How and Why Wonder Book of World War I

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W r i t t e n by F e l i x S u t t o n I l l u s t r a t e d by R o b e r t D o r e m u s

Editorial Production D o n a l d D. W o l f

Edited under the supervision of D r . P a u l E. B l a c k w o o d , W a s h i n g t o n , D. C . T e x t a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s a p p r o v e d by O a k e s A. W h i t e , B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s Museum, Brooklyn, N e w Y o r k

WONDER

BOOKS

NEW

YORK

Introduction

Contents

J u s t 5 0 y e a r s ago, a g u n s h o t r a n g o u t in a tiny t o w n in t r o u b l e d E u r o p e a n d the First W o r l d W a r b e g a n . So the y e a r 1 9 6 4 m a r k s an " a n n i v e r s a r y " — b u t hardly the k i n d to celebrate happily. O n the c o n t r a r y , w a r — t h e very t h o u g h t of w a r — is sobering. H o w else c a n w e l o o k b a c k o n the First W o r l d W a r a n d t h e m a r c h of events in t h a t e m b a t t l e d p e r i o d in m a n ' s history? T h i s How and Why Wonder Book of the First World War gives an a u t h e n t i c a c c o u n t of the day b y d a y c o m b a t — i n the trenches, in the sky, at s e a — a g a i n s t its b a c k g r o u n d of crises: how n a t i o n after n a t i o n aligned against o t h e r g r o u p s of n a t i o n s ; how the tide of b a t t l e t u r n e d again a n d a g a i n ; h o w the h o p e s a n d fears of t h e p e o p l e m o t i v a t e d their deeds; a n d , finally, h o w A m e r i c a helped to b r i n g the w a r to a n end. T o today's teen-agers, even the Second W o r l d W a r is distant a n d r e m o t e ; t h e First W o r l d W a r seems like ancient history. Y e t , neither of t h o s e wars is over t h e horizon of historic time. S o m e o n e in almost every family fought in o n e or b o t h . T h e effects of b o t h t h e F i r s t a n d Second W o r l d W a r s h a v e t o u c h e d — e v e n c h a n g e d — t h e lives of e a c h of us, y o u n g a n d old. W h i l e y o u r e a d this How and Why Wonder Book of the First World War, s e a r c h for t h e clues t h a t will help you u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r why n a t i o n s engage o t h e r s in w a r . R e a d i n g this b o o k will strengthen t h e resolve of e a c h of us t o w o r k in every possible w a y for a world of n a t i o n s in w h i c h w o r l d , n a t i o n a l , a n d individual goals c a n b e realized w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e to w a r . Paul E.

Blackwood

Dr. Blackwood is a professional employee in the U. S. Office of Education. This book was edited by him in his private capacity and no official support or endorsement by the Office of Education is intended or should be inferred.

© 1964, by Wonder Books, Inc. AH rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.

EUROPE IN 1914 What triggered the war? What were the basic causes of the war? THE WAR IN THE WEST TO 1917 THE GERMAN ATTACK What was "the Scrap of Paper"? THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE What was "the Taxicab Army"? THE TRENCHES What was No Man's Land? What was the Germans' "secret weapon"? SLAUGHTER AT VERDUN Who said, "They shall not pass"? THE BLOODY SOMME What was England's "secret weapon"? 1917 — "THE FATEFUL YEAR" Why was General Nivelle replaced? THE EASTERN FRONT TO 1917 What was the Russians' great weakness? OFFSTAGE IN AFRICA AND THE PACIFIC Why did Japan declare war? What happened to the German colonies in Africa?

3 5

8 10 13 14 15 17 18 19

22 22

TURKEY, ITALY, AND THE BALKANS GALLIPOLI Why were the Dardanelles important? WAR IN THE NEAR EAST What was "the hell of Kut"? Who was Lawrence of Arabia? ITALY, RUMANIA, AND BULGARIA Why did they declare war?

26

WAR IN THE SKY Who were "the Aces"? What was a Zeppelin?

28 30

THE WAR AT SEA What was the U-boat campaign? What was the Battle of Jutland?

33 34

23 25 25

THE COURSE OF THE WAR 1917-1918 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Who was Rasputin? UNCLE SAM DECLARES WAR Why did the Americans fight? THE YANKS GO INTO ACTION What was "Big Bertha"? THE ALLIES ATTACK What was "the Lost Battalion"? THE ARMISTICE What happened to the Kaiser?

45

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS What were "the Fourteen Points"?

46

WHAT DID THE WAR COST - I N LIVES AND MONEY?

47

MAJOR EVENTS BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER THE WAR

48

38 40 41 42

E u r o p e The

shot

that

triggered

What triggered _ lL the w a r ?

the W a r

1914

of

t o e n d all w a r s " h a d set t h e s t a g e for

1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 w a s fired , .n . , by a 19-year-old

the Second W o r l d W a r 20 years later.

J

J

student, P r i n c i p , in t h e little B a l k a n Sarajevo,

in

c a p i t a l of t h e

Bosnia

had

known

a stormy

past.

R u l e d b y C r o a t i a n k i n g s in t h e

10th

Gavrilo

century, occupied b y H u n g a r y in

town

b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y , it b e -

of

the

Austro-Hun-

came

an independent

g a r i a n p r o v i n c e of B o s n i a , o n J u n e 2 8 ,

short

period

1 9 1 4 . B e f o r e its e c h o e s d i e d a w a y , E u -

c o n q u e r e d b y t h e T u r k s in 1 4 6 3 , it be-

r o p e was d r e n c h e d in the m o s t terrible

c a m e p a r t of t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e

blood bath the world h a d ever k n o w n ;

scene

the w a r b e c a m e k n o w n as " t h e

First

T u r k i s h rule, especially during t h e be-

first

g i n n i n g a n d m i d d l e of t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y ,

involved

the powerful Austro-Hungarian Empire

W o r l d W a r , " b e c a u s e it w a s t h e total

war

whole

in

history

nations,

which

including

civilians;

of

of

many

state during

Serbian

a

domination;

insurrections

against

it

got a m a n d a t e after a b l o o d y uprising in

s p r e a d t o 2 8 c o u n t r i e s o n six c o n t i n e n t s ;

1875 to occupy the country and keep

battles raged on land from Africa

the peace. In 1908, the Austro-Hunga-

to

C h i n a , a n d o n t h e seas f r o m J u t l a n d in

rian

the N o r t h Sea to the F a l k l a n d Islands

mandate, annexed Bosnia formally, and

in

m a d e it a p r o v i n c e of t h e E m p i r e .

the

South

Atlantic

Ocean;

more

t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 m e n in u n i f o r m w e r e dead, twice that m a n y wounded, more than

5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 civilians

Government

went

beyond

this

M a n y of t h e p e o p l e of B o s n i a , l i k e

and

Princip, were Serbian by ancestry and

killed,

favored a u n i o n w i t h other Slavic states

m o s t of t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t l a y i n

free f r o m

ruins;

sion, a n d n o w fought the A u s t r o - H u n -

the

map

of

the

world

was

Austro-Hungarian

suppres-

changed; and "the war that was fought

Gavrilo Princip kills Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. Moments later, he was seized by officers, knocked down, and beaten nearly to death. He died in prison.

PRESIDENT RAYMOND POINCARE

KING GEORGE V.

TRIPLE E N T E N T E

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(ALLIED POWERS)

ALUED POWERS

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1914

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Before the echoes of Princip's shot had died away, mankind had plunged into the bloodiest battles it had ever known.

GERMANY

garian G o v e r n m e n t as they h a d fought the Turkish G o v e r n m e n t before. M a n y , l i k e P r i n c i p , w e r e m e m b e r s of t h e sec r e t " B l a c k H a n d , " a s o c i e t y of p a t r i otic terrorists w h o s e m o t t o w a s " U n i o n or Death." They thought they saw

a

c h a n c e for freedom w h e n the A u s t r i a n EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH

A r c h d u k e F r a n z Ferdinand, heir to the throne

of

Austria-Hungary,

came

to

Sarajevo on a n inspection trip. A b o m b ing a t t e m p t h a d failed in t h e m o r n i n g , b u t as t h e car carrying t h e

Archduke

TRIPLE ALLIANCE (CENTRAL POWERS)

moved d o w n the street later that day, Princip

stepped

out

of

the

whipped out a revolver, a n d

crowd, fired

two

shots. O n e struck the A r c h d u k e a n d the o t h e r his wife, killing t h e m b o t h a l m o s t instantly. KING VICTOR EMMANUEL III. P r i n c i p ' s r a s h a c t w a s n o t , of the What were the basic causes . K. of t h e w a r ?

c a u s e

course,

fundamental o f

t h e

w a r

„ . , , ., B u t it s pr a r k e d t h e . dynamite which

h a d been piling u p u n d e r n e a t h E u r o p e ' s

placid

surface

for

more

than

two

generations. E v e r s i n c e t h e d e f e a t of N a p o l e o n a century before, E n g l a n d h a d been the

richest a n d most powerful

nation

on

p e e r e d fearfully

over her shoulder

at

earth. H e r merchant marine and navy

G e r m a n y ' s g r o w i n g s t a t u r e i n w o r l d af-

r u l e d t h e seas, a n d h e r a r m y policed a

fairs.

colonial empire that girdled the globe.

F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d , adversaries since

" T h e sun," Englishmen liked to boast,

the days

" n e v e r sets o n t h e U n i o n J a c k . "

With

suddenly f o u n d themselves in t h e un-

r a w materials from her colonies supply-

f a m i l i a r p o s i t i o n of a l l i e s w i t h a c o m -

ing h e r factories a t h o m e , E n g l a n d eas-

m o n cause.

ily d o m i n a t e d w o r l d i n d u s t r y a n d t r a d e . T h e p o u n d sterling w a s the

these

two

of W i l l i a m

the

countries, Conqueror,

Meanwhile, the big Austro-Hungarian E m p i r e was covetously eyeing the

finance.

Balkan countries, a n d looking beyond

I n v i r t u a l l y e v e r y a s p e c t of w o r l d was

so

standard

m o n e t a r y unit in international fairs, E n g l a n d

And

af-

t h e m t o t h e r i c h l a n d s of t h e N e a r E a s t .

"top dog" — and

B u t Russia stood in their path. Russia,

she saw n o good reason

why

things

shouldn't stay that way.

t h e largest c o u n t r y in the world, also thinking

O n t h e c o n t i n e n t of E u r o p e , t h e l e a d ing nation was a young, vigorous,

and

about

was

expansion — not

e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r m s of m o r e t e r r i t o r y , b u t primarily

to

open

up

a

passageway

upcoming Germany. She h a d w o n that

t h r o u g h t h e S t r a i t s of B o s p o r u s a n d t h e

position in 1 8 7 1 after she h a d s o u n d l y

D a r d a n e l l e s into the M e d i t e r r a n e a n for

w h i p p e d F r a n c e in the Franco-Prussian

her m e r c h a n t ships from the Black Sea.

W a r . A l o n g w i t h o t h e r s p o i l s of

that

B u t t h e g u n s of T u r k i s h f o r t s b l o c k e d

war, G e r m a n y h a d seized the province

t h e w a y in these n a r r o w waters. E v e n

of A l s a c e a n d m o s t of L o r r a i n e , a r e a s

t h o u g h its a r m y , t h o u g h h u g e , w a s t h e

rich in mineral, farming, a n d industrial

m o s t p r i m i t i v e i n E u r o p e , a n d its n a v y

products. Soon, G e r m a n products

a shambles, Russia, too, was

be-

g a n t o c o m p e t e w i t h t h o s e of E n g l a n d in m o s t w o r l d m a r k e t s .

for a

spoiling

fight.

In 1879, G e r m a n y and Austria-Hun-

T o feed h e r b o o m i n g factories, Ger-

gary h a d signed a treaty which pledged

many needed more and more raw mate-

e a c h of t h e s e n a t i o n s t o c o m e t o t h e a i d

rials — a n d she soon acquired colonies

of t h e o t h e r i n c a s e of e n e m y

in Africa a n d the Caroline,

Marshall,

W h e n , three years later, Italy joined the

Pelew, a n d M a r i a n a Islands in t h e Pa-

pact, this lineup b e c a m e k n o w n as the

cific. T h i s m e a n t t h a t s h e n e e d e d m o r e

Triple Alliance. By 1914, a similar mu-

m e r c h a n t ships, a n d also w a r s h i p s

tual assistance agreement,

to

protect them. Kaiser Wilhelm II, E m -

Entente,

p e r o r of G e r m a n y ,

France, and Russia.

an arrogant,

ego-

tistical, a m b i t i o u s y o u n g m a n , o r d e r e d

Thus

attack.

the

Triple

existed between G r e a t Britain, the

stage was

set w h e n

the

his a d m i r a l s t o build a n a v y t h a t w a s

charge from Princip's pistol blew u p the

bigger than England's.

powder

F r a n c e itched for an opportunity to take revenge a n d to regain her position on

the

European

continent.

Britain

keg.

The

major

European

powers h a d already chosen their places on the stage. Blaming

the Archduke's

assassina-

tion on Serbia, contending that Princip

tration, declared war on Serbia July 28,

a n d h i s five f e l l o w c o n s p i r a t o r s h a d re-

1914. Russia ordered a general mobili-

ceived t h e i r g u n s a n d b o m b s in t h e Ser-

zation. So did G e r m a n y and France. In

bian

those days, mobilization m e a n t war. O n

capital

of

Belgrade

with

the

k n o w l e d g e a n d h e l p of S e r b i a n officials,

August

A u s t r i a s e n t a stiff u l t i m a t u m t o S e r b i a .

R u s s i a , a n d o n A u g u s t 3, o n

It l o o k e d t o a "police action," a local-

Great Britain declared war on Germany

ized w a r t h a t w o u l d n o t o n l y satisfy its

o n A u g u s t 4, after t h e G e r m a n

urge for B a l k a n conquest b u t also serve

h a d invaded Belgium, whose neutrality

as an opportunity to teach the

had been guaranteed by England.

Pan-

1, G e r m a n y d e c l a r e d w a r

on

France. Army The

Slavic m o v e m e n t a lesson a n d p r e v e n t

"localized w a r " Austria a n d

other such anti-Austrian

in

h a d h o p e d for h a d b e c o m e within a few

o t h e r p a r t s of t h e m o n a r c h y w i t h p r e -

d a y s a w a r b e t w e e n t w o p o w e r s of t h e

d o m i n a n t Slavic population.

Triple Alliance, the so-called

encouraged

Austria,

uprisings

being

Germany convinced

t h a t t h e p o w e r s of t h e Triple would

not

interfere.

Russia,

Entente fearing

Powers,

Austria

and

t h o s e of t h e Triple

Germany

Central

Germany;

Entente,

and

England,

France, a n d Russia with the two small

more Austro-Hungarian expansion and

countries

feeling c o m p e l l e d t o d o so as t h e m a j o r

their side.

of

Serbia

and

Belgium

on

p o w e r of t h e S l a v i c n a t i o n s , l e t it b e

( I t a l y , t h e t h i r d m e m b e r of t h e T r i p l e

k n o w n t h a t it w o u l d s t a n d o n S e r b i a ' s

A l l i a n c e , d e s e r t e d its a l l i e s , m a k i n g t h e

side u n d e r any circumstances.

l e g a l e x c u s e t h a t t h e o b l i g a t i o n of m u -

diplomatic

negotiations

Frantic

started,

Ger-

t u a l a s s i s t a n c e e x i s t e d o n l y if o n e of t h e

m a n y a n d A u s t r i a still c o n v i n c e d t h a t

partners was attacked, but that

even

if

France

Russia and

would

England

enter could

under

a

war,

the circumstances, she didn't have

be

per-

join h e r allies; t h e y h a d d e c l a r e d

s u a d e d t o s t a y o u t of it. N o n e of

the

nations directly or indirectly involved, h o w e v e r , w o u l d r i s k t h e l o s s of

face,

to war

on the others.) T h e Central Powers were joined on O c t o b e r 30, 1914, by T u r k e y a n d

on

w o u l d r i s k g i v i n g t h e i m p r e s s i o n of b e -

October

i n g t o o w e a k t o fight o r t o l i v e u p t o t h e

three

commitments. Serbia would not b o w to

which b e c a m e k n o w n as "the

the Austro-Hungarian

were joined by 2 2 nations, b o t h great

ultimatum.

Austria, refusing international

arbi-

5,

powers

1915, of

by the

Bulgaria. Triple

The Entente,

Allies"

a n d small, before t h e w a r w a s over.

NEWSPAPER HEADLINES, AUGUST, 1914 -Newark

tj£&i

(Tribune

Badly prepared and equipped, the tiny Belgian Army nevertheless tried to hold back the German onslaught. Dogs were used to make up for the lack of mechanized weapons; they pulled machine guns and carriages laden with ammunition.

T h e

W a r

in

the

A G e r m a n plan for the quick conquest What w a s "the ±n ,.* Scrap of P a p e r " ?

of F r a n c e , t h e so, , , c , , . £C called Schhetten , , , , plan, had been

w o r k e d out to the smallest detail b y the h e a d of t h e G e r m a n G e n e r a l Staff, G e n eral v o n Schlieffen, 10 y e a r s b e f o r e a n d t h e n filed a w a y i n a t o p - s e c r e t d r a w e r until the time was ripe. O n the day Germany

declared war,

a huge

German

a r m y of m o r e t h a n a m i l l i o n m e n m o v e d swiftly t o p u t it i n t o a c t i o n . The

plan called

for

four

German

A r m y units to p o u r through

Belgium

a n d t h e n c e d o w n in a great scythe-like sweep t h r o u g h F r a n c e . T h e p r i m a r y objectives were twofold:

( 1 ) to capture

P a r i s , a n d ( 2 ) t o s q u e e z e t h e life o u t of t h e F r e n c h A r m y i n t h e g r i p of a g i a n t pincers. T h e fact t h a t tiny B e l g i u m w a s n e u t r a l — a n d t h a t , m o r e o v e r , its territorial integrity

had

been

assured

G e r m a n y as well as b y E n g l a n d

by and

France m a n y years before — m a d e n o 8

W e s t

difference

to

1917

to the G e r m a n

war

lords.

W h e n this treaty was b r o u g h t to attention

of G e r m a n

Chancellor

the von

B e t h m a n n - H o l l w e g , h e s h r u g g e d it off a s b e i n g " j u s t a s c r a p of p a p e r . "

When the war broke out, General Helmuth von Moltke, who had taken over as Chief of Staff of the German Army, changed the stoutlydesigned Schlieffen Plan, which had envisioned an invasion through Holland and Belgium to avoid the French border fortresses. At the same time, a German army stationed in Lorraine was supposed to withdraw slowly in case the French would attack there and lure the French deeper into the trap between the big sweep of the main forces, with which the retreating army from Lorraine would finally unite for the last fatal

FRANCE

ALLIED ARMIES IN COUNTERATTACK SWITZERLAND IfMBR^MEfR l MH iS i EHEVRHEM i RH i EMRRMEWRMM^i^MIRBMRB i RBEBEBMIBEH i EMV i

blow. Moltke attacked only through Belgium and Luxembourg. When the French, instead of concentrating on defense, attacked the Germans in Alsace-Lorraine as predicted by Schlieffen, Moltke did not order a slow retreat of his army, but instead withdrew troops from the right wing, weakening it heavily, and tried to hold the French advance in Lorraine by launching a counteroffensive. While the Schlieffen Plan had called for a sweep around Paris, Moltke shortened the right wing east of Paris, allowing the French and British troops to make a stand at the Marne that finally stopped the German offensive.

KING ALBERT OF BELGIUM

The Belgian population, trying to flee from the Germans, often got in the way of their own soldiers and disrupted their orderly retreat.

T h e G e r m a n G e n e r a l Staff c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d p o l i s h off F r a n c e b e f o r e the bumbling Russian A r m y could even organize. Then, they would turn

east

a n d t a k e c a r e of t h e R u s s i a n B e a r . T h e m o r e confident estimates in Berlin w e r e that the war would be

finished

i n six

w e e k s . S o m e of t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e generals suggested two m o n t h s as m o r e "realistic" timing. G e r m a n intelligence did not

expect

B e l g i u m t o resist. B u t t h e little B e l g i a n

c a m p a i g n for 10 years. A small British

A r m y , h a s t i l y p u t i n t o t h e field b y K i n g

force

A l b e r t , f o u g h t c o u r a g e o u s l y in defense

j u m p e d into the scrap. B u t they, too,

of t h e i r h o m e l a n d . I n a m a t t e r of d a y s ,

w e n t d o w n like ripe w h e a t before

however,

relentless G e r m a n scythe.

d e s p i t e t h e h e l p of

troops, their forts a n d their

French defensive

landed

in

France

and

quickly the

Despite the miscalculation that

the

trenches were pounded to a pulp by the

B e l g i a n A r m y w o u l d n o t fight, d e s p i t e a

h e a v y G e r m a n siege guns. Brussels a n d

communication breakdown caused

L i e g e fell t o t h e i n v a d e r s . T h e p o p u l a -

the

tion scattered throughout the country-

lines, t h e G e r m a n A r m y s t o r m e d across

s i d e , t r y i n g t o flee f r o m t h e

t w o - t h i r d s of F r a n c e j u s t o n e

Germans;

destruction

of

French

by

telegraph month

b u t t h e y o n l y s u c c e e d e d in c l o g g i n g all

a f t e r it h a d c r o s s e d t h e B e l g i a n b o r d e r ,

t h e r o a d s , m a k i n g a n y o r d e r l y r e t r e a t of

a n d r e a c h e d t h e M a r n e R i v e r , o n l y 15

their o w n soldiers impossible. T h e y also

miles f r o m P a r i s . O n its b a n k s , F r e n c h

g o t i n t h e w a y of a d v a n c i n g u n i t s of t h e

r e s i s t a n c e stiffened. T h e F r e n c h

German Army.

mander,

I n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t K i n g A l b e r t ' s

General

affectionately

Joffre — his

called

army was weak and badly equipped —

vowed the Germans

s o m e of t h e i r a n t i q u a t e d m a c h i n e g u n s

b e y o n d this point.

were pulled by the big shaggy dogs that normally pull milk carts through s t r e e t s of B e l g i a n t o w n s — t h e i r fighting

the

com-

him

troops

"Papa"

—

would never

go

Meanwhile, King Albert and w a s left of h i s b a t t e r e d a r m y

what fought

fierce

t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t c o r n e r of

spirit held u p t h e G e r m a n ad-

Belgium, the famed Flanders, and dug

vance long enough to throw the Kaiser's

in.

t i m e t a b l e o u t of k i l t e r . B u t e v e n t h o u g h it w a s s l i g h t l y b e hind schedule, the grim G e r m a n steamroller swept o n w a r d into France. the

Kaiser's

m e n , w h o h a d been training for

10

I n t h e lines a l o n g t h e M a r n e , 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0

The

F r e n c h tried valiantly to stop them, but they were n o m a t c h for

THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE

this

What was "the Taxicab Army"? side. T h e

French

m e n w e r e l o c k e d in deadly combat

—

a million on

each

and

were

English

h *

L

$

:

\ ^ m ^

b Army" on its way to the front during Battle of the Marne. V o n M o l t k e ' s a r m y w i t h d r e w slowly from the M a r n e to a position nearly 50 miles from Paris. T h e r e , they dug into t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e c h a i n of

trenches

that was to cut across Western E u r o p e was begun. T h e Kaiser recalled von M o l t k e Berlin

and

fired

him.

The

to

German

d e s p e r a t e . If t h e y l o s t P a r i s a n d if t h e y

g r a n d plan for a quick a n d easy victory

had to retreat toward the English Chan-

h a d g o n e u p in the battle s m o k e along

nel coast, they w o u l d soon b e in

the Marne.

the

h a n d s of t h e e n e m y . T h e G e r m a n s , o n the other hand, were frustrated.

The

c o n q u e s t of F r a n c e w a s n o t g o i n g a c cording t o their well-laid plans.

W h e n t h e G e r m a n a r m i e s w e r e finally What was "the Race to the Sea"?

A t o n e p o i n t i n t h e fighting, it l o o k e d as t h o u g h the F r e n c h line w o u l d

give

stopped

at

the

Marne, the

High

Command

de-

vised a n e w plan. T h e y p r o p o s e d

to

way. Hurriedly, the French commander

strike n o r t h w a r d to the English C h a n -

p u t in a call t o P a r i s for m o r e troops.

n e l p o r t s of C a l a i s , D u n k i r k , a n d B o u -

D u r i n g t h e n i g h t , a l l of t h e t a x i c a b s

logne,

bring

the

to

p o w e r e d c a n n o n , a n d c u t off t h e B r i t i s h

to the Marne.

6,000

reinforcements

Hundreds

of

vehicles

s t r e a m e d o u t f r o m P a r i s . I t is d o u b t f u l

of t h e i r

of

England

these

range

coasts

a n d buses in t h e city w e r e r o u n d e d u p rush

within

southern

high-

l i n e of s u p p l i e s . I n Belgium, British T o m m i e s

held

the

t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e A l l i e d l i n e a s

t i d e of b a t t l e . B u t it h a s c o m e d o w n i n

f a r a s t h e t o w n of Y p r e s . B e y o n d Y p r e s

h i s t o r y a s o n e of t h e g r e a t m o m e n t s of

t o N i e u w p o o r t o n t h e N o r t h S e a , it w a s

W o r l d W a r I.

m a n n e d largely by w h a t Belgian A r m y

that "the Taxicab A r m y "

turned

W h a t really h a p p e n e d was that Ger-

K i n g A l b e r t h a d s a l v a g e d a f t e r t h e fall

m a n General-in-Chief von M o l t k e pan-

of m o s t of h i s c o u n t r y t o t h e i n v a d e r s .

icked and changed the G e r m a n master

Fighting with the British were regiments

plan. In trying to pull the various parts

of Sikhs, G h u r k a s , a n d R a j p u t s

of h i s f a r - f l u n g " s c y t h e " m o v e m e n t t o -

the British armies in India.

gether, h e actually o p e n e d u p g a p s be-

The

Germans

struck

from

Nieuwpoort,

tween them which the combined French

Ypres, L a Bassee, and Arras, the four

a n d British forces c o u l d a t t a c k piece-

m a i n p o i n t s of t h e A l l i e d d e f e n s e ,

meal. W h e n h e lost c o n t a c t with s o m e

m o s t simultaneously in late

of h i s c o m m a n d e r s , a g e n e r a l G e r m a n

They were about to take

retreat w a s o r d e r e d in t h e

w h e n t h e B e l g i a n s o p e n e d t h e d y k e s of

confusion.

al-

October.

Nieuwpoort

11

In the first few months of the war, British cavalry, using lances, courageously but vainly charged German artillery units and machine gun nests. The toll they paid for their bravery was heavy.

T h e y didn't h a v e e n o u g h reserve forces to combat French,

the combined

British,

and

strength

of

reinforcements

from C a n a d a ( w h o were, incidentally, seeing

their

first

European

action).

Stiffened A l l i e d resistance p u s h e d t h e m back, too, at both L a Bassee a n d Arras. T h e battle at Y p r e s w a s the last big b a t t l e o n t h e W e s t e r n F r o n t in

1914.

It raged furiously from O c t o b e r 2 0 to N o v e m b e r 11, w i t h o n e s i d e g a i n i n g a Left to right: a French, a German and a British, infantryman in full battle dress. (The French red trousers, visible for miles, were changed later for blue.) the canals and

flooded

the

battlefield.

b i t of h a r d - w o n g r o u n d o n l y t o l o s e it to t h e other. B u t at last, the attack was beaten back. Both

armies

settled d o w n in their trenches,

where

they w o u l d r e m a i n deadlocked, for the

W i t h m u c h of t h e i r a r t i l l e r y l o s t i n t h e

next

deluge

stopped

and

thousands

of

their

men

German

two

years.

for

a

When

blessed

the hour

fighting or

two,

drowned, the G e r m a n s were forced to

c o m m u n i q u e s read: "All quiet on the

b a c k t r a c k . A t Y p r e s , they failed,

Western Front."

12

too.

THE TRENCHES Trench

miles

warfare was

What was No Man's Land?

only

not

new — but

once before

in

down

through

the

middle

of

France from the English Channel to the Swiss b o r d e r . T h e y w e r e hastily d u g at

t h e h i s t o r y of w a r h a d

first

two stalemated

B u t as the w e a r y m o n t h s dragged on,

ar-

as emergency defensive

mies settled d o w n opposite each other

they

in p e r m a n e n t trenches for s u c h a pro-

complicated

l o n g e d s i e g e of n e r v e s . T h a t

and

was

at

were

elaborated systems.

fourth-line

measures.

into

extremely

Second-,

trenches

were

con-

line, so

that

Petersburg, Virginia, in 1864 a n d '65,

structed behind the

during the American W a r Between the

the troops could retreat from

States. B u t the trench warfare along the

t h e o t h e r i n c a s e of o v e r w h e l m i n g a t -

Western F r o n t in W o r l d W a r I

t a c k . A l l of t h e s e l i n e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d

the

Petersburg

campaign

look

made like

by

communicating

first

third-,

trenches.

one

to

Supply

c h i l d ' s p l a y . W o r l d W a r I v e t e r a n s re-

trenches w e r e d u g from the front lines

c a l l it a s d e v a s t a t i n g h o r r o r , s a y i n g t h a t

as m u c h as t h r e e or four miles b a c k , so

t h e o n l y w a y a m a n c o u l d s u r v i v e it w a s

that replacement troops and

to learn

could b e b r o u g h t u p from the rear with-

to "see things b u t

not

feel

out exposure to e n e m y snipers.

them." B y t h e w i n t e r of 1 9 1 4 , a s y s t e m of opposing

supplies

trenches

snaked

some

600

Officers' h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d

first

aid

stations were located in dugouts.

Hot

f o o d w a s b r o u g h t u p f r o m field k i t c h e n s

off a n d o n , a l l d a y . S o l d i e r s j u s t h u d d l e d

in the rear

who

d e e p e r i n t h e i r d u g o u t s w h e n t h e shell-

m a n n e d t h e trenches — s o m e in their

i n g s t a r t e d ; h u n d r e d s of m e n w e r e k i l l e d

early

every day.

areas.

teens,

others

The with

soldiers only

three

weeks' training — stood a r o u n d miser-

E v e r y d a y o r so, after t h e

artillery

a b l y i n t h e m u d , fighting off t h e r a t s a n d

b o m b a r d m e n t at dawn, the m e n in the

v e r m i n t h a t s w a r m e d all o v e r t h e m a t

front lines w o u l d b e o r d e r e d " O v e r the

night.

t o p ! " in a c h a r g e t h a t w a s m e a n t to t a k e

A t a l l t i m e s , s n i p e r s m a n n e d t h e "fir-

the enemy trench by storm and capture

ing step" from which they could look

it. B u t m o s t of t h e s e c h a r g e s , d o o m e d

a c r o s s t o t h e e n e m y t r e n c h a n d p i c k off

to failure before they started, ran

anything that moved. W h e n a number

against

solid

of t h e m w e r e s h o t t h r o u g h t h e

bullets.

On

head,

walls the

of

rare

up

machine

gun

occasions

they

crude periscopes through which the m e n

succeeded, the trenches were

c o u l d s c a n N o M a n ' s L a n d w i t h o u t ex-

q u i c k l y r e t r i e v e d b y m e n f r o m t h e sec-

posing themselves to enemy

o n d a n d t h i r d l i n e s of d e f e n s e .

fire

were

devised.

T h e l o n g e r t h e futile

usually

slaughter

of

were

t r e n c h w a r f a r e w e n t o n , t h e m o r e im-

but a mile or two apart; at others, they

pregnable the trench systems became.

w e r e as close as 3 0 or 4 0 yards. It w a s

T h e c o m m a n d e r s of b o t h a r m i e s b e g a n

t h i s , t h e i n t e r v e n i n g y a r d s of

to realize that the w a r was going

A t some places, the trenches

y~\

torn-up,

shell-pocked g r o u n d t h a t w a s k n o w n as

be a murderous

stand-off

unless

N o M a n ' s L a n d simply because n o m a n

s i d e t h o u g h t of s o m e s o r t of

c o u l d v e n t u r e i n t o it w i t h m u c h h o p e of

weapon." Both the Germans and

c o m i n g b a c k alive. O n b o t h sides, N o

Allies d e s p e r a t e l y set o u t t o

to one

"secret the

find

one.

first.

One

Man's L a n d was bounded by the thick b a r r i c a d e s of b a r b e d w i r e t h a t p r o t e c t e d

T h e G e r m a n s found theirs

t h e front-line trenches. E v e n so, p a t r o l s v e n t u r e d o u t

m o r n i n g in into

N o M a n ' s L a n d nearly every night to t r y a n d find o u t w h a t t h e e n e m y w a s u p

What was the Germans' "secret weapon"?

spring when

of the

warfare

the

1915, dreary in

the

to. B u t before long, b o t h sides b e g a n

t r e n c h e s h a d d r a g g e d itself o u t f o r m o r e

s e n d i n g u p flares w h i c h lit t h e n i g h t s k y

t h a n six b l o o d - s o a k e d m o n t h s ,

to high noon brightness, and such patroling b e c a m e even m o r e risky. Actually, t h e p a t r o l s m a d e v e r y little sense, for b o t h great armies were hopelessly bogged down. A t t h e c r a c k of d a w n , t h e h e a v y a r tillery f r o m b e h i n d t h e lines b e g a n lobb i n g shells into t h e o p p o s i n g t r e n c h e s . A n d the b o m b a r d m e n t usually kept up, 14

Allied

soldiers at Y p r e s saw a yellowish-green

f a d e d i n t h e g r i s l y r e a l i t y of N o M a n ' s

mist m o v e slowly t o w a r d them. It was

L a n d . Still, t h e y h e l d B e l g i u m a n d a l l

chlorine

of t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s of F r a n c e .

clouds

gas!

Behind

marched

a

the

line

windswept of

German

infantry.

d o z e n efficient r a i l r o a d s s t r e t c h e d b a c k into G e r m a n y

T h e deadly gas

finally

reached

the

A

to provide

an

endless

s u p p l y line. T h e G e r m a n H i g h

Com-

vomiting,

m a n d now decided that the time h a d

t h e y r a n i n p a n i c . T e r r i f i e d of t h e i r o w n

c o m e for a n all-out thrust in the W e s t ,

poison,

one t r e m e n d o u s sledge h a m m e r

soldiers.

Choking, the

blinded,

Germans

advanced

cau-

t i o u s l y ; n o w a n d t h e n , v a g r a n t p u f f s of wind would blow the gas b a c k into their

blow

that would end the war. A s their striking point, they chose the

faces. T h e b r e a c h e s m a d e in t h e A l l i e d

f o r t r e s s c i t y of V e r d u n , t h e p r i d e

line

France. T h e battle that followed lasted

were

but

momentary;

reserves

quickly plugged u p the gaps.

for

G a s m a s k s w e r e issued t o all frontline personnel for p r o t e c t i o n f r o m

the

10

months — from

February

i n h i s t o r y b o o k s a s o n e of t h e b l o o d i e s t ever fought. In the slaughterhouse

t h e w a r . B u t h o r r i b l e a s it w a s , p o i s o n

Verdun,

gas did not prove

Frenchmen

the

break-

to

December, 1916 — and has gone down

g a s a t t a c k s m a d e off a n d o n t h r o u g h o u t to be

of

more

than

half

a

of

million

w e r e killed, w o u n d e d ,

or

t h r o u g h the Kaiser a n d his generals h a d

captured. T h e Germans had promised,

h o p e d for.

" T h e r e w o n ' t b e a n y t h i n g left l i v i n g o u t

Trench warfare on the Western Front went on a n d on. N o one — o n side —

either

c o u l d s e e a n e n d t o it.

there. . . ." T h e i r casualties, h o w e v e r , were nearly as great. T h e Germans opened the melee with a 12-hour artillery b a r r a g e during which m o r e t h a n a million shells p o u n d e d t h e

SLAUGHTER AT VERDUN I t w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 9 1 6 a n d t h e W h o s a i d , "They shall not p a s s " ?

Western Front .... .. WSS S f "| * e g r i p of a b l o o d y

deadlock. T h e glorious G e r m a n d r e a m of w i n n i n g t h e w a r i n six w e e k s

had

A look into one of the trenches, for so long "home" for so many — friend and foe alike. "Over the top" was the command that began the daily charges and that cost ?""* so many lives without changing anything.

15

German mine-throwers bombarded A l l i e d trenches with deadly explosives continuously.

The tank, the British secret weapon during the battle at the Somme in 1916, was not too successful at first.

The flame-throwers first used by the Germans during the Battle of Verdun frightened even the German troops.

By 1918, the tank, armed with cannons and machine guns, was a formidable weapon. Here are 1918 models of French "land battleships" in action.

#••*.

»\S

«**»«. \TV> < /j

- mm

F r e n c h . O n t h e h e e l s of t h e

barrage

b a t t l e , s o m e of t h e F r e n c h l e a d e r s s u g -

c a m e w a v e a f t e r w a v e of i n f a n t r y . Y e t ,

g e s t e d t h a t t h e a r m y s h o u l d fall

e v e n i n t h e f a c e of t h i s p o w e r f u l s t e a m -

a n d s u r r e n d e r t h e City t o t h e a t t a c k e r s .

roller, the F r e n c h defenses held

A t this, F r e n c h G e n e r a l Joffre d e c l a r e d

firm.

A t t h e h e i g h t of t h e b a t t l e , a n u n k n o w n poilu

(as the French

privates

were called) shouted: "Us ne passeront

back

t h a t a n y officer w h o o r d e r e d a r e t r e a t would be court-martialed and shot. D e s p i t e t h e p o w e r of t h e i r

attack,

pas!" A n d this " T h e y shall n o t pass!"

despite their superior numbers, despite

became the inspired F r e n c h battle cry

t h e i r e x c e l l e n t s u p p l y l i n e s a n d t h e in-

until t h e siege h a d a t last e n d e d .

a d e q u a t e o n e s of t h e F r e n c h , t h e G e r -

T h e fighting r a g e d w i t h h a r d l y a l e t u p

mans could m a k e no headway

against

all t h r o u g h t h e spring, s u m m e r , a n d fall.

V e r d u n . B y D e c e m b e r 15, t h e y a b a n -

It will n e v e r b e k n o w n h o w m a n y t e n s

doned their plan and withdrew.

of m i l l i o n s of h e a v y a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s t h e

If it c a n b e s a i d t h a t a n y g o o d c a m e

Germans showered down on the enemy

f r o m t h e t r a g e d y of V e r d u n , it w a s t h e |

trenches,

guns

f a c t t h a t t h e h e r o i c r e s i s t a n c e of t h e i r

thundered back. T h e area between the

m e n s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e r e s o l v e of t h e p e o -

opposing armies became a churned-up

p l e of F r a n c e t o w i n — if o n l y i n t h e

w a s t e l a n d , s p a t t e r e d w i t h s h e l l h o l e s , lit-

n a m e of t h e i r d e a d .

and

the

French

big

>

t e r e d w i t h t h e p i e c e s of b l o w n - u p t r e e s — a n d m e n . F r e n c h s o l d i e r s s a i d it w a s a s if t h e e n e m y h a d p o i n t e d o n e c a n n o n

THE BLOODY SOMME

a t e a c h of t h e m . C r a z e d b y t h e h o r r o r ,

While the

many men

mutinied

and others

themselves.

At

place,

one

an

fighting

a t V e r d u n w a s a t its

shot entire

t r e n c h w a s filled u p b y t h e d e b r i s of a n

What was England's „ „_ secret weapon ?

peak, the Brit. , , ish m o u n t e d a massive

e x p l o s i o n ; o n l y t h e t i p s of t h e s o l d i e r s ' bayonets protruded above the ground.

against

( A f t e r t h e b a t t l e , t h e F r e n c h left it a s

R i v e r S o m m e , a little m o r e t h a n a h u n -

it w a s , a m e m o r i a l t o t h e i r b r a v e d e a d . )

dred miles to the north. Unfortunately,

T h e G e r m a n s l o b b e d shells into t h e

they elected to hit w h a t was probably

F r e n c h t r e n c h e s t h a t w e r e filled w i t h a

the G e r m a n s ' strongest defenses on the

n e w a n d e v e n d e a d l i e r k i n d of p o i s o n gas, so t h a t t h e defenders h a d t o w e a r gas m a s k s a r o u n d the clock. G r a d u a l l y , t h e w h o l e city w a s r e d u c e d t o formless V e r d u n was surrounded by a string of f o r t s ; s o m e of t h e s e fell t o t h e G e r m a n s after furious

fighting.

Later, they

w e r e r e c a p t u r e d in c o u n t e r a t t a c k s j u s t fierce.

German

lines

along

the

entire Western Front. G e n e r a l Sir D o u g l a s H a i g , t h e British c o m m a n d e r , lined u p 1,500 big guns along an

18-mile front, placing

them

a b o u t 2 0 y a r d s a p a r t . O n J u l y 1, 1 9 1 6 ,

rubble.

as

the

attack

About midway through

the

t h i s m i g h t y b a t t e r y o p e n e d up,, s p e w i n g o u t a m a s s b a r r a g e of d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n , p o s s i b l y t h e h e a v i e s t of t h e w a r . T h u s began a bloody battle that raged b a c k a n d forth for four m o n t h s . I n m a n y respects, t h e S o m m e w a s like 17

V e r d u n . A l t h o u g h m o r e t h a n a million

they were shipped to the front

men

l a b e l e d " T a n k . " T h i s is t h e n a m e t h a t

died

in

the

counterattacks, plished

futile

neither

anything

of

attacks side

real

and

accom-

importance.

B u t e a c h side b l e d t h e o t h e r white.

were

stuck. W h e n t h e t a n k s first m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e at the S o m m e , British soldiers

It w a s at the S o m m e t h a t the British

w e r e just as surprised as the G e r m a n s ;

They

a n d t h e G e r m a n s w e r e terrified.

The

i n t e n d e d it t o b e t h e k e y t o t h e d e a d l o c k

tank could move across trenches

and

of t r e n c h w a r f a r e . A n d , i n d e e d , it d i d

c r u s h m a c h i n e g u n n e s t s o n its w a y , t h u s

m u c h to change

opening a hole for the infantry to attack

unveiled their "secret w e a p o n . "

fighting

tactics.

The

t h r o u g h . T h e first c l u m s y t a n k s b o g g e d

new weapon was the tank. B r a i n c h i l d of B r i t i s h C o l . E r n e s t D .

d o w n after a while in the

battlefield

Swinton, the tank was a heavily a r m o r e d

mud. But new and improved

a d a p t a t i o n of t h e H o l t C a t e r p i l l a r f a r m

were later developed by b o t h the British

tractor

and Americans.

that

had

been

developed

in

P e o r i a , I l l i n o i s . M a n n e d b y c r e w s of

versions

T h e casualties at the S o m m e

were

eight, they carried either six-pound guns

e v e n m o r e g h a s t l y t h a n t h o s e of V e r d u n .

or machine guns, and rumbled

T h e British lost 4 2 0 , 0 0 0 ; the F r e n c h ,

along

t h e t e r r a i n a t a p a c e of f o u r o r five m i l e s a n h o u r . Officially, t h e m a c h i n e s w e r e k n o w n as "land battleships." B u t

for

t h e s a k e of s e c r e c y , t h e c r a t e s i n w h i c h

195,000; and the Germans,

650,000.

T h e British did not achieve the breakt h r o u g h t h a t H a i g h a d h o p e d for. T h e y did,

however,

recapture

about

200

s q u a r e m i l e s of t e r r i t o r y a n d p u s h t h e G e r m a n lines farther b a c k . T h e W e s t e r n F r o n t settled b a c k once again to

the

g r i m b u s i n e s s of a w a r d e a d l o c k e d i n t h e trenches.

1 9 1 7 - " T H E FATEFUL YEAR" T h e y e a r 1917 b e g a n as a b a d o n e for Why w a s General . . . .. . ,„ Nivelle replaced?

t h e Allies. T h e -, Germans were s o l i d l y

trenched behind w h a t they called

enthe

H i n d e n b u r g Line, a defensive zone that w a s 2 0 miles wide in places. A t Easter, the British and Canadians In July, 1917 — when what was officially called "the Third Battle of Ypres" and popularly referred to as "the Battle of Passchendaele Ridge" began — not much was left of the city of Ypres.

attacked Arras where the Line's north-

w e n t o n strike. G e n e r a l Nivelle,

who

western

h a d p l a n n e d t h e ill-fated a t t a c k ,

was

flank

was anchored on

Vimy

R i d g e . T h e y m a d e a little p r o g r e s s , b u t

replaced by General Henri Petain, the

at a terrible cost in casualties.

hero

A l l s p r i n g , t h e B r i t i s h h a d b e e n digging a long tunnel u n d e r the L i n e

at

M e s s i n e s R i d g e . I n M a y , t h e y l o a d e d it w i t h a m i l l i o n p o u n d s of d y n a m i t e a n d set it off. T h e r i d g e a n d t h e

German

of

Verdun.

He

put

down

mutiny and restored some of esprit

de corps

to the

the

semblance discouraged

troops. A t P a s s c h e n d a e l e R i d g e , in July, a n d a g a i n at C a m b r a i , in N o v e m b e r ,

the

t r e n c h e s o n t o p of it w e r e b l o w n sky-

British tried twice m o r e to breach the

ward, and the British swarmed through.

formidable Hindenburg Line. Although

In the end, however, this a d v a n c e was

C a n a d i a n t r o o p s s u c c e e d e d in

stopped, also.

the Ridge and tanks, now

perfected,

w e r e first u s e d i n m a s s ( a

formidable

In April the French, too, mounted a grand assault on the 50-mile

German

front from Soissons to R h e i m s .

They

were defeated so b a d l y that the troops

T h e At

the

beginning

of

Eastern the

war,

taking

3 2 4 ) at C a m b r a i , quick G e r m a n count e r a t t a c k s w o n b a c k a l a r g e p a r t of t h e Allies' gains.

Front

to

1917

the

R u s s i a n s w e r e full What was the Russians' great weakness? and

the

largest

of

fight.

army, the

Their as

o u t m o d e d rifles. T h e I | u s s i a n c a v a l r y ,

"the steam roller,"

the dreaded Cossacks/ had a f e a p b m e

world

known

vidual soldiers w e r e a r m e d , ar bdst, with

had

ever

reputation.

But

as/tactical

military

known, numbered 15,000,000 men. O n

u n i t s , t h e y w e r e n e x f t o w o r t h l e s s . M o f e-

paper,

o v e r , t h e officers, s e l e c t e d u s u a l l y

this looked

like a

force

vast

for

e n o u g h t o m o w d o w n a n y o p p o s i t i o n it

social

c a m e u p a g a i n s t . B u t t h e figures g a v e a

m o s t of t h e n o n - c o m s , t h e c o r p o r a l s a n d

false p i c t u r e .

s e r g e a n t s w h o a r e t h e b a c k b o n e of a n y

R u s s i a , c o u n t r y of i l l i t e r a t e p e a s a n t

reasons,

were

poorly

trained;

infantry, could not even read or write.

farmers, lacked the industry necessary

Radio

to win a m o d e r n war.

p h o n e s w e r e all b u t u n k n o w n

Consequently,

they r u s h e d to w a r deficient in artillery, airplanes, trucks, a n d m o t o r cars. T h e y

communication

and

field to

telethe

R u s s i a n forces. W o r s t of a l l , R u s s i a h a d v i r t u a l l y n o

didn't even h a v e e n o u g h shells for t h e

railroads over which troops could

few big g u n s t h e y possessed. T h e indi-

moved a n d supplied. Stacked u p against

be

19

: -- . ^

S* , 'fWp*MK the crack G e r m a n armies, the dynamic

Prussia,

German

with

industrial

super-efficient system,

the

complex,

German stumbling

and

the

not

General

Max

von

Prittwitz,

many

more

than

195,000

transportation

m e n at his disposal, h a d received

Russian

difficult a s s i g n m e n t f r o m t h e

war

the

German

m a c h i n e w a s licked before it started.

C h i e f of t h e G e n e r a l Staff v o n M o l t k e

B u t t h e R u s s i a n s d i d n ' t k n o w it. A l m o s t

of d e f e n d i n g E a s t P r u s s i a a n d h a l t i n g

as soon as w a r w a s declared, t h e Czar's

the Russian armies until G e r m a n y was

army moved on East Prussia,

deter-

victorious in the W e s t a n d could switch

m i n e d t o t a k e t h e f o r t r e s s c i t y of K o n i g s -

the armies from the Western Front to

berg,

t h e E a s t . B u t h e c o u l d n o t afford t o risk

close

to

the

German-Russian

h i s a r m y . H e w a s t o r n b e t w e e n t h e de-

b o r d e r o n the Baltic Sea. Southeast

of K o n i g s b e r g ,

they

en-

sire t o a t t a c k a n d t h e u r g e t o retreat. Rennenkampf

c o u n t e r e d a n a t u r a l defense, the 50-mile

crossed the

German

long Masurian Lakes. Accordingly, the

b o r d e r with his 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 m e n or so o n

C z a r split u p his a r m y i n t o t w o s e p a r a t e

A u g u s t 17, 1 9 1 4 . H e s u c c e e d e d in de-

f o r c e s , o n e t o a t t a c k n o r t h of t h e L a k e s

feating t h e G e r m a n t r o o p s in his p a t h

a n d t h e o t h e r t o m a k e a s w i n g s o u t h of

a n d started his t r i u m p h a n t m a r c h

them.

com-

K o n i g s b e r g . G e n e r a l v o n P r i t t w i t z sug-

manded by General Alexei Samsonov;

gested to Berlin to order a retreat, even

the northern, by General Pavel Rennen-

if i t m e a n t t h e s a c r i f i c e of E a s t P r u s s i a .

kampf.

Instead,

The

southern

army

was

the

German

Supreme

on

Com-

organiza-

m a n d recalled von Prittwitz a n d turned

t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n a r m i e s t h a t t h e t w o

c o m m a n d of t h e a r m i e s i n t h e E a s t o v e r

commanders h a d been bitter

enemies

to General Paul von Hindenburg, w h o m

since their youthful days. T h e y did n o t

they h a d recalled from retirement, and

speak

made General Erich von

N o w , such was the sorry

to each

other

personally,

and

Ludendorff,

o n c e t h e y w e r e i n t h e field, t h e y r e f u s e d

w h o h a d w o n p r a i s e d u r i n g t h e B a t t l e of

to communicate with each other.

Liege o n the W e s t e r n F r o n t , his Chief

The

20

German

commander

in

East

of

Staff.

Together

with

Lieutenant

Sabers drawn, a unit of the dreaded Cossacks charges. VIENNA

The map gives the location of the major events on the Eastern Front. Colonel M a x

von

A U STRIA-*^

Hoffmann,

one

of

CARPATHJAN MTS. GARY

BUDAPEST

ward

;

in defeat,

and

they

penetrated

v o n P r i t t w i t z ' s staff officers, t h e y m a d e

deep into the Carpathian

Mountains

a n excellent t e a m w h i c h fully exploited

a f t e r t a k i n g t h e A u s t r i a n f o r t r e s s e s of

the sorry situation within the Russian

Lemberg and Przemysl. T h e

command. V o n Hindenburg took over

armies collapsed, but they were saved

command on August 23 and was master

from

of t h e s i t u a t i o n j u s t a f e w w e e k s l a t e r .

forcements.

Austrian

utter disgrace by G e r m a n Now

the G e r m a n

reinKaiser

A t T a n n e n b e r g , s o u t h of t h e L a k e s ,

k n e w t h a t t h e s t o r i e d m i l i t a r y m i g h t of

von Hindenburg pounced on Samson-

t h e A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n E m p i r e w a s go-

ov's a r m y a n d — in t h e last w e e k

of

i n g t o b e of n o u s e t o h i m . If G e r m a n y

A u g u s t , 1 9 1 4 — d e s t r o y e d it. H e t h e n

was to win the war, she would have to

l o a d e d his t r o o p s in railway cars, t o o k

d o it b y h e r s e l f .

t h e m n o r t h of t h e M a s u r i a n s , a n d g a v e the same bitter medicine to

T h e t e m p o r a r y Russian victories in

Rennen-

Galicia were as devastating to the Rus-

k a m p f o n e m o n t h l a t e r . I n a m a t t e r of

sians as they were to the Austrians. T h e

days, the Russian armies were reduced

m e n r a n o u t of f o o d , g u n s , a n d a m m u n i -

to a shambles. T h e y retreated pell-mell

tion.

back into M o t h e r

slowly

Russia,

and

there

they b e g a n to dig defensive trenches.

Pressed

by

stumbled

the

Germans,

backward

into

p a r t of R u s s i a w h i c h is n o w

they that

Poland.

T h e Russians had better luck when

T h e r e , like their b r o t h e r s u p north, they

they met the enemy along the A u s t r i a n

d u g trenches. A n d t h e w a r in t h e E a s t

border. In Galicia, their sheer n u m b e r s

settled d o w n to the same

sent the A u s t r i a n armies reeling back-

s t a l e m a t e as in t h e W e s t .

frustrating

21

The war comes to Africa: A burning native village in the Cameroons.

O n August 23, 1914, only three weeks Why did Japan declare war?

after

the

fighting

started in

Europe, A t t h e s a m e time, J a p a n e s e a n d Brit-

Japan declared war against G e r m a n y . B u t the crafty Japa-

ish

n e s e h a d n o i n t e n t i o n of s e n d i n g t r o o p s

G e r m a n - h e l d Pacific islands. A s a result,

to h e l p t h e Allies in F r a n c e . T h e princi-

the

p a l w a r a i m s of E m p e r o r Y o s h i h i t o a n d

Pelews, a n d Carolines were later man-

his w a r lords w e r e territorial b o o t y a n d

d a t e d to J a p a n b y the victorious Allies.

prestige. J a p a n ' s social a n d political sun

A n d so, J a p a n got t h e S o u t h

h a d been rising since the

bases that w e r e to play such a vital p a r t

Russo-Japa-

nese W a r . Japan's true motives,

how-

fleets

attacked

strategic

and

captured

Marshalls,

the

Ladrones,

Pacific

i n h e r P a c i f i c c o n q u e s t s of 1 9 4 1 - 4 2 d u r -

ever, w o u l d n o t reveal themselves until

ing the Second W o r l d W a r . B y

these

a quarter-century later; at the time, they

swift m o v e s , t h e J a p a n e s e a d r o i t l y t o o k

were not considered.

w h a t t h e y w a n t e d o u t of t h e t u r m o i l of

G e r m a n y h a d established a colony at

the E u r o p e a n war. T h e n , they settled

K i a o - C h a u i n t h e p r o v i n c e of S h a n t u n g

b a c k a n d w a t c h e d t h e r e s t of it f r o m t h e

on the Chinese coast. Here, they

sidelines.

had

built a strong n a v a l b a s e for their Pacific fleet. N o w , w i t h t h e h e l p of B r i t i s h n a v a l squadrons, the Japanese attacked German

stronghold.

After

a

T h e r e were four G e r m a n

Africa —

the

three-

month campaign, the G e r m a n garrison

colonies

What happened to the German colonies in Africa?

in

Togo-

land, the Camaroons,

German

s u r r e n d e r e d . T h u s , J a p a n g a i n e d its first

East Africa, a n d

b e a c h h e a d o n t h e C h i n e s e m a i n l a n d of

G e r m a n Southwest Africa. These were

China.

attacked

22

at

the

war's

beginning

by

French

and

English

colonial

B r i t i s h a m e r r y c h a s e t h r o u g h its jun-

troops.

in t h e jungles a n d on

gles. E v e n after G e r m a n E a s t

Africa

the rivers a n d lakes w e n t o n for m o r e

w a s c l e a r e d of r e g u l a r G e r m a n

troops

than a year. T h e G e r m a n s could

not

b y t h e B r i t i s h , h e a n d h i s b a n d of g u e r -

fronts

illas r e m a i n e d u n c a p t u r e d . T h e y w o u l d

Sporadic

fighting

spare troops from the E u r o p e a n for reinforcements.

of

a p p e a r o u t of t h e j u n g l e , s t a g e a s u d d e n

possessions

raid on a British outpost, and than van-

By the middle

1916, G e r m a n y ' s African

ish into the jungle again. H e w a s the

were in Allied h a n d s . T h e b r i g h t G e r m a n h o p e s of w i n n i n g

d e s p a i r of t h e B r i t i s h , b u t i n a l l t h a t

the w a r in a hurry were growing d i m m e r

time they were never able to catch u p

and dimmer.

with him.

E v e n t h o u g h t h e f a t e of t h e G e r m a n

O n N o v e m b e r 23, 1918, twelve days

c o l o n i e s w a s d e c i d e d , o n e G e r m a n offi-

after

c e r still k e p t o n

Lieutenant

v o n L e t t o w - V o r b e c k h e a r d of it w h i l e

Paul

leading

Colonel

(later

fighting. General)

von

Germany his

signed the

men

on

a

Armistice,

raid

through

L e t t o w - V o r b e c k h a d b e e n stationed in

N o r t h e r n R h o d e s i a . Still u n d e f e a t e d , h e

G e r m a n East Africa when war

w e n t in to a British h e a d q u a r t e r s

broke

out in 1914. F o r four years, h e led the

Turkey,

Italy,

honorably

a n d

the

and

surrendered.

B a l k a n s

GALLIPOLI Since Russia h a d practically n o

such

i n d u s t r y of h e r o w n , Dardanelles important?

she upon

was

dependent

England

F r a n c e for munitions, which to

and fight

sundry

and guns,

supplies

the war. T h e

with

Russians

w o u l d r e p a y their allies w i t h s h i p l o a d s of w h e a t a n d o t h e r f o o d s t u f f s . B u t t h e only route between the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d Russia's B l a c k Sea lay t h r o u g h t w o narrow channels, the Dardanelles

and

the Bosporus, farther north. Both were dominated by Turkey. When,

in N o v e m b e r

of

1914,

T u r k e y , w h o h a d signed a secret agree-

The War Theater of the Near East.

23

ment with Germany, came into the war o n G e r m a n y ' s side, these t w o passageways were closed as tight as a corked bottle.

For

the

Russians,

this

was

But young Winston Churchill,

then

disaster. F i r s t L o r d of t h e B r i t i s h

Admiralty,

argued that the passages could be forced open by a direct frontal attack by battleships. H e claimed t h a t the

operation

w o u l d shorten the w a r by at least a year, perhaps two. Over the objections

'

of

s

^ J

>

h

s o m e m e m b e r s of t h e B r i t i s h W a r C o u n cil, C h u r c h i l l ' s p l a n , f o o l h a r d y a s it w a s , was adopted. I n F e b r u a r y of 1 9 1 5 , a B r i t i s h - F r e n c h fleet

of

16 m a j o r battleships,

accomother

m o w e d d o w n b y t h e t e n s of t h o u s a n d s

auxiliary craft, s t e a m e d t o t h e a t t a c k . I n

as they tried to gain a toe hold on the

t h e n a r r o w w a t e r s of t h e D a r d a n e l l e s ,

b e a c h e s . E v e r y t h i n g f r o m t h e l a n d i n g of

t h e y r a n i n t o a h e a v y field of m i n e s , a n d

s u p p l i e s t o c a r e of t h e w o u n d e d w a s i n

a m u r d e r o u s c r o s s fire f r o m T u r k i s h b i g

a s t a t e of w i l d c o n f u s i o n . T o m a k e m a t -

guns in the forts along the shore. I n the

ters worse, there was n o water on the

first a t t e m p t t o f o r c e o p e n t h e S t r a i t , o n e

Gallipoli desert, a n d m e n b e g a n to die

F r e n c h a n d two British battleships were

of t h i r s t . B u t f o r a l l t h e o d d s a g a i n s t

s u n k ; t h e r e s t of t h e fleet, s t o p p e d c o l d ,

them, the invading troops managed to

was compelled to withdraw from

secure a tenuous beachhead along the

panied

by

mine

sweepers

and

the

s h o r e ; there, t h e y d u g in.

hapless operation. T h e British then decided to m a k e a

T h e bitter, fruitless

fighting

went on

landing on the narrow Gallipoli penin-

for six m o n t h s u n t i l t h e B r i t i s h l e a d e r s

s u l a , w h i c h lies b e t w e e n t h e D a r d a n e l l e s

in L o n d o n realized t h a t t h e w h o l e thing

a n d the A e g e a n Sea. N o t only w a s this

h a d b e e n a ghastly m i s t a k e from t h e be-

o n e of t h e w o r s t - p l a n n e d e x p e d i t i o n s i n

ginning

military history, b u t t h e T u r k s k n e w all

Winston Churchill, w h o h a d

a b o u t it t h r o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n

the operation, was removed from

gathered

b y their spies in E g y p t . T h e y w e r e waiti n g w i t h b i g g u n s a n d b a r b e d w i r e en-

and

ordered

a

withdrawal. planned his

C a b i n e t p o s t in disgrace. T h e c a m p a i g n for the

Dardanelles

t a n g l e m e n t s w h e n t h e first of t h e B r i t i s h

a n d G a l l i p o l i w a s o n e of t h e m o s t t r a g i c

forces b e g a n to land.

of t h e e n t i r e w a r . F o r t u n a t e l y f o r B r i t slaughter.

ain, Churchill profited b y their lesson

(Australian-New

a n d s u r v i v e d d i s g r a c e t o b e c o m e o n e of

T h e result was a bloody British Zealand

24

and

Anzac

Army

Corps)

troops

were

" t h e B i g F o u r " of W o r l d W a r I I .

Tl\

For the war in the Near East, both sides depended heavily on the "ship of the desert," the camel. WAR IN THE NEAR EAST

ing nearly half his m e n in t h e battle t h a t

I n t h e fall of 1 9 1 4 , t h e B r i t i s h l a n d e d a n

followed, British General

What was "the hell of Kut"?

expeditionary

force

of I n d i a n s o l d i e r s i n M e s o p o t a m i a ,

Turkish territory on the Persian

Townshend

beat a retreat back to Kut. There, a huge Turkish-Arab

army

surrounded the trapped British troops

Gulf,

a n d settled d o w n for a p r o l o n g e d siege.

a n d q u i c k l y t o o k t h e k e y c i t y of B a s r a .

With scant food and water, almost no

Their objective was twofold: to protect

m e d i c a l s u p p l i e s , a n d n o h o p e of r e l i e f ,

B r i t i s h o i l i n t e r e s t s i n t h a t p a r t of t h e

the Britishers were holed u p in K u t for

Near East, and to weaken Turkey's war

n e a r l y five m o n t h s . M e n d i e d l i k e

effort b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e A r a b s t o re-

from

volt against their h a t e d T u r k i s h masters.

Finally,

Sadly underestimating

his foe,

the

hunger the

and pitiful

tropical remnants

flies

diseases. of

the

a r m y , a b o u t 9 , 0 0 0 "dirty skeletons in

British general ordered an advance into

rags,"

t h e d e s e r t t o c a p t u r e B a g h d a d , of

von der Goltz, supreme c o m m a n d e r for

bian Nights

Ara-

fame. O n the way, the army

surrendered

to

Field

Marshal

t h e C e n t r a l P o w e r s in M e s o p o t a m i a .

t o o k t h e m i s e r a b l e l i t t l e d e s e r t t o w n of K u t al I m a r a , w h i c h w a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a f o r l o r n g r o u p of m u d

In the Syrian Desert, nearly a thousand

houses

baking under the scorching desert sun. S e e i n g n o s i g n of h o s t i l e T u r k s , t h e B r i t ish m o v e d o n t o w a r d B a g d a d . W i t h i n s i g h t of t h e a n c i e n t c i t y , t h e

Who was Lawrence of Arabia?

miles

west

ill-starred

of Kut,

the British h a d b e t t e r l u c k . A f t e r b e a t i n g off a n a t t a c k by T u r k i s h troops on the Suez Canal,

army was suddenly jumped by a Turk-

L l o y d G e o r g e in L o n d o n o r d e r e d

the

i s h f o r c e a b o u t t w i c e i t s size. A f t e r los-

army to proceed into Palestine, which

25

w a s p a r t of t h e T u r k i s h E m p i r e , capture At

and

prising t h e m in g r o u p s a n d often killing

Jerusalem.

first,

it w a s

life of t h e T u r k i s h A r m y m i s e r a b l e , s u r -

tough

going.

The

T u r k s were used to the desert a n d the

t h e m t o t h e last m a n . Meanwhile, Allenby built u p a large

B r i t i s h w e r e n o t ; i n t h e first m o n t h s of

a r m y . J u s t b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s of

the

with Lawrence raiding the Turks

campaign,

British

defeats

were

1917, and

severe. T h e n , a n e w g e n e r a l , Sir E d -

c u t t i n g t h e i r r a i l r o a d s a n d s u p p l y lines,

m u n d Allenby, nicknamed "the

Bull"

Allenby was able to take Jerusalem. A

b e c a u s e h e w a s h u g e a n d forceful, c a m e

few m o n t h s later, again with L a w r e n c e ' s

out from England to take

command.

h e l p , h e d e f e a t e d t h e T u r k s a t t h e de-

British fortunes began to look up. O n e

c i s i v e b a t t l e of M e g i d d o . T h i s b a t t l e , i n

of A l l e n b y ' s g r e a t e s t p i e c e s of l u c k w a s

w h i c h Allenby c a p t u r e d 7 6 , 0 0 0 prison-

his meeting with a strange y o u n g m a n

e r s , w a s a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n finally e l i m -

named Thomas E. Lawrence.

inating Turkey from the war.

L a w r e n c e w a s a little fellow, scarcely

Turkey

surrendered o n O c t o b e r 30, 1918.

five f e e t t a l l , b u t h i s b o d y s e e m e d m a d e of s t e e l w i r e . H e h a d b e e n a n a r c h a e o l o -

ITALY, RUMANIA, AND BULGARIA

gist d i g g i n g u p d e s e r t r u i n s w h e n

the

Italy w a s in the Triple Alliance with

w a r started, and h a d b e c o m e the leader

G e r m a n y and Austria-

of t h e A r a b r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e

Turks

* ? « * ! ?

after being sent to E g y p t t o h e a d the military

intelligence

there.

His

men

c a l l e d h i m " W r e c k e r of E n g i n e s , " b e cause he had been harassing the Turks by

wrecking

blowing

up

their

railway

bridges

and

trains

by

tearing

up

tracks. H e w a s t o b e c o m e f a m o u s in t h e h i s t o r y b o o k s a s L a w r e n c e of

Arabia

a n d f o r h i s o w n a c c o u n t of h i s a d v e n t u r e s , The

Seven

Pillars

of

Wisdom.

Allenby decided to work with little

fighting

rooster,

and

gave

^

u n g a r y

fused

'

to

him

a l m o s t limitless access to g u n s a n d supp l i e s . I t w a s t h e w i s e s t d e c i s i o n of t h e entire N e a r E a s t campaign.

go

to

-

war

against Britain a n d F r a n c e in 1 9 1 4 o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t G e r m a n y w a s t h e aggressor. A s a result, b o t h c a m p s tried to w o o h e r t o t h e i r side. G e r m a n y p r o m ised e x p a n d e d territory; the Allies, p a r t of A u s t r i a a n d c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n s i n A f r i c a . T h e A l l i e d offer l o o k e d

most

lucrative; so Italy c a m e into t h e w a r o n t h e Allied side o n M a y 23,

the

b u t h a d r e

1915.

Italy w a s ill-prepared for w a r :

Her

a r m y was far from up-to-date. H e r scant heavy industry would never supply

a

w a r effort. H e r p e o p l e d i d n o t w a n t t o fight.

W h e n the Italians attacked Aus-

A l t h o u g h h e h e l d t h e r a n k of c a p t a i n

tria in t h e r u g g e d A l p i n e c o u n t r y t o the

in the British A r m y , L a w r e n c e always

n o r t h , i t h a d l i t t l e effect. N o t h i n g m u c h

d r e s s e d i n t h e l o n g , flowing n a t i v e d e s e r t

was h a p p e n i n g on the Italian front com-

c o s t u m e c o m p l e t e w i t h s w o r d a n d dis-

pared to the earth-shaking

d a i n e d all m i l i t a r y formality. H i s A r a b s

F r a n c e . G e n e r a l C a d o r n a a n d his a r m y

w e r e a wild lot, a n d only " E l - A u r e n s "

h a d h a d to retreat when a strong Ger-

could control them. But they m a d e the

m a n - A u s t r i a n a r m y of a b o u t

26

events

in

400,000

m e n a t t a c k e d t h e Italians in M a y , 1916, on the Isonzo River. T h e n , on October 24, 1917, a huge a r m y of G e r m a n s a n d A u s t r i a n s

sud-

denly struck at C a p o r e t t o , in n o r t h e r n Italy. T h e Italian line c r u m b l e d a n d t h e s o l d i e r s fled i n p a n i c b e h i n d t h e P i a v e River, where they m a d e a stand with the h e l p of t h e B r i t i s h a n d F r e n c h . T h e disaster at C a p o r e t t o k n o c k e d the Italians o u t of t h e w a r a s a n a t i o n a l

fighting

force although Italian regiments

con-

t i n u e d t o fight a l o n g s i d e t h e F r e n c h a n d British on the Western F r o n t . R u m a n i a , too, h a d been

bargaining

w i t h b o t h sides. T h e n , o n A u g u s t

27,

1916, she m a d e u p h e r m i n d t o t h r o w in with

the Allies.

Almost

Austrian-German

army

at

once

an

attacked

the

R u m a n i a n s ; in t h r e e m o n t h s , she w a s u t t e r l y d e f e a t e d . R u m a n i a ' s q u i c k collapse provided G e r m a n y

with

much-

n e e d e d oil f r o m t h e r i c h R u m a n i a n oil fields

a n d t h o u s a n d s of t o n s of w h e a t

from her rolling farmlands. After having driven the Russians out of t h e A u s t r i a n l a n d s w h i c h t o d a y c o m prise Poland, the G e r m a n out to

finally

armies

set

punish Serbia. Belgrade,

Specially trained and equipped Italian mountain troops prepare an attack in jagged Alpine territory.

t h e S e r b i a n c a p i t a l , fell b e f o r e t h e G e r mans and Austrians on October 9,1915. Bulgaria,

who hoped

to recover

ter-

ritory lost in 1913 t o Serbia,

declared

war

11.

on

Serbia

on

October

THE ITALIAN WAR THEATER. AUSr

«^z

'Any PORETTO

The

Serbian losses w e r e terrible; a n d m a n y S e r b s fled t o A l b a n i a a n d G r e e k i s l a n d s . G r e e c e , t o r n b e t w e e n its K i n g C o n stantine, w h o favored the G e r m a n s , a n d its p r o - A l l i e d P r i m e M i n i s t e r V e n i z e l o s , for t h e o t h e r

side, h a d

tried to

stay

n e u t r a l b u t w a s finally f o r c e d i n t o w a r o n J u n e 27, 1917, o n t h e A l l i e d side.

27

Some early Allied planes, from left to right: the Nieuport 17 (the favorite plane of the British ace, Albert Ball); the Breguet 14 bomber (a two-seater built in France); the British-built DH-9A bomber; the S.P.A.D. (a Frenchbuilt fighter plane preferred by many American pilots).

W a r

in

T h e a i r p l a n e w a s b u t i n its i n f a n c y w h e n Who were "the Aces"?

World W a r I burst into flame

in

Wright m a d e t h e i r first f a l t e r i n g

1914.

The

brothers

had

heavier-than-

the

S k y

c a r r i e d h a n d g u n s , a n d t h e b r i e f a g e of chivalry in t h e air w a s

finished.

Within the next year, airplane design advanced

tremendously.

The

type "Flier" gave way to a

Wrightcompara-

a i r flights — t h e l o n g e s t of w h i c h h a d

tively

l a s t e d less t h a n

11

wings a n d a n engine m o u n t e d in front

devel-

of t h e f u s e l a g e . A l i g h t m a c h i n e g u n ,

o p e d faster a n d further in the four years

s e c u r e d t o t h e t o p w i n g , fired o v e r t h e

of t h e w a r t h a n a n y o t h e r w e a p o n

propeller.

a minute — only

years before. Yet, the airplane

in

h i s t o r y i n a c o m p a r a b l e p e r i o d of t i m e . In

the

beginning,

flimsy

biplanes,

built like the original W r i g h t

pusher,

flew o v e r o p p o s i n g l i n e s t o o b s e r v e t h e movements

of

enemy

troops.

Some-

solidly-built

This was

ship

an

with

awkward

impossible for a pilot t o aim his g u n at an enemy plane. Then,

a

young

Dutchman

named

A n t h o n y Fokker, w h o designed planes

a G e r m a n pilot. O n

p o n d e r the problem. H e later

occasions,

ar-

r a n g e m e n t , h o w e v e r , for it w a s a l m o s t

times, a British pilot w o u l d pass close to these

biplane

for

the

Germans,

fighter

began

to

related

b o t h fliers w o u l d w a v e a g a l l a n t s a l u t e

t h a t h e got his great idea o n e night after

t o e a c h o t h e r . H i g h a b o v e t h e filthy m u d

he h a d gone to bed, jumped up, went to

a n d b l o o d of t h e b a t t l e f i e l d b e l o w , t h e y

his d r a w i n g b o a r d , a n d h a d t h e w h o l e

f e l t t h a t t h e y w e r e k n i g h t s of t h e s k y .

design o n p a p e r b y morning. T h e con-

T h e n o n e d a y , o n e of t h e s e B r i t i s h

c e p t i o n w a s s i m p l i c i t y itself — t o

an

"knights" got an idea. H e p u t a pistol

e n g i n e e r . L e t t h e m o t o r fire t h e

i n t o t h e p o c k e t of h i s

suit. T h e

A n d s y n c h r o n i z e it, s o t h a t t h e b u l l e t s

n e x t t i m e a G e r m a n p l a n e flew w i t h i n

would pass through the propeller blades

range,

fired.

w h e n t h e b l a d e s w e r e o u t of t h e l i n e of

A f t e r t h a t , all t h e pilots o n b o t h sides

fire! N o w , t h e G e r m a n p i l o t c o u l d a i m

28

instead

of

flying

saluting,

he

gun!

"Dogfight" between German Albatross and British Martinsyde fighters.

his p l a n e directly at a n e n e m y craft a n d k n o c k it d o w n w i t h p r e c i s i o n . F o r several m o n t h s , this revolutionary gun gave the G e r m a n s a advantage

in

aerial

decided

warfare.

Allied

pilots were calling themselves " F o k k e r f o d d e r . " B u t it d i d n ' t t a k e B r i t i s h a n d French engineers long to catch on

to

what F o k k e r h a d done. W h e n they did, German

a n d A l l i e d fliers w e r e

evenly m a t c h e d . T h e i r planes, m a n e u v e r a b l e , c o u l d fly f r o m

fairly highly 100

to

1 4 0 m i l e s p e r h o u r . M o s t o f t h e victories then w e n t t o t h e pilots with t h e g r e a t e s t flying s k i l l . A l t h o u g h b y 1917, b o t h sides

had

developed large b o m b i n g planes

that

carried

one or two m e n

besides

the

FOKKER E4

pilot, aerial b o m b a r d m e n t did n o t p l a y too decisive a p a r t in t h e battles

of

Planes used by the early German Air Force.

W o r l d W a r I. S c o u t i n g a n d o b s e r v a t i o n

Close o n his heels w a s C a n a d i a n M a j o r

(reconnaissance)

Billy B i s h o p w i t h his 72.

continued to be the

(In

W a r I I , B i s h o p w a s A i r M a r s h a l of t h e

p r i m e f u n c t i o n of t h e a i r f o r c e s . A m o r e g l a m o r o u s u s e of t h e p l a n e , h o w e v e r , in t h e w a r — a n d t h e o n e t h a t

Royal Canadian Air Force.) T h e A m e r i c a n " A c e of A c e s "

was

m a d e newspaper headlines — was the

Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, a former

s h o o t i n g d o w n of e n e m y a i r c r a f t .

a u t o m o b i l e test driver w h o h a d started

Any

p i l o t w h o d e s t r o y e d five o r m o r e e n e m y

out in the w a r as General

planes w a s d e s i g n a t e d as a n " a c e . "

chauffeur. H e scored 2 6 victories during

The

leading

ace

was

a

German,

Pershing's

the few m o n t h s that U n i t e d States

fight-

"the

ing planes were active. After the war,

R e d Knight," w h o h a d 80 single-handed

C a p t a i n R i c k e n b a c k e r o r g a n i z e d , a n d is

kills t o his credit before h e in t u r n w a s

n o w p r e s i d e n t of, o n e of A m e r i c a ' s l e a d -

shot down

ing c o m m e r c i a l airlines.

Baron Manfred von Richthofen,

Canada

in

flames

by a kid

named Roy Brown.

w i t h a s c o r e of 7 5 . C a p t a i n

from

Captain

Rene Fonck was the top French

ace

O n e of t h e m o s t t e r r i f y i n g a i r c r a f t s —

Edward

M a n n o c k h e l d t h e B r i t i s h r e c o r d of 7 3 .

What was a Zeppelin?

to civilians, at least — developed

during

war was the In the early bombers, which had pusher propellers, the bombardier had to crawl out of the cockpit onto the wing to shoot with a rifle at a fighter attacking from the rear. This way, he could at least avoid hitting his own propeller. The planes in our illustration are a French Voisin bomber defending itself against a German Fokker attack.

the

German

Zeppelin. It h a d b e e n invented several years before

by

a

German

scientist,

C o u n t F e r d i n a n d Zeppelin, as a peace-

.- • •

World

--..-/„**" «ii ,'••••

;:.-J- V>',