbatim. sine qua non, Latin, something essential, an indispensable condition or part of, lit. "without which not". sistrum, sistrum n. a musical rattle and cult object used in certain rituals, particularly those associated with the goddess Hathor. In religious ceremonies it was the duty of the high priestess or the queen to bear this instrument. sondage, sondage n. French, an archaeological term for a vertical probe or test trench through a site, without regard to the stratigraphy.
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sui generis, Latin, of his/her/its/their kind; unique. supra, supra adv. above, esp. when used in referring to parts of a text. syncretism, syncretism n. the attempted reconciliation or union of different or opposing principles, practices, or parties, esp. in religion. syntax, syntax n. rules and patterns for the formation of sentences or clauses in a language.
tabula rasa, Latin, a mind not yet affected by experiences or impressions, lit. "a scraped tablet" or "clean slate". talatat, talatat n. Arabic, from an Arabic word of unknown meaning indicating "three (handspans?)". Used to describe the small building blocks originally utilized by Akhenaten (18-10, 1379-1362), which were subsequently reused by his successors in their own building programs. tell, tell var. tel, tel n. from the Arabic, indicates a mound or small hill, which in Egypt and the Near East often consisted of the accumulated remains of one or more ancient settlements. temenos, temenos n. a sacred enclosure or precinct, esp. one containing a temple or dedicated to a god, from the Greek, lit. something cut off or set apart. Used esp. in connection with the wall surrounding the precinct, e.g. the temenos wall.
terminus ante quem, Latin, a date before which a building, burial, object, text, wall, etc. did not exist, lit. "the end before which".
terminus post quem, Latin, a date after which a building, burial, object, text wall, etc. could not have been made, lit. "the end after which".
theogamy, theogamy n. divine marriage. theophorous name, name n. a name containing a god's name, ex. Ptahhotep, which means "Ptah is satisfied". theriomorphic, theriomorphic adj. thought of or represented as having the form of beasts, usually applied to gods. troy weight, weight a system of weights originating in Troyes, France, c. 1300 CE for precious metals and gems (except diamonds and pearls): 24 grains = 1 pennyweight; 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce; 12 ounces = 1 pound. Diamonds and pearls weighed in carats: 1 carat = 3.086 grains = .2 grams.
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uraeus, uraeus n. a cobra represented upon the headdress of divinities and royalty, usually directly over the forehead, as an emblem of supreme power. Expressed in Sign I12,
.
usufruct, usufruct n. Roman and Civil Law the right of enjoying all the advantages deriving from the use of something which belongs to another. When the priests in Egypt might have farmed a tract of land owned by a temple, they were able to keep the fruits of their labors for their own personal use in exchange for performing a continuing service to the crown or a funeral cult. Similar to the practice of sharecropping. verbatim, verbatim adv. in exactly the same words, word for word, ex. "to repeat something verbatim". -adj. corresponding word for word to the original source or text, ex. "a verbatim record of the proceedings". verso, verso n. the left-hand page of a book or manuscript, hence the back of a page (opposed to recto). vizier, vizier n. title applied by Egyptologists to the highest office in ancient Egypt not held by the pharaoh. wadi, wadi n. Arabic, a channel of a watercourse that is dry except during periods of rainfall, the equivalent of an arroyo in the US Southwest.
was-scepter, scepter n. scepter with a canine head, common attribute of a divinity. Expressed in Sign S40, . Weltanschauung, Weltanschauung German, philosophy of life, outlook, view, creed, ideology. zoomorphic, zoomorphic adj. ascribing animal form or attributes to objects not animal.
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APPENDIX C EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY 1 Paleolithic Pre-History
c .700,000-14,000 BP 2 c .12,000 BCE-3,500
Pre-Dynastic Dynasty 0
3500-3100
Early Dynastic Dynasty 1-2
3100-2686
Old Kingdom Dynasty 3-6
2686-2181
First Intermediate Period Dynasty 7-10
2181-2040
Middle Kingdom Dynasty 11-12
2133-1786
Second Intermediate Period Dynasty 13-17
1786-1567
New Kingdom Dynasty 18-20
1567-1085
Third Intermediate Period Dynasty 21-25
1085-664
Saite Renaissance Dynasty 26
672-525
Late Dynastic/Persian Dynasty 27-30
525-332
Macedonian Domination
332-304
Ptolemaic Dynasty
304-30
Roman Emperors
30 BCE-395 CE
1 Appendix C chronology tables are from the Cambridge Ancient History, 3rd Edition, 1964-1971, Vols. I/2, II/2, III/1, III/3, and VII. Other scholars have devised differing chronologies. 2 BP indicates "Before the Present". Note that 14,000 BP and 12,000 BCE ("Before the Common Era") are equivalent. Dates in the Old Kingdom are probably accurate to "50 years, New Kingdom to "4 years, and Late Dynastic/Persian date to within 1 year. C-1
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PrePre-dynastic
3500-3100 c.3500-
Dynasty 0 (Late PrePre-dynastic) Scorpion
3200-3100 c.3200-
Early Dynastic
3100-2686 c.3100-
Dynasty 13 1-1 Narmer 1-2 Aha 1-3 Djer 1-4 Djet 1-5 Den 1-6 Anedjib 1-7 Semerkhet 1-8 Qaa
[Personal Name] [Men] [Iti] [Iti] [Iterty] [Khasty] [Merpebia] [Irynetjer] [Qaa]
[Modern Name] 4 [Menes]
Dynasty 2 2-1 Hetepsekhemwy 2-2 Reneb 2-3 Nynetjer 2-4 2-5 2-6 Peribsen 5 2-7 2-8 2-9 Khasekhem 2-10 Khasekhemwy 6
[Personal Name] [Hetep] [Nubnefer] [Nynetjer] [Weneg] [Sened] [Peribsen] [Aka?] [Neferkasokar?]
[Modern Name]
Reign Reign
[Athothis] [Usaphis] [Miebis]
50 years?
28902890-2686
[Wadjnes] [Sethnes]
Old Kingdom Dynasty 3 3-1 Sanakhte 3-2 Netjerykhet 3-3 Sekhemkhet 3-4 Khaba 3-5
31003100-2890
26862686-2181 [Personal Name] [Nebka] [Djoser] [Djoser Teti]
26862686-2613 2686-2667 2667-2648 2648-2642 2642-2636 2636-2613
[Huni (Nysuteh?)]
Reign Reign 19 years 19 6 6 24
3 Name given first is the Horus Name of the ruler. 4 The modern name used by most scholars is an English rendering of the Greek name (where available), followed where necessary by a Roman numeral to indicate sequence. 5 Seth name. 6 Horus and Seth name.
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Old Kingdom (Continued) Dynasty 4 4-1 Snoferu 4-2 Khufu 4-3 Redjedef 4-4 Khaefre 4-5 Baufre (?) 4-6 Menkaure 4-7 Shepseskaf 4-8 Dedefptah (?)
An Egyptian Primer [Modern Name] [Cheops] [Djedefre] [Chephren] [Mycerinus] [Thampthis?]
Dynasty 5 5-1 Userkaf 5-2 Sahure 5-3 Neferirkare Kakai 5-4 Shepseskare Isi 5-5 Neferefre 5-6 Nyuserre 5-7 Menkauhor Akauhor 5-8 Djedkare Isesi 5-9 Unas Dynasty 6 6-1 Teti 6-2 Userkaure 6-3 Meryre Pepi 6-4 Merenre Antyemsaf 6-5 Neferkare Pepi 6-6 Merenre Antyemsaf 6-7 Netjerkare 6-8 Menkare?
26862686-2181 26132613-2498 2613-2589 2589-2566 2566-2558 2558-2533
Reign Reign 24 years 23 8 25?
-2504 2504-2500 2500-2498
28? 4 2
24942494-2345 2494-2487 2487-2473 2473-2463 2463-2456
Reign Reign 7 years 14 10 7 7? 31 8 39 30
2453-2422 2422-2414 2414-2375 2375-2345 [Modern Name]
23452345-2181 2345-2333
[Pepi I] [Merenre I] [Pepi II] [Merenre II] [Nitocris]
-2181
First Intermediate Period
21812181-2040
Dynasty 7 7-1 Neferkare 'the Younger' 7-2 Neferkare Neby 7-3 Djedkare Shemay 7-4 Neferkare Khendu 7-5 Meryenhor 7-6 Neferkamin 7-7 Nykare 7-8 Neferkare Tereru 7-9 Neferkahor
21812181-2173
Dynasty 8 8-1 Wadjkare Pepysonbe 8-2 Neferkamin Anu 8-3 Kakare Ibi 8-4 Neferkare 8-5 Neferkauhor 8-6 Nerirkare
[Horus Name] [Khabau?]
[Netjerybau] [Demedjibtowy]
C-3
21732173-2160
Reign Reign 12 years 1? 49 14 94? 1 2? Queen
Reign Reign 4 + x years 2 yrs 1 mon 4 yrs 2 mos 2 yrs 1 mon 1 yr 2 mon
Dynasty 9 7 (Herakleopolitan) 9-1 Meryibre Khety 9-2 .... 9-3 Neferkare 9-4 Nebkaure 9-5 Setut 9-6 .... 9-7 Mery-.... 9-8 Shed-.... 9-9 H-.... 9-10 .... 9-11 .... 9-12 .... 9-13 User?
An Egyptian Primer [Modern Name] [Achthoes I]
21602160-2130
[Achthoes II]
Dynasty 10 8 (Herakleopolitan) 10-1 Meryhathor? 10-2 Neferkare 10-3 Wahkare 10-4 Merykare 10-5 ....
[Modern Name]
21302130-2040
[Achthoes III]
Middle Kingdom
21332133-1786
Dynasty 11 (Theban) 11-1 Tep(y)a 11-1 Sehertawy Intef 11-2 Wahankh Intef 11-3 Nakhtnebtepnefer Intef 11-4 Sankhibtawy 11-4 Netjeryhedjet 11-4 Smatawy 11-5 Sankhtawyef 11-6 Nebtawyre 11-6
[Throne & Personal Names] [Mentuhotep I] [Inyotef I] [Inyotef II] [Inyotef III] [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] [Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II] [Sankhkare Mentuhotep III] [Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV] [The God's Father Sesostris]
21332133-1991 2133-2118
Dynasty 12 12-1 Sehetepibre Amenemhat 12-2 Kheperkare Senusert 12-3 Nubkaure Amenemhat 12-4 Khakheperre Senusert 12-5 Khakaure Senusert 12-6 Nimaatre Amenemhat 12-7 Maakherure Amenemhat 12-8 Sobekkare Sobekneferu
[Modern Name] [Ammenemes I] [Sesostris I] [Ammenemes II] [Sesostris II] [Sesostris III] [Ammenemes III] [Ammenemes IV]
19911991-1786 CoCo-regency 1991-1962 1971-1928 10 years 1929-1895 2 1897-1878 3 1878-1843 1843-1797 1798-1790 1789-1786 (Queen)
2117-2069 2068-2061 2060-20109 2009-1998 1997-1991
7 Lacunae due to the poor state of preservation of the Turin Royal Canon papyrus. 8 Order, number, and length of reigns uncertain. 9 Reunified Egypt.
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Second Intermediate Period
An Egyptian Primer
Dynasty 13 Selected Kings 10 [Modern Name] 13-1 Sekhemre Khutowy Amenemhat Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep I] 13-2 Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senbuef 13-4 Sehetepibre Amenemhat 13-6 Sankhibre Ameny Intef Amenemhat Hetepibre Amu Sihornedjheryotef 13-11 Sobekhotep, son of Mentuhotep [Sobekhotep II] 13-12 Renseneb 13-13 Awibre Hor 13-14 Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat 13-15 Khutawyre Ugaf (or Re Khutawy) 13-16 Seneferibre Senusert [Sesostris IV] Userkare Khendjer Semenkhkare ("The General") Sekhemre Wadjkhau Sobekemsaf [Sobekemsaf I] Sekhemre Sewadjtawy Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep III] Khasekhemre Neferhotep [Neferhotep I] Khaneferre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep IV] Khaankhre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep V] Mersekhemre Neferhotep [Neferhotep II] Khahetepre Sobekhotep [Sobekhotep VI] Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep [Neferhotep III] Wahibre Yayebi Merneferre Ay Merhetepre Ini Djedneferre Dudimose I [Tutimaios] Djedhetepre Dudimose II Sewahenre Senebmiu Meryankhre Mentuhotep Djedankhre Mentuemsaf Menkhaure Senaayeb Nehsy
17861786-1567 17861786-1633
c.1770-1769
Reign 5 + x years 3 + x years
4 months 2 yrs 4 mos
c.1740-1730
4 + x years 3 + x years 7 years 3 yrs 2 mos 8 + x years 4 yrs 9 mos
c.1674
10 yrs 9 mos 23 yrs 9 mos 2 yrs 2 mos
｝ ｝ ｝Upper Egyptian Rulers and Vassals of Hyksos ｝ ｝ ｝
Dynasty 14 17861786-c.1603 "Seventy-six kings of Xois", who reigned together 184 years, according to the Africanus version of Manetho. Many of their names are preserved in columns VIII-X of the Turin Canon. Few monuments. Dynasty 15 "The Hyksos" 15-1 Mayebre Sheshi 15-a Meruserre Yakubher11 15-b Seuserenre Khyan10 15-4 Auserre Ipepi 15-5 Aqenenre Ipepi 15-6 Asehre Khamudy
[Modern Name] [Salitas] [Iannas] [Apophis I] [Apophis II]
10 Ruler numbers based on the Turin Canon described in '4.4. 11 Exact order of Yakubher and Iannas is uncertain.
C-5
1674674-1567
Reign 1,2,3? yrs > 8 yrs 40 + x yrs
Dynasty 16 16-1 Anather 16-2 Semqen 16-3 Khauserre 16-4 Seket 16-5 Ahetepre 16-6 Sekhaenre 16-7 Amu 16-8 Nebkhepeshre Ipepi Dynasty 17 17 Sekhemre Wahkhau Rehotep Sekhemre Wepmaat Intef ("The Elder") Sekhemre Heruhirmaat Intef Sekhemre Shedtowy Sobekemsaf Sekhemre Sementawy Thuty Sankhenre Mentuhotep Sewadjenre Nebiryerawet Neferkare? Nebiryerawet Semenmedjat(?)re Seuserenre (Userenre?) Sekhemre Shedwast Nubkheperre Intef Senakhtenre Seqenre Tao ("The Elder") Seqenre Tao ("The Brave") Wadjkheperre Kamose12
An Egyptian Primer
1684-1567 c.1684-
[Apophis (III?)] [Modern Name] First Group
165050-1567
[Inyotef V] [Inyotef VI] [Sobekemsaf II]
3 years x months 16 yrs 1 yr 1 yr 6 yrs x mos
[Mentuhotep VI] [Nebiryerawet I] [Nebiryerawet II]
Second Group [Inyotef VII] [Tao I] [Tao II]
New Kingdom13 Dynasty 18 [Modern Name] 18-1 Nebpehtyre Amose [Amosis] 18-2 Djeserkare Amenhotep [Amenophis I] 18-3 Akheperkare Thutmose [Thutmosis I] 18-4 Akheperenre Thutmose [Thutmosis II] 18-5 Maatkare Hatshepsut14 18-6 Menkheperre Thutmose [Thutmosis III] 18-7 Akheprure Amenhotep [Amenophis II] 18-8 Menkheprure Thutmose [Thutmosis IV] 18-9 Nebmaatre Amenhotep [Amenophis III] 18-10 Neferkheprure Amenhotep [Amenophis IV] 18-10 Neferkheperurewe Akhenaten [Akhenaten] 18-11 Ankhkheprure Smenkhkare15 18-11 Ankhkheprure Neferneferaten 18-12 Nebkheprure Tutankhamun 18-13 Kheperkheprure Ay 18-14 Djeserkheprure-setepenre Horemheb
Reign
-1605
12 yrs 3 + x yrs
c.1578-1570
3 + x yrs
15671567-1085 15671567-1320 1570-1546 1546-1526 1525-c.1512 c.1512-1504 1503-1482 Queen 1504-1450 1450-1425 1425-1417 1417-1379 1379-1362 1364-1361 1361-1352 1352-1348 1348-1320
12 Older brother of Nebpehtyre Amose (18-1). 13 Traditional date for New Kingdom begins with the expulsion of the Hyksos in 1567. 14 Crowned king in year 2 of the reign of Menkheperre Thutmose (18-6). Co-regent with Thutmose for 21 years. 15 3 year co-regency with Akhenaten. C-6
An Egyptian Primer Dynasty 19 [Modern Name] 19-1 Menpehtyre Ramesses [Ramesses I] 19-2 Menmaatre Seti [Seti I] 19-3 Usermaatre Ramesses16 [Ramesses II] 19-4 Baenre Merneptah [Merneptah] 19-5 Menmaatre Amenmesses17 19-6 Userkheprure Seti17 [Seti II] 19-7 ;Akhenre-setepenre18 Merneptah Siptah17
