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History! how Muslims were forced to accept Christianity. by ammuslim on Tue Jul 31, 2007 2:33 am Bismillah: Assalamo ALikum. HOW THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT AND CHURCHES FORCED MUSLIMS OF PHILIPPINE TO CONVERTED TO CHRISTIANITY As I, previously a Christian Filipino-American, began to return to my grass roots I stumbled upon a diamond in the rough; I discovered a history of the Philippines that I had never encountered. Although this discovery of my heritage is rich in history and is a source of dignity, my natural reaction was to say, "Aren't they terrorists?" At this time I see my lack of knowledge. My name is Mahdiyah and I am among the many in my community of Filipino-Americans who have converted to Islam. I felt the need to write this chapter about the Muslims in the Philippines because, surprisingly, to many Filipinos and Filipino-Americans the Muslim

Filipino and his/her history in relation to the Philippines is a "familiar stranger."1 They are aware that Muslim Filipinos belong somewhere in the mosaic of Philippine history, but they are not aware of the Muslim Filipinos actual involvement and struggle. Chapter Three The Subjugation of the Elephant: Maguindanao and the Moro People Mahdiyah . . History books in the Philippines tend to lay emphasis on events in other islands and glorify national heroes from such areas, as if the history of the Philippines is only that of people who had been conquered while the history of the unconquered ones do not merit a share in the history of the Philippines. Possibly, with greater tolerance, intensive scholarship on all levels, deeper and wider moral perspectives, and a greater appreciation of the concept and implications of a pluralistic society, a future generation of Filipinos would consider the struggle of the Muslim South as part of the struggle of the entire nation-and the epic exploits of its heroes may well be the nation's heritage.2 The title of this compilation of essays is, Saving the Elephant: Asian Encounters with Imperialism, Orientalism and Globalization. Therefore, I will attempt to provide a definition of imperialism, and try to gently address those who fall under that definition in relation to Maguindanao and the Moro people. George Orwell's essay, "Shooting the Elephant," conveys the struggles that accompany imperialism and the plight of the subjugated. Orwell was born and raised during a time when Britain was building their empire which had already reached the country of Burma. He writes about his experience with the coolies of the area he policed and a situation involving an elephant. Orwell stated that "at that time I had already made up my mind that imperialism was an evil thing and the sooner I chucked up my job and got out of it the better." But during his term in India he was forced to act on his leadership role, as an arm of the British Empire, by killing an elephant. The elephant in Orwell's essay may symbolize Burma. Orwell's elephant is viewed as commodity by the English. Therefore, Orwell signifies imperialists who subjugate the elephant. In an attempt to relate this chapter to Orwell's essay, the Spanish and the United States signify the white man and his dominion in the East, paralleling Orwell, while Maguindanao and the Moro people take the place of the elephant. Introduction: Pre-Spanish Colonization The Philippine archipelago consists of more than 7,000 islands and islets in the South China Sea from Taiwan in the north and Borneo in the south. Its inhabitants were mainly nomadic tribal people who relied on hunting and gathering for their survival, as the Philippines are rich in natural resources, with fertile plains and rich valleys. Muslims consider lineage, in all matters, as greatly important, allowing one to trace back their ancestry, knowledge, etc. So, for a Muslim, there are no negative implications in the word tribe, a community of people in a traditional society who share customs, beliefs and descent from a common ancestor.

These tribes were composed of families and close relatives, roughly organized under chiefs and chieftains. These tribes primarily competed and fought with neighboring tribes for resources and dominance. The inhabitants of the archipelago were polytheistic, believing in gods and goddesses. There were lesser gods and goddesses, like a god of death, a god of agriculture, a goddess of harvest, sea gods, river gods, and the like. It was also believed that things found in nature were full of spirits more powerful than man. Spirits of dead relatives were also revered. Sacrifices were offered to all of them. The ancient Filipinos believed in the immortality of the soul and in life after death. Disease or illness was attributed to the whims of the environmental spirits and the soul-spirits of the dead relatives.3 Muslim travelers helped the archipelago tribes adopt a developed social structure, implemented leadership, laws, and public relations.4 There is no single explanation of the way Islam was introduced to the Philippines. Rather it is a "complex phenomenon" about which a series of theories have been developed. Six major theories were produced to describe the coming of Islam to the Philippines. The first was the trade theory. The second is, for lack of better terminology, the "missionary theory." In this chapter, because there is no better term, the word missionary will be used, even though Muslim do not believe in going to other parts of the world with the initial intention of advancing their beliefs and religion. Muslims believe in giving the invitation to Islam, they believe that there is no compulsion in religion; so, their sole intention was not to convert people. However, if people want to know and are willing to listen, Muslims tell them about Allah and how they worship the Creator of the worlds. The third theory, which is political in nature, is a conscious replacement for the first theory, in part due to the latter's alleged improbability. In addition, the exposure to "Muslim traders, during the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries did not reveal any dramatic process of Islamization, providing that the trade factor was not the important one."5 This theory suggests that the Muslim traders had a political agenda, although, the political theory applies more to the conversion of local rulers. "The political theory maintains that the adoption of Islam by the rulers and the court for political motives explains the growth of Islam in Malaysia."6 The fourth theory is economic, and complements the political theory. A fifth theory described the spread of Islam as due to the manner in which the Muslims introduced their religion to the locals. The Muslim way of life may give freedom and a greater sense of belonging to a person who was part of a caste system. Lastly the sixth theory is the crusader theory. It would be too easy to explain the coming of Islam to the Philippines by six methods. The advent of Islam was much more complicated. The most widely accepted theory among scholars is the missionary theory, since missionary activity was so prevalent in the thirteenth century. The introduction of Islam in the Philippines also occurred at different times throughout their history. During the ninth century Arab traders, as well as Muslims from Persia and India, controlled the sea trader of the Nanhai7 as they gained more control as one of the world powers. In 878 in

Knanhu8, Muslim merchants along with their families were killed, causing others to flee to Kalah, a port in the Malay Peninsula. Trade flourished and the Muslims became increasingly acquainted with their surrounding area, such as Borneo and Sulu, an island south west of the Philippines. In fact, Chinese records report that in 982 there was a ship captained by an Arab in Khanfu. The ship had arrived from Mo-yi, an island that scholars theorized is either Mindoro or Luzon in the Philippines archipelago, and carried various products from destinations along the South China Sea. By the eleventh century, there were many well developed Muslim settlements along the Muslim trade route traversing the South China Sea, which may have helped facilitate the spread of Islam to the Philippines. However, there is no substantial evidence that natives converted to Islam during this time, although Muslims who resided in these areas extensively, intermarried into native tribes and had close relationships with local rulers, sometimes establishing economic partnerships. These partnerships may have contributed to the political power of Muslims in these areas. In the thirteenth century, some Muslims gained political status in some areas ruled by princes in Sumatra. This led to one of the first known conversions to Islam in this region of the world. Iskandar Shah converted to Islam and founded Malacca around the 1400's. Malacca was funded by wealthy Muslim merchants. It soon expaned eastern trade and became a center of theological studies. This is when theory two becomes evident. People from this area, or those who traveled to study the Islamic faith in Malacca, would often pass through and visit places such as Java, Borneo, while the converts from Java and Borneo would pass through one of the Philippine islands, Sulu. With this understanding of how Islam spread in Asia, to such countries as China and Malaysia, one can conclude that the natives of the Philippine archipelago may have been fairly well acquainted with Muslims and their way of life by the tenth century. In fact, there is tangible evidence that Muslims had arrived in the Philippines. On the island of Jolo, there is a hillside tomb at Bud Dato9belonging to Tuhan Maqbalu. Cesar notes: Inspite of his Arab name, his ethnic origin is unknown. But "Tuhan" is an important title since that come to designate chiefs or state ministers as shown by an almost contemporary Sumatran tomb inscription of 1347. That many Sulu sultans were crowned at the tomb's site also proved its significance.10 The tomb inscription tells us that the deceased passed away in the Islamic year of 710 after Hijrah, which is equivalent to 1310 c.e. It was includes an Arabic a saying of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, "Whoever dies far away(from home), dies a martyr."11 The style of calligraphy used, the Prophetic saying, the pointed bow shape of the tomb, the tomb material, and the tenon at its base are similar to the tombs of foreign Muslims found around Asian. Some tombs are still preserved in Guangzhou, and suggest that the tomb was prepared in Guangzhou as well as that Tuhan Maqbalu was Muslim. The most important pieces of evidence that explain how Islam came to the Philippines are the tarsilas,12 genealogical records of an individual's ancestral linkage to political and religious

people of importance. These documents often provide descriptions of the individual, their activities, and names of related places and people. The tarsilas also refer to historical events and traditions. According to the tarsilas, one of the earliest Muslims to come to the Philippines in Sulu was Tuhan Masha'ika13, who married the daughter of the Maimbung chief, Raja Sipad, also known as Raja Sri Paduka. Later a Muslim missionary, Makhdum Karim, came to Sulu in 1380 and eventually lived there with the tribe of Taguimaha in the area of Buansa near Jolo, where he built a masjid. The tarsilas also show that during the time of the Tuhan Masha'ika's grandsons, who ruled in the area of Maimbung, a Muslim Prince, Raja Baguinda, from Menangkabaw, Sumatra came to Buansa as an exile from Palembang when the Javanese Majapahit army pursued the last of the Srivijayan Empire in 1397. The natives of Taguimaha, who became Muslim through Tuhan Makhdum, and the Sumatran Prince and his companions, initiated a battle. But the tarsilas note that the battle ended when the people of Taguimaha discovered the Sumatran Prince and his company were Muslims. Raja Baguinda settled with the Taguimahas and married the daughter of a local chief, starting a family of his own. The next Muslim to arrive, according to the tarsilas, was Sharif Abu Bakr, who married the daughter of Raja Baguinda and became chief. As early as the thirteenth century, if not earlier, settlements of predominately Muslim merchants introduced the first glimpse of Islam to the Philippines and raised Muslim families. Later Muslim descendants had social and political prominence, bringing political institutions, laws, and madrasahs(Islamic schools). Islam spread rapidly throughout the Philippines, reaching as far north as Luzon with Muslim settlement in Manila and Tondo. Most traces of Muslim presence were eliminated when the Spanish arrived and made Manila the capital of the Spanish colony. Castellans During this time, when Islam was spreading throughout the Philippines, the European world was competing to control trade. Not only was Islam spreading in the Philippine archipelago, it was also spreading eastward. Muslim control over many trade routes closed off the possibility for Europeans to trade with the Orient?with the exception of the Venetians. The Venetians were allies of the Egyptian Muslims against the Greeks and maintained good relations with the Muslims. As a result, they had permission to trade along the southern route that ended in Cairo, the only access to trade with the Orient for Europeans. Hence, the Venetians gained a monopoly, which the Spanish and the Portuguese wanted to break to increase their own profits. Agoncillo and Guerroro observe: While the commercial motive took precedence over all other motives, the search for a new trade route was accompanied by a strong missionary impulse. In 1942 the reconquista, or the movement to destroy the Muslim power and influence in the Iberian Peninsula, ended with the capture of Granada. The spirit of the reconquista, however, was to live on in the attempts of Spain and Portugal to discover and convert heathen lands for Christianity.14 Spain and Portugal continued to be rivals competing for the discovery of new lands. In 1493. Pope Alexander the Sixth, developed the Inter Caetra, which divided the world in half. The

half occupied by with non-Christian lands that were located one hundred leagues west of the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands went to Spain and the lands east of these areas belonged to Portugal. Because the Pope was from Spain, people were suspicious that he intended to favor Spain. This led to the Treaty of Tordesillas, in which it was agreed by Spain and Portugal that the partition line be moved 370 leagues west of the Islands of Cape Verde. In many history books the travel of the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who owed allegiance to Spain, to various islands in the Philippines is noted. Rarely discussed is the fact that Magellan and his fleet traveled to Moluccas and jumped from place to place, including Samar, Homonhon, Suluan, Limasawa. Finally they arrived at Cebu, where Magellan settled down and established a relationship with the local chief and his family. He converted them, and later their tribe, to Christianity. History books mention Magellan's travels in the Philippines as well as his death, but do not mention the resistance to Spanish sovereignty by Muslim Natives. The native Lapu-Lapu inflicted the wound that led to Magellan's his death. The next major figure is Legazpi, who under King Philip the Second, for whom the Spanish named the Philippines, sold Moluccas. Legazpi came to colonize the Philippines, despite the provisions of the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, which placed the Philippines and Moluccas under the control of the Portuguese. In 1572 Spain received reports from Manila about certain villages in the island of Luzon: . . . it is quite certain that the natives of this island of Luzon, whom we Spaniards commonly call Moros, are not so; for the truth is that they do not know or understand the law of Mahoma [Mohammed]?only in some of the villages on the seacoast they do not eat pork, and this for the reason that they have had dealings with the Moros of Burney, who have preached to them a little of the teachings of Mahoma.15 The Spaniards, referred to as Castillans by the Muslims, referred to the Muslims of Borneo as Moros and later applied the term to the Muslims in the Philippines. The term Moro was developed by the Spanish to refer to the Mauritanians of Africa, who were Muslim. This term was generally applied to all Muslims the Spanish encountered. The Spanish referred to nonMuslim Filipinos as Indios. Legazpi and his expedition traveled throughout the Philippines befriending the local chiefs. Once gained their friendship they made a blood compact, "the ancient Filipino method of sealing blood brotherhood and friendship"16 which entailed for the Filipinos a "treaty of friendship." The treaty of friendship was interpreted as a conquest of the Philippines, to ensure that Filipinos who committed crimes against the Spanish under their law would be prosecuted. Bot there was no reciprocity, meaning that Spaniards who committed crimes against Filipinos could not be brought to trial according to the Filipino law. Spanish offenders could be only brought to a Spanish trial. "This treaty, therefore, signified the loss of freedom of the Filipinos and acknowledged their reduction as vassals of Spain."17 In 1565 the Spanish officials of Cebu wrote the King of Spain requesting permission to enslave Moros:

We beseech his majesty and your highness in this royal name, that, inasmuch as the said Moros and others take all the gold, pearls, jewels, precious stones and other things of which we have no information?thus injuring the natives, both by giving us no opportunity to plant out holy faith among them, and by taking the said gold, they should, if they continue the said trade, lose their property and be made slaves, for they preach the doctrine of Mahoma.18 In reply, the Spanish King gave the officials in Cebu power to seize land from and enslave Muslim Filipinos, either by blood and by conversion. They were charged with hindering the spread of the Christian Holy Gospel and of not taking Spain as their sovereign. The Spanish King also stated that those newly converted to the doctrine of Mahoma should not be enslaved, but persuaded to convert to the holy Catholic Church. The Spanish encountered great opposition among the Muslim natives, who soon became a major obstacle for the Castillans. Muslim Filipinos allied themselves with Muslims in surrounding areas, such as Borneo, fighting vigorously to preserve their way of life. This greatly concerned the Castillans, who sent a letter to the sultan of Borneo, Sharif Ur-Rijal: What you are to do is to admit preachers of the holy gospels, who may preach the law of the Christians in your lands in all security; and likewise that any person whatever of your country may have entire liberty and permission to attend the preaching of the law of the Christians, and the he who wishes to become a Christian may do so without any ill befalling him. Further, I desire that you shall send no preachers of the sect of Mahoma to any part of these islands nor into other parts of your own islands-inasmuch as the doctrine of Mahoma is a false and evil law, and the religion of the Christians alone is the true, holy, and good.19 It is reasonable to assume that, along with their political and economic goals, the Castillans sought to extend the imperial regions of Spain in order to extirpate Islam and spread Catholicism. The Muslims and the Castillans battled one another for a very long time. There were five stages in the Moro struggles and the Spanish effort to subjugate the Moro people. In the first stage, occurring around 1565, the Spanish came to the Philippines to establish a Spanish colony and to Christianize the area. During this stage the Castillans fought with Muslim Borneans who were allied, due to relations in lineage and faith, to Muslims from Sulu. In this stage the Castillans were able to eliminate Borneo influence from the Archipelago. Once the Spanish gained control of an area and established it into a colony, natives were force to pay taxes. These taxes constituted a kind of tribute, usually one peso, to fund both the Spanish Church, and efforts in keep Muslims, whether native or foreign, from influencing people in their new colony. The second stage of subjugation entailed that the Castillans reduce the Muslims in the Philippine islands of Sulu and Maguindanao to a people dependent on the King of Spain and his holy Catholic Church. So, in this stage no Spanish colonies were formed. Instead the Castillans concentrated their efforts on containing the Moros. Muslims were discouraged from traveling outside their own islands and were instructed to trade amongst themselves and with the Spanish. The Muslims were then forced to accept Catholic missionaries on their islands and to stop any incoming Islamic influences to their land.

In the third stage, which lasted a span of thirty five years from 1599 to 1635, Muslims from Maguindanao began to undertake more aggressive efforts to resist the further development of the Spanish colonies. The Muslims consolidated their allies and support, however the Castillans were successful in defeating their efforts. The Muslim Filipino territory began to recede and their numbers decreased. A major turning point for the Castillans came in the fourth stage, with the establishment of Fort Zamboanga in 1635. In 1637 Castillan invasions in Maguindanao were successful, followed by more success in Sulu a year later. The Castillans were greatly encouraged about prospects of conquering the remaining islands of the Philippines. For a short time period the Castillans were forced to abandon the fort due to the possible threat by the Koxingas, allowing the Muslims in Sulu and Maguidanao to experience relative peace for about half a century. The return of the Castillans return to the fort initiates the fifth stage. The sixth and last stage of the Moro struggles parallels the decline of Sultanates, reflected in the Spanish Campaign of 1851 against Sulu. The end result was Spanish domination in the Philippines."20 The Castillans were wary that their efforts in the Philippines might be disrupted by the British and the Dutch, who were making their way through Asia at this time. The Castillans may have agreed to this treaty to try to secure the existing colonies in Muslim areas of the Philippines and to gain more territory before other western powers could. During the last stage of the Moro Wars many Muslims were subjugated. They turned to Spain as their sovereign and their descendants upheld the Christian faith. Though the Castillans were successful in subjugating many Muslims and their colonies, as well as non-Muslims, they were not able to eliminate revolts against them. Filipino Christian and Muslim settlements that were under the supervision of the Castillans were forced to follow a feudal system. Filipinos, Christian and Muslim, were required to fulfill a quota of commodities that they would produce, only to have it confiscated by the Castillans. Soon after the Campaign of 1851, the Philippine Revolution against the Spanish opened the eyes of a few historical figures that are today considered national heroes of the Philippines. They tried to recruit help from the Muslim community. "The Hongkong Junta once declared that the Filipinos were forced to fight the Muslims of Sulu and Mindanao who in reality are our brothers like us fighting for their independence."21 American Occupation The last stage of the Moro struggle lasted until the end of the Spanish rule over the Philippines. After the three centuries of toil and strive, Filipinos, both Christian and Muslim, hungered for peace and freedom. Americans debated about what to do with the Philippines, a territory that was newly acquired from Spain. In August 14, 1898 the Philippines was put under U.S. military rule. The American policy toward the Philippines was one of "Pacification"22 in the north. This was even more magnified in the south, Mindanao, the only area of the Philippines that the Castillans were not able to subjugate. The Americans sent General Bates to the Sultan of Jolo to negotiate a treaty that would ensure that the Muslims and the Americans would peacefully co-exist. The Sultan said that the United States should not be allowed to hold any position in areas other than the town of Jolo. Under these conditions General Bates,

representing the Sultan, signed a treaty with the United States. But "the Bates Agreement negotiated in 1899 had forestalled warfare with the Muslim Filipinos by promising them autonomy,"23 because in 1903 the United States instructed troops to occupy the southern Philippines. For those Filipinos who were subjugated, the Philippines, the former Spanish Islands, exchanged masters and gained no liberty from the country in whose own Bill of Rights liberty is embedded. The United States and Spain went into negotiations and formulated the Treaty of Paris. Spain sold the Philippines, including areas which Spain never controlled, Sulu and Mindanao, for twenty million dollars in December 1898. After Mindanao and Sulu were illegally sold to the United States they had to deal with the consequences. A year after the Treaty of Paris, in August 20, 1899, the United States and the Sultan of Sulu negotiated peace. The Bates Treaty, also known as the Senate Document No. 136, 56th Congress, 1st Session, Serial 3851, promised the Muslims of Jolo and neighboring islands non-interference in social, domestic, internal economic and political affairs. The Bates Treaty also assured Muslim autonomy. The United States agreed not to sell Sulu or any other islands to any other nation. Also agreed to was the continuation of the monthly allowance of two hundred and fifty dollars initiated by the Spanish, as well as, the right of slaves to purchase their freedom. The Bates Treaty that the Sultan of Sulu accepted stated that "the support, aid, and the protection of the Jolo island and Archipelago are in the American nation." However, the English version states that "the sovereignty of the United States over the whole Archipelago of Jolo and its dependencies is declared and acknowledged."24 The Bates treaty was the United States' first step towards the eradication of the Muslim population of the Southern Philippines and the elimination of the Sulu Sultanate. Despite the promise by the Americans to refrain from establishing positions in any areas other than the town of Jolo and their promise of autonomy, they abrogated their treaty by establishing military rule over the Muslims, creating the "Moro Province." The constabulary officer of the "Moro Province," Cornelius Smith, described the United States administration and his involvement in the Southern Philippines as follows: "the government of the Philippines and that of the Moro Province constituted a dual authority?the former legislating and controlling the Christian and pagan tribes in the north, the latter the Mohammedan peoples in the southern islands."25 lthough military rule was eradicated and the Philippines were given its independence, autonomy was never returned to the Muslims. The history of the Filipino people is one of struggle, especially for the Muslims. This struggle may be thought of as a heritage, not only for the Muslim Filipinos but for the entire Filipino people, as this is a struggle for freedom and independence. The Muslim struggle in the Philippines has to be seen in a new light. Currently Filipinos may think of Muslims as a "familiar strangers," familiar in that many are aware there is a substantially large community of Muslim Filipinos in the Philippines. Muslims may seem strange because Filipinos may associate all Muslims with various small extremist groups or base their information about Muslims on what the media provides for them. Muslim Filipinos continue to be strange because many Filipinos often have a superficial understanding of Muslim theology, practice, and culture.

Many people misunderstand the United States' involvement in the Philippines, only concentrating on the Spanish-American war. History books often are biased, in this case biased in favor of the so-called, American effort to develop the Philippines.The Philippine-American war and the effects of the American Occupation have been taken as the lesser of two evils, a necessary evil to modernize the Philippines. Even worse, people may have forgotten the entire episode. The history of the Philippines, Christian and Muslim, is collective because it is a story of the struggle for freedom. The Christian-Muslim conflict that seems to be so magnified in the Philippines is, let us not forget, not an indigenous problem, but one created by the Spanish in order to facilitate their domination of the whole Archipelago. There needs to be more effort in scholarly research on the Muslims in the Philippines. This information must be shared with, not only Filipinos, but every person willing to learn. Our society needs to be further educated about the media and the credibility of the information that they feed to the public. When is it fallacious or sensationalized? When is it truly unbiased, trustworthy news that can be relied on? One cannot formulate an opinion about something he or she is not knowledgeable about. As Dr. Cesar Majul states, with greater tolerance, intensive scholarship on all levels, deeper and wider moral perspectives, an a greater appreciation of the concept of a more pluralistic society, a future generation of Filipinos would consider the struggle of the Muslim south as part of the struggle of the entire nation-and the epic exploits of its heroes may well be the nation's heritage. NOTES 1 Guimzun, 2. 2 Majul Abid Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines. (Dilman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. 1999), back cover. 3 Teoadoro A. Agoncillo and Milagros C Guerroro,. History of the Filipino People. (Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co. 1987), 43. 4 Cesar, 40-84. 5 Cesar, 52-53. 6 Cesar, 54-56. 7 Majul Abid Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," in Filipinas: A Magazine for all Filipinos. Manila: Filipinas Publishing Inc. 1993, 30. See also Chinese records of the Mongol Dynasty, Tao I Chih Lio, where the word Nanhai refers to the Southeast Asian trade. 8 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 30. Chinese records, the Ming Annals, state that Khanfu is currently Canton, as testified by Arab merchants sailing from the Philippines. 9 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31. Bad Dato means the hills of datus. Datu means chief. These hills, located a few miles from Jolo, are still preserved today.

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10 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31. 11 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 31. The tomb was inscribed with a saying from the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. The tomb says: "'Who ever dies far away [from his home] dies a martyr'. Allah has taken away the late blessed martyr Tuhan Maqbalu on the date: The sacred, holy month of Rajab. May Allah increase its holiness. The year ten and seven hundred." 12 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam,"32. Tarsilas comes from an Arabic word silsilah, meaning chain or link. 13 Cesar, "The Advent of Islam," 32. Masha'ika is a plural form of the Arabic word sheik, which means elder or leader. 14 Agoncillo and Guerroro, 69. 15 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 90. 16 Agoncillo and Guerroro, 73. 17 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 73. 18 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 91. 19 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 92. 20 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 337. 21 Cesar, Muslims in the Philippines, 370. 22 Patricia Abinales, "An American Colonial State: Authority and Structure in Southern Mindanao." in Angel V. Shaw, and Luis H. Francia, eds., Vestiges of War: The PhilippineAmerican War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999 (Washington Square, New York: New York University Press. 2002). 23 Jim Zwick, "Mark Twain's Anti-Imperialist Writings in the ?American Century.," in Shaw and Francia. 24 Peter Gowing. Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 1899-1920 (Quezon City, Philippines: University of the Philippines Press, 1977), 122. 25 From the autobiography of the Constabulary officer of the Moro Province, Cornelius Smith. GLOSSARY

Allah?An Arabic word meaning, One God, which is used by Muslims and Arabic speaking people, which believe in one of the other Abrahamic faiths. Coolie?An unskilled laborer from India or China. Hijrah?the Prophet Muhammad's flight to Medina in 622 C.E. from Mecca, which initiated the start of the Islamic calendar. Madrasah?An Islamic school. Masjid?A place of gathering, study, and worship for Muslims. Moro?A term that comes from the word Moor, which is a member of a Muslim people, a mix of Arab and Berber stock living in northwestern Africa. This term has come to describe, by the Spanish, a member of any one of the Muslim Malay tribes in Mindanao and other southern Philippine Islands. Mo-yi?The Island of Mindoro or the Island of Luzon. Tenon?The end of a piece of wood cut so as to fit into the mortise in another piece and so form a joint. Sharif?a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbas, Jamal A. "A Peek at History: Mindanao and the Spice Islands." The Philippine Post, Manila. March 11, 2000. Datu Jamal Ashley Abbas is a petroleum engineer, special assistant to the Secretary of Energy, a licensed real estate broker and a scholar; she recounts the close historical relationship between Mindanao and Moluccas, especially the Sultanates of Maguindanao and Ternate. ________. "Milestone in Moro Historiography." The Philippine Post. Manila. April, 1, 2000. Datu Jamal Ashley Abbas analyzes various books of the history of the Philippines and the its peole, as she calls it, the milestones in Moro historiography. Agoncillo, Teoadoro A., and Guerroro, Milagros C. History of the Filipino People. Quezon City: R. P. Garcia Publishing Co. 1987. Teoadoro Agoncilla is a professor of history at the University of the Philippines, Quezon City, and is considered the country's foremost historian. In this book he traces the Philippine history form pre-Spanish colonialization to after the American Occupation Barnhart, Clarence and Barnhart Robert. The World Book Dictionary. Chicago, Illinois: World Book Inc.,1989. Cesar, Majul Abid. "The Moros of the Philippines." Conflict. Russak & Company Inc., 1988. This article was written by the first dean of the institute of Islamic Studies at the University of the Philippines. Cesar Adib Majul was born in Aparri, Cagayan, Philippines, on October 21, 1923. He was educated at the University of the Philippines and Cornell University. He has

9 3.

e was educated at t e U ve s ty o t e

pp es a d Co e U ve s ty.

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been a member of the faculty of the University of the Philippines since 1948. From 1961 until 1966, he was Dean of the University College, University of the Philippines, and from 1969 until 1971, he was Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines. He served on the Board of Regents of the University of Mindanao between 1961 and 1962. During the spring term of the academic year 1966-67, he was Visiting Professor at Cornell University. The article goes over the history of the Muslims in Southern Philippines and touches on the current, so called, Chriatian-Muslim conflict in the Philippines. ________. "The Advent of Islam." Filipinas: A Magazine for all Filipinos. Manila: Filipinas Publishing Inc. 1993. This is an article that step by step describes the arrival of Muslims and Islam to the Philippine Archipelago. ________ . Muslims in the Philippines. Dilman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. 1999. This book explains the arrival of Islam in the Philippines and the histories of the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao from their beginnings until the end of Spanish period. In the 400 years of Muslim presence in the Philippines, they expanded to control a portion of Borneo, and fought the Spaniards, never actually being colonized with their northern brothers. The role of Islam is highlighted as the very basis of the Moros' determination to resist European colonization. Gowing, Peter G. and McAmis, Robert D. The Muslim Filipinos: Their History Society and Contemporary Problems. Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House. 1974. ________. Mandate in Moroland: The American Government of Muslim Filipinos 18991920.Quezon City: University of the Philippine Press. 1977. Mandate in Moroland tells the history and problems of diplomacy throughout the Philippine Archipelago, especial United States policy towards the Muslim sovereignty over the southern islands. It talks about the American military presence, acceleration of the economic, political and social improvement of the people, and the abdication of the Sultan of Sulu, and the presence of Christian Filipino officials in positions of authority among the Muslim Islands Guimzan, Herman. "Problems Exist in the Filipino-American Communities as it Concerns the Communities outlook towards Islam." California. 2003. (Typewritten) Orwell, George. Shooting an Elephant. Reading and Writing about Essays. 5th edition. Shaw, Angel V. and Francia, Luis H. Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999. Washington Square, New York: New York University Press. 2002. This book is a compilation of articles, written by various authors, about the United States

This book is a compilation of articles, written by various authors, about the United States intervention in the Philippines. The expressed that there is little known about the 1899 Philippine- American War and uses the war as its departure point in analyzing U.S.-Philippine relations. http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~aps1/graphic ... hdiyah.htm

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