How and Why Wonder Book of Robots and Electronic Brains

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HOW AND WHY

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W r i t t e n by ROBERT

SCHARFF

l u s t r a t e d by DENNY

McMAINS

Editorial Production D O N A L D D. W O L F

E d i t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of Dr. P a u l E. B l a c k w o o d , U. S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n W a s h i n g t o n , D. C . T e x t a n d i l l u s t r a t i o n s a p p r o v e d by O a k e s A . W h i t e , B r o o k l y n C h i l d r e n ' s M u s e u m , B r o o k l y n , N. Y.

WONDER

BOOKS . NEW

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Introduction E l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s a r e helping usher m a n k i n d into the Space Age. W i t h o u t t h e m it would be impossible for scientists to quickly supply crucial answers regarding flights into o u t e r space. R o b o t s a n d a u t o m a t i c c o m p u t e r s are also helpful in p r a c t i c a l ways as w e learn in this How and Why Wonder Book of Robots and Electronic Brains. T h r o u g h pictures a n d n u m e r o u s examples, this b o o k gives the r e a d e r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of b o t h the practical a n d theoretical application of m o d e r n c o m p u t i n g devices. Scientists are interested in discovering a n d testing basic concepts a b o u t p h e n o m e n a a n d events in n a t u r e . M a t h e m a t i c i a n s develop m a t h e m a t i c a l ways of describing a n d predicting these events. T h e t w o g r o u p s s u p p o r t o n e a n o t h e r in m a k i n g discoveries a n d in solving problems. E l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s offer a new basis for the c o o p e r a t i o n needed to solve problems. S o m e of these p r o b l e m s w o u l d not b e solved even in a lifetime without the assistance of c o m p u t e r s . T h e a d v e n t of electronic c o m p u t e r s a n d o t h e r forms of a u t o m a t i o n m a y result in social a n d e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s of great significance, s u c h as a shorter w o r k week. T o b e well informed today, o n e needs to k n o w a b o u t the uses a n d potential capacities o f - m o d e r n a u t o m a t i c devices. This How and Why Wonder Book of Robots and Electronic Brains will give a basis for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the m a n y uses of electronic c o m p u t e r s a n d will stimulate readers of all ages to t h i n k a b o u t the m a c h i n e s ' effect o n the future e c o n o m i c a n d scientific d e v e l o p m e n t s in o u r nation. Paul E. Blackwood U.S. Office of Education Washington, D. C.

0 1963, by Wonder Books, Inc. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published simultaneously in Canada. Printed in the United States of America.

C o n t e n t s page ROBOTS IN OUR W O R L D 4 What are robots? 5 W h e r e did r o b o t s originate? 5 W h a t d o r o b o t s look like? 6 H o w are r o b o t s used in o u t e r space? 7 H o w do robots work? 8 ROBOTS WITH ELECTRONIC BRAINS W h a t are computers? W h a t are the uses of c o m p u t e r s ? W h o invented c o m p u t e r s ? W h a t kinds of c o m p u t e r s are there? W h a t is a n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r ? W h a t is a digital c o m p u t e r ? HOW A COMPUTER WORKS W h a t is m e a n t b y i n p u t ? W h a t is m e a n t by processing? W h a t is m e a n t by o u t p u t ? W h a t is the c o m p u t e r ' s logic? W h a t d o you need to b u i l d a simple c o m p u t e r ? H o w will it w o r k ? H o w does the c o m p u t e r give the answers? THE ELEMENTS OF A MODERN COMPUTER W h e r e is the storage element? W h a t element does the c o m p u t a t i o n ? H o w d o all the elements w o r k together? H o w does a c o m p u t e r c o m p a r e with other m e t h o d s of solving a problem? A LANGUAGE FOR THE COMPUTER W h a t is the b i n a r y n u m b e r system? H o w d o you c o u n t in the b i n a r y system? H o w are decimal n u m b e r s c h a n g e d to b i n a r y symbols? C a n the b i n a r y system give o t h e r answers? C a n a n electronic b r a i n " t h i n k ? "

page H o w are p r o b l e m s given t o a computer? 26 H o w c a n you b e c o m e a p r o g r a m m e r ? 2 8

9 9 10 10 11 11 14

PUTTING THE COMPUTER TO WORK H o w are c o m p u t e r s valuable for n a t i o n a l defense? H o w d o business a n d industry use computers? H o w are c o m p u t e r s used to aid air a n d sea travel? H o w can c o m p u t e r s help doctors? H o w does a c o m p u t e r b e c o m e a translator? D o e s a n electronic b r a i n ever fail?

14 15 15 16 16

THE LEARNING MACHINE Can a robot learn? H o w does the learning m a c h i n e "learn?" H o w are learning m a c h i n e s used?

17 17 18 19 19 20 21

21 22 22 22 23 24 25

THE TEACHING MACHINE W h a t does a teaching m a c h i n e look like? H o w does a teaching m a c h i n e "teach?" C a n m a c h i n e s replace teachers? ROBOTS TAKE OVER W h a t is a u t o m a t i o n ? W h a t is feedback? D o e s a u t o m a t i o n p u t people o u t of work? A U T O M A T I O N IN A C T I O N H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in communications? H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in transportation? H o w is a u t o m a t i o n used in industry? C a n r o b o t s d o tasks t h a t m a n could n o t do? W h a t is telemetry? H o w far c a n we go? COMPUTER

TALK

28 29 30 30 31 32 33 34 34 34 36 37 37 38 39 39 39 39 40 42 42 42 43 45 46 46

r

R o b o t s

in

O u r

W o r l d

T h e w o r d " r o b o t " i n t h i s a g e of m o d e r n s c i e n c e still c a r r i e s w i t h it a f e e l i n g of b o t h h o p e a n d f e a r . T h e h o p e is t h a t m a c h i n e s b u i l t t o w o r k l i k e m e n w i l l m a k e life f o r t h e h u m a n r a c e m u c h p l e a s a n t e r a n d

happier.

T h e f e a r is t h a t r o b o t s m a y o n e d a y t a k e o v e r t h e w o r l d a n d t h a t t h e y m a y b e c o m e t h e m a s t e r s of a l l m a n k i n d . A f t e r y o u h a v e

finished

reading this

b o o k , y o u s h o u l d b e a b l e t o m a k e u p y o u r m i n d a s t o w h e t h e r r o b o t s offer hope or should be feared.

Von Kempelen's Chessplayer, here shown contemplating a move, was a clever fake, and no robot at al The illustration below shows the midget who was an excellent chessplayer and who manipulated the automaton from his hiding place.

1 — —

Scientists are finding many other uses for robot type devices. For example, a mechanized radio-controlled boat — called MOBY-DIC (Motorized Observation Biotelemetry Yacht-Data Integration and Control) — is employed as an unmanned on-the-spot observer of the social behavior of whales and porpoises in their natural habitat. This information — not obtainable in captivity — is picked up by the robot's ears and eyes and transmitted for analysis to an oceanographic mother ship several miles away. These members of the marine mammal family seem to ignore the unassuming robot as long as it makes no hostile moves. N o t everyone agrees about what a robot

This robot was a fake; but recently

"is," b u t m o s t dictionaries

s c i e n t i s t s h a v e b e e n a b l e t o b u i l d elec-

and encyclopedias

define

tronic ones t h a t really c a n play chess.

it a s a p i e c e of m a c h i n e r y

These machines, once taught the game,

What are robots?

that does a job you would expect

a

can usually beat h u m a n

players,

be-

cause, unlike men, they never m a k e the

h u m a n being to do. T h e i d e a of b u i l d i n g a m a c h i n e t h a t

same

mistake

twice.

And

one

such

c a n w o r k a n d t h i n k l i k e a m a n is n o t

c h e s s - p l a y i n g r o b o t is s o w e l l - m a n n e r e d

new. It has existed for centuries. M o s t

t h a t it p r i n t s o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g m e s s a g e

early r o b o t stories, h o w e v e r , w e r e m o r e

after w i n n i n g a m a t c h : "Sorry, y o u lost.

fable t h a n fact, like the

T h a n k y o u for a very interesting g a m e . "

chess player

"automatic"

devised by the

German

W o l f g a n g v o n K e m p e l e n in 1768. T h i s man-like m a c h i n e h a d great success in p l a y i n g a g a i n s t t h e b e s t p l a y e r s of E u r o p e u n t i l it w a s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e was

a

midget

inside

the

p l a y e d t h e g a m e v e r y well.

robot

who

The

word

robot,

Where did robots originate?

or

artificial

being,

comes

from

the

Czech

word

ro-

botnick,

an

an-

c i e n t n a m e g i v e n t o a serf o r s l a v e . I t was introduced into our modern

lan-

MOBOT, the gentle robot, is strong enough to bend iron bars, but can also handle laboratory glasses with ease.

g u a g e in 1 9 2 2 by a C z e c h writer, K a r e l

science-fiction writers. T o d a y , h o w e v e r ,

C a p e k , i n h i s p l a y c a l l e d R.U.R.

The

robots are no longer paper

initials t h a t m a k e u p t h e play's

title

R e a l robots are a m o n g us — running

s t a n d f o r Rossum's

Universal

Robots.

creations.

factories, translating languages,

chart-

I n C a p e k ' s play, all t h e w o r k in t h e

i n g t h e p a t h s of r o c k e t s , a n d c a l c u l a t i n g

world was done by man-like machines

or forecasting almost anything we wish

— the robots — which Rossum

to k n o w — t h o u g h they are called m a n y

manu-

factured in very large numbers. Everything

went

along

very

smoothly

on

e a r t h . A l l t h e n e e d s a n d p l e a s u r e s of m a n k i n d w e r e b e i n g fulfilled,

just

different n a m e s .

as

l o n g a s t h e r o b o t s h a d n o f e e l i n g s of their own. T h e n , o n e day, the m a n a g e r

M o s t r o b o t s d o n o t look like the tin c a n What do robots look like?

mechanical that

we

comic

men

see

in

strips,

in

of t h e f a c t o r y d e c i d e d t o m a k e s u p e r i o r

movies, or o n television. I n actual fact,

r o b o t s t h a t h a d all t h e h u m a n

feelings

o u r a m a z i n g n e w r o b o t s n o w b e i n g de-

of h a p p i n e s s a n d p a i n . W h e n t h i s h a p -

signed a n d b u i l t b e a r little likeness to

pened, the robots revolted against their

m a n . I n their w o r k , however, they dupli-

h u m a n m a s t e r s a n d d e s t r o y e d all m a n -

c a t e t h e skills p e r f o r m e d b y m e n

kind.

often d o t h e m m u c h better.

Since Capek's play, the robot become

a

favorite

character

of

and

has

Y o u see r o b o t s at w o r k a r o u n d y o u r

the

h o m e everyday although you may not

h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e m as such. B u t , ac-

A l l of t h e s a t e l l i t e s l a u n c h e d

c o r d i n g t o o n e definition, w a s h i n g m a chines, toasters, a u t o m a t i c

coffeepots,

electric heaters, a n d so forth, are

all

How are robots .. _ used in outer space?

by

United

the

States

i n t o o u t e r space have had

robots. They are machines that do the work that you would expect a h u m a n

robots

being to do.

sent b a c k to their masters o n earth, by

T h e r e are also robots doing jobs that

on board.

These

robots

w a y of r a d i o , s u c h i m p o r t a n t

have

informa-

are t o o d a n g e r o u s for m e n to do. Pos-

tion or d a t a on space as temperature,

s i b l y t h e b e s t k n o w n of t h e s e r o b o t s is

r a d i a t i o n , effects of g r a v i t y , a n d s o o n .

"Mobot." This remote-control machine

F r o m t h e i r lofty p o s i t i o n in s p a c e t h e y

h a s six-foot l o n g a r m s w h i c h

h a v e e v e n t a k e n p h o t o g r a p h s of e a r t h

hands,

wrists, elbows

and

contain

shoulders.

a n d other nearby planets.

T w o t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a s p l a c e d o n ris-

W h e n t h e first s p a c e s h i p l a n d s o n t h e

ing, j o i n t e d tentacles serve as eyes. E x -

m o o n o r M a r s o r V e n u s , it w i l l p r o b a b l y

cept for t h e a r m s a n d eyes, M o b o t l o o k s

have on board robots rather than h u m a n

like a big m e t a l b o x m o u n t e d o n wheels.

beings. R o b o t s , like M o b o t , c a n

T h e wires c o n n e c t i n g this r o b o t w i t h its

t h e s u r f a c e of t h e m o o n ' s h i d d e n s i d e ,

master carry m o r e t h a n 100 c o m m a n d

m a k e n e c e s s a r y g e o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , ex-

channels a n d t w o television

Before sending a manned spaceship to the moon, the United States plans to explore the moon's surface with instruments. This robot-exploration will start with Ranger, an instrument capsule that is expected to land on the moon in the Ocean of Storms. It will be followed by the Surveyor, which will carry instruments and television cameras similar to those used by the weather satellite, Tiros. Surveyor will be followed by Prospector, which will be able to move along the surface of the moon like a tractor. All three are supposed to send back to earth vital data to be used to make a human landing less dangerous.

channels.

Although designed to do the dangerous w o r k of h a n d l i n g r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s in research laboratories, M o b o t m a y b e used, at some future time, for undersea or outer space tasks.

map

Computers are used in many industries. In hours they solve mathematical problems that would take a man more than a lifetime. They are used in jet aircraft design, in missile control, in payroll make up, in calculations of the petroleum industry, and innumerable other applications.

plore u n k n o w n regions, and even build landing areas for future

spaceships.

f o r m a t i o n t o r e t u r n t o its o p e r a t o r . The robot

may

have grasping

de-

T h e y w i l l h e l p t o m a k e it s a f e r f o r h u -

vices similar to h u m a n a r m s a n d hands.

m a n s w h e n they arrive later.

F o l l o w i n g instructions, the r o b o t

can

pick u p a n d m o v e objects, just as a m a n deal

m i g h t d o . T o d o t h i s , s o m e t y p e of a r -

different f r o m M o b o t ,

r a n g e m e n t is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o tell

their basic

the operator how hard the hands

While other robots look a great How do robots work?

operation

is t h e s a m e . T h e m o s t

or

claws are gripping, plus other informa-

i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e i r o p e r a t i o n is t h e

tion.

( I n t h e c a s e of M o b o t ,

micro-

m a n w h o gives t h e m their instructions.

phones on the wrists allow the operator

T h e s e instructions are given to the ma-

to " h e a r " the h a n d s at w o r k . )

chine t h r o u g h wires or by radio

(or

r o b o t s a r e powerful e n o u g h t o tie iron

m a y b e s t o r e d in t h e r o b o t itself).

To

b a r s i n t o k n o t s a n d lift o v e r 2 0

Some tons

m a k e t h e m a c h i n e f o l l o w its m a s t e r ' s

of w e i g h t , a n d y e t t h e y a r e s o s e n s i t i v e

wishes, p o w e r must be supplied either

t h a t they c a n m a k e cakes or p o u r glasses

t h r o u g h o t h e r w i r e s o r f r o m a self-con-

of w a t e r w i t h o u t a n y b r e a k a g e .

tained source such as a battery. T h e robot, equipped with instructions a n d p o w e r , m a y c o n t a i n s o m e t y p e of sensing device, w h i c h c o u l d b e a television

camera,

a

radiation

(Geiger)

c o u n t e r , o r a m a g n e t o m e t e r ( a p i e c e of equipment used to

find

oil a n d

other

m i n e r a l s ) . T h e s e sensing devices c a n b e c o m p a r e d to the h u m a n ' s eyes a n d nose a n d a l l o w t h e r o b o t t o g a t h e r t h e in-

R o b o t s

with

Electronic

Brains

O f all t h e r o b o t s t h a t a r e a m o n g u s t o d a y , t h o s e w i t h b r a i n s , c a l l e d computers,

electronic

p r o m i s e in the next few years t o revolutionize

o u r w a y of life. T h e s e r o b o t i s t i c d e v i c e s e l i m i n a t e t h e d r u d g e r y f r o m m a n y j o b s a n d offer a g r e a t d e a l m o r e l e i s u r e t i m e t o t h e i r h u m a n m a s t e r s . W h i l e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d t o a i d i n t h e s o l u t i o n of c e r t a i n scientific problems, c o m p u t e r s h a v e t u r n e d o u t t o b e so generally useful t h a t they a r e n o w b e i n g e m p l o y e d i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of w o r k .

If y o u w e r e t o l o o k u p t h e w o r d " c o m What are computers? that

solves

altitude weather conditions a n d w a r n us

p u t e r " in a dictionary,

of

you would

faster a n d m o r e accurately t h a n

fined

as

mathematical

find

"a

it d e -

machine

problems."

T o d a y , these amazing machines

storms,

tornadoes

and

hurricanes any

weather-forecasting device ever used. Computers

do mathematical

prob-

range

lems in hours that would take m o r e t h a n

"doing

a m a n ' s lifetime t o solve with p a p e r a n d

s u m s " t o r o o m size u n i t s t h a t c a n solve

pencil. T h e y help m a j o r industry per-

from

small

desk

devices

for

c o m p l e x m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m s in less t i m e t h a n t h e t w i n k l i n g of a n e y e . While

computers

are

sometimes

called "thinking machines," or "robots that think," these names are misleading. N o m a c h i n e c a n r e a l l y think

in t h e usual

sense, b u t these c o m p u t e r s d o m a n y important a n d exciting things. B y their ability to solve c o m p l e x

using mathe-

matical problems, c o m p u t e r s c a n predict

the

paths

of

satellities,

guide

b a l l i s t i c s m i s s i l e s i n flight, o r s p o t h i g h -

The, industries shown on pages 8 and 9 are just a few examples of today's uses of computers. Innumerable other uses could be mentioned.

f o r m its m a n u f a c t u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s b e t -

e v e r y p r o d u c t of a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y :

ter, for w i t h their aid, skilled m e n c a n

jet

c o n t r o l c o m p l e x c o m b i n a t i o n s of

plants, bridges, a n d chemical factories.

ma-

chines.

aircraft,

nuclear

reactors,

power

F o r instance, at the Space Flight Center in Huntsville, A l a b a m a , two

powerful

many

e l e c t r o n i c b r a i n s , e a c h c a p a b l e of a d d -

ways. Every day

ing n e a r l y 14 m i l l i o n figures a m i n u t e ,

t h e y h a n d l e mil-

are helping to design the huge Saturn

lions

pay

s p a c e c r a f t . S a t u r n , d e s t i n e d f o r flights

are

a r o u n d the m o o n a n d deep into space,

n o w b e i n g u s e d b y f a r m e r s t o tell t h e m

w i l l b e " f l o w n " t h o u s a n d s of t i m e s o n

w h e n t o p l a n t t h e i r c r o p s , w h a t t o feed,,

t h e s e c o m p u t e r s b e f o r e it r e a c h e s

t h e a n i m a l s , h o w m u c h w a t e r is n e e d e d

launching pad.

Computers

affect

our

What are the uses of computers?

lives

in

of

checks and b a n k accounts. They

the

by the crops, a n d m a n y other important facts. T h i s technological revolution in

The

f a r m i n g offsets t h e i n c r e a s i n g f o o d d e -

Who invented computers?

m a n d s of o u r s k y r o c k e t i n g p o p u l a t i o n . S p e a k i n g of o u r r a p i d l y g r o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n , i t is c o m p u t e r s t h a t h e l p

electronic

computer, foremost

among

American

i n v e n t i o n s of

this

century, was not an

the

o v e r n i g h t d i s c o v e r y . I t is t h e f r u i t of t h e

United States Census B u r e a u to keep

p r a c t i c a l s c i e n c e of m a t h e m a t i c s

c o u n t of t h e n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n s .

h a s its r o o t s far in t h e p a s t .

B u t c o m p u t e r s go far b e y o n d

the

F r o m c o u n t i n g o n his fingers,

these

and man

uses t o o^her services less w e l l - k n o w n .

gradually progressed to pebbles on the

They

g r o u n d . . . t o p e l l e t s of b r o n z e , s l i d i n g

influence

the

design

of

almost

*!'-;.,.;.-,

A principal target of the Saturn space vehicle is the execution of a flight around the moon to explore the other side of this heavenly body. The actual flights cost millions of dollars. For only several hundred dollars, a flight can be simulated mathematically on the IBM 7090 computer. Here, the calculation of a moon orbit is being studied at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. At left is a model of Saturn's powerful superbooster.

on a grooved board . . . to beads strung

T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c t y p e s of c o m p u t e r s

on framed wires . . . a n d to the abacus. ( S e e i l l u s t r a t i o n , p a g e s 1 2 - 1 3 ) T h e first adding machine, invented in 1642, was followed by a four-operation arithmetic m a c h i n e c o m p o s e d of a d i f f e r e n c e gine

that

performed

mechanical tabulator,

calculations, a

Although

these

a

punch-paper

control system, a n d a differential lyzer.

en-

inventions

anain-

creased c o m p u t a t i o n speeds, t h e y failed

W h a t kinds of .. _ computers are there?

in

use

— and

t o d a Jy , analogue ° digital.

While they are very unlike in their construction, operation a n d use, b o t h determine a given a m o u n t or quantity. T h e a n a l o g u e t y p e d e t e r m i n e s its q u a n t i t y b y m e a s u r e m e n t of h o w m u c h w h i l e t h e d i g i t a l t y p e d e t e r m i n e s its q u a n t i t y b y counting how many.

t o fulfill t h e n e e d s of o u r c o m p l e x w o r l d . M o r e than a century ago, Babbage,

an

English

Charles

mathematician,

designed an "analytical engine" which was an automatic computing

machine

A n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r is u s u a l l y b u i l t W h a t is a n • •> a n a l o g u e computer?

could m a k e

the required

mechanical

In 1936, a y o u n g H a r v a r d physicist, Howard

Aiken,

happened

u p o n s o m e of t h e w r i t i n g s of D r . B a b bage. Like Babbage, D r . Aiken saw the p o s s i b i l i t y of a r o b o t t h a t c o u l d d o t h e t h i n k i n g of h u n d r e d s of m e n i n a f r a c t i o n of t h e t i m e it t o o k a n y o n e of t h e m to work out routine mathematical probl e m s . A i k e n t e a m e d u p w i t h o t h e r researchers and, by 1944, they built the y e a r s l a t e r , t h e first

general-

purpose, all-electronic c o m p u t e r , called t h e ENIAC c o m p u t e r ( f r o m E l e c t r i c N u merical

Integrator

and

Calculator),

was built. ENIAC w a s t h e g r a n d f a t h e r of t o d a y ' s electronic brains, room-size robots w h o a n s w e r t o t h e u n l i k e l y n a m e s a s UNIVAC, STRETCH, MANIAC, UNICALL, MINIVAC, SEAC, a n d

BIZMAC.

t h e p r o b l e m t h a t i t is d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e . It m a y work, however, with

physical

n e c t e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m it is s o l v i n g . Usually the answers are recorded on a calibrated scale, traced o n a g r a p h b y a pen, indicated on a plotting board, or s h o w n o n a dial. A n a n a l o g u e c o m p u t e r is g e n e r a l l y d e s i g n e d t o s o l v e a s i n g l e p r o b l e m , o r a specific c l a s s of p r o b l e m s . There are many common

uses

for

simple a n a l o g u e devices. O n e e x a m p l e is t h e a u t o m o b i l e s p e e d o m e t e r . changes

first w o r k a b l e c o m p u t e r . Two

of

quantities far different f r o m t h o s e con-

parts with the needed accuracy. Professor

°gy ,

anal, . or a p h y s i , ,

cal likeness

as w e use t h e t e r m t o d a y . H i s idea w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y fulfilled b e c a u s e n o o n e

to be an

the

rate

of

turning

of

It the

w h e e l ' s a x l e i n t o a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of s p e e d i n t e r m s of m i l e s p e r h o u r . A s w e know, the faster the automobile's axle turns, the higher the speed we read on the speedometer. I n this case, w e are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s p e e d of t h e v e h i c l e r a t h e r t h a n h o w f a s t t h e a x l e is t u r n i n g . B u t , t h e a n a l o g y o r p h y s i c a l q u a n t i t y of this s p e e d is t h e a x l e t u r n i n g . Slide rules, t h e r m o m e t e r s , clocks, a n d weight scales a r e e x a m p l e s of t h i s t y p e of c o m p u t e r . 11

Many primitives, having advanced from fingercounting, used pebbles as counters. Peruvian Incas used knotted ropes called quipus for counting.

Before early man had any words or symbols for numbers, he used his fingers to count.

a

$

«

o

*» •

*»

The early abacus was nothing but pebbles in grooves in the sand.

The Roman abacus was made of metal, and small balls were used in each column. 12

L

While the abacus has had many shapes and different names, depending on when and where it was used, its basic operation remains unchanged. It has individual columns with beads or marbles. The columns are arranged in the numeral position or decimal system used in the ancient Near East. Let's look at the earliest, the counting board of the Babylonian traders: three rows of pebbles; no column can have more than 9 pebbles. Let's add 263 to 349. First set up the pebbles to indicate 263: 2 hundreds, 6 tens and 3 units. Now add pebbles to signify 349: 3 hundreds, 4 tens and 9 units. Since no column can have more than 9 pebbles, move the pebbles over from right to left and you have as result 6 hundreds, 1 ten and 2 units, or 612.

A few years ago, a Chinese-American bookkeeper with an abacus won a race against an electronic calculating machine.

The Pascal adding machine of 1642 (above) and Burrough's (below) were only steppingstones to the modern "miracles."

The beads above the crossbar on a Chinese abacus are called quints and count 5 each when pushed down to the bar; the beads below count 1 each when pushed up to the bar. Each wire strung with beads is called a column and represents one column of figures in the decimal system. The figure shown in the abacus above left is: 27,503,040.

"How far" and "How fast?" are two questions answered by two kinds of analogue computers in your car, the "odometer" that gives the mileage you have driven and the "speedometer" that gives the approximate speed you are driving. Their working is relatively easy: it is established how many turns the wheel of your car has to make to roll a mile and a special flexible shaft is installed to transmit the number of wheel revolutions to a counter on your dashboard. The counter, which is a series of little wheels with numbers from 0 to 9, is constructed in such a way that, when one little wheel turns around once completely, it clicks the neighboring wheel over one number. In this way all units of miles are registered. The speedometer works on the same flexible shaft as the odometer, only here the turning of the wheel of the car creates magnetic fields. As y o u ^ | f i i n j u j i illustration, the speedometer consists of a disk (mostly aluminum). A pointer is attached to the disk with a wirespring that tends to pull the. pointer towards zero. As we already said, a permanent magnet attached to the flexible shaft turns faster when the car goes faster, and creates a magnetic field in the aluminum disk, which will tend to turn the disk and pointer away from zero. The faster the car goes, the stronger the pull, and the farther the pointer will point away from zero.

MAGNET

13

While these examples

of

Digital computers are the most widely

analogue

computers are quite simple ones, this W h Q t

t y p e is a l s o u s e d f o r m a n y c o m p l e x p u r poses.

The

electronic

kind,

for

s t a n c e , is u s e d f o r n a v i g a t i o n ,

used computing U + + A U r o b o t s t o d a y , be•"

i s a

,. . x , 0 digital computer?

in-

missile

cause they are

a

g u i d a n c e a n d a n t i - a i r c r a f t fire c o n t r o l .

g r e a t d e a l m o r e a c c u r a t e a n d will

The

m o r e t y p e s of w o r k t h a n t h e a n a l o g u e

latter, called

gun

director

com-

do

p u t e r s , a r e u s e d t o a i m a n d fire g u n s a t

types. T h e

h o s t i l e p l a n e s . If y o u h a v e e v e r t r i e d

measure; they count. T h e y owe

t o s h o o t a rifle a t a m o v i n g t a r g e t , y o u

n a m e to the counting number on

c a n i m a g i n e t h e c o m p l e x i t y of a c o m -

ten

p u t e r r e q u i r e d t o a i m a g u n a n d h i t a*

1 0 d i g i t s i n s t e a d of t w e l v e , o r six, o r

hostile p l a n e a b o v e 4 0 , 0 0 0 feet in t h e

e i g h t , m o s t c o m p u t a t i o n is b a s e d o n t h e

air a n d traveling at speeds better t h a n

f a m i l i a r decimal

6 0 0 miles per hour. N o h u m a n

6, 7 , 8, a n d 9.

being

c a n solve all t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s — s p e e d

fingers

digital c o m p u t e r s

o r digits.

do

not their our

Because we have

s y s t e m : 0 , 1, 2 , 3, 4 , 5 ,

T h e simplest digital c o m p u t e r

that

of t h e w i n d , d i r e c t i o n of t h e p l a n e , h o w

w e h a v e is o u r fingers. P r o b l e m s c a n b e

f a s t it is g o i n g , e t c . — q u i c k l y e n o u g h

solved by counting them. A m o r e com-

to d o this job, b u t an electronic

plex digital c o m p u t e r with which we are

ana-

l o g u e c o m p u t e r c a n d o it w i t h e a s e .

familiar

is t h e

desk

calculator.

This

m a c h i n e c a n d o everything — a d d , subtract, multiply a n d divide.

FUEL GAUGE

The

modern

automatic

electronic

digital c o m p u t e r , often called a processing FUEL 1ANK

FLOAT

system,

data-

can carry out a long

s e r i e s of a r i t h m e t i c a l a n d l o g i c a l o p e r a -

^n*.

t i o n s o n t h e b a s i s of i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n it a t t h e s t a r t of t h e p r o b l e m . L o g i c a l o p -

The fuel gauge of an automobile is another example of an analogue computer. It indicates what proportion of the tank is filled with gasoline.

erations include such w o r k as sorting, selecting, c o m p a r i n g , a n d m a t c h i n g vari o u s k i n d s of i n f o r m a t i o n .

H o w

a

C o m p u t e r

W o r k s

All m o d e r n digital c o m p u t e r s h a v e three basic steps in their operation. Information

or

information

must

processing.

data be

I

be

fed

rearranged

into

and

the

solved

c o m p u t e r — input. in

an

orderly

The

way —

T h e answer or solution m u s t b e fed b a c k to the inquirer in a n

understandable form — 14

must

output.

1_-

k

— . •* *'• A »•

w

a ••-••

Our picture shows an IBM computer (in the background) which is fed with information prepared by a tape punch (center left). Samples of the punched tape are on top and bottom.

As with the other robots you read about What is meant by input?

earlier, a h u m a n be-

p a p e r inscribed with special

ing

i n k . T h e i n p u t i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e of

must

give

computer instructions

t a p e ( t h e m o s t p o p u l a r m e t h o d ) _ , o r 01$

before

it

can

the

complete solve

any

a scientific, c o m m e r c i a l ,

magnetic

statistical, or

engineering nature.

p r o b l e m o r d o a n y w o r k . A s e t of s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n s is c a l l e d a program

a n d is

prepared by a m a n or w o m a n called a programmer.

I t is h i s o r h e r j o b t o s t u d y

t h e g i v e n p r o b l e m , l a y o u t a p l a n f o r its solution, a n d present the plan to

the

T h e p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n is c a r r i e d o n What is meant by processing?

within the computer itself.

By

using

its

v a r i o u s p a r t s o r elements, the computer calculates,

sorts,

c o m p u t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h all t h e neces-

m a t c h e s , c o m p a r e s , a n d s e l e c t s u n t i l it

s a r y i n s t r u c t i o n s a s t o h o w t o u s e it.

arrives at the desired

Without the programmer, the computer

p r o b l e m g i v e n it.

w o u l d b e useless.

answer

to

the

W h i l e t h i s p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n is g o -

T h e p r o g r a m m a y b e fed into

the

i n g o n , t h e e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e is c h e c k e d

i n p u t p o r t i o n of t h e c o m p u t e r i n s e v e r a l

b y a m a n , c a l l e d t h e operator,

ways — through punched or tab cards,

c o m p u t e r ' s c o n t r o l p a n e l . I t is h i s d u t y

punched or perforated tape,

t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r is f u n c -

magnetic

at the

15

can

m a k e o u r decision b a s e d o n these facts.

start a n d stop the computer a n d regu-

W h i l e a c o m p u t e r c a n n o t think or rea-

l a t e its activity. H e c a n s e n d in

new

s o n a s w e d o , it r e a c h e s i t s l o g i c a l d e c i -

instructions or corrections given to him

s i o n s f r o m t h e f a c t s g i v e n t o it b y i t s

b y the p r o g r a m m e r , a n d c a n test various

programmer.

t i o n i n g in t h e p r o p e r m a n n e r . H e

p a r t s of t h e c o m p u t e r t o s e e if t h e y a r e

P o s s i b l y t h e s i m p l e s t e x a m p l e of computer-like

working normally.

system

is t h e

a

ordinary

light switch. T h e p r o b l e m in this case A f t e r d o i n g its w o r k , t h e c o m p u t e r gives What is meant by output?

its a n s w e r the

back

to

programmer.

i s : W h e n t h e s w i t c h is c l o s e d , a r e a l l conditions

present

for

the

bulb

to

light? T h e conditions a r e such facts as

be

w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t is o n ,

punched into cards or tape, or recorded

t h e light b u l b good, t h e r o o m properly

on m a g n e t i c t a p e like t h e t a p e used o n

w i r e d , e t c . If t h e a n s w e r is " y e s " t o a l l

a h o m e recorder. T h e programmer can

t h e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e b u l b will light w h e n

then translate the machine's answer to

t h e s w i t c h is t u r n e d o n . T h e c o m p u t e r

d a t a for all w h o a r e interested.

Many

s y s t e m , i n effect, w i l l b e g i v i n g i t s logi-

of t h e n e w e r c o m p u t e r s h a v e p r i n t i n g

cal a n s w e r b a s e d o n t h e fact t h a t all

devices that take the machine's o u t p u t

conditions are present for the b u l b to

a n d c h a n g e it i n t o a p r i n t e d r e p o r t f o r m

l i g h t w h e n t h e s i g n a l is g i v e n .

T h e results m a y

easily u n d e r s t o o d b y all. T h e s e p r i n t e r s ,

A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a c o m p u t e r - t y p e

as t h e y a r e called, m a k e it u n n e c e s s a r y

d e v i c e is t h e a u t o m a t i c t o l l

for p r o g r a m m e r s to interpret c o m p u t e r

t h a t w e see o n m a n y p a r k w a y s ,

answers. . O n e of t h e h a r d e s t p o i n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d about the operaWhat is the t i o n of a c o m p u t e r computer's logic? is h o w i t c a n m a k e a logical decision. W h e n we c o m e to a l o g i c a l d e c i s i o n of a p r o b l e m , w e d o s o b y a p r o c e s s of t h i n k i n g o r r e a s o n i n g . W e search our memories or look into b o o k s for the facts o n the subject a n d

The automatic toll collector is a computer-type device. It makes "logical decisions" as to whether the proper amount of money has been deposited. 16

collector turn-

pikes a n d bridges. This device has the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of m a k i n g a l o g i c a l d e c i sion as t o w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o p e r a m o u n t of m o n e y h a s b e e n d e p o s i t e d b y t h e driver t o p a y t h e toll. L e t u s a s s u m e t h a t a 1 0 ^ t o l l is t o b e collected by the computer. This

pay-

ment can be paid by depositing:

one

dime; two nickels; one nickel a n d

five

pennies; or ten pennies. T h e automatic toll collector will receive its i n p u t

(the

c o i n s ) a n d p r o c e s s t h e m . I t will t h e n m a k e its logical d e c i s i o n b a s e d o n t h e

A l t h o u g h m o s t digital c o m p u t e r s W h a t d o you .M .... n e e d to build a simple c o m p u t e r ?

cost

thousands of , „ dollars, you can , ,

b u i l d

o n e

t h a t

will a n s w e r " y e s " o r " n o " t o s i m p l e q u e s t i o n s f o r less t h a n a d o l l a r . H e r e is w h a t y o u n e e d :

two

mechanical switches, a

bat-

tery, a

flashlight

flashlight

b u l b a n d some wire.

R e m e m b e r , this is g o i n g t o b e a v e r y s i m p l e c o m p u t e r . B u t it m a y

surprise

y o u all t h e s a m e .

fact as to whether or n o t the p a y m e n t b y t h e d r i v e r is sufficient. If t h e a n s w e r is " y e s , " t h e d e v i c e w i l l i n d i c a t e t o t h e driver that he m a y go ahead. However, if t h e c o m p u t e r r e a c h e s t h e l o g i c a l d e c i sion t h a t insufficient m o n e y h a s

been

d e p o s i t e d , i t w i l l flash a " s t o p " s i g n a l a n d will s o u n d a n a l a r m so t h a t

the

g u a r d s a r e i m m e d i a t e l y n o t i f i e d of i t s negative decision.

.•

You can build a simple computer that will help you to understand the difficult subject of the working of electronic brains.

ttNCE

L A N E S

A s a c o m p u t e r designer, your p r o b l e m How w i l l it work? a recognizable necessary

is

this:

with

the

named

above,

computer

that

signal

conditions

when

parts

build will

both

a give

of

are fulfilled.

two You

c a n consider the light b u l b as the o u t p u t of t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d t h e s w i t c h e s , e a c h of w h i c h y o u m a y o p e n o r c l o s e

by

h a n d , as the inputs. 17

When

the parts are properly

con-

n e c t e d , t h e c o m p u t e r will c a u s e t h e b u l b to light up, signalling, "Yes, b o t h cond i t i o n s a r e fulfilled." W h e n t h e b u l b is d a r k , t h e c o m p u t e r is s a y i n g , " N o , b o t h c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t fulfilled." Y o u have probably already How does the computer give the answers?

/

out.

figured

Connect

switches battery

the

with

and

s h o w n in

X

this the

bulb

figure

as

1. I n

this way, b o t h switches m u s t be closed for the b u l b to light up. W h e n only o n e

q u e s t i o n s , t h e c o m p u t e r will g o o n t o

s w i t c h is c l o s e d o r w h e n b o t h a r e o p e n ,

decide:

t h e b u l b will b e d a r k . S i m p l e ? Y e s . B u t

t h e s e q u e s t i o n s is ' y e s , ' l i g h t t h e b u l b . "

w h e n you consider the logical

Fig. 3 s h o w s h o w y o u w o u l d wire this

opera-

tions p e r f o r m e d by this c o m p u t e r , they are really quite impressive:

"If

the

answer

to

both

of

computer. B y t h i s t i m e t h e c o m p u t e r is d o i n g a

It accepts information as input

(the

switches are open or closed).

useful, a n d d o i n g it a g o o d d e a l faster

It m a k e s a decision based on

the

input ( a r e b o t h switches closed?). It takes action b a s e d o n this decision (either the b u l b lights or

j o b of d e c i d i n g t h a t m i g h t a c t u a l l y b e

remains

t h a n y o u c o u l d . If y o u d o n o t b e l i e v e this, b u i l d it a n d t r y t o b e a t it. Slightly m o r e complicated

arrange-

m e n t s of s w i t c h e s c a n b e m a d e t o p r o -

unlit).

d u c e a n o u t p u t o n l y w h e n o n e i n p u t is

B y rearranging the switches, you c a n

p r e s e n t a n d t h e o t h e r is n o t . I t is p o s -

build

a

computer

automatically

that

either

decide of

sible, b y i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g circuits e a c h

the

of w h i c h d o e s o n e l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n , t o

switches a r e closed, a n d will light t h e

c r e a t e a r r a n g e m e n t s c a p a b l e of a n s w e r -

b u l b s i g n a l l i n g , " Y e s , a t l e a s t o n e of t h e

i n g a l l s o r t s of difficult q u e s t i o n s . C o m -

two possible conditions has been

p u t e r kits t h a t c o n t a i n all t h e p a r t s a n d

filled."

whether

will

ful-

(Fig. 2.)

drawings to m a k e such

B y c o m b i n i n g the t w o circuits or arrangements, you can make a computer that

will

have

four

inputs

and

one

arrangements

are available at r a d i o supply stores. I n s t e a d of m e c h a n i c a l s w i t c h e s a n d flashlight

bulbs, the modern

computer

o u t p u t a n d will a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n :

uses m u c h m o r e r a p i d electronic devices

A r e i n p u t s o n e and t w o p r e s e n t ? If t h e y

for switching a n d registering, such as

a r e , is either

input three or input four

v a c u u m tubes, transistors and magnetic

present?" Having examined the inputs

c o r e s . B u t t h e i d e a is t h e s a m e a s t h e

and found

c o m p u t e r just described.

18

the answers to these

two

T h e

E l e m e n t s

The modern

of

a

M o d e r n

C o m p u t e r

e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r is n o t r e a l l y a s i n g l e p i e c e

of

e q u i p m e n t b u t a s e r i e s of five c l o s e l y r e l a t e d p a r t s o r e l e m e n t s , e a c h of which m u s t function smoothly with the other four for the system to b e u s e f u l . T h e s e five e l e m e n t s a r e : i n p u t , s t o r a g e , a r i t h m e t i c , c o n t r o l

and

output. Y o u a r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h t w o of t h e s e e l e m e n t s , t h e input output.

and the

If y o u w e r e t o s e e a r e a l c o m p u t e r i n a c t i o n , y o u c o u l d w a t c h t h e

input-output equipment functioning, carrying information to the system a n d a n s w e r s t o t h e p r o g r a m m e r . I n o u r s i m p l e c o m p u t e r , t h e i n p u t is a c t u a l l y s u p p l i e d b y t h e m o v e m e n t of y o u r h a n d , w h i c h o p e n s o r c l o s e s t h e t w o s w i t c h e s . O u t p u t is t h e

flashlight

b u l b t h a t lights u p t o

signal

" y e s , " s t a y s d a r k w h e n t h e a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n is " n o . "

T h e s w i t c h e s t h e m s e l v e s p e r f o r m a n exWhere is the storage element?

tremely

important

function

in

computing

the

whenever desired. T h e data m e m o r i z e d by this element c a n b e original information, reference tables, or

instructions.

circuit.

T h e y s t o r e t h e i n p u t , m a k i n g it a v a i l able to the computer throughout

the

PROGRAM

p r o c e s s of c o m p u t a t i o n . T h e y s t o r e t h e i

information as to whether or not they a r e c l o s e d , s i n c e o p e n m e a n s , " n o in-

INPUT

put," a n d closed means, "input." Y o u m a y n e v e r see t h e s t o r a g e u n i t in a r e a l

1

c o m p u t e r s i n c e it is p l a c e d i n a m e t a l CONTROL

c a b i n e t . B u t its f u n c t i o n is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e : it s t o r e s i n p u t i n a f o r m

usable

b y t h e c o m p u t e r , a n d h o l d s it r e a d y f o r

t

computers,

the

storage

+

^ ^

operation. In modern

i

1

i m m e d i a t e u s e a t a n y t i m e d u r i n g its STORAGE (MEMORY)

w

PROCESSING

element also serves as a " m e m o r y " a n d information in t h e

can

system

magnetic,

by

be

internally

stored

electro-mechanical,

or electronic devices,

needed. Stored information

until

t

1 OUTPUT

is r e a d i l y

available, can b e referred to once

or

m a n y times, a n d can also be replaced

Parts of a digital computer and their functions. 19

INPUT-OUTPUT AND SECONDARY STORAGE

INPUT-OUTPUT AND SECONDARY STORAGE

STORAGE AND PROCESSING ARITHMETIC ELEMENT

•&m

/

wiwwr.

S

OUTPUT

OUTPUT

CONTROL \ INPUT

Actual arrangement and location of the various vital parts of a digital computer. E a c h s t o r a g e l o c a t i o n is i d e n t i f i e d

by

T h e s p e e d of p r o c e s s i n g l a r g e l y d e -

a n i n d i v i d u a l l o c a t i o n n u m b e r w h i c h is

p e n d s o n t h e access

c a l l e d a n address.

of t i m e r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n a

B y m e a n s of

numerical addresses, the

these

time — t h e l e n g t h number

programmer

f r o m s t o r a g e a n d m a k e it a v a i l a b l e t o

can locate information and instructions

o t h e r e l e m e n t s of t h e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m .

a s n e e d e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a p r o b lem. I n other words, w h e n the program-

The

element

of

the

m e r w i s h e s t o t a k e i n f o r m a t i o n o u t of t h e s t o r a g e e l e m e n t h e d o e s n o t specify t h e d a t a itself, b u t o n l y i t s a d d r e s s . H e

What element does the computation?

computer does the

that actual

w o r k of c o m p u tation

is

called

our

com-

k n o w s t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e w a n t s is

the arithmetic

stored at that address because he him-

p u t e r , t h i s e l e m e n t is c o m p o s e d of t h e

self s t o r e d i t t h e r e e a r l i e r .

switches, wires, a n d battery. I n

A c t u a l l y t h e m e m o r y u n i t of t h e c o m -

useful

element.

computers,

the

In

most

arithmetic

ele-

puter can b e c o m p a r e d with a library,

m e n t can add, subtract, multiply,

which stores books, just as the m e m o r y

vide, a n d c o m p a r e n u m b e r s in a m a n n e r

s t o r e s d a t a . E a c h b o o k i n t h e l i b r a r y is

similar t o a d e s k c a l c u l a t o r , b u t at light-

given a code n u m b e r , just as each bit

ning speed. C o m p l e x calculations

of i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e m e m o r y e l e m e n t s

a l w a y s c o m b i n a t i o n s of t h e s e b a s i c o p -

receives a n u m b e r . T h e s e b o o k n u m b e r s

erations. T h e arithmetic element

p e r m i t t h e l i b r a r i a n t o q u i c k l y find a n y

c a n m a k e logical or reasoning decisions.

b o o k stored in t h e library without read-

I n m o s t m o d e r n c o m p u t e r s , t h e stor-

ing t h e titles o n t h e b o o k s , just as t h e

a g e u n i t is c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e

a d d r e s s p e r m i t s t h e p r o g r a m m e r t o lo-

arithmetic element, though

cate any d a t a in t h e m e m o r y unit.

t o it. B y s e n d i n g e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s b a c k

20

di-

are also

connected

a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s , t h e s e ele-

matic

ments are able to communicate;

the

tronic device rather than a mechanical

storage sends information to the arith-

o n e a s it is i n t h e r a i l r o a d c o n t r o l t o w e r .

sequence

control

u n i t , is a n elec-

metic element for processing, a n d the arithmetic unit sends b a c k

the

proc-

N o w t h a t y o u k n o w t h e p u r p o s e of t h e

essed i n f o r m a t i o n t o storage.

various parts

T h e l i n e s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n

between

the storage and How do all arithmetic elements the elements ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ work together? i n o u r m o d e l c o m p u t e r a r e fixed. I n

How does a computer compare with other methods of solving problems? ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

of

a

p u t e r , let u s c o m p a r e their

problem by paper a n d pencil methods. T h e input

however, there may be a number

formation given in t h e problem.

and

arithmetic

could

function

alternative paths between storage arithmetic elements:

One path

func-

tioning to the steps n e e d e d in solving a

m o r e complicated circuits or networks, of

com-

w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e inelement performs the as o u r m a n u a l

The same

calculations.

lead to a n e t w o r k w h o s e sole function

Storage

was to add two numbers; another to a

papers on which we note intermediate

network which did nothing but

answers.

com-

m a y be compared to the work A

knowledge

of

arithmetic

p a r e t h e sizes of t w o n u m b e r s , a n d s o

r u l e s controls

o u r h a n d l i n g of t h e p r o b -

f o r t h . T o d e c i d e w h i c h of t h e s e p a t h s

lem and our answers provide an

output.

should be used each time a connection is m a d e b e t w e e n t h e s t o r a g e a n d a r i t h metic units, the c o m p u t e r has a control element. T h e control unit in t h e c o m p u t e r c a n be compared with a railroad

switch-

yard control tower. There are possible directions that the

many

switching

engine c a n b e r o u t e d , b u t t h e m a n in t h e control tower pulls the p r o p e r levers to g e t it o n t h e p r o p e r t r a c k s o t h a t

it

r e a c h e s its desired d e s t i n a t i o n . I n t h e computer, the control element, instructions

from

the

under

programmer,

makes the necessary switch connections throughout the system so that the data c a n follow its p r o p e r p a t h t o r e a c h t h e desired

destination.

Because

speed required in routing the

switching

computers,

the

information,

mechanism

properly

of

called

in

modern

the

auto-

The control unit of a computer is like a railroad control tower.

A

L a n g u a g e

for

the

C o m p u t e r

T h e g a p b e t w e e n m a n a n d m a c h i n e is b r i d g e d b y a l a n g u a g e t h a t is understandable

to

both.

This

language

makes

the

operation

of

the

c o m p u t e r possible. F o r t u n a t e l y for c o m p u t e r designers, a l a n g u a g e t h a t c o m b i n e s t h e u t m o s t s i m p l i c i t y of w r i t i n g w i t h c o m p l e t e g e n e r a l i t y of expression was already available when

the

first

large-scale,

electronic

c o m p u t e r was designed a n d built. T h e language, k n o w n as the number

system,

binary

was originally used to represent a n d handle n u m b e r s only.

B u t d u r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t r u l y g e n e r a l p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r , it h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d s o t h a t it w i l l n o w h a n d l e l e t t e r s a n d s y m b o l s a s w e l l .

B i n a r y (bi

m e a n s t w o ) uses only two

What is the binary number system?

symbols, 0, r a t h e r the ten

numbers

(0—9),

and

the

letters w e n o r m a l l y use. T h e finds

1

and than

decimal

twenty-six machine

this system simple. Y o u will too.

A s y o u c a n see in t h e c h a r t o n p a g e

example, the combination 1 0 can stand f o r " t w o . " " T h r e e " is 1 1. F o r

"four,"

w e m u s t use three digits: 1 0 0. " F i v e " becomes 1 0

1; " s i x " 1 1 0 ;

"seven,"

1 1 1 . W e m u s t a d d a f o u r t h digit for " e i g h t , " w h i c h is 1 0 0 0 . " N i n e "

is

1 0 0 1, a n d s o f o r t h . Whereas

the

binary

system

suits

23, the decimal n u m b e r s are c o m p a r e d

c o m p u t e r s , i t is n o t n e a r l y s o p r a c t i c a l

with the corresponding binary symbols.

for o r d i n a r y n u m e r i c a l p r o b l e m s as the

N o t i c e t h a t shifting a d e c i m a l n u m b e r

d e c i m a l system b e c a u s e m o r e digits a r e

o n e p l a c e t o t h e left m u l t i p l i e s i t s v a l u e

required to express numbers. F o r exam-

by ten, w h e r e a s shifting a b i n a r y n u m -

ple, t h e n u m b e r

b e r o n e p o s i t i o n t o t h e left m u l t i p l i e s i t s

indicated in t h e decimal system b y only

v a l u e b y t w o . T h u s , t h e s y m b o l 1 in t h e

t w o digits: a 3 a n d 9. Six digits w o u l d

binary system can be used to represent

b e n e e d e d in t h e b i n a r y s y s t e m : "thirty-

one, two, four, eight, or sixteen, depend-

n i n e " w o u l d b e w r i t t e n 1 0 0 1 1 1. T h e

i n g o n its p o s i t i o n o r p l a c e .

l a r g e n u m b e r 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 in t h e

"thirty-nine" can

be

binary system stands for " o n e t h o u s a n d L e t us use the binary system to do some

binary, the symbol 0 is

used.

"One"

is

s h o w n a s 1, a s i n t h e d e c i m a l s y s t e m . T o show "two," when both

available

symbols

used

already

have been

we

u s e s o m e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e t w o . F o r 22

DECIMAL SYSTEM THIS NUMBER-*

4

4

4

Q Z o

a U Sl o z 3 X 4x100

ONES

actual counting. T o « „ • represent zero in

TENS

How d o you count in the binary system?

4x10

4x1

4x1000

4

MEANS-* 4 , 0 0 0 -(- 4 0 0 + 4 0 + 4 == 4 , 4 4 4

digits a r e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e n u m b e r s be-

BINARY SYS TEM 23

r

SIXTEENS EIGHTS

c a u s e of t h e l i g h t n i n g s p e e d a t w h i c h 2*

2'

2°

FOURS

TWOS

ONES

2x2x2x2

2x2x2

2x2

2

1

16

8

4

2

1

these machines operate. The

modern

computers

can

store

m a n y digits in their m e m o r y units, too. DECIMAL EQUIVALENT

E a r l y o n e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d m a r v e l s if they h a d internal storage capacity

for

1

1

1,000

1

o

2

r o u t i n e l y s t o r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t of m o r e

1

1

3

m o r e powerful computers have provi-

1

O

o

4

s i o n s f o r i n t e r n a l s t o r a g e of m o r e t h a n

1

O

1

decimal

digits.

New

machines

t h a n 3 2 0 , 0 0 0 decimal digits, while t h e

i

each available on c o m m a n d from

5 1

1

o n e a n d a half million d e c i m a l digits, the

p r o g r a m m e r in little m o r e t h a n 2 mil-

o 6

1

1

1

O

0

o

O

o

1

8

o

9

l i o n t h s of a s e c o n d .

7 |

0

_

1

I

O

1

1

10

1

o

o

11

1

0

1

12

1

1

o

1

1

1

1

O

O

0

o

0

0

o

1

o

o

1

o

0

o

1

1

o

1

o

0

programmer

How a r e decimal . , numbers changed to b i n a r y s y m b o l s ?

might

be

able

to

change or trans, lf late the entire contents

of

a

p r o b l e m i n t o a bin a r y n o t a t i o n b y h a n d . B u t i t is a g o o d bet that he would have a headache when j

1

The

he was

finished.

Fortunately, machines

have been designed to accept

decimal

13

numbers and can change them to the

14

binary system. T h e s e machines, which look a n d op-

15

erate like o r d i n a r y typewriters, c a n also t r a n s l a t e t h e l e t t e r s of a n a l p h a b e t i n t o

16

the binary system and they do the entire 17

j o b a u t o m a t i c a l l y . A s fast as t h e inform a t i o n c a n b e t y p e d in o n t h e k e y b o a r d

18

— t h e k e y s of w h i c h a r e m a r k e d w i t h

19 j

A r a b i c n u m e r a l s a n d English letters —

20 t w e n t y - f o u r . " T h e s a m e n u m b e r in t h e

t h e m a c h i n e t r a n s l a t e s it i n t o a p a t t e r n

decimal

four

t a p e , w h i c h is f e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r . I n

digits ( 1 , 0 2 4 ) . B u t , w i t h m o d e r n c o m -

addition t o being faster t h a n t h e "by-

p u t e r s , it d o e s n o t m a t t e r h o w

h a n d " m e t h o d , it is a g o o d d e a l m o r e

system

is e x p r e s s e d

by

many

of b i n a r y o n e s a n d z e r o s o n t o c a r d s o r

23

accurate, since the a u t o m a t i c translator

T h e b i n a r y system c a n b e m a d e t o cor-

almost never makes a mistake. T h e answer from the computer's outp u t is a l s o r e c e i v e d o n c a r d s o r t a p e a n d fed

through

another

translator

respond to the con-

Can the binary system give other answers?

d i t i o n s of a n e l e c t r i c or electronic circuit — on

that

will deliver t h e desired i n f o r m a t i o n

to

o r off.

Using

t h e p r i n c i p l e of t h e s w i t c h , t h e

"on"

numbers

c o n d i t i o n m a y r e p r e s e n t " 1 , " a n d "off"

a n d English letters. S o m e t i m e s a unit

m a y represent "0." T h e binary number

c a l l e d a h i g h - s p e e d p r i n t e r is u s e d . T h i s

1 0 0 1 1 1, e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e d e c i m a l

s e n s e s a n d p r i n t s w h o l e l i n e s of i n f o r -

n u m b e r 39, would appear:

the programmer

in decimal

m a t i o n a t a t i m e , i n s t e a d of i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s , w o r k i n g a t t h e r a t e of m o r e t h a n 1,000 lines a m i n u t e .

on

off

off

on

on

on

B e c a u s e electronic circuits are used, a

ELECTRICAL CONTACT THROUGH HOLE

STRANDED COPPER WIRE BRUSH ,

-

\ HOLES CARRY INFORMATION METAL ROLLER WITH ELECTRICAL CURRENT

The earliest card punching machines were hand operated. Facts were punched into each card according to a definite pattern. A prearranged code assigned a particular meaning to each separate position of the hole in the card.

The punched holes in the card represent the information with which the computer has to work. The metal roller carries the electrical current. The electrical circuit is closed by the copper wire brushes when the punched hole is between the brush and roller.

Today, the Card Punch combines efficiency and speed with simplicity and ease of operation. A movable typewriter-like keyboard allows the operator to punch numerical and alphabetical data smoothly and rapidly. 24

1

All systems "go" was the command given by the computers for the launching of the astronauts. v a s t c h a i n of b i n a r y d i g i t s c a n b e ex-

element. T h e n when the actual launch-

pressed

ing t o o k place, all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m

and

tabulated

at

very,

very

great speeds.

the rocket and about the

T h e binary numerals can also represent logical conditions such as

"yes"

astronaut's

condition were fed into the

computer

and compared with the data

already

(binary 1) or " n o " (binary 0 ) , "right"

s t o r e d t h e r e . I n less t h a n 3 0 s e c o n d s ,

(binary

t h e c o m p u t e r h a d t o m a k e its r e c o m -

1)

or

"wrong"

(binary

0).

Hence, the modern computer, by using

m e n d a t i o n . N o m a n o r g r o u p of

the binary, can m a k e simple decisions

could m a k e this i m p o r t a n t decision so

about

exam-

fast; b u t t h e c o m p u t e r g a v e its a n s w e r

ple, in C o l o n e l G l e n n ' s m a n n e d orbital

b y simply causing a b u l b to light u p o n

flight,

its f r o n t p a n e l , signalling, " Y e s , all con-

complex

questions.

For

it w a s a c o m p u t e r t h a t g a v e t h e

"go" signal t h a t everything aboard

during

the

was

launching

of

men

fine

d i t i o n s a r e fulfilled f o r a s a f e l a u n c h i n g

the

of t h e s p a c e c a p s u l e . "

space capsule. F o r t h e c o m p u t e r t o r e a c h t h i s alli m p o r t a n t logical decision, the p r o g r a m m e r fed into the m a c h i n e

beforehand

such information as the p r o p e r and flight

direction

of

the

characteristics,

C a n machines out-think the men Can an electronic brain "think?"

who

b u i l d t h e m ? I s it possible

for

a

speed

computer to come

rocket,

desired

u p w i t h a n e w i d e a ? A r e w e i n d a n g e r of

Glenn's

proper

being overrun

breathing and heartbeat rate, plus over 4 0 , 0 0 0 o t h e r b i t s of v i t a l d a t a .

by electronic

brains

w h o s e actions m a y n o t d o as w e wish?

This

If y o u b u i l d t h e c o m p u t e r d e s c r i b e d

information w a s stored in t h e m e m o r y

e a r l i e r , y o u w i l l s e e t h a t it o p e r a t e s o n l y 25

o n i n f o r m a t i o n y o u g i v e it. C o m p u t e r s

u s e t h e theory

can not "think." They do no more than

plicated

y o u t e l l t h e m t o d o . If y o u f e e d y o u r s

Carlo

i n c o r r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n , it will give y o u

multiple

incorrect answers. In addition, you must

m a t h e m a t i c a l s o l u t i o n s a r e t o o difficult

tell it e x a c t l y w h a t t o d o , s t e p b y s t e p .

t o e x p l a i n i n t h i s b o o k . A s a m a t t e r of

Bluntly, a computer does not have an

fact, m a n y m a t h e m a t i c i a n s did n o t use

o u n c e of i m a g i n a t i o n .

t h e m p r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c o m -

of probability

techniques

simulation,

A s you h a v e r e a d earlier, a p r o g r a m m e r must organize

How are problems given to a computer?

and the

restate problem

in terms t h a t a c o m p u t e r c a n stand.

One

technique

used

g r a m m e r s is t o p r e p a r e flow diagrams.

under-

by

pro-

or

block

These diagrams arrange the

such

matrix

regression.

puters because

of

a n d comas

algebra,

These

the

Monte

time

and

complex

required

to solve p r o b l e m s by following

these

techniques. Programmers

sometime

develop

m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s of r e a l s i t u a t i o n s o r p r o c e s s e s . H e r e is a n e x t r e m e l y s i m ple example: COST OF APPLES IN DOLLARS

=

$ 0 . 1 0 X NUMBER OF APPLES

s t e p s of a p r o c e s s i n o r d e r a n d s h o w h o w

T h i s e q u a t i o n is a " m o d e l " of a n a c t u a l

the steps are related to one

another.

b u y i n g s i t u a t i o n . I t p r e d i c t s t h e c o s t of

precise

a n y n u m b e r of a p p l e s . N o a p p l e s n e e d

thinking. T h e y show the computer h o w

ever b e p u r c h a s e d in order to get an-

to solve a problem.

s w e r s . A l l a s p e c t s of t h i s l i m i t e d s i t u a -

They

aid memory

For

instance,

and force

how

do you

get

to

s c h o o l i n t h e m o r n i n g ? A flow d i a g r a m of t h i s p r o b l e m m i g h t b e t h e o n e g i v e n

tion can be explored without spending a cent. I n a c t u a l p r a c t i c e , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of

i n F i g . 1. T h i s m a y b e e n o u g h f o r y o u ,

mathematical

b u t it is n o t d e t a i l e d e n o u g h f o r a c o m -

exacting, a n d time-consuming job.

puter. Y o u r mind makes

connections

requires a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e a n d un-

r e a d i l y . I t fills i n g a p s f r o m p a s t e x p e r i -

d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m o r p r o c e s s

ence. C o m p u t e r s n e e d a simple, step-

u n d e r study. P r o g r a m m e r s often spend

by-step plan with complete instructions,

weeks,

s u c h as s h o w n h e r e in F i g . 2.

studying before they begin the mathe-

P r o g r a m m e r s also use m a n y mathematical

techniques.

symbolic statements

logic,

One

involves

logically b y

method,

even

models

months,

is

a

complex,

observing

It

and

m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r w h i c h a final p r o g r a m will b e p r e p a r e d .

representing mathematical

e q u a t i o n s . T h i s s y s t e m m a k e s it p o s s i b l e

GET UP

GET READY

t o c h a n g e logical s t a t e m e n t s in t h e s a m e way that you work with algebraic equat i o n s i n y o u r m a t h e m a t i c s c l a s s . I t is n a m e d Boolean

Algebra

a f t e r its i n v e n -

tor, G e o r g e Boole. C o m p u t e r m e n also 26

A flow diagram of "How do you get to school in the morning?" as stated above would be enough for you, but not for the machine. The flow diagram on page 27 would be more to the machine's "liking."

H O W T O GET T O SCHOOL I N THE SET ALARM

MORNING

NOTE THAT IN THIS DIAGRAM RECTANGLES ARE USED TO INDICATE EITHER CALCULATIONS OR THE TRANSFER OF INFORMATION. DIAMONDS ARE USED FOR SIMPLE YES-NO DECISIONS. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MACHINE ARE ALSO INCLUDED.

HAVING NO TEST * • — — TODAY? I YES PRETEND ILLNESS • NO

•CONVINCE MOTHER?

GET BACK IN BED DEAD END

WALK OUT DOOR

^ GO BACK GET BOOKS

FORGET BOOKS?

YES

I NO GET ON SCHOOL BUS I ARRIVE AT SCHOOL

27

N o o n e c a n give y o u a g o o d a n s w e r t o this question. H o w can you rp,, r , . l h e protesr become a programmer? sion

is

so

n e w , a n d is c h a n g i n g s o f a s t , t h a t t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h is t o l o o k a t w h a t a p r o g r a m m e r m u s t be. First, he m u s t be a language expert. T h e l a n g u a g e s h e uses a r e n o t all spoken languages like English, F r e n c h , or Spanish. Some are universal languages, u n d e r s t o o d b y scientists a n d

technical

people the world over. T h e s e are mathe m a t i c s a n d t h e l a n g u a g e of r e a s o n i n g o r l o g i c . M a y b e y o u d o n o t t h i n k of m a t h e m a t i c s a s a l a n g u a g e , b u t i t is. I t i s o n e m e a n s u s e d b y m e n of

science

to communicate with each other. A programmer must k n o w these four languages:

In addition, the programmer must be

1.

His native tongue.

able to study, analyze, and plan prob-

2.

T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e flow o r b l o c k

lems so t h a t h e can r e d u c e t h e m into

diagram.

the small, simple parts a c o m p u t e r can

3.

T h e l a n g u a g e of l o g i c o r r e a s o n .

handle. T h u s , a person with a business

4.

T h e l a n g u a g e of t h e specific c o m -

or engineering college degree or a back-

p u t e r w i t h w h i c h h e is w o r k i n g .

g r o u n d in m a t h e m a t i c s m a y b e t h e m o s t

T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e c o d e s of

successful

ters, b i n a r y digits, o r

let-

combina-

candidate

for

a

career

computer programming.

t i o n s of t h e m .

Putting

the

C o m p u t e r

to

W o r k

. T h o u g h c o m p u t e r s h a v e b e e n in u s e for o n l y a d e c a d e o r so, t h e y have

already influenced

t h e lives

of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e .

It would be

i m p o s s i b l e t o list a l l t h e j o b s t h a t w e a r e h a n d i n g o v e r t o t h i s m a r v e l o u s m a c h i n e . P r o g r a m m e r s a r e finding n e w a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r i t e a c h d a y . W h i l e m a n y uses h a v e already been given, here are a few m o r e ways to keep robots with electronic brains busy. 28

in

Computers are the "heart element" of the North American Air Defense Command.

h u m a n being could possibly w o r k with the speed a n d a c c u r a c y required by this complex operation. C o m p u t e r s a r e a l s o t h e " h e a r t eles

ment"

\

of

the

North

Defense C o m m a n d .

American

These

Air

computers

e v a l u a t e t h e g r e a t a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e flight p a t h s of all t h e a i r p l a n e s in t h e air a t o n e t i m e over the United > BATTERY CONTROL COMPUTER

NIKE-ZEUS RADAR

States a n d

Canada.

W o r k i n g h a n d in h a n d with o u r r a d a r

NIKE-ZEUS LAUNCH

system, they k e e p t h e military services i n f o r m e d b y i m m e d i a t e l y identifying all planes and rockets that are in

flight.

T h i s , of c o u r s e , r e d u c e s t h e c h a n c e s of an attack by hostile aircraft a n d rockets.

Computers

are

the "brains"

How are computers valuable for national defense?

of

national

our

defense

system. A ballistics missile flight,

in

for exam-

ple, m u s t b e in exactly t h e right position a t t h e p r o p e r s p e e d w h e n i t s m o t o r is t u r n e d off — a n e r r o r of o n e f o o t p e r

—

1 1 '^

second in speed c a n c a u s e a several mile m i s s a t t h e p o i n t of i m p a c t . A s t h e m i s sile l e a v e s i t s l a u n c h i n g p a d , it s e n d s

™

B

S

^

^

^

m? •

fc

J

*»

|

0 ~l—p

_

radio signals b a c k t o the c o m p u t e r o n t h e g r o u n d , i n f o r m i n g it a b o u t c h a n g e s

*

i n w i n d , t e m p e r a t u r e , effect of g r a v i t y , a n d m a n y m o r e i m p o r t a n t facts. computer

figures

the

effect

of

The these

v a r y i n g f a c t o r s a n d i n s t a n t l y f l a s h e s instructions t o k e e p t h e missile o n

its

p r o p e r c o u r s e . W h e n it r e a c h e s its c o r r e c t s p e e d , t h e c o m p u t e r t u r n s off t h e m o t o r a n d the missile coasts at a b o u t 1 4 , 0 0 0 miles a n h o u r t o its t a r g e t . N o

Computers for payroll register: This horizontal row of 132 electronically timed hammers taps paperforms against an inked ribbon and a fast-moving endless chain of type in an output printer of a data processing system. It prints numbers and letters at a basic speed of 600 lines a minute and, if it is operated to print numbers alone, can do it at a rate of 1,285 lines a minute.

29

**

Computers

perform

numerous

jobs

in t h e field of How do business business. They and industry have freed employuse computers? ees from the drudge r y of t h e r o u t i n e p a p e r

work

of

a c c o u n t i n g , b i l l i n g , figuring o u t v a r i o u s taxes, making out pay checks, keeping inventories, etc. Publishing

help

instantly

if

a

ship

is

in

dis-

tress. S h i p positions a r e stored o n t h e machines' Coast sels

memory

Guardsmen nearest

an

sections,

enabling

to

the

select

emergency

ves-

without

c h a n g i n g t h e c o u r s e s of o t h e r s h i p s u n necessarily. T o a s s i s t w i t h t h e p l a n n i n g of a i r l i n e

companies

flights, a c o m p u t e r p r e p a r e s w h a t m i g h t

u s e c o m p u t e r s t o k e e p t r a c k of m a g a -

b e c a l l e d " a m a s t e r flight p l a n " f o r e a c h

zine subscriptions.

flight.

Weather

information,

informa-

Business a n d industry also use com-

t i o n a s t o t h e n u m b e r of p a s s e n g e r s , fuel

p u t e r s to h e l p in m a k i n g decisions. F o r

loads, take-off a n d l a n d i n g weights, a n d

example,

other d a t a are fed into the

an

oil

company

deciding

machine.

w h e r e to build service stations, c a n feed

T h e c o m p u t e r t h e n a n a l y z e s all

data

a c o m p u t e r all t h e factors i n v o l v e d in

and

alti-

t h e d e c i s i o n , s u c h a s traffic flow a n d r e a l

t u d e s , e t c . , i n t h e t e r m s of t h e s e c o n d i -

estate costs. T h e m a c h i n e will p r o d u c e a

tions. I n this w a y pilots h a v e a "master

decision or the alternate decisions most

p l a n " t o f o l l o w i n t h e i r final flight p l a n -

w o r t h y of i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

ning. U s i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e air-

calculates

the ideal

routes,

line's c a p t a i n a n d dispatcher d e t e r m i n e C o m p u t e r s a r e k e e p i n g t r a c k of t h o u How are computers used to aid sea and air travel?

s a n d s of s h i p s i n

C o m p u t e r s are also being installed in

the Atlantic and

s o m e of o u r g i a n t j e t a i r c r a f t . W i t h t h e

Pacific

u s e of s u c h p l a n e s , t h e m a r g i n of s a f e t y

so

oceans

t h a t

United States Coast G u a r d can 30

t h e "final p l a n . "

the

available to a pilot during a

take-off

rush

h a s been decreased greatly. T h e a m o u n t

Computers handle numerous jobs to ease the drudgery of officework, in aiding the safety of sea and air travel, and in giving help to the medical science and other fields.

-•-. ^m *mm MM® SSPi

of p o w e r a n d t h e i n c r e a s e d s p e e d requirements

of

take-off

have

greatly

reduced the time available for the pilot t o s t u d y his take-off p r o g r e s s a n d

to

m a k e his decisions. T h u s , t h e c o m p u t e r o n b o a r d , w i t h its l i g h t n i n g a c t i o n , c a n b e very valuable t o the pilot during this critical operation. T h e r o l e of t h e c o m p u t e r i n t h e h o s p i t a l H o w can computers . . help our doctors?

of t h e f u t u r e c a n , , . ^ be a big one. F o r ° instance,

the

computer can store a n d interpret medical k n o w l e d g e g a t h e r e d within t h e p a s t 50 years. M e d i c a l science has collected a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t a n d c o m p l e x i t y of p u b l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n . M o s t of t h i s is doomed

to

storage

on

some

•S(JH"

dusty

l i b r a r y shelf u n l e s s a m e t h o d m o r e r a p i d t h a n h u m a n skill c a n m a k e it a v a i l a b l e

Would you believe it, when you saw it in a science fiction picture? The data transmission unit above enables computers to hold direct two-way telegraph or telephone "conversations." Or, to put it a little more specifically: the computer can send business or scientific information any distance directly from its magnetic memory to the storage of another computer. Here the operator dials the office across the country to make a connection for data transmission.

for quick reference. B y using a centralized electronic b r a i n to store

existing

knowledge

on disease symptoms

and

treatment,

a

the

doctor

can

"feed"

symptoms into the computer and await an answer advising treatment. Regard31

less of t h e p o w e r s of t h e s e m a c h i n e s ,

w e a r i n g a u t o tires, m o r e powerful bat-

h o w e v e r , d o c t o r s still w i l l b e a

very

t e r i e s . T h e t r o u b l e is t h a t t o o f e w of

n e c e s s a r y p a r t of t h e m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s .

o u r scientists a n d engineers r e a d foreign

S o m e patients a n d s o m e diseases just d o

l a n g u a g e s . T o o v e r c o m e t h i s difficulty,

not respond to impersonal

c o m p u t e r s h a v e been p u t to w o r k trans-

treatment

from either a doctor or a machine. This human

need

for personal

contact

l a t i n g t h e s e scientific p u b l i c a t i o n s .

is

T o d o translations, every w o r d in a

w h a t m a k e s t h e p r a c t i c e of m e d i c i n e a n

s i z a b l e E n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y is l i s t e d o n

art as well as a profession.

tape under a code n u m b e r or address. T h e F r e n c h , G e r m a n , or R u s s i a n equiv-

E a c h y e a r , millions of r e p o r t s o n scientific r e s e a r c h a r e How does a ,,. , , , . published—a large computer become r ° a translator? p e r c e n t a g e of t h e m in foreign

alents for each w o r d are given the same n u m b e r or address. T h e n , to translate from French to English, for example, a t a p e w i t h t h e F r e n c h c o d e n u m b e r s is fed into the machine, which

matches

lan-

the numbers and prints out the English.

Ger-

Some h u m a n editing to rearrange awk-

m a n , D u t c h , a n d Italian data are clues to

w a r d w o r d s e q u e n c e s is n e e d e d , b u t a

g u a g e s . I n t h i s m a s s of R u s s i a n , interplanetary

flight,

™v

H-power,

longerThe electronic brains have made another dent in the "language barrier." Here (at left) sentences in Russian are punched into cards that will be fed into an electronic data processing machine for translation into English. The card (below) is punched with a sample Russian language sentence (as interpreted at the top of the card) in standard punched-card code. It is then accepted by the computer, converted into its own binary language and translated by means of stored dictionary programs into the English language equivalent, which is then printed.

^mmWr~j

KfiCHYESTVO UGLYfi OPRYEDYELY ftYETSYA KSLORYIYHOSTJYU III I I I II I I I I I I I I I III I I III II I I III HUH I Hill I I I I III llllllll I I II lllllll I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

II

I

I

I I I

THE QUALITY CALORY CONTENT

OF

COAL

IS DETERMINED

Above, specimen punched-card and, below it, a strip with translation.

32

BY

The match made by a computer on a television program was not one of the "robot's" big successes. computer can make over a

thousand

translations in a day. C o m p u t e r s are h e l p i n g t o b r e a k lang u a g e barriers i n o t h e r w a y s .

Compu-

of c o m p u t e r s w a s a failure. A t e l e v i s i o n

ters, f o r e x a m p l e , are r a p i d l y t r a n s l a t i n g

quiz program used a computer to select

English text into Braille in order

to

t h e i d e a l w i f e f o r a c o n t e s t a n t . T o ac-

s p e e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of r e a d i n g m a t e -

c o m p l i s h this, t h e p r o g r a m m e r f e d i n t o

rial f o r

t h e m a c h i n e all f a c t s k n o w n f o r a per-

the blind.

Recently,

an

tremely accurate and thorough Concordance

ex-

Biblical

was produced by a com-

puter, w h i c h "read" t h e w h o l e

Bible

through, sorted and cross-indexed

se-

fect

marriage — likes

interests in various

and

dislikes,

hobbies,

movies,

m u s i c , f o o d , etc. W h e n t h e c o m p u t e r c o m p a r e d the qualifications

of

many

lected key words, and printed out the

w o m e n with those of the m a l e contes-

results a u t o m a t i c a l l y — a n entire b o o k

t a n t , it r e c o m m e n d e d o n e a s i d e a l . B u t ,

written b y the computing system.

w h e n the t w o got to k n o w each other, they decided they were mismatched and

A

computer,

of c o u r s e ,

Does an electronic brain ever fail?

gives

answers wrong

wrong

should not marry e a c h other.

Whose

given

f a u l t w a s this? T h e m a c h i n e p r o g r a m -

informa-

m e r ' s ? P e r h a p s it o n l y p r o v e s t h a t e v e n

if

t i o n . O n e experiment with the decision-making

ability

a computer

cannot

understand

a

woman's mind. 33

T h e A science

fiction

L e a r n i n g

M a c h i n e

s t o r y of s o m e y e a r s b a c k c o n c e r n e d a r o b o t t h a t

r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t its h u m a n m a s t e r s a n d r e f u s e d

to work. T h e

reason,

eventually discovered, w a s t h a t t h e m a c h i n e did n o t like being

turned

off e a c h n i g h t — i n effect, k i l l e d — a s a r e w a r d f o r i t s h a r d d a y ' s l a b o r s . S o a f t e r t h a t , t h e e l e c t r i c w a l l p l u g w a s left i n a l l t h e t i m e a n d b o t h t h e r o b o t a n d m e n h u m m e d a l o n g merrily forever after.

A s y o u h a v e r e a d , t h e r e is n o m a c h i n e

s t o r a g e of n e w i d e a s . R e m e m b e r w h e n

that can "think." But,

you learned the a l p h a b e t ? Y o u did so

there

by repeating A , B, C, D, E , F . . . time

Can a robot learn?

are

are

robots

capable

of

that learn-

a n d time again until you learned

the

i n g . L e a r n i n g , a s w e k n o w it, is t h e

complete alphabet correctly. This pro-

p r o c e s s b y w h i c h k n o w l e d g e o r a skill

c e d u r e of r e p e t i t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e

is a c q u i r e d , a p r o c e s s w h i c h

learning machine to "learn," too.

requires

a t t e n t i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n of efforts. I t is often

a

trial-and-error

method.

A

T h e l e a r n i n g r o b o t is n o t a

teacher can speed up the learning proc-

and

How does the learning machine "learn?"

ess b y d i r e c t i n g t h e l e a r n i n g effort a n d t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r of t r i a l s . characteristics

exhibited

by

the

is n o t

de-

signed to w o r k on speedy

T h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e m a t c h e s m a n y of the

computer

calcula-

t i o n s o r w o r k logically f r o m step-by-step f o r m u l a s fed in

h u m a n learning process. F o r instance,

by

t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n m a n is k n o w n t o

problems

r e q u i r e r e p e t i t i o n i n o r d e r t o effect t h e

k n o w n . I t figures o u t i t s o w n m e t h o d of

programmers. for

Instead,

which

no

it

tackles

formula

is

The "robot-secretary" — the computer at left is designed to recognize all American speech sounds and, when spoken to through a microphone, type out what it has "heard."

The learning machine above, if it does not catch on to new lessons, has its "goof" button pushed for "punishment." This causes the machine to re-evaluate decisions and change the "memory." The tapes in the background contain lessons on various subjects, including the quite complicated analysis of sonar and cardiograms.

35

attack, supplies the answer, a n d

can

e x p l a i n h o w it a r r i v e d a t t h e a n s w e r . T h e learning m a c h i n e w o r k s by trial a n d e r r o r . L i k e a h u m a n , it r e l a t e s n e w s i t u a t i o n s t o its p a s t " e x p e r i e n c e s , " gett i n g s m a r t e r all t h e t i m e in solving.

Also

like

people,

problem it

learns

through pain and pleasure. ( W h e n you were younger, you learned by experience not to touch a hot stove by

the

" p a i n " of a b u r n a n d l e a r n e d t h e r e w a r d of

doing

something

correctly

by

the

" p l e a s u r e " of r e c e i v i n g c a n d y o r b e i n g praised.) W h e n the machine makes a m i s t a k e , its h u m a n

teacher pushes

a

" g o o f " b u t t o n , f o r c i n g it t o d o t l

T h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e h a s p r o v e d its

l e m o v e r . A s a " r e w a r d , " it is t^Qj^-ate uninterrupted. X

How are learning machines used?

worth ing

in

analyz-

cardiograms

— e l e c t r o n i c traci n g s of h e a r t b e a t s — a n d r a d a r e c h o e s . I n the latter example, a critical p r o b l e m is t h e n e e d t o t r a i n r a d a r o p e r a t o r s t o tell t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t r u e t a r g e t echoes a n d false ones. T h u s , a coastal defense radar station needs to be able to distinguish instantly an enemy plane o r r o c k e t f r o m a flock of h o m e c o m i n g s e a g u l l s . N o r m a l l y it t a k e s m o n t h s f o r a h u m a n t o a c q u i r e t h e skill t o tell w h a t t h e different " b l i p s " o n t h e r a d a r screen mean. But the learning machine

can

b e t a u g h t t h e j o b in a v e r y brief

time

a n d will p e r f o r m like a v e t e r a n . A

very simple application for

this

r o b o t w o u l d b e t o t e a c h it t o s o r t a p ples. First, the m a c h i n e w o u l d b e t a u g h t While it is difficult for a human operator to distinguish between the blips caused by an airplane and those caused by birds, the learning machine, when once taught, will function flawlessly. 36

^».

in m u c h the same w a y as the beginning apple sorter just hired. T h e drawing on t h i s p a g e s h o w s t h e p a r t s of t h e d e v i c e .

GOOF BUTTON The apple-sorting machine, once properly taught, will perform to utter perfection.

EXPERT TEACHER

tion.

(The

invariance

unit

is

used,

w h e r e possible, t o lessen t h e d a t a hand l i n g l o a d of t h e l e a r n i n g

machine.)

T h e apples are to be sorted into those for eating a n d t h o s e for a p p l e sauce. A s e a c h a p p l e is s c a n n e d , t h e l e a r n i n g m a c h i n e t a k e s a c t i o n a n d d u m p s it e i t h e r into the "eating" or "sauce" bins. CYBERTRON (LEARNING UNIT)

A n e x p e r t a p p l e s o r t e r i n t h i s c a s e is THRESHOLD

a " t e a c h e r " until the r o b o t learns his

SAUCE APPLES

lessons well. E v e r y time t h e

machine

m a k e s a mistake he presses the "goof" button and the machine has to change T h e a p p l e s p a s s b y t h e scanners

(they

w o r k m u c h like television c a m e r a s ) a moving belt w h e r e the

on

information

its " m e m o r y " slightly to t a k e t h a t fact i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d c o r r e c t its f u t u r e action. After each error, the

machine

is

g e t s a l i t t l e b e t t e r a t t h e t a s k of s o r t i n g

changed into electrical signals that are

apples a n d after a short time, b e c o m e s

f e d i n t o a n invariance

almost perfect. T h e learning

as t o r e d n e s s , softness,

size, e t c . ,

unit w h o s e j o b it

is t o a r r a n g e t h e s e s i g n a l s a n d i n f o r m a -

T h e Machines mathematical

play

problems,

h a s m a n y o t h e r uses in factories,

T e a c h i n g

chess, and

compose have

M a c h i n e beautiful

shown

that

music, they

experience. W e also have machines that teach.

If y o u r s c h o o l d o e s n o t a l r e a d y What does a teaching machine look like?

have

teaching

ma-

chines,

you

may not have seen one. T h e s e robots are r a t h e r simple looking and quite harmless.

In

most

machine

THE TEACHING MACHINE (TMI-GROLIER'S MIN./MAX.)

can

do

difficult

learn

from

too.

c a s e s , t h e y a r e just m e t a l o r

plastic

boxes with t w o w i n d o w s in them, and a few knobs

or p u s h b u t t o n s

here

y o u h a v e a clean paper area t o write o n again.

and

there.

T h e teaching machine teaches you your lessons in the

T o operate most teaching machines, y o u p r e s s a b u t t o n a n d it b r i n g s y o u r

How does a teaching machine "teach?"

same w a y w e

first q u e s t i o n i n t o v i e w i n o n e of t h e

teach

a

ma-

windows. T h e n y o u write your answer

c h i n e t o learn. T h e p r o g r a m m e r ( y o u r

o n the paper exposed by a small w i n d o w

teacher) puts a program (your lesson)

near the top of the machine. W h e n y o u

into the machine (the input) and you

press the button again t o get the correct

(like the computer)

answer, a shield covers your

terial. Y o u s t u d y t h e q u e s t i o n ,

answer,

m a k i n g it i m p o s s i b l e t o c h a n g e it.

process the

mareach

into your memory element, and come

N o w , press the button again to get

out

with

the

correct

answer — you

y o u r n e x t q u e s t i o n . A s it a p p e a r s , y o u r

hope. This, like the computer, is your

a n s w e r t o t h e p r e v i o u s q u e s t i o n slides

output.

out of view, the shield disappears, and

B y h a v i n g the lesson fed to y o u rather slowly and well-planned, y o u learn by trial a n d error, just l i k e a m a c h i n e . If y o u m a k e a mistake, the teacher pushes tne "goof" button, but, unlike a mac h i n e , y o u r p u n i s h m e n t m a y b e t o stay

The square of 4 The square of 6

4 times 4 or 16 6 times 6 or 3

re

§ulate

do

this,

themselves. feedback

To is

needed. Feedback provides a means by which information

concerning

a

ma-

c h i n e ' s o p e r a t i o n is c o n t i n u o u s l y

fed

back to the machine and compared with t h e desired results. O n e f e e d b a c k device t h a t w e all a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h is t h e t h e r m o s t a t

found

in h o m e heating systems. L e t us a s s u m e t h a t t h e t h e r m o s t a t is s e t a t 7 2 d e g r e e s . W h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e r o o m is lower t h a n 7 2 degrees, the thermostat feeds b a c k t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e furnace. T h e furnace then turns on auto39

One operator on the control panel can work the complicated operation of this steel plant.

The working of the thermostat is a typical example of closed control, or an operation with feedback. The three components HEATING — ROOM TEMPERATURE — THERMOSTAT are connected in such a way, that any change in one component causes a change in the other component. You will easily understand how important this is if you visualize the same example with no feedback, with open control: You could have a circuit where the outside temperature causes the start and closing of the furnace. In this case, the thermometer outside "informs" the thermostat of the temperature. The thermostat just as before, will start the furnace when the outside temperature reaches a certain point, and it will turn off the furnace when the outside temperature has reached a certain degree above the starting point. The actual room temperature however, will not be fed back to the thermostat. This means: If it is cold outside for a few weeks, the furnace will work, even if you are roasting in the room. CLOSED CONTROL matically.

It

remains

on

until

the

thermostat feeds b a c k the information that the room temperature has reached 7 2 d e g r e e s . T h i s t u r n s t h e f u r n a c e off. Since this process goes on continuously, it is c a l l e d closed

control.

Today,

the

e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r is t h e " b r a i n s " of most automation

operations. It

feeds

back information to the machines that d o t h e w o r k just as t h e t h e r m o s t a t feeds OPEN CONTROL OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE

b a c k t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d a t a t o t h e furn a c e in o u r h e a t i n g systems. While automation m a y do away with Does automation put people out of work?

m a n y skilled

unor

semi-skilled j o b s , it will p r o v i d e m a n y n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h e a g e of

work

automation

will n e e d h i g h l y t r a i n e d w o r k e r s

who

can maintain and repair automatic ma40

L

chines. It will also m a k e n e w p r o f e s s i o n s

h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s of l i v i n g f o r a l l . T h i s

such as c o m p u t e r o p e r a t o r s a n d

pro-

m e a n s m o r e p e o p l e will b e n e e d e d as

grammers. Industry forecasters predict

teachers, librarians, hotel keepers, r o a d

that

builders. H o w can you p r e p a r e for these

170,000

computer

programmers

will b e n e e d e d in t h e n e x t 10 y e a r s .

f a r - r e a c h i n g effects? T h e a n s w e r is n o t

electronic

n e w . T h e a n s w e r is t o s t a y i n s c h o o l

b r a i n s , l i k e t h e m a c h i n e a g e b e f o r e it,

as long as you can a n d learn as m u c h

should

as possible while y o u are there.

The

era

of

bring

robots

and

increased

leisure

and

We use the word "thermostat" so easily, and we talk about how intricate its operations are, but do you know how it actually works? — It is a thermometer of sorts in the first place. Based on the fact that different metals expand and contract at different temperatures, most thermostats have, as the illustration shows you, a curved metal strip which consists of copper on one side and chromium steel on the other side. The strip curls over in one direction when the temperature rises, and in the other direction when the temperature falls, because of the fact that copper and steel react differently to the change of temperature. The curling in one direction will close a circuit and throw a switch that will start the furnace. The moving in the other direction will break the circuit and throw the switch to stop the furnace-

Automation

in

Action

I n o u r w o r l d of s p e e d a n d a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y , a u t o m a t i o n is n o longer just the most m o d e r n or money-saving way to do a job. In m a n y i n s t a n c e s , it is f a s t b e c o m i n g t h e o n l y p r a c t i c a l w a y t h a t j o b s c a n b e d o n e .

Computers

and

robots'

How is automation used in communications?

mechanical

h a n d s a r e essential t o o u r country's telephone

If y o u w e r e t o t r a v e l a g r e a t d e a l , esHow is automation used in transportation?

communication system. I n former essary

to place

times, it w a s

telephone

calls

pecially by lines, y o u

air-

would

k n o w of t h e m a d dening

mixups

nec-

a n d delays t h a t c a n o c c u r in getting a

with

reservation aboard an airplane.

Once

a n operator who, in turn, h a d to con-

y o u k n o w h o w t h e s y s t e m w o r k s , it is

tact the p a r t y y o u were calling.

This

n o t difficult t o s e e h o w t h i s c o u l d o c c u r .

s o m e t i m e s t o o k a g r e a t d e a l of

time.

If y o u w a l k i n t o a n a i r l i n e t i c k e t office

ma-

a n y w h e r e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d de-

B u t n o w , w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e s e

chines, over half the telephone users in

sire a

the U n i t e d States can dial long distance

Angeles plane leaving at 6 : 3 0 P M

n u m b e r s directly. M e s s a g e

March

accounting

seat o n a N e w

York

to

Los on

19th, h o w does a ticket agent

t a p e s m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o r d a u t o -

k n o w if a s e a t is a v a i l a b l e ? T h e m a n u a l

m a t i c a l l y t h e t i m e of a c a l l , h o w l o n g it

p r o c e d u r e f o r finding o u t is r a t h e r a w k -

lasted, t h e calling n u m b e r a n d the n u m -

w a r d . T h e a g e n t h a s to call a central

ber called.

r e s e r v a t i o n office, w h e r e t h e a v a i l a b l e

Without automation, our

telephone

seats are recorded

on a large

black-

down.

b o a r d . If t h e r e is a s e a t a v a i l a b l e , h e

enough

m a k e s the sale a n d informs the person

operators — and chances are they could

i n c h a r g e of i n v e n t o r y c o n t r o l , w h o t h e n

n o t — t h e c o s t of u s i n g a p h o n e w o u l d

changes the blackboard's

b e so h i g h t h a t m o s t families c o u l d n o t

o n e w h o h a s e v e r b e e n left h o l d i n g t h e

afford one.

b a g b e c a u s e 8 9 seats w e r e sold o n a 88-

system would

probably

break

E v e n if c o m p a n i e s c o u l d h i r e

O t h e r f o r m s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s u c h as radio are using a u t o m a t i o n devices to s p e e d u p t h e i r s e r v i c e s . T h e P o s t Office

figures.

Any-

s e a t p l a n e f o u n d o u t t h a t t h i s s y s t e m is n o t entirely reliable. W i t h m o r e t h a n 50 million

people

D e p a r t m e n t is i n s t a l l i n g a u t o m a t e d p o s t

a year using scheduled airlanes, auto-

offices

m a t i o n is b e c o m i n g e s s e n t i a l t o a s p e e d y

that

handle

over

Wi

m a n a g e m e n t of p l a n e r e s e r v a t i o n s . M o s t

p i e c e s of m a i l d a i l y . The first subway train without a motorman had its tryout not long ago in New York City.

million

I l l l

G H B H E

( ? C E " E F

Q O H - r j n

American Airlines Magnetronic Reservisor enables the reservation agent to obtain immediately all data on requested flight reservations and even a number of possibilities for alternate suggestions. of t h e m a j o r a i r l a n e s a r e a l r e a d y u s i n g special p u r p o s e c o m p u t e r s to d o the j o b or are planning t o install them. Simply,

the

automatic

Automatic

controls

How is automation used in industry?

have

largely

placed men various

rein

indus-

reservation

tries in w h i c h a

s y s t e m c o n s i s t s of a b o x l i k e d e v i c e c o n -

b r e a k i n t h e flow of p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d

nected to a central memory unit

ruin the product. Petroleum a n d chemi-

transmits and records

flight

that

informa-

cal plants

are now

completely

auto-

tion. B y placing a metal plate into the

matic, from the basic raw materials to

b o x a n d p u s h i n g a c o u p l e of b u t t o n s ,

final

t h e t i c k e t a g e n t c a n g e t swift a n d a c -

g r o u p of e n g i n e e r s is still r e q u i r e d

curate information a b o u t seat reserva-

check the operation from a central con-

t i o n s . T h e b o x is e v e n e q u i p p e d w i t h a

trol room.

lamp that

flashes

o n if t h e

electronic

p a c k a g i n g for shipment. A

small to

T h e n e e d for faster, c h e a p e r produc-

b r a i n d e c i d e s t h a t t h e h u m a n b r a i n is

tion

processing the question incorrectly.

created the greatest d e m a n d for auto-

in

modern

mass

industry

has

T h e b u s lines a n d r a i l r o a d s a r e also

m a t i o n . E v e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m p l i -

using similar ticket reservation systems.

cated high-precision items can be done

S o m e railroad a n d s u b w a y lines a r e n o w

by automated machines, in one smooth

replacing h u m a n engineers with

a n d continuous operation. S o m e indus-

matic robot engineers.

auto-

tries, such as those using a t o m i c energy, 43

The automatic control f] equipment belongs to an analogue computer for the world's first fully automatic system for making ice cream mix. It calculates ice cream formulae and converts the information to coded punch cards. These in turn are translated through a batch-blending system to direct the flow of raw products from storage to blending tanks. Wouldn't it be a shame if the "robot" would develop a taste for ice cream and eat it up before it reaches you?

When people hear what the "Ice Cream Robot" can do, they may picture something like the illustration at the right. Actually, the robot is handling all of the operations, only it does not look like a tin man, but like a calculating machine. must use automatic machinery because h u m a n s cannot w o r k too near the nuc l e a r r e a c t o r s o n a c c o u n t of t h e d a n -

t h e m . P u b l i c b u i l d i n g s h a v e self-service

gerous radiations that accompany

e l e v a t o r s ; s o m e of t h e s e e v e n u s e t a p e -

the

recorded messages to instruct

s p l i t t i n g of a t o m s .

passen-

are

gers w h o hold u p their progress. Central

n o w so c o m m o n in o u r e v e r y d a y lives

heating, automatically regulated by the

that few people even t a k e notice

t h e r m o s t a t , is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e .

Many

44

a u t o m a t i c r o b o t devices

of

The underwater MOBOT can function much better than human beings at great undersea depth.

L o c a t i o n a n d r e c o v e r y of o b j e c t s l o s t in t h e oceans. Underwater operations

During the past decade there has been Can robots do tasks that man can not do?

associated

w i t h oil well c o m p l e t i o n .

an increased interest

Underwater mining operations.

in t h e sea as a n im-

Underwater construction operations.

p o r t a n t a r e a for mili-

A t t a c h i n g fines, c l e v i s e s , s l i n g s , e t c . ,

tary expansion

and

as a source for food a n d r a w materials. T h u s , a growing need for

performing

t o u n d e r w a t e r objects. U n d e r w a t e r g e o l o g i c a l a n d scientific explorations.

c o m p l e x u n d e r w a t e r o p e r a t i o n s is b e i n g

Underwater farming.

generated.

A s shown in the illustrations

Typical

of t h e

which can be performed

operations by

properly

selected r o b o t units are:

and

c a n h e a r , it c a n feel, i t c a n o p e r a t e d r i l l s , cutting

w a t e r detection devices. inspection

M o b o t c a n b e a d o p t e d t o m a n y of t h e s e u n d e r s e a j o b s . T h i s r o b o t c a n see, i t

I n s t a l l a t i o n a n d a d j u s t m e n t of u n d e r Operation,

here,

mainte-

torches,

wrenches

and

other

s p e c i a l t o o l s ; it w i l l p r o c e e d t o a specific

n a n c e of s u b m e r g e d e q u i p m e n t .

d e s t i n a t i o n , r e p o r t t o its o p e r a t o r , per-

Exploration and sampling the ocean

f o r m its functions, d e a l w i t h e m e r g e n -

environment.

cies, c a r r y o u t a l t e r n a t e d e c i s i o n s — a l l 45

A n y m a n w o u l d b e b o l d indeed t o att e m p t t o spell o u t t o d a y

How far can we go?

w h a t r o b o t s a n d electronic brains may some

day accomplish. T h e r e can scarcely be any doubt, however, that machines are doing m o r e a n d m o r e things better than people.

We

have long

used to t h a t fact,

since

become

especially w h e n

it

comes to machines that supply physical m u s c l e ; a m a n w i t h a s h o v e l is n o m a t c h for a bulldozer in a n earth-moving contest. W e a r e beginning, too, t o realize that m a n can be equally outclassed by machines that supply power ordinarily considered unique to the h u m a n brain; a n electronic computer m a y

complete

a p r o b l e m i n a n h o u r o r t w o t h a t it Telemetry control panel is used to control the underwater Mobot on page 45.

would take a mathematician years

to

solve with p a p e r a n d pencil. But we must remember that a ma-

at the command

of t h e o p e r a t o r

on

c h i n e c a n o n l y d o w h a t it is s p e c i f i c a l l y p r o g r a m m e d t o d o . A t b e s t , it c a n n e v e r

b o a r d a surface vessel.

d o m o r e t h a n t h a t ; it m a y d o less, if it Telemetry

the

b l o w s a f u s e o r r u n s o u t of g a s . W h e n

p r o c e s s of d e t e c t i n g a n d

it c o m e s t o j u d g m e n t , c o m m o n sense, or

gathering information at

w h a t e v e r y o u w a n t t o c a l l it, t h e m a -

o n e location a n d relay-

c h i n e is o u t of t h e r u n n i n g .

is t h e

What is telemetry?

term

i n g it t o a n o t h e r Many

common

spot

to

automatically.

people

can

For

ex-

cannot

do, a n d vice versa.

ample, the temperature gauge on

the

course, the reason that m a n m a d e the

d a s h b o a r d of a n a u t o m o b i l e t e l l s

the

m a c h i n e s i n t h e first p l a c e . H e h a r n e s s e d

telemetry.

driver, sitting in the car's front

seat,

do

things

that

that

see

employ

that

I t is n o t b y s o m e c o i n c i d e n c e

we

everyday

devices

given

machines I t is,

p o w e r t o extend his strength a n d

of

de-

a b o u t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n a d i f f e r e n t lo-

vised a u t o m a t i c controls t o rid himself

cation — inside the auto's engine. W h e n

of u n d e s i r a b l e , r e p e t i t i v e t a s k s .

mechanical

tele-

A s technological progress continues

m e t e r purposes, in addition t o gather-

in t h e f u t u r e , p r e s u m a b l y m a c h i n e s will

ing data, they can also d o actual work.

c o n t i n u e t o d o m o r e a n d m o r e of o u r

W e are n o w employing t h e m for b o t h

c h o r e s , b u t o n l y a s t h e t o o l s of t h e h u -

undersea a n d outer space tasks.

m a n beings that use them. T h e

46

r o b o t s are used for

raa-

chines

will supply

brawn

and

brain

comics notwithstanding, machines

are

m u s c l e ; p e o p l e will s u p p l y t h e intelli-

not going to take over the world. In the

gence, foresight, tact, drive, a n d other

business world, machines without peo-

h u m a n qualities n e e d e d t o r u n a busi-

ple are as worthless a n d helpless as a

ness.

h a m m e r o r s c r e w d r i v e r i s w h e n t h e r e is

Science

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C o m p u t e r ACCESS TIME. The time it takes your computer to find a fact in its memory storage . . . also the time to find the spot to store it in the first place. ADDRESS (noun). A designation — numbers, letters, or both — that indicates where a specific piece of information can be found in the memory storage. ADDRESS (verb). To call a specific piece of information from the memory or to put it in. ANALOG COMPUTER. A computer (or calculating device) that operates by translating numbers into measurable quantities such as voltages, resistances, rotations, or vice versa. ARITHMETIC SECTION. This is the part of the processing unit that does the adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and makes the logical decisions. BINARY DIGITS. The kind of numbers that computers use internally. There are only two binary digits, 1 and 0, otherwise known as "on" and "off." CHANNEL. One-way traffic roads for the flow of information bit-by-bit, or word-by-word, either into the computer or to and from the storage. CODING (noun). A system of symbols and rules that tell the computer how to handle information . . . where to get it, what to do with it, where to put it, where to go for the next step, etc. (See Program) COMMON LANGUAGE. A technique that reduces all information to a form that is intelligible to the units in a data-processing system. This enables the units of the computer to "talk" to one another. COMPARE. To check information — alphabetical, numerical or symbolic — against ostensibly related information in order to determine whether it is identical, larger or smaller, or in sequence.

n o h a n d t o g u i d e it.

Talk COMPUTER WORD. A series of l's and 0's that are grouped into units. These words are intelligible to the computer and represent alphabetic, numeric and special characters. CONTROL SECTION. Nerve center of the electronic brain. It prescribes a chain of instructions (a program) for every bundle of facts that enters the system. It can send for stored data when it is needed during the program. It can examine the results of any step to select the following step or steps. When one bundle of facts has been processed, the control section usually issues orders to start all over again with the next one. DATA REDUCTION. The computer job of bringing large masses of raw data down to its simplest form, and organizing it in an ordered and useful manner. DIGITAL COMPUTER. A computer (or calculating device) that operates by using numbers to express all the quantities and variables of a problem. In most digital computers, the numbers, in turn, are expressed by electrical or electronic impulses. INPUT. Computer fodder in the form of bundles of new facts. INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICE. A unit that accepts new data, sends it into the computer for processing, receives the results and converts them into a usable form, like payroll checks, or bills. INPUT STORAGE. First stop for incoming information. Picks it up so that bundles of information can get into the system without waiting for the previous ones to come out the other end. Enables consecutive bundles to be compared with each other. INTERMEDIATE STORAGE. A sort of electronic scratch pad. As input is turned into 47

output, it usually goes through a series of changes. The intermediate memory storage holds each of the successive changes just as long as it is needed. INQUIRY UNIT. A device used to "talk" to the computer, usually to get quick answers to random questions like, "How many hammers do we have in stock?" or "When did we last order soap powder and in what quantity?" INSTRUCTION. A coded program step that tells the computer what to do for a single operation in a program. LOGICAL CHOICE. Making the correct deci^ sions where alternatives or even a variety of possibilities are open . . . whether to debit or credit. . . whether or not to issue a replacement order. MEMORY STORAGE. The computer's filing system. It holds standard or current facts such as rate tables, current inventories, balances, etc., and sometimes programming instructions. The memory storage can be internal, that is, a part of the computer itself, such as drums, cores or thin-film. It can also be external such as paper tape, magnetic tape or punched cards. MAGNETIC CORE STORAGE. A type of computer storage that employs a core of magnetic material, wound around with wire. The core can be charged to represent a binary 1 or 0. It provides for very fast access to and from system storage. MAGNETIC DRUM STORAGE. A metal cylinder, with a sensitized surface, which spins inside a jacket with reading-writing heads, address of every bit of data on the drum is known, so it is merely a matter of dropping it into its "cubbyhole" or fishing it out as it passes under the right head. 1 MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE. Reels of metallic or plastic tape with sensitized surface. Much like paper tape, except, that instead of punchin

a hole, you charge up a spot. Data can be read, erased, entered or replaced by recording heads. Data is usually entered in sequence so that your computer handles the facts in logical order at breakneck speed. OUTPUT. Computer results such as answers to mathematical problems, statistical, analytical or accounting figures, production schedules . . . whatever you may desire. OUTPUT DEVICE. The unit that translates computer results into usable or final form. (See Input-Output Device) PRINTER. An output device for spelling out computer results as numbers, words or symbols. PROCESSING SECTION. The unit that does the actual changing of input into output. . . includes arithmetic section and intermediate storage. PROGRAM (noun). A set of instructions or steps that tells the computer exactly how to handle a complete problem — whatever it is. Most programs include alternate steps or routines to take care of variations. Generally, program steps form a complete cycle. Each incoming bundle of facts (unit of information) sets off the whole cycle from start to finish; the succeeding unit sets it off again and so forth. PROGRAM (verb). To plan the whole operation from input to output and set the control section to handle it. PROGRAMMER. Person who arranges the program. REAL-TIME. A method of processing data so fast that there is virtually no passage of time uiry and result. REGISTER. A device in which information is placed for storage or other purposes. STORED PROGRAM. A set of instructions in the memory section that can run the computer or cut in to take over from the regular program when the occasion arises. Often used for alterutines.

Author's Note: I would like to thank the various manufacturers, especially the Sperry Rand Corporation, Hughes Aircraft Company, Lockheed California Company, International Business Machine Corporation, Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company, Humble Oil & Refining Company, and the Raytheon Company, who furnished a great deal of the technical information and photographs that have appeared in this book.

The robots on the title page are automatons built by General Electric for the World's Fair in New York in 1939. Operated by electronics, Electro could say 77 words and Sparko could bark.

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