History Transcription and Translation of Bestiary

What is a Bestiary?

A Bestiary is a collection of short descriptions about all sorts of animals, real and imaginary, birds and even rocks, accompanied by a moralising explanation. Although it deals with the natural world it was never meant to be a scientific text and should not be read as such. Some observations may be quite accurate but they are given the same weight as totally fabulous accounts. The Bestiary appeared in its present form in England in the twelfth century, as a compilation of many earlier sources, principally the Physiologus. A great deal of its charm comes from the humour and imagination of the illustrations, painted partly for pleasure but justified as a didactic tool 'to improve the minds of ordinary people, in such a way that the soul will at least perceive physically things which it has difficulty grasping mentally: that what they have difficulty comprehending with their ears, they will perceive with their eyes' (Aberdeen MS 24, f25v).

1a. The Origin of the Text The Physiologus was written in Greek, probably in Alexandria, in about the fourth century. It consisted of 48 or 49 chapters about beasts, birds and stones used as a vehicle for explaining Christian dogma. Its stories come from very ancient sources: Indian, Hebrew and Egyptian animal lore and various classical natural philosophers like Aristotle and Pliny. A moralising Christian gloss was added to these stories by a person presumably known as Physiologus. All the identifiable animals in this Alexandrian text (except for castor/beaver and antalops/the blackbuck) would have been known in north Africa. Animals from northern Europe only appear in much later texts. The accuracy of natural observation remains variable throughout, with many false statements (such as the swan's beautiful voice) repeated for centuries even where writers must have known the truth (George and Yapp 1991). No early Greek copies survive and the earliest surviving texts are Latin translations . They are the Y version (Bern, Lat. 611, 8-9th century), A version (Brussels, Bib. Roy. 10074, 10th century), C version (Bern, Burgerbibliothek, lat. 318, 9th century) and B version (Bern, Lat. 233, 8-9th century). The text of Y is very close to its Greek source but fell from use and had little influence on the other versions. The Brussels copy of A is important because it contains delicate Carolingian drawings to illustrate the text. C is a corrupt Greek translation, the Bern copy having the earliest painted illustrations. It is from the B version that the text of subsequent English and French Physiologus manuscripts derive, though none of this group is illustrated (McCulloch 1962, 21-25). The earliest surviving Greek version of the text (New York, Morgan 397) was copied in the tenth century and has no illustrations. The earliest known illustrated Greek text, the Smyrna Codex, was made around 1100 but was burnt in 1922 (Strzygowski, 1899, 1-130; Demus, 1976, 235-257).

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1b. The Families of Text No intermediate stages of development have survived between these Physiologus manuscripts and the Bestiary proper which emerges in the twelfth century. The Bestiaries use Physiologus as the core text but add increasing amounts of additional material from other books. The number of animals increases and so does the quantity of moralising comments. Studying their composition , M.R.James divided the Bestiaries into four families. McCulloch and George and Yapp have subsequently subdivided the groups (James, 1928, 10-13; McCulloch, 1962, 25-44; George and Yapp 1991, xi-xiv, 1-5). The following is based on McCulloch and deals with the English manuscripts: 1. The first family consists of the Physiologus plus extracts from the Etymologies of Isidore of Seville. Isidore, living in Spain in the seventh century, explained the true nature of animals by analysing their names. So, a cat is called catus because he catches mice. Isidore's encyclopedic work was not moralised. The sequence of chapters in the first family begins with Leo, Antalops and the animals are not classified. The earliest illustrated example of this group is Oxford Bod., Laud Misc. 247. An additional text, the Aviarium by Hugh of Fouilloy, begins to be used in some versions of this family, notably Oxford Bod. 602 and Douce 167. This book on birds was written after 1152 and exerpts were used in some bestiaries including Aberdeen and Ashmole. Hugh's text contains far more moralising than the original Physiologus. McCulloch identifies a Transitional group which keeps some of the chapters of the first family but adds large sections from Isidore and classifies the contents in the same way as Isidore, into Beasts, Birds, Fish and so on. Important illustrated Transitional manuscripts from the twelfth century are Camb., Trinity Coll. R.14.9(884); New York, Morgan 81; St Petersburg/Leningrad,State Public Library, MS Saltykov-Shchedrin Latin Qu.V.1; and B.L.Royal 12 C. xix. The Northumberland (formerly Alnwick) Bestiary is mid-13th century. 2. The second family develops during the twelfth century, including 20 surviving English copies. The number of chapters have more than doubled to about 108 subjects. The additional material comes from: Isidore Solinus, Liber Memorabilium, a third century travel guide, incorporating much of Pliny's Natural History

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Ambrose, Hexaemeron, a fourth century commentary on the six days of creation and sometimes Rabanus Maurus, De Universo, moralisations added to Isidore's Etymologies. The whole text is classified according to Isidore's groups. Important twelfth century copies of this family are B.L. Add.11283; Aberdeen University MS 24; Oxford.Bod. Ashmole 1511; B.L.Harl.4751; Camb. Univ. Lib. Ii.4.26. Oxford Bod. Douce 151 is a poor fourteenth-century copy of Ashmole 1511. 3. The third family appears in the thirteenth century, enlarged with Isidore's account of the Fabulous Nations, the Megacosmus by Bernard Silvestris. The sequence of beasts begins with the domestic animals. There are only five known examples in this family, including the magnificent Westminster Abbey Bestiary (MS 22). 4. The fourth family is primarily based on De proprietatibus rerum by Bartholomeus Anglicus. Its only example is Camb. University Library Gg.6.5, from the 15th century.

1c. The sources of the illustrations: Physiologus In the same way that the text of the Bestiary clings to earlier sources, its illustrations have a timeless, traditional quality . Their style evolves and reflects contemporary fashion but the iconography in many cases may derive from lost classical originals. The oldest illustrated Physiologus, the Latin ninth-century Bern 318, (Steiger and Homburger 1964) reveals its classical origins both in its composition and style. Most of the pictures are set in bold red frames neatly spaced between the text. Figures are set in a suggestive landscape and the paint is applied with a great feeling for space and light. This illusionistic manner of painting is typical of classical art and might imply that the artist had a classical model to work from. However in the ninth century, this classicising style had been so thoroughly absorbed by scriptoria particularly at Reims, that the artist might equally have used a contemporary model. There is evidence that the iconography of many of the Bern images must come from much earlier Greek sources. The earliest surviving Greek illuminated Physiologus(Milan, Bib. Ambrosiana MS E.16 sup, 11th century) shares several images such as serra, the pearl fishers and cervus with Bern 318, indicating that they must both derive from an earlier Greek source. The longevity of these scenes is demonstrated by 15th- and 16th-century Cretan copies which also share features like the half human, half snake viper with Bern 318. (These are Vatican Ottob. gr. 354, f26 and Vatican Barb. gr 438, f43. Muratova, 1984b, 387) Classical originals may have come from zoological texts , hunting and aquatic scenes, paintings of animals charmed by Orpheus, and still life compositions . Some of these can be found in manuscripts, wall paintings and mosaics. The Brussels Physiologus has illustrations which are also classicising but derive mainly from a separate original cycle. These pictures, which are unframed lightly coloured drawings, have a narrative element and include symbolic, moral and allegorical themes. The only known Greek Physiologus with moralising illuminations was the Smyrna Codex (Demus, 1976, 235-257) whose animals correspond to those in the Latin manuscripts but whose allegories differ from the Brussels text. The sources of Bestiary Illustrations There must have been illustrated copies of Physiologus in England from which the Bestiary developed in the twelfth century. (There were unillustrated copies of Physiologus written in Anglo-Saxon: Cook ,1919). How or when they got here is not known. However the subject matter may have been of interest for a long time. Among the many books brought to Wearmouth from Rome or Gaul by Benedict Biscop in the eighth century was a Codex cosmographorum mirandi operis. This could have been a manuscript like the Etymologies of Isidore. At Peterborough Abbey in the eleventh century there was a Liber bestiarum given by Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester around 984. Aethelwold, while abbot of Abingdon, stayed some time at the abbey of Fleury in France. He clearly showed some interest in the manuscripts there because traits of the Fleury scriptorium begin to appear in Winchester books at the end of the tenth century (Muratova, 1984b, 391-2. Goldschmidt 1947) Furthermore, the Bern Physiologus was at Fleury at that period, brought there by Archbishop Ebbo of Reims. The scriptorium at Fleury, an influential centre for diffusing classical heritage in the tenth century, could well have provided the link between the continental and English copies of Physiologus.

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There is a gap between the production of Physiologus illustrations and the appearance of the earliest illustrated Bestiary, Oxford, Bod. 247 in the early twelfth century. The delightful pen drawings of this book are so precisely laid out and delineated that they must be copied from an earlier model.(Kauffmann, 1975, 75-6) The book shows the Physiologus and Isidore passages clearly integrated in a visual unity. Some images derive from the Bern and Brussels Physiologus, while others come from an unknown source. The lost Isidore cycles There are no surviving, early illustrated texts of Isidore's Etymologiae but the smooth fusion of Physiologus and Isidore images in the early Bestiaries indicates that there must have been an early Isidore cycle. In the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiaries there is a seated portrait of Isidore at work. This could be a specific portrait of Isidore or it could be merely an adaptation of the classical author portrait, modified for these two books. Muratova (1984b, 395) proposes that a set of illustrations for Isidore were compiled by Rabanus Maurus when he wrote his De Universo in the eighth century and his arrangement is reflected in Montecassino Abbey MS 132, made in 1032 . His text is partly based on the Etymologiae. The section on great animals is somewhat erratically illustrated by pictures of many animals together, often arranged in registers, of varying sizes and fantastic colours. The texts from Isidore are not consistently illustrated. However the section on small animals is treated more evenly and naturalistically coloured. Muratova suggests that these pictures could have come from an antique zoology book, perhaps an illustrated Pliny (.Nissen, 1971-2, 41ff. Kadar 1978) while Maurus may have designed the rest himself using models from ivories or even mosaic pattern books. Solinus and Ambrose The Collectanea rerum memorabilium of Solinus, written in the third century A.D., provides the text for creatures like leocrota, manticore, yale, parander and bonnacon. The earliest surviving illustrated text of Solinus was made in the fourteenth century but must have been based on much earlier models. Lastly, there may have been early illustrated copies of the Hexaemeron of St Ambrose. His description of a cock is used in the Bern Physiologus text and it is illustrated there. The earliest illustrated surviving Hexaemeron is from Salzburg, made in the mid twelfth century (Munich, Staatsbib. cod. lat. 14399). In this copy there are illustrations for the first days of Creation, closely linked to the Ashmolean and Aberdeen Creation cycles. The Creation Cycle Six Bestiaries include an illustrated cycle of the Creation. They are St Petersburg (formerly Leningrad) State Public Library, MS Saltykov-Shchedrin Latin Q v V 1; Oxford, Bod. Ashmole 1511; Aberdeen MS 24; Oxford ,St Johns MS 61; Northumberland Bestiary (formerly Alnwick Castle MS 477); Cambridge, Gonville and Caius MS 372. Although Creation cycles are quite common in bibles and psalters, they are an unusual addition to the Bestiary. The Aberdeen cycle lacks the third and fourth day but from Ashmole it is clear that the first four days of creation were based on a frontal model of God with various cosmic circles behind him. For the Next three scenes, he stands in a three-quarters pose, facing his creation which is usually in zones. These two poses are used in some of the earliest creation scenes and are found for instance in the Anglo-Saxon B.L.Cotton Claud. B.IV and Oxford, Bod. Junius 11. However, closer details emerge in bibles produced in the Salzburg area in the early twelfth century. The frontal God backed by circles emerges in the Michelbeuren Bible (Stiftsbib. cod. perg.1 f6; in Muratova 1984a, VII). Like Aberdeen f 1v, he does not have a beard. The same design is used in the Admont Bible (Vienna, Osterreiches Nationalbibliothek, Cod. Ser. Nov. 2701, f3v. c. 1140) and Erlangen Bible (Erlangen, University Library, MS 1, f5v. c. 1195). The cosmic circles would derive ultimately from Carolingian and earlier Byzantine depictions of Christ in majesty. In the coloured drawings of the Hexaemeron of St Ambrose made at St Emmeram, Regensburg c. 1160-70 (Munich Staatsbib. MS Clm. 14399, f14v, 21v, 52r; Muratova 1984a, VIII) the circles are a similar proportion to those in Ashmole and Aberdeen. The image is now repeated three times where in the Michelbeuren bible it was only found once. The Hexaemeron God is bearded, like the first folio in Aberdeen. The bearded Deity is a particularly Byzantine feature, found for instance in the mosaics of Palermo and Monreale. A beardless God stands in a three quarters pose facing the animals of his creation to the right in the narthex mosics at St Mark's , Venice. At Monreale he sits, like the Aberdeen Adam, while creating the birds and fish in two zones. It is unlikely that any of these provided the direct source for the English Bestiaries, but they indicate the type of source which would have been available. Although the Munich Hexaemeron is the earliest known illustrated copy, there must have been others circulating in England because its text was used to develop the second family. There

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are likely to have been pattern books derived from the Venetian and Sicilian mosaics which would also have reached England. Connections between the Normans in England and in Sicily were close in the twelfth century, particularly after Henry II's daughter Joanna married William II of Sicily in 1177. For instance Robert of Cricklade, an Augustinian canon travelled several times to Rome and Sicily and made a compilation of Pliny's Natural History for Henry II. The Aviarium Cycle Hugh of Fouilloy wrote the Aviarium or Book of Birds c.1132-1152 while he was prior of the Augustinian house of St Nicholas-de-Regny, near Amiens (Clark 1992). He derived his text from Isidore's Etymologies, Hrabanus Maurus and St Gregory's Moralia in Job. He deals with twenty seven birds, like Physiologus, combining a description with moral teaching. His sermons are much longer and discursive than Physiologus. His book, with its entertaining pictures, was specifically designed to teach illiterate lay brothers and was an instant success. Many copies of the book circulated in the twelfth century and the text was lifted almost wholesale, along with its illustrations, into some of the Bestiaries of the second family. Hugh's original text is lost but the Heiligenkreuz Aviary (Heiligenkreuz Abbey, MS 226, late twelfth century) represents the most complete version and must be closely derived from the original. The Aberdeen Group (as defined by Clark 1992, 73-85; Aberdeen MS 24; Oxford, Bod.MS Ashmole 1511; Oxford, Bod. MS Douce 151; Oxford, University College MS 120; Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College MS 372/621; London, B.L. MS Harley 4751; Oxford, Bod. MS Bodley 764) incorporates part of Hugh's text within the Bestiary and derives many of its bird illustrations from the Aviarium.

The History of the Manuscript, press marks and binding The recorded history of the manuscript begins in 1542 when it was listed as No.518 Liber de bestiarum natura in the inventory of the Old Royal Library, at Westminster Palace. This library was assembled by Henry VIII, with professional assistance from the antiquary John Leland, to house manuscripts and documents rescued from the dissolution of the monasteries. A few of the works came from older royal collections (Carley 1989, 18). Several books 'escaped' from the royal library, frequently to other ardent collectors, and the Aberdeen Bestiary was probably given away in the early seventeenth century. James I brought with him from Scotland Sir Peter Young to act as Royal Librarian and his son Patrick (d.1652) took an active role in developing the royal collection. It was probably Patrick who gave the book to Thomas Reid (Carley 1990, 89-98. Carley suggests in a personal communication that Patrick Young probably gave the book to Reid). Reid was Regent of Marischal College, Aberdeen and Latin Secretary to James VI. Reid gave it, along with about 1350 books and manuscripts, to Marischal College in 1624/5. When the Library was catalogued by Thomas Gray in c.1670, the book had the shelfmark 2.B.XV Sc and was called Isidori phisiologia. In the 1720s the books of Marischal College Library were reorganised into presses and a shelf catalogue, MS M 72, was made in 1726. In this catalogue the excisions in the Bestiary are recorded for the first time, setting a terminal date for the mutilations. When Marischal College amalgamated with Aberdeen University in 1860, the Bestiary became part of the University collection.

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In\ pr\in\ci\pio\ cre\av\it\ de\us\ cel\um\ et ter\ram.\ Terra autem erat inanis et vacua, et tenebre erant\ super faciem abyssi, et spiritus domini ferebatur super aquas.\ Dixitque deus: Fiat lux. Et facta est lux. Et vidit deus luc\em quod esset bona, et divisit lucem a tenebris.\ Appellavitque lucem diem, et tenebras noctem. Fac\tumque [e]st vespere et mane, dies unus.\

'In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness. And God called the light Day and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day' (Genesis, 1: 1-5).

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Dixit quoque deus: Fiat firmamentum in medio aqua\rum, et dividat aquas ab aquis. Et fecit deus firma\mentum, divisitque aquas que erant super firmamen\tum ab his que erant sub firmamento. Et fac\tum est ita. Vocavitque deus firmamentum celum, et\ factum est vespere et mane dies secundus.\

'And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God made the firmament and divided the waters which were over the firmament from those which were under the firmament. And it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven. And evening and morning were the second day' (see Genesis, 1:6-8).

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D\ixit etiam\ deus: Pro\ducant\ aque rep\tile anime\ viventis\ et volatile\ super terram,\ sub firma\mento celi.\ Creavitque\ deus cete gran\dia, et om\nem ani\mam vi\ventem atque\ motabilem quam produxerant aque in species suas, et omne\ volatile secundum genus suum. Et vidit deus quod esset\ bonum, benedixitque eis dicens: Crescite et multiplicami\ni et replete aquas maris, avesque multiplicentur super\ terram. Et factum est vespere et mane dies quintus.\

'And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth under the firmament of heaven. And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth. And the evening and the morning were the fifth day' (Genesis 1:20-23).

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D\ixit quoque\ deus:\ Produ\cat ter\ra ani\mam\ vivent\em in\ genere\ suo,\ iu\menta et\ reptilia\ et bestias terre secundum species suas. Factumque est\ ita. Et fecit deus bestias terre iuxta species suas, et iu\menta et omne reptile terre in genere suo.\

'And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind; and it was so. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind' (see Genesis, 24-25).

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D\ixit quoque deus:\ Faciamus\ hominem \ ad yma\ginem\ et similitu\dinem\ nostram\ et presit\ piscibus\ maris et\ volatilibus\ celi,\ et be\stiis uni\verseque creature [terre], omnique reptili quod movetur in terra.\ Et creavit deus hominem ad ymaginem et similitudi\nem suam, ad ymaginem dei

'And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the beasts, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God

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creavit illum, masculum \ et feminam creavit eos. Benedixitque illis deus, et ait: Cresci\te et multiplicamini, et replete terram et subicite eam, et do\minamini piscibus maris et volatilibus celi, et universis a\nimantibus que moventur super terram. Viditque deus cuncta que fecit,\ et erant valde bona. Et factum est vespere et mane dies sextus. Igitur perfec\ti sunt celi et terra, et omnis ornatus eorum. Complevitque deus septimo opus\ suum quod fecerat, et requievit die septimo, ab omni opere quod patrarat.

created he him; male and female created he them. And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth. And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day. Thus the heavens and earth were finished, and all the host of them. And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made' (Genesis, 1:26-28, 31; 2:1-2).

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Omnibus animantibus Adam primus vocabula indidit appel\lans unicuique nomen ex presenti institutione iuxta con\ditionem nature cui serviret. Gentes autem unicuique anima\lium ex propria lingua dederunt vocabula. Non autem secundum\ latinam linguam atque grecam, aut quarumlibet gentium\ barbararum nomina imposuit Adam, sed illa lingua que\ ante diluvium una fuit omnium, que hebrea nuncupatur.\ Latine autem animalia, sive animantia dicta, qui animentur vita\ et moventur spiritu. Quadrupedia vocata, quia quatuor pedes gra\diuntur, que dum similia sint pecoribus, tamen sub cura hu\mana non sunt ut cervi, dame, onagri et cetera. Sed neque\ bestie sunt, aut [A: ut] leones, neque iumenta ut usus hominum\ iuvare possint. Pecus dicimus omne quod humana lingua et\ effigie caret, proprie autem pecorum nomen his animalibus acco\modari solet, que sunt ad vescendum apta, ut oves et sues,\ aut in usu hominum commoda, ut equi et boves. Differt autem\ inter pecora et pecudes. Nam veteres communiter in significatione\ omnium animalium pecora dixerunt, pecudes autem tamen illa\ animalia qui eduntur quasi pecuedes. Generaliter autem omne animal pecus\ a pascendo vocatum. Iumenta nomina inde traxerunt quod nostrum\ laborem vel onus suo adiutorio subvectando vel arando iu-\ vent. Nam bos carpenta trahit, et durissimas terre glebas vomere\ vertit. Equus et asinus portant onera et hominum in gradiendo\ laborem temperant. Unde et iumenta appellantur, ab eo quod iu\vent homines. Sunt enim magnarum virium animalia. Item quoque armen\ta vel quod sint armis apta, id est bello, vel quod his in armis utimur. Alii\ armenta boves intelligunt ab arando quasi aramenta, vel quod sint\ cornibus armata. Discretio est autem inter armenta et greges. Nam\ armenta equorum et bovum sunt, greges vero caprarum et ovium.\

Adam was the first to provide words for all living things, naming each one in conformity with the existing order according to its function in nature. The races of man later named each animal in their own languages; But Adam named them not in Latin or Greek, nor in the languages of any barbarian races, but in the language which before the Flood was universal, which is called Hebrew. In Latin they are called animalia, animals, or animantia, living things, because they are animated by life and activated by the breath of life. Quadrupedia, quadrupeds, are so called because they go on quatuor pedes, four feet. Although they are like cattle, quadrupeds - deer, fallow deer, wild asses and others - are not in man's charge. They are not, however, wild beasts, like lions; nor beasts of burden, serving the needs of man. We call pecus, cattle, anything which lacks human speech or appearance. Strictly speaking, the name is usually applied to those animals which are suitable for food, like sheep and pigs, or for use by men, like horses and oxen. Moreover, there is a difference between pecora, cattle, and pecudes, cattle raised for meat. For people long ago used pecora to mean all animals; but pecudes are animals which are eaten pecu-ed-es, 'cattle for eating'. Generally, all animals are called pecus from pascendum, 'put to pasture'. Iumenta have taken their name from the fact that they assist us with our work or burdens by their help in carrying or ploughing. For the ox draws the waggon and turns with the ploughshare the heaviest clods of earth. The horse and ass carry loads and ease man's toil on foot. So they are called iumenta because they help people with their burdens, for they are animals of great strength. In the same way armenta are so called because they are suitable for arms - that is, for war - or because we use them in arms. Others understand by armenta, oxen, from arandum, 'ploughing' - aramenta, as it

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were; or because they are armed with horns. But there is a distinction between armenta and greges . Armenta are herds of horses and oxen; greges, flocks of goats and sheep.

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Incipit liber de naturis bestiarum. De leonibus et pardis et tigribus, lupis et\ vulpibus, canibus et simiis.\ Leo fortissimus bestiarum, ad nullius pavebit occursum.\ Bestiarum vocabulum proprie convenit leonibus par\dis, et tigribus, lupis, et vulpibus, canibus et simiis, ac ce\teris que ore vel unguibus seviunt, exceptis serpentibus.\ Bestie autem dicite, a vi qua seviunt. Fere appellate eo quod na\turali utuntur libertate, et desiderio suo ferantur. Sunt\ enim libere eorum voluntates, et huc atque illuc vagan\tur, et quo animus duxerit, eo ferantur. Leonis vocabulum\ ex greca origine inflexum est in latinum. Grece enim leon vo\catur, et est nomen nothum, quia ex parte corruptum. Leo\ enim grece, latine rex interpretatur, eo quod princeps est omnium\ bestiarum.\ De generibus luporum [lionum]\ Cuius genus tripharium dicitur,\ e quibus breves et iuba crispa inbelles sunt, longi et co\ma simplici, acres. Animos eorum frons et cauda indicat,\ virtus eorum in pectore, firmitas autem in capite. Rotarum\ timent strepitus, sed ignes magis. Leo nature sue vi superbus, fe\rocitatem sui aliarum ferarum generibus miscere nes\cit, sed quasi rex quidam plurimorum dedignatur consortium.\ De tribus principalibus naturis leonis.\ Phisici dicunt leonem\ tres principales naturas habere. Prima natura eius est, quod per\ cacumina montium amat ire. Et si contigerit ut queratur\ a venatoribus, venit ad eum odor venatorum, et cum cau\da sua tetigit posttergum vestigia sua. Tunc venato\res investigare eum nequeunt. Sic et salvator noster, scilicet\ spiritualis leo, de tribu Iuda, radix Iesse, filius David, cooperuit\ vestigia sue caritatis in celis, donec missus a patre descenderet\ in uterum virginis Marie, et salvaret genus humanum quod perierat.\

Here begins the book of the nature of beasts. Of lions, panthers and tigers, wolves and foxes, dogs and apes. The lion is the mightiest of the beasts; he will quail at the approach of none. The name 'beast' applies, strictly speaking, to lions, panthers and tigers, wolves and foxes, dogs and apes, and to all other animals which vent their rage with tooth or claw - except snakes. They are called 'beasts' from the force with which they rage. They are called 'wild' because they enjoy their natural liberty and are borne along by their desires. They are free of will, and wander here and there, and where their instinct takes them, there they are borne. The name lion, leo, of Greek origin, is altered in Latin. For in Greek it is leon; it is not a genuine word, because it is in part corrupted. For the Greek word for lion is translated 'king' in Latin, because the lion is the king of all the beasts. There are said to be three kinds. Of these, the ones which are short in stature, with curly manes, are peaceable; the tall ones, with straight hair, are fierce. Their brow and tail show their mettle; their courage is in their breast, their resolution in their head. They fear the rumbling sound of wheels, but are even more frightened by fire. The lion takes pride in the strength of its nature; it does not know how to join in the ferocity of other kinds of wild beasts, but like a king disdains the company of large numbers. Of the three main characteristics of the lion. Those who study nature say that the lion has three main characteristics. The first is that it loves to roam amid mountain peaks. If it happens that the lion is pursued by hunters, it picks up their scent and obliterates the traces behind it with its tail. As a result, they cannot track it. Thus our Saviour, a spiritual lion, of the tribe of Judah, the root of Jesse, the son of David, concealed the traces of his love in heaven until, sent by his father, he descended into the womb of the Virgin Mary and redeemed mankind, which was lost.

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Et hoc ignorans diabolus scilicet humani generis inimicus, quasi pu\rum hominem ausus est temptare. Etiam hoc ignorantes qui sur\sum erant angeli, eo ascendente ad patrem, dicebant ad eos qui\ cum eo ascendebant: Quis est iste rex glorie? Secunda natura eius est quod\ cum dormit, oculos apertos habere videtur. Sic et dominus noster cor\poraliter obdormiens in cruce, sepultus est, et deitas eius vigilibat, \ sic dicitur in canticis canticorum: Ego dormio, et cor meum vi\gilat. Et in psalmo: Ecce non dormitabit neque dormiet, qui\ custodit Israel. Tertia natura eius est, cum leena parit catulos\ suos generat, eos mortuos, et custodit eos tribus diebus donec\ veniens pater eorum tertia die insufflat in faciem eorum et\ vivificat eos. Sic omnipotens pater dominum nostrum Iesum Christum, tertia die\ suscitavit a mortuis, dicente Iacob: Dormitabit tanquam\ leo, et sicut catulus leonis suscitabitur. Circa hominem leonum\ natura est ut nisi lesi nequant irasci. Ad cuius exemplum rationabiles\ homines respicere debent, qui non lesi irascuntur, et innocentes op\primunt, cum iubeat Christiana lex noxios dimittere liberos.\ Patet enim leonum misericordia exemplis assiduis, prostratis\ enim parcunt, captivos obvios repatriare permittunt. In vi\ros potius quam in feminas seviunt. Infantes non nisi in magna\ fame perimunt. Pariter omnes parcunt a sagina. Primum quod al\ternis diebus potum, alternis cibum capiunt. Ac frequenter si\ digestio non est insecuta, solite cibationi superponunt diem.\ Tunc quod carnes iusto amplius devoratas congravantur,\ insertis in hora unguibus sponte pertrahunt. Sane et\ cum fugiendum est, in sacietate idem faciunt. Senectam leo\num defectio probat dentium. Adversi coheunt. Nec hii tan\tum, sed et linces, et cameli, et elephanti, et rinocerontes,\ et tygrides, et leene. Fetu primo catulos quinque educant. De\

Not knowing of his divine nature, the Devil, the enemy of mankind, dared to tempt him like an ordinary man. Even the angels on high did not know of his divinity and said to those who were with him when he ascended to his father: 'Who is this king of glory?' The second characteristic of the lion is that when it sleeps, it seems to have its eyes open. Thus our Lord, falling asleep in death, physically, on the cross, was buried, yet his divine nature remained awake; as it says in the Song of Songs: 'I sleep but my heart waketh' (5:2); and in the psalm: 'Behold, he that keepeth Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep' (121: 4). The third characteristic of the lion is that when a lioness gives birth to her cubs, she produces them dead and watches over them for three days, until their father comes on the third day and breathes into their faces and restores them to life. Thus the Almighty Father awakened our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead on the third day; as Jacob says: 'He will fall asleep as a lion, and as a lion's whelp he will be revived' (see Genesis, 49:9). Where men are concerned, it is the nature of lions not to grow angry unless they are harmed. An example which thoughtful men should heed; for men grow angry even when they have not been harmed, and they oppress the innocent, although Christian law bids them set even the guilty free. The compassion of lions is apparent from endless examples. They spare those whom they have brought down. They allow captives whom they encounter to return home. They vent their rage on men rather than women. They do not kill children except in time of great hunger. Equally, lions refrain from over-feeding. First, because they drink and feed on alternate days; and often, if their food remains undigested, they postpone the Next feed. Then, because they feel uncomfortable when they have devoured more meat than they should, they insert their paws in their mouth and pull the food out, of their own accord. And when they have to take flight, they do exactly the same thing if they are full. Missing teeth show that a lion is old. Lions mate face to face; and not only lions, but lynxes, and camels, and elephants, and rhinoceroses, and tigers. [Lionesses, when] they first give birth, bear five cubs.

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inde per singulos numerum decoquunt annis in sequentibus.\ Et postremo cum ad unum pervenerint, materna fecunditas\ reciditur, sterilescunt in eternum. Leo cibum fastidit hester\num, et ipsas sue esce reliquias aversatur. Que autem ei se cire fere\ audeat; cuius voci tantus naturaliter inest terror ut multa animan\tium que per celeritatem possunt evadere eius impetum, rugitus eius\ sonitum velud quadam vi attonita atque victa deficiant?\ Leo eger simiam querit ut devoret, quo possit sanari. Leo \ gallum et maxime album veretur. Leo quidem rex ferarum,\ exiguo scorpionis aculeo exagitatur, et veneno serpentis\ occiditur. Leontophones vocari accipimus modicas bestias.\ Que capte exuruntur ut earum cineres [A: cineris] aspergine carnes pol\lute iacteque carnes pita [A:per compita] concurrentium semitarum leones ne\cent, si quantulumcumque ex illis sumpserint. Propterea leones\ naturali eas primunt odio atque ubi facultas data est morsu\ quidem abstinent, sed dilaniatas exanimant pedum nisibus.\ Tigris vocata propter volucrem fugam ita eum nominant\ perse greci et medi sagittam. Est enim bestia variis\

In the years which follow, they reduce the number by one at a time. Afterwards, when they are down to one cub, the fertility of the mother is diminished; they become sterile for ever. The lion disdains to eat the Previous day's meat and turns away from the remains of its own meal. Which beast dares to rouse the lion, whose voice, by its nature, inspires such terror, that many living things which could evade its attack by their speed, grow faint at the sound of its roar as if dazed and overcome by force. A sick lion seeks out an ape to devour it, in order to be cured. The lion fears the cock, especially the white one. King of the beasts, it is tormented by the tiny sting of the scorpion and is killed by the venom of the snake. We learn of small beasts called leontophones, lionkillers. When captured, they are burnt; meat contaminated by a sprinkling of their ashes and thrown down at crossroads kills lions, even if they eat only a small an amount. For this reason, lions pursue leontophones with an instinctive hatred and, when they have the opportunity, they refrain from biting them but kill them by rending them to pieces under their paws. The tiger is named for its swiftness in flight; the Persians and Greeks call it 'arrow'. It is a beast distinguished by its varied

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distincta maculis, virtute et velocitate mirabilis, ex cuius\ nomine flumen Tygris appellatur, quod is rapidissimus sit\ omnium fluviorum. Has magis Hircania gignit. Tigris \ vero ubi vacuum rapte sobolis repperit cubile, ilico rapto\ris vestigiis insistit. At ille quamvis equo vectus fugaci, vi\dens tamen velocitate fere se preverti, nec evadendi ullum sub\petere sibi posse subsidium, tecnam huiusmodi fraude mo\litur. Ubi contiguum viderit, speram de vitro proicit. At illa ymagine sui luditur, et sobolem putat. Revocat\ impetum colligere fetum desiderans. Rursus inani specie\ retenta, totis se ad comprehendum equitem viribus\ fundit, et iracundie stimulo velociter fugienti imminet.\ Iterum ille spere obiectu sequentem retardat, nec tamen seduli\tatem matris memoria fraudis excludit. Cassam versat\ ymaginem, et quasi lactatura fetum residet. Sicque pietatis\ sue studio decepta, et vindictam amittit et prolem. \

markings, its courage and its extraordinary speed. The Tygris takes its name from the tiger, because it is the fastest-flowing of all rivers. Hircania is their main home.

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The tigress, when she finds her lair empty by the theft of a cub, follows the tracks of the thief at once. When the thief sees that, even though he rides a swift horse, he is outrun by her speed, and that there is no means of escape at hand, he devises the following deception. When he sees the tigress drawing close, he throws down a glass sphere. The tigress is deceived by her own image in the glass and thinks it is her stolen cub. She abandons the chase, eager to gather up her young. Delayed by the illusion, she tries once again with all her might to overtake the rider and, urged on by her anger, quickly threatens the fleeing man. Again he holds up her pursuit by throwing down a sphere. The memory of the trick does not banish

De pardo \ Pardus est\ genus vari\um ac velo\cissimum, et pre\ceps ad sangui\nem, saltu \ enim ad mor\tem ruit. Leo\pardus ex ad\ulterio leene nascitur et pardi, et terciam originem efficit.\ Sicut et Plenius [Plinius] in naturali hystoria dicit: Leonem vim [cum] par\da, aut pardum cum leena concumbere, et ex utroque degeneres\

the mother's devotion. She turns over the empty likeness and settles down as if she were about to suckle her cub. And thus, trapped by the intensity of her sense of duty, she loses both her revenge and her child. Of the pard The pard is a species which has a mottled skin, is extremely swift and thirsts for blood; for it kills at a single bound. The leopard is the product of the adultery of a lioness with a pard; their mating produces a third species. As Pliny says in his Natural History: the lion mates with the pard, or the pard with the lioness, and from both degenerate

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partus creari, ut mulus et burdo.\

offspring are created, such as the mule and the burdon.

De pantera Of the panther \ Est animal quod dicitur pantera, varium quidem colorem\ habens, et est speciosissimum nimis et mansuetum. Phisi/ologus dicit de eo, quam inimicum habet solum draconem. Cum\ ergo comederit et satiatum fuerit, recondit se in spelunca sua\ et dormit. Post triduum exsurgit a sompno. Et emittit mag\num rugitum, et ab ore eius odor suavissimus exit, velud om\nium aromatum. Cum autem audierint eius vocem cetera ani\malia propter suavitatem odoris sequuntur eam, quocumque ierit.\ Solus autem draco audiens eius vocem, timore perterritus, fu\git in cavernis terre. Ibi non ferens odorem torpescit in semet ipso,\ et tanquam mortuus immobilis manet. Sic et dominus noster Iesus\ Christus verus pantera descendens de celis eripuit nos de potes\tate diaboli. Et per incarnationem suam sociavit nos sibi\ in filios, cepit omnia, captivamque ducens captivitatem\ dedit dona hominibus. Quod si [A: sit] varium animal signi\ficatur, sicut dictum est per Salomonem de Christo, sapientia dei\ patris, [spiritus] intelligibilis; [spiritus] unicus, multiplex, verus, suavis,\ aptus, clemens, firmus, stabilis, securus, omnia potens, omnia\ prospiciens. Quia speciosum animal sit, David dicit de Christo:\

There is an animal called the panther, multi-coloured, very beautiful and extremely gentle. Physiologus says of it, that it has only the dragon as an enemy. When it has fed and is full, it hides in its den and sleeps. After three days it awakes from its sleep and gives a great roar, and from its mouth comes a very sweet odour, as if it were a mixture of every perfume. When other animals hear its voice, they follow wherever it goes, because of the sweetness of its scent. Only the dragon, hearing its voice, is seized by fear and flees into the caves beneath the earth. There, unable to bear the scent, it grows numbed within itself and remains motionless, as if dead. Thus our Lord Jesus Christ, the true panther, descending from Heaven, snatched us from the power of the devil. And, through his incarnation, he united us to him as sons, taking everything, and 'leading captivity captive, gave gifts to men' (Ephesians, 4:8). The fact that the panther is a multi-coloured animal, signifies Christ, who is as Solomon said the wisdom of God the Father, an understanding spirit, a unique spirit, manifold, true, agreeable, fitting, compassionate, strong, steadfast, serene, allpowerful, all-seeing. The fact that the panther is a beautiful animal [signifies Christ as] David says of him:

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Speciosus forma pre filiis hominum. Mansuetum autem animal Ysa\ias quoque dicit: Gaude et letare filia Syon, predica filia Ierusalem,\ quia rex tuus venit tibi mansuetus. Cum saturatus fuerit recondit\ se in Iudaicis illusionibus, flagris, alapis, iniuriis, contume\liis, spinis, manibus in cruce suspensus, clavis confixus, fel\le et aceto potatus, et lancea perforatus, obdormiens requievit\ in sepulchro, et descendit in infernum, illic magnum draco\nem ligans. Die autem tercio surgit a sompno et emittit mag\num clamorem, flagrans suavitatem, sicut et dominus noster Iesus Christus\ tercia die resurgens a mortuis, sicut David dicit. Excitatus est tan\quam dormiens dominus, tanquam potens crapulatus a vino. Et excla\mavit voce magna ita ut audire [A: audiretur] in omni terra sonus eius et in\ fines orbis terre verba eius. Et sicut de ore pantere odor suavitatis\ exit, et omnes bestie que prope sunt, et que longe conveniunt\ eam sequuntur; ita Iudei qui aliquando sensum habuerunt\ bestiarum, sed prope erant per legem, et que longe, id est gentes que\ sine lege erant, audientes vocem Christi, sequuntur eum cum\ propheta dicentes: Quam dulcia faucibus meis eloquia tua; super \ mel et favum ori meo. Item de eodem: Diffusa est gratia in la\biis tuis propterea benedixit te [dominus] in eternum. Et Salomon: Odor\ unguentorum tuorum super omnia aromata. Item: In odore un\guentorum tuorum curremus. Et paulo post: Introduxit me rex\ in cubiculum suum. Oportet nos quam citius sicut adolescentu\las, id est renovatas baptismo animas, post unguentum mandatorum Christi currere; de terrenis ad celestia migrare ut nos\ introducat rex in palatium suum, in Ierusalem civitatem domini vir\tutum, et in monte omnium sanctorum. Pantera est bestia mi\nutis orbiculis superpicta, ita ut oculatis ex fulvo circu\lis nigra vel alba distinguatur varietate. Hec semel omnino\

'Thou art fairer than the children of men.' (Psalms, 45:2) The fact that the panther is a gentle animal [signifies Christ], as Isaiah also says: 'Rejoice and be glad, daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem; because your king comes to you, meek ...' (see Isaiah, 62:11; Zechariah, 9:9; Matthew, 21:5) When the panther is full, it hides [in its den and sleeps. When Christ] was sated with the mocking of the Jews, the scourgings, blows, insults, abuse, the crown of thorns, having been hung by his hands on the cross, transfixed with nails, forced to drink gall and vinegar, and pierced by a spear, falling asleep in death, he rested in the tomb and descended into hell, where he bound fast the great dragon. On the third day the panther rises from its sleep and gives a great cry, emitting a sweet odour, just like our Lord Jesus Christ, rising again from the dead; as David says: 'He awakened as one out of sleep and like a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine.'(Psalms, 78:65) And Christ cried out in a loud voice, so that his sound was heard throughout the land and his words at the ends of the earth (see Romans, 10:18). And just as the odour of sweetness comes out of the panther's mouth, and all the beasts which are near and those which come from afar follow it, so the Jews, who had at some time the disposition of beasts, but were close to Christ through their observance of the law, and those from afar, that is, the races who were without the law, hearing the voice of Christ, follow him, saying with the prophet: 'How sweet are thy words unto my taste! yea, sweeter than honey to my mouth.' (Psalms, 119:103) And again of Christ: 'Grace is poured into thy lips; therefore God hath blessed thee for ever.' (Psalms, 45:2) And Solomon says: 'How much better is ... the smell of thine ointments than all spices!' (Song of Solomon, 4:10) And again: 'In the savour of thy good ointments ... we will run after thee.' (Song of Solomon, 1:3-4). And a little after that: 'The king hath brought me into his chambers.' (1:4) We ought to hurry after the scented ointment of Christ's commandments as quickly as we can, like young souls, that is, souls made new by baptism; to quit earthly for heavenly things, that the king may lead us into his palace in Jerusalem, the city of the Lord of righteousness, on the mountain of all the saints. The panther is a beast dabbed all over with very small circular spots, so that it is distinquished by its black and white colouring with eye-shaped circles of yellow.

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The female [gives birth] once only

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Translation Transcription [De Elephante] animal grandius videtur. In eis enim Perse et Indi ligne\is turribus collati tanquam de muro iaculis dimicant. Intel\lectu et memoria multa vigent, gregatim incedunt, mu\rem fugiunt, aversa coheunt. Biennio autem parturiunt,\ nec amplius quam semel gignunt, nec plures sed tantum unum.\ Vivunt autem annos trescentos. Si autem voluerit facere filios, va\dit ad orientem prope Paradisum, et est ibi arbor qui vocatur\ mandragora, et vadit cum femina sua, que prius accipet\ de arbore et dat in masculo suo. Et seducit eum donec man\ducet, statimque in utero concipit. Cum vero tempus pariendi ve\nerit, exit in stagnum, et aqua venit usque ad ubera ma\tris. Elephans autem custodit eam parturientem, quia draco\ inimicus est elephanti. Si autem invenerit serpentem, occidit\ eum, quem conculcat donec moriatur. Est enim formida\ bilis tauris elephans, tamen murem timet. Hec est natura eius, si\ ceciderit non potest surgere. Cadit autem cum se inclinat in\ arborem ut dormiat. Non enim habet iuncturas geniculorum.\ Venator autem incidit arborem modicum, ut elephans eum se\ inclinaverit, similiter cum arbore cadat. Cadens autem for\titer clamat, et statim magnus elephans exit, et non potest eum\ levare. Tunc clamant ambo et veniunt duodecim ele\phantes, et non possunt levare eum qui cecidit. Deinde cla\mant omnes, et statim venit pusillus elephans, et mittit\ os suum cum permusicla subtus magnum elephantem, et e\levat eum. Habet autem pusillus elefans hanc naturam, ubi in\censum fuerit de capillis et ossibus eius, necque aliud mali acci\dit neque draco. Magnus elefans et mulier eius personam habent A\dam et Eve. Cum enim carne essent placentes deo, ante\ ipsorum privaricationem non sciebant coitum, necque intelligen\

[Of the elephant] ... no larger animal is seen. The Persians and Indians, carried in wooden towers on their backs, fight with javelins as from a wall. Elephants have a lively intelligence and a long memory; they move around in herds; they flee from a mouse; they mate back-to-back. The female is pregnant for two years, and gives birth no more than once, and not to several offspring but to one only. Elephants live for three hundred years. If an elephant wants to father sons, it goes to the East, near Paradise; there the tree called mandragora, the mandrake, grows. The elephant goes to it with his mate, who first takes fruit from the tree and gives it to her male. And she seduces him until he eats it; then she conceives at once in her womb. When the time comes for her to give birth, she goes out into a pool, until the water comes up to her udders. The male guards her while she is in labour, because elephants have an enemy - the dragon. If the elephant finds a snake, it kills it, trampling it until it is dead. The elephant strikes fear into bulls, yet fears the mouse. The elephant has this characteristic: if it falls down, it cannot rise. But it falls when it leans on a tree in order to sleep, for it has no joints in its knees. A hunter cuts part of the way through the tree, so that when the elephant leans against it, elephant and tree will fall together. As the elephant falls, it trumpets loudly; at once a big elephant goes to it but cannot lift it. Then they both trumpet and twelve elephants come, but they cannot lift the one who has fallen. Then they all trumpet, and immediately a little elephant comes and puts its trunk under the big one and lifts it up. The little elephant has this characteristic, that when some of its hair and bones have been burnt, nothing evil approaches, not even a dragon. The big elephant and its mate represent Adam and Eve. For when they were in the flesh pleasing to God, before their sin, they did not know how to mate and had no understanding

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tiam peccati habebant. Quando autem mulier manducavit\ de ligno, hoc est intelligibilem mandragoram dedit viro suo,\ deinde pregnans facta est, propter quod exierunt [transposed] de paradiso.\ Quamdiu enim fuerint in Paradiso, non cognovit eam Adam.\ Scriptum est enim: Cognovit Adam uxorem suam, et con\cipiens peperit ea super vituperabiles aquas. De quibus ait propheta:\ Salvum me fac dominus, quoniam intraverunt aque usque ad\ animam meam. Et statim draco subvertit eos, et alienos\ fecit ab arce sua, hoc est non placere deo. Tunc venit magnus\ elefans, hoc est lex, et non eum levavit, quomodo nec sacerdos\ eum qui incidit in latrones. Nec duodecim elephantes\ elevaverunt eum,

of sin. But when the woman ate the fruit of the tree, that is to say, she gave her man the fruit of the mandrake, the tree of knowledge, then she became pregnant, and for that reason they left Paradise. For as long as they were in Paradise, Adam did not mate with Eve. For it is written: 'Adam knew his wife and she conceived', (Genesis, 4:1) and she gave birth on the waters of guilt. Of this, the prophet says: 'Save me, O God, for the waters are come in unto my soul.'(Psalms, 69:1). And at once the dragon seduced them and caused them to be outcasts from their citadel, that is, because they displeased God. Then came the big elephant, meaning the law, and did not raise up mankind, any more than the priest raised the

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id est chorus prophetarum, sicut nec Levita\ illum vulneratum quem diximus, sed intelligibilis ele\phans, id est dominus noster Iesus Christus, cum omnibus maior sit omnium\ pusillus factus est, quia humiliavit se, factus obediens usque ad mor\tem, ut hominem elevaret, intelligibilis Samaritanus \ qui imposuit super iumentum. Ipse enim vulneratus tulit in\firmitates nostras, et peccata nostra portavit. Interpretatur autem\ Samaritanus custos. De quo dicit David: Custodiens par\vulos dominus. Ubi autem est dominus presens, neque diabolus appro\pinquare poterit. Elefantes vero promuscida sua quicquid\ involuerint frangunt, pede vero quicquid compresserint velud\ quodam lapsu ruine ingentis examinare [exanimare]. Propter feminas\ nunquam dimicant, nulla enim noverunt adulteria.\ In est illis clementie bonum. Quippe si per deserta vagabun\dum hominem forte viderint ductus usque notas vias prebent.\ Vel si confertis pecoribus occursitent, itinera sic blanda et\ placida manu faciunt, ne qua tela obvium animal in\terimant. Conflictis fortuito si quando pugnantur non mediocrem\

man who fell among thieves. Nor did the twelve elephants, that is, the company of prophets, raise mankind, just as the Levite did not raise the wounded man we spoke of. But the elephant capable of understanding, that is our Lord Jesus Christ, who, although greater than all, became the smallest of all, because he humbled himself, becoming obedient unto death that he might raise up mankind. He is the Good Samaritan who set upon his own beast the man who had fallen among thieves. For Jesus himself was wounded yet bore our weakness and carried our sins. The Samaritan also symbolises a guardian. On this subject, David says: 'The Lord watching over the children...' [SOURCE] Where the Lord is present, the devil cannot draw near. Whatever elephants wrap their trunks around, they break; whatever they trample underfoot is crushed to death as if by the fall of a great ruin. They never fight over female elephants, for they know nothing of adultery. They possess the quality of mercy. If by chance they see a man wandering in the desert, they offer to lead him to familiar paths. Or if they encounter herds of cattle huddled together, they make their way carefully and peacably lest their tusks kill any animal in their way. If by chance they fight in battle, they have no mean

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habent curam sauciorum. Nam fossos [A: fessos] vulneratosque in medium receptant.\ De castore.\ Est animal quod dicitur castor\ mansuetum nimis,\ cuius testiculi medicine sunt\ aptissimi, de quo dicit\ Phisiologus, quia cum vena\torem se insequentem cog\novit, morsu testiculos sibi\ abscidit, et in faciem vena\toris eos proicit et sic fugiens\ evadit. Si vero rursus conti\gerit ut alter venator eum prosequatur, erigit se et os\tendit virilia sua venatori. Quem cum viderit testi\culis carere, ab eo discedit. Sic omnis qui iuxta mandatum\ dei versatur et caste vult vivere, secat a se omnia vicia, et\ omnes impudicitie actus, et proicit eos a se in faciem diaboli.\ Tunc ille videns eum nichil suorum habentem, confusus\ ab eo discedit. Ille vero vivit in deo, et non capitur a diabolo, qui dicit:\ persequar, et comprehendam eos. Castor dicitur a castrando.\ De animali quod dicitur ibex.\ Est animal quod dicitur ibex, duo cornua habens, quorum tanta vis est, ut si \ ab alto montis ad yma dimissus [A: demissus] fuerit, corpus eius totum iis duobus cornibus \ sustentetur. Significat autem eruditos homines qui duorum testamen\

of the wounded. For they take the exhausted and the injured back into their midst. Of the beaver There is an animal called the beaver, which is extremely gentle; its testicles are are highly suitable for medicine. Physiologus says of it that, when it knows that a hunter is pursuing it, it bites off its testicles and throws them in the hunter's face and, taking flight, escapes. But if, once again, another hunter is in pursuit, the beaver rears up and displays its sexual organs. When the hunter sees that it lacks testicles, he leaves it alone. Thus every man who heeds God's commandment and wishes to live chastely should cut off all his vices and shameless acts, and cast them from him into the face of the devil. Then the devil, seeing that the man has nothing belonging to him, retires in disorder. That man, however, lives in God and is not taken by the devil, who says: 'I will pursue, I will overtake them...'(Exodus, 15:9) The name castor comes from castrando, 'castrate'. Of the animal called the ibex There is an animal called the ibex, which has two horns of such strength that, if it were to fall from a high mountain to the lowest depths, its whole body would be supported by those two horns. The ibex represents those learned men

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torum consonantia quicquid eis adversi acciderit, quasi quodam\ salubri temptamento [A: teperamento] temperare solent, et velud duobus

who are accustomed to manage whatever problems they encounter, with the harmony of the two Testaments as if with a sound constitution; and,

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cornibus ful\ti, bona que perpetrant veteris testamenti ac evangelice lectionis attes\tatione sustentant.\ De Yena\ Est animal qui\ dicitur yena, in se\pulchris mortu\orum habitans, eorum\que corpora vescens.\ Cuius natura est ut ali\quando masculus\ sit, aliquando fem\ina, et ideo est immun\dum animal. Cui\ cum spina riget, con\tinua unitate\ flecti nequid nisi toto corporis circumactu. Solinus multa mira\ de ea refert, primum quod sequitur stabula pastorum, et circuit domos\ per noctem, et assiduo auditu addiscit vocamen, quod exprimere\ possit imitationem vocis humane, ut hominem astu accitum\ nocte seviat. Vomitus quoque humanos [intitur] falsisque singultibus\ sic sollicitatos canes devorat. Qui forte si venantes umbram\ eiusdem dum sequitur contigerint, latrare nequeunt voce perdita. Ea\dem yena inquisicione corporum sepultorum busta eruit. Huic as\similantur filii Israel, qui ab initio deo vivo servierunt. Postea divitiis\ et luxurie dediti ydola coluerunt. Ideo propheta comparavit sy\nagogam in mundo [A: inmundo] animali dicens: Facta est michi hereditas\ mea quasi spelunca yene. Quicumque igitur inter nos luxurie et\ avaricie inserviunt, huic belue comparantur cum nec viri nec\

supported as by two horns, they sustain the good they do with the testimony of readings from the Old and New Testament. Of the hyena. There is an animal called the hyena, which inhabits the tombs of the dead and feeds on their bodies. Its nature is that it is sometimes male, sometimes female, and it is therefore an unclean animal. Since its spine is rigid, all in one piece, it cannot turn round except by turning its body right around. Solinus recounts many marvellous things about the hyena. First, it stalks the sheepfolds of shepherds and circles their houses by night, and by listening carefully learns their speech, so that it can imitate the human voice, in order to fall on any man whom it has lured out at night. The hyena also [imitates] human vomit and devours the dogs it has enticed with faked sounds of retching. If dogs hunting the hyena accidentally touch its shadow behind, they lose their voices and cannot bark. In its search for buried bodies, the hyena digs up graves. The sons of Israel resemble the hyena. At the beginning they served the living God. Later, addicted to wealth and luxury, they worshipped idols. For this reason the prophet compared the synagogue to an unclean animal: 'My heritage is to me as the den of a hyena.' (see Jeremiah, 12:8) Therefore those among us who are slaves to luxury and greed, are like this brute, since they are neither men nor

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femine sint id est nec fideles, nec perfidi sunt, sed sunt sine dubio, de\ quibus ait Salomon: Vir duplex animo, inconstans est in omnibus\ viis suis. De quibus ait dominus: Non potestis deo servire et mamone.\ Hec belua lapidem in oculis tenet, nomine yeniam, quem siquis sub lin\gua tenuerit, futura predicere creditur. Verum yena quodcumque \ animal ter lustraverit vomere [A: movere] se non potest. Quapropter magicam in\esse ei pronunciaverunt. In Ethiope parte coit cum leena unde nascitur\ monstrum cui crocote nomen est. Voces hominum et ipsi [A: ipsa] pariter effec\tat. Nunquam commutationem orbium sed in obtutum sine mu\tatione contendit. In ore gingiva nulla. Dens unus atque perpe\tuus qui ut nunquam retundatur, naturaliter capsularum modo clauditur.\ De bonnacon.\ In Asia ani\mal nas\citur quod bon\nacon di\cunt. Cui\ taurinum\ capud, ac \ deinceps\ corpus om\ne tantum\ iuba equi\na. Cornu\a autem ita multiplici fleu [A: flexu] in se recurrentia, ut si quis in\ eo offendat non vulneretur, sed quicquid presidii monstro illi frons\ negat, alvus sufficiat [A: sufficit]. Nam cum in fugam vertit proluvie citi ventris fumum egerit per longitudinem trium iugerum, cuius\ ardor quicquid attigerit adurit. Ita egerie noxia submovet insequentes\

women, that is, neither faithful nor faithless, but are without doubt those of whom Solomon says: 'A double-minded man is unstable in all his ways'; (James, 1:8) of whom the Lord says: 'You cannot serve God and mammon.' (Matthew, 6:24) This beast has a stone in its eyes, called hyenia; anyone who keeps it under his tongue is believed to foretell the future. It is true that if the hyena walks three times around any animal, the animal cannot move. For this reason men declare that the hyena has magical properties. In a part of Ethiopia the hyena mates with the lioness; their union produces a monster, named crocote. Like the hyena, it too produces men's voices. It never tries to change the direction of its glance but strives to see without changing it. It has no gums in its mouth. Its single, continuous tooth is closed naturally like a casket so that it is never blunted. Of the bonnacon In Asia an animal is found which men call bonnacon. It has the head of a bull, and thereafter its whole body is of the size of a bull's with the maned neck of a horse. Its horns are convoluted, curling back on themselves in such a way that if anyone comes up against it, he is not harmed. But the protection which its forehead denies this monster is furnished by its bowels. For when it turns to flee, it discharges fumes from the excrement of its belly over a distance of three acres, the heat of which sets fire to anything it touches. In this way, it drives off its pursuers with its harmful excrement.

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Simie vocantur latino sermone, eo quod multam eis\ similitudo rationis humane sentitur. Hi elementorum\ sagaces nova luna exultant, media et cava tristantur.\ Nature symie talis est, ut cum peperit geminos catulos, unum\ diligat, et alterum contempnat. Quod si aliquando evenerit\ ut insequatur a venatoribus, ante se amplectitur quem diligit\ et alterum collo portat quem odit. Sed dum lassa fuerit bipes\ eunto proicit voluens quem diligit et portat nolens quem odit.\ Symia caudam non habet. Cuius figuram diabolus habet, qui capud\ habet, caudam vero non habet. Et licet symia tota turpis sit, pos\teriora tamen eius satis turpia et horribilia sunt. Diabolus in\imicum [A: initium] habuit cum esset in celis angelus. Sed ypochrita et do\losus fuit intrinsecus, et perdidit caudam, quia totus in fine\ peribit, sicut ait apostolus: Quem dominus Iesus interficiet spiritu oris sui.\ Symia grecum nomen est, id est, pressis naribus. Unde et symia\ dicimus, quod suppressis naribus sint, et facie feda, rugis tur\piter follicantibus, licet et capellarium [A: capellarum] sit pressum habere\ nasum. Circopetici caudas habent. Hec sola discretio est in\ter prius dictas. Cenophali et ipsi sunt e numero symiarum.\ In Ethiope partibus frequentissimi. Violenti ad saltum\

[Of apes] Apes are called simie in Latin because the similarity between their mentality and that of humans is felt to be great. Apes are keenly aware of the elements; they rejoice when the moon is new and are sad when it wanes. A characteristic of the ape is that when a mother bears twins, she loves one and despises the other. If it ever happens that she is pursued by hunters, she carries the one she loves before her in her arms and the one she detests on her shoulders. But when she is tired of going upright, she deliberately drops the one she loves and reluctantly carries the one she hates. The ape does not have a tail. The Devil has the form of an ape, with a head but no tail. Although every part of the ape is foul, its rear parts are disgusting and horrid enough. The Devil began as an angel in heaven. But inside he was a hypocrite and a deceiver, and he lost his tail, because he will perish totally at the end, just as the apostle says: 'The Lord shall consume him with the spirit of his mouth.' (2 Thessalonians, 2:8) The name symia is Greek, meaning, 'flattened nostrils'. Hence we call the ape symia because they have compressed nostrils and a hideous face, its creases foully expanding and contracting like a bellows; although she-goats also have a flattened nose. The apes called circopetici have tails. This alone distinguishes them from the apes mentioned earlier. Cenophali are numbered among the apes. They occur in great numbers in parts of Ethiopia. They leap wildly and

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feri morsu. Nunquam inter [A: ita] mansueti, ut non sint magis ra\pidi. Inter symias habentur et spinges, villose in armis\ ac dociles ad feritatis oblivionem.\ De Satiris\ Sunt et quos vocant\ satiros facie admodum\ grata, gesticulatis motibus\ inquiete. Callitrices toto\ pene aspectu, a ceteris diffe\runt. In facie barba est lata\ cauda. Hos capere non est ardu\um. Sed proferre rarum. Neque vivunt in altero quam in Ethio [excised, A: Ethiopico hoc est suo celo].\ De cervis\ Cervi dicti, apo ton\ ceraton, id est, a corni\bus, cerata enim grece\ cornua dicuntur. Hii serpen\tium inimici, cum se\ gravatos infirmita\te persenserint, spiritu na\rium eos extrahunt\ de cavernis et superata\ pernicie veneni eorum\ papulo reparantur.\ Ditampnum herbam\ [excised, A: ipsam prodiderunt eo nam pasci exc]utiunt acceptas sa\gittas. Mirantur autem sibilum fistularum, rectis auribus\ accute audiunt, submissis nichil. Cervi eciam hanc\ naturam habent, quod pro amore alterius patrie mutant pascua\ sua, et sese vicarie sustentant, si quando immensa flumina\

bite fiercely. They are never so tame, that their ferocity does not increase. Sphynxes are also included among apes. They have shaggy hair on their arms and are easily taught to forget their wild nature. Of satyrs There are also apes that men call satyrs. They have quite attractive faces, and are restless, making pantomimed gestures. The apes called callitrices differ from the others in almost every aspect of their appearance. They have bearded faces and broad tails. It is not difficult to catch them but they rarely survive in captivity. They do not live elsewhere than under the Ethiopian sky, that is their native sky. Of deer The word cervi (deer) comes from ceraton, 'horns', for horns are called cerata in Greek. Deer are the enemies of snakes; when they feel weighed down with weakness, they draw snakes from their holes with the breath of their noses and, overcoming the fatal nature of their venom, eat them and are restored. They have shown the value of the herb dittany, for after feeding on it, they shake out the arrows which have lodged in them. Deer are the enemies of snakes; when they feel weighed down with weakness, they draw snakes from their holes with the breath of their noses and, overcoming the fatal nature of their venom, eat them and are restored. They have revealed the secret of the herb

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dittany, for after feeding on it, they shake out the arrows which have lodged in them. Deer marvel at the sound of the pipes; their hearing is keen when their ears are pricked but they hear nothing when their ears are lowered. Deer have this characteristic also, that they change their feeding-ground for love of another country, and in doing so, they support each other. When they cross great rivers

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vel maria transilient, capita clunibus precedentium superponunt,\ sibique invicem succedentes, nullum laborem ponderis sen\tiunt. Et quando loca inveniunt, ea ne in eis quo inquirientur [A: coinquirientur]\ citissime transiliunt. Habent et aliam naturam, quod post commesti\onem serpentis ad fontem currunt, et ex eo bibentes pilos\ et omnem suam vetustatem deponunt. Que nature in [membris]\ sancte ecclesie congrua et competenti ratione videntur convenire, quia\ dum patriam istam, id est mundum, pro amore celestis patrie\ mutant, sese vicarie portant, id est perfectiores minus perfectos exem\plo, et bonis operibus promovent et sustentant. Et si locum pec\candi inveniunt, statim transiliunt, et post incorporationem\ diaboli, id est post peccata [excised, A: perpetrata, ad Christum qui verus fons]\ est confessione currunt [excised, A: et precepta eius haurientes deposita pec-]\ cati vetustate renov [excised, A: antur; Mares generis huius cum statutum]\ tempus venerem incitat [excised, A: seviunt rabie libidinis; femine]\ licet prius conserantur. [excised, A: Non concipiunt ante arcturi sydus. Nec]\ qualibet partus suos e [excised, A: ducant; sed tenero studio oculunt et]\ absconditos inter profu [excised, A: nda fruticum vel herbarum, pedum ver-]\ bere castigant ad la [excised, A: tendum; cum maturint ad fugam]\ robur, per exercitium [excised, A: docent cursum, assuescunt salire per]\ abrupta. Acceptis ca [excised, A: num latratibus secundo vento]\ ut odor cum ipsis [excised, A: recedat. Stupent omnia propterea facilius]\ obvios se prebent s [excised, A: agittantibus. Cornibus quod dextrum fuerit]\ efficacius est admedel [excised, A: am; Si fugare angues gestias; utrum]\ vel ures. Dentes mo [excised, A: nstrant senectutem cum aut pauci]\ inveniuntur, aut nulli. Ad [excised, A: dinoscendam] vivacitatem, A\lexander magnus torques plurimis cervis innexuit, qui post annum centesimum capti, nec dum senis indicium preferebant. \ Hinnuli filii sunt cervorum ab innuere dicti, quod nutu matris\

or large long stretches of water, they place their head on the hindquarters of the deer in front and, following one on the other, do not feel impeded by their weight. When they find such places, they cross them quickly, to avoid sinking in the mire. They have another characteristic, that after eating a snake they run to a spring and, drinking from it, shed their long coats and all signs of old age. The members of the holy Church seem to have a mentality corresponding to that of deer, because while they change their homeland, that is, the world, for love of the heavenly homeland, they carry each other, that is, the more perfect bring on and sustain the less perfect by their example and their good works. And if they find a place of sin, they leap over it at once, and after the incarnation of the Devil, that is, after committing a sin, they run, by their confession, to Christ, the true spring; drinking in his commandments, they are renewed, shedding their sin like old age. Stags, when it is time to rut, rage with the madness of lust. Does, although they may been inseminated earlier, do not conceive before the star Arcturus appears. They do not rear their young just anywhere but hide them with tender care, concealed deep in bushes or grass, and they make them stay out of sight with a tap of the hoof. When the young grow strong enough to take flight, the deer train them to run and to leap great distances. When deer hear the dogs barking, they move upwind taking their scent with them. They are scared rigid by everything, which makes them an easier mark for archers. Of their horns, the right-hand one is better for medical purposes. If you want to frighten off snakes, you should burn either. If deer have few or no teeth, it shows that they are old. In order to tell their age, Alexander the Great ringed a number of deer; when they were recaptured a century later they showed no sign of old age. The offspring of the deer are called hinnuli, fawns, from innuere, 'to nod', because at a nod from their mother, they vanish from sight.

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absconduntur. Adversus venena mirificum est humuli [A: hinnuli] coagu\lum occisi matris sue utero. Patuit eos numquam febrescere. Quam ob cau\sam confecta ex medullis ipsorum unguina sedant calores\ hominum languentium. Legimus plurimos matutinis di\ebus cervinam carnem degustare solitos, sine febribus longe\vos fuisse, quod demum proderit si uno vulnere fuerint in\terempti.\ De capre\ Est animal quod latine\ dicitur caper, eo quod captet\ aspera, nonnulli a crepita \ capream vocant. Hee sunt\ agrestes capree quas greci\ quod acutissime videant,\ dorcas appellaverunt.\ Morantur in excelsis\

The rennet of a fawn killed in its mother's womb is a marvellous remedy against poisons. It is known that deer never grow feverish. For this reason ointments made from their marrow bring down sick men's temperatures. We read that many men who have regularly eaten a small amount of venison since their early days have lived for a long time unaffected by fevers; but ultimately it fails them as a remedy if they are killed by a single blow. Of the goat There is an animal called in Latin caper, goat, because it chooses, capere, to live in rugged places; some call it capra from crepita, 'a rustling noise'. These are the tame

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montibus, et de longinquo\ veniens [A: venientes], cognoscunt si\ venatores sint, aut via\tores. Sic dominus Iesus Christus amat excelsos montes, hoc est prophetas\ et apostolos, sicut in canticis canticorum dicitur: Ecce fratruelis meus\ sicut caprea venit, saliens super montes, transiliens colles, et sicut\ caprea in convalles pascitur. Dominus noster in ecclesia pascitur, bona opera\ Christianorum esce eius sunt, qui dicit: esurivi et dedistis mihi manduca\re; sitivi, et dedistis mihi bibere. Convallia montium ecclesie\ per diversa loca intelliguntur, sic in canticis canticorum dicitur: Ecce fratruelis meus convertere et esto similis capreis, hinnuloque cer\vorum. Quod acutissimam habet aciem oculorum, et perspicit\ omnia, et a longe cognoscit, significat dominum nostrum, qui dominus\ scienciarum deus est. Et alibi: Quam excelsus dominus et humilia\

goats which the Greeks called dorcas, gazelle, because they have very sharp sight. They live in high mountains and can tell if men approaching a long way off are hunters or travellers. In the same way, our Lord Jesus Christ loves high mountains, that is, the prophets and Apostles, as it says in the Song of Songs: 'Behold, my beloved cometh leaping upon the mountains, skipping upon the hills (see Song of Solomon, 2:8). As a goat grazes in the valleys, our Lord grazes on the church; the good works of Christian people are the food of him who said: 'For I was an hungred, and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink.' (Matthew, 25:35) By the valleys of the mountains are understood the churches spread through different regions, as it says in the Song of Songs: 'My beloved is like a roe or young hart.' (Song of Solomon, 2:9) The fact that the goat has very sharp eyesight, sees everything and recognises things from a long way off, signifies our Lord, who is the lord of all knowing and God. And elsewhere it is written: 'Though the Lord be high yet hath he respect unto the lowly

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respicit, et alta a longe cognoscit, et omnia crevavit et con\didit, et regit et iudicet, et prospicit, et antequam in cordibus nostris\ aliquid oriatur, previdet et cognoscit. Denique sicut et capra a lon\ge cognoscit venantium adventum, ita Christus precivit [prescivit] insidi\as proditoris sui dicens: Ecce appropinquit qui me tradet.\ De Capra\ Caprea has habet\ naturas,\ quod pascendo de\ altis ad altiora\ tendit. Bonas\ herbas a noxiis\ oculorum acumi\ne eligit. Her\bas ruminat,\ vulnerata ad\ ditannum cur\rit, qua tacta\ sanatur. Sic boni\ predicatores, pas\centes in lege domini, et in bonis operibus quasi in bono pastu\ delectantes, de virtute in virtutem conscendunt. Bonas sen\tencias a malis oculis cordis eligunt, et electas ruminant,\ id est bonum perscrutantur, et ruminatas tradunt\ memorie. A peccato vulnerati, ad Christum confitentes re\currunt, et cito sanantur. Ideoque Christus bene ditannus\ dicitur. Sicut enim ditannus ferrum a vulnere depellit,\ et vulnus sanat, ita Christus per confessionem diabolum\ eicit, et peccatum ignoscit.\ De monocero\

but the proud he knoweth afar off.' (Psalms, 138:6) He created and established all things, and rules and judges and sees; and before anything arises in our hearts he foresees and understands it. Lastly, just as the goat perceives from afar hunters approaching, so Christ knew in advance the plot of his betrayer, saying: 'Behold, he is at hand that doth betray me.' (Matthew, 26:46) Of the wild goat The goat has these characteristics: when grazing, it moves from high to even higher pastures. It picks out good grass from bad by the sharpness of its eyes. It feeds by chewing the grass. When wounded, it hurries to find the herb dittany and, by touching it, is healed. In the same way, good preachers graze on the law of the Lord and take delight in good works as in good pastures, rising from one virtue to another. They choose good writings from bad with the eyes of the heart and meditate upon those they have chosen, that is they examine the good in the views expressed and, having pondered them, commit them to memory. Wounded by sin, they hurry back to Christ by confessing and are quickly healed. For this reason, Christ is rightly said to be like ditanny. For as dittany drives out iron from a wound and heals it, so Christ through confession casts out the devil and pardons sin. Of the monocerus

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Est monoceros monstrum\ mugitu horrido, equino\ corpore elephantis pedibus, cau\da simillima cervo. Cornu\ media fronte eius protenditur\ splendore mirifico, ad mag\nitudinem pedum quatuor, ita\

The monoceros is a monster with a horrible bellow, the body of a horse, the feet of an elephant and a tail very like that of a deer. A magnificent, marvellous horn projects from the middle of its forehead, four

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acutum ut quicquid impe\trat [A: impetat] facile ictu eius foretur.\ Vivus non venit in homi\num potestatem, et interimi quidem potest, capi non potest.\ De urso\ Ursus fertur dictus\ quod ore suo for\met fetus quasi orsus.\ Nam aiunt eos in \ formes generare\ partus et carnem\ quandam nasci. Quod\ mater lambendo\ in membra componit. Sed hoc inmaturitas facit partus.\ Denique tricesimo die generat, unde evenit ut precipitata\ fecunditas informis procreatur. Ursorum caput invalidum,\ vis maxima in brachiis et lumbis, unde interdum erecti\ insistunt. Etiam medendi industriam non pretermittunt.\ Siquidem gravi affecti corde [A: caede] et sauciati vulneribus mederi\ sibi sciunt. Herbe cui nomen est flomus, ut greci appellant,\ ulcera subicientes sua, ut solo curentur a tactu. Ursu\ erger formicas devorat. Numidi ursi ceteris prestant dum\

feet in length, so sharp that whatever it strikes is easily pierced with the blow. No living monoceros has ever come into man's hands, and while it can be killed, it cannot be captured. Of the bear The bear is said to get its name because the female shapes her new-born cub with her mouth, ore, giving it, so to speak, its beginning, orsus. For it is said that they produce a shapeless fetus and that a piece of flesh is born. The mother forms the parts of the body by licking it. The shapelessness of the cub is the result of its premature birth. It is born only thirty days after conception, and as a result of this rapid fertility it is born unformed. The bear's head is not strong; its greatest strength lies in its arms and loins; for this reason bears sometimes stand upright. Bears do not neglect the business of healing themselves. If they are afflicted by a moratl blow and injured by wounds, they know how to heal themselves. They expose their sores to the herb called mullein - flomus, the Greeks call it - and are healed by its touch alone. When sick, the bear eats ants. The bears of Numidia stand out from other bears

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taxat villis profundioribus. Nam genitura par est, quoquo loco ge\nuerint. Coeunt non itidem quo quadrupedes alie, sed apti\ amplexibus mutuis velud humanis coniugationibus co\ pulantur. Desiderium veneris hyems suscitat. Secreti\ honore verentur, mares gravidas, et in isdem licet foveis\ partius tamen per scrobes se cubationibus dividuntur. Lu\cine illis properativum tempus est. Quippe uterum tricesimus dies liberat.\ Unde evenit ut precipitata fecunditas informes creat p\artus. Carnes paxillulas edunt, quibus color candidus, o\culi nulli. Has lambendo sensum [PL: sensim] figurant et interdum\ ad pectoratas fovent, ut assiduo incubitu calefacte, a\nimalem trahent spiritum. Interea cibus nullus sane diebus\ primis xiiii, mares in sompnum ita concidunt ut nec\ vulneribus excitari queant, enixeque ternis latent mensibus.\ Mox egresse in diem liberum, tantam paciuntur [patiuntur] inso\lentiam lucis, ut putes obsitas cecitate. Insidiantur\ alvearibus apum, maxime favos appetunt. Nec avidius\ aliquid quam mella captant. Cum gustaverint mandra\gore mala, moriuntur. Sed eunt obviam ne malum in perni\tiem convalescat, et formicas devorant, ad recuperandam\ sanitatem. Si quando tauros adoriuntur, sciunt quibus potissimum\ partibus minorantur, nec aliud quam cornua, aut nares pecunt.\ Nares ut acrior dolor sit in\ [loco] teneriore.\ De leucrota\ In India nascitur\ bestia nomine\ leucrota. Que velocitate prece\dit feras universas. Ipsa asini\ sit magnitudine, cervi clunibus\ pectore ac cruribus leonis, capita [A: capite]\

by virtue of the shagginess of their hair. Bears are bred in the same way, wherever they come from. They do not mate like other quadrupeds but embrace each other when they copulate, just like the couplings of humans. Winter arouses their desire. The males respect the pregant females, and honour them by leaving them alone; although they may share the same lair at the time of birth, they lie separated by a trench. Among bears the time of gestation is accelerated. Indeed, the thirtieth day sees the womb free of the cub. As a result of this rapid fertility, the cubs are created without form. The females produce tiny lumps of flesh, white in colour, with no eyes. These they shape gradually, holding them meanwhile to their breasts so that the cubs are warmed by the constant embrace and draw out the spirit of life. During this time bears eat no food at all in the first fortnight; the males fall so deeply asleep that they cannot be aroused even if they are wounded, and the females, after they have given birth, hide for three months. Soon after, when they emerge into the open, they are so unused to the light that you would think they had been blinded. They attack beehives and try hard to get honeycombs. There is nothing they seize more eagerly than honey. If they eat the fruit of the mandrake they die. But they prevent the misfortune from turning into disaster and eat ants to regain their health. If they attack bulls, they know the parts to threaten the most, and will not go for any part except the horns or nose: the nose, because the the pain is sharper in the more tender place. Of the leucrota The beast called leucrota comes from India. It is the swiftest of all wild animals. It is as big as an ass, with the hindquarters of a deer, the chest and legs of a lion, the head...

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[De parandro]\ fundo. Hunc parandrum affirmant habitum metu vertere\ et cum delitescat fieri ad similitudinem cuicumque rei proxi\maverit, sive illa saxo alba sit, seu frutecto virens, sive quem\ alium modum preferat.\ De vulpe\ Vulpis dicitur quasi vo\lupis. Est enim\ volubilis pedibus et\ nunquam recto itinere, \ sed tortuosis anfract\ibus currit. Est et\ fraudulentum ani\mal et ingeniosum.\ Cum esurit et [non] inve\nit quod manducet,\ involuit se in ru\bea terra ut appareat\ quasi cruentata, et proi\cit se in terram, retinetque flatum suum, ita ut penitus non spi\ret. Aves vero videntes eam non flantem, et quasi cruentatam, lin\guamque eius foris erectam, putant eam esse mortuam, et descen\dunt sessum super eam. Illa autem sic rapit eas et devorat.\ Istius eiusdemque figuram diabolus possidet. Omnibus enim\ viventibus secundum carnem vixeritis [A: fingit se] esse, mortuum quoadusque inter\ guttur suum habeat et puniat. Spiritualibus tamen viris in fi\de vere mortuus est, et ad nichilum redactus. Qui autem voluit\ exercere opera eius, moriuntur dicente apostolo: sciatis hoc quia si secundum\ carnem vixeritis moriemini. Si autem spiritu facta carnis mor\tificaveritis vivetis. Et David: Intrabunt in inferiora terre traden\tur in manus gladii partes vulpium erunt.\ De eale\

[Of the parander] ... thick coat. It is said that the parander changes its appearance when it is afraid and, when it hides itself, takes on the likeness of whatever is near - a white stone or a green bush or whatever other shape it prefers. Of the fox The word vulpis, fox, is, so to say, volupis. For it is fleet-footed and never runs in a straight line but twists and turns. It is a clever, crafty animal. When it is hungry and can find nothing to eat, it rolls itself in red earth so that it seems to be stained with blood, lies on the ground and holds it breath, so that it seems scarcely alive. When birds see that it is not breathing, that it is flecked with blood and that its tongue is sticking out of its mouth, they think that it is dead and descend to perch on it. Thus it seizes them and devours them. The Devil is of a similar nature. For to all who live by the flesh he represents himself as dead until he has them in his gullet and punishes them. But to spiritual men, living in the faith, he is truly dead and reduced to nothing. Those who wish to do the Devil's work will die, as the apostle says: 'For if ye live after the flesh, ye shall die; but if ye through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, ye shall live.' (Romans, 8:13) And David says: 'They shall go into the lower parts of the earth: they shall fall by the sword: they shall be a portion for foxes.' (Psalms, 63:9-10) Of the yale

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Est animal quod dicitur eale. Magnus\ ut equus cauda elephanti,\ nigro colore, maxillis aprinis,\ cornua preferens ultra modum\ longa, ad obsequium cuius velit \ motus accomodata. Nec enim\ rigent, sed moventur ut usus ex\igit preliandi, quorum alterum cum\ pugnat pretendit, alterum repli\cat, ut si ictu aliquo alterius acumen offenderet, acies succedat alterius. \

There is an animal called the yale. It is black, as big as a horse, with the tail of an elephant, the jaws of a boar and unusually long horns, adjustable to any movement the animal might make. For they are not fixed but move as the needs of fighting require; the yale advances one of them as it fights, folding the other back, so that if the tip of the first is damaged by a blow, it is replaced by the point of the second.

De lupe\ Lupus greca\ dirivatio\ne in linguam nostram transfer\tur. Lupos\ enim dicunt\ illi licos, licos\ autem grece, a \ morsibus apellantur, quod rabie rapacitatis, queque invene\rint trucidant. Alii lupos vocatos aiunt quasi leopos, quod quas\i leonibus ita sint illis virtus in pedibus. Unde et quicquid preserint\ non vivit. Lupus a rapacitate dicitur, unde et meretrices lupas vo\camus, quia amantium bona devastant. Rapax autem bestia et\ cruores appetentes. In pectore vel ore vires habet, in renibus vero\ minime. Collum nunquam retro valet flectere. Aliquando fertur\ vivere preda, aliquando terra, nonnunquam vento. Lupa de\nique mense alio nisi in Mayo, quando fit tonitruus catulos\ non gignit. Cuius astucia est tanta ut in vicinia sua predam\

Of the wolf The word lupus, wolf, in our Latin tongue derives from the Greek. For the Greeks call it licos; this comes from the Greek word for 'bites', because maddened by greed, wolves kill whatever they find. Others say the word lupus is, as it were, leo-pos, because like the lion, leo, their strength is in their paws, pes. As a result, whatever they seize does not survive. Wolves get their name from their rapacity: for this reason we call whores lupae, she-wolves, because they strip their lovers of their wealth. The wolf is rapacious beast and craves blood. It strength lies in its chest or its jaws, least of all in its loins. It cannot turn its neck around. It is said to live sometimes on its prey, sometimes on earth and sometimes, even, on the wind. The she-wolf bears cubs only in the month of May, when it thunders. Such is the wolf's cunning that it does not catch food for its cubs near its lair

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non capiat catulis suis sed in longinquo. Quod si opus fuerit ut\ predam noctu querat, tanquam canis mansuetus passim ad ovi\le pergit, et ne fortuitu sui flatus odorem senciant canes, et\ evigilent pastores, contra ventum vadit. Et si ramus aut\ aliquid tangendo sub eius pede sonaverit, ipsum pedem\ castigat morsu aperto. Oculi eius in nocte lucent velud lucer\ne. Cuius natura talis est, ut si prior hominem viderit, vocem eripet\ et despicit eum tanquam vircor [A: victor] vocis ablate. Idem si se pre\visum senserit, deponit ferocitatem et non potest currere.\ Solinus refert qui plura de naturis rerum dicit, caude ani\malis huius vellus amatorium inesse perexiguum, quod dentibus\ ipse evellit, si forte capi timuerit, non habet potenciam, nisi\ illo vivente detrahatur. Lupi figuram diabolus portat,\ qui semper humano generi invidet, ac iugiter circuit caulas\ ecclesie fidelium, ut mactet et perdat eorum animas. Quod\ vero generat tonitruo primo mensis May, significat dia\bolum, in primo superbie motu cecidisse de celo. Quod autem\ in anterioribus membris vires habet, et non in posterioribus eundem\ diabolum significat, prius in celo angelum lucis fuisse nunc\ vero deorsum apostatum factum esse. Oculi eius in nocte lucent,\ velud lucerne quia quedam diaboli opera cecis et fatuis viris,\ videntur esse pulchra et salubria. Cum catulos gignit, \ non nisi in longinquo predam capit, quia eos diabolus bo\nis temporalibus fovet, de quibus certus est, in gehennalibus\ claustris secum penas perpeti. Illos autem omnino insequitur\ qui bonis operibus ab eo elongantur, sicut de beato Iob legitur,\ cui nomen substanciam, necnon filios et filias abstulit, ut a do\mino recederet cor eius. Quod nunquam collum retro sine to\to corpore valet flectere, significat diabolum ad peni\

but far away. If it has to hunt its prey at night, it goes like a tame dog here and there to a sheepfold, and lest the sheepdogs catch its scent and wake the shepherds, it goes upwind. And if a twig or anything, under the pressure of its paw, makes a noise, it nips the the paw as a punishment. The wolf's eyes shine in the night like lamps. It has this characteristic, that if it sees a man first, it takes away his power of speech and looks at him with scorn, as victor over the voiceless. If it senses that the man has seen it first, it loses its fierceness and its power to run. Solinus, who has a lot to say about the nature of things, says that on the tail of this animal there is a tiny patch of hair which is a love-charm; if the wolf fears that it may be captured, it tears the hair out with its teeth; the charm has no power unless the the hair is taken from the wolf while it is still alive. The Devil has the nature of a wolf; he always looks with an evil eye upon mankind and continually circles the sheepfold of the faithful of the Church, to ruin and destroy their souls. The fact that the she-wolf gives birth when the thunder first sounds in the month of May signifies the Devil, who fell from heaven at the first display of his pride. The fact that its strength lies in its forequarters and not in its hindquarters also signfies the Devil, who was formerly the angel of light in heaven, but has now been made an apostate below. The wolf's eyes shine in the night like lamps because the works of the Devil seem beautiful and wholesome to blind and foolish men. When the she-wolf bears her young, she will only catch food for them far away from her lair, because the Devil cherishes with wordly goods those he is sure will suffer punishment with him in the confines of hell. But he constantly pursues those who distance themselves from him by good works; as we read of the blessed Job, whose name, substance, sons and daughters the devil carried off to make him desert the Lord in his heart. The fact that the wolf cannot turn his neck without turning the whole of his body signifies that the Devil

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tudinis correctionem [A: correptionem] nunquam flecti. Quid vero agendum est homini\ cui lupus abstulit vires clamandi , qui vero non habet potestatem vocife\randi, perdit auxilium longe stantis. Sed quid agendum sit?\ Deponat vestimentum suum homo pedibus suis conculcandum\ sumens in manibus duos lapides quos feriat alterutrum. Quid\ inde? Lupus audaciam sue virtutis perdens, fugiet. Homo vero\ tutus suo ingenio liber erit sicut in principio. Spiritualiter autem hoc\ intelligendum est atque ad superiorem locum allegorice, est di\cendum [PL: discendum]. Quid enim per lupum nisi diabolum? Quid per\ hominem nisi peccatum? Quid per lapides nisi

never turns towards the correction of penitence. Now what is to be done for a man when the wolf has taken away his power of shouting, when he has lost even the power of speech; he loses the help of those who are at a distance. But what is to be done? The man should take off his clothes and trample them underfoot, and taking two stones in his hands, he should beat one against the other. What happens then? The wolf, losing the boldness that comes with its courage will run away. The man, saved by his cleverness, will be free, as he was in the beginning. This is to be understood in spiritual terms and can be taken to a higher level as an allegory. For what do we

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apostolos, seu\ ceteros sanctos vel dominum nostrum significare poterimus? Omnes enim\ per prophetam adamantini lapides dicti sunt. Ipse enim dominus noster\ Iesu Christus in lege vocatus lapis offensionis, et petra scan\dali, de quo dicit propheta: Vidi virum stantem supra montem\ adamantinum. Antequam denique redempti essemus, sub potesta\te inimici eramus, vocemque clamandi perdideramus quoniam pec\catis nostris exigentibus a deo non audiebamur, neque aliquem\ sanctorum in auxilium nobis interpellabamus. Postquam vero clemens\ dominus gratificavit nos in filio suo, deposuimus in baptismo\ veterem hominem cum actibus suis, ac induimus novum qui\ secundum dominum creatus est. Deinde sumpsimus lapides in manibus\ de quibus alterutrum ferimus, quia sanctos dei qui iam in celis reg\nant cum ipso, nostri oris ferimus alloquio, ut et ipsi au\res pulsent iudicis, ac veniam nobis impetrent criminis\ ne nos quem nescimus sorbeat Cerberus, gaudens nostro interitu.\ Lupi toto anno non amplius quam dies xii coeunt; famem diu\ portant, et post longa ieiunia multum devorant. Lupos \ Ethiopia mittit, cervice iubatos, et tanto varios ut nul\lum eis colorem dicunt abesse. Ethopicis lupis proprium\

mean by the wolf if not the Devil? What by the man, if not sin? What by the stones, if not the apostles, or other saints of our Lord? For they are all called by the prophet 'stones of adamant'. (see Ezekiel, 3:9) For our Lord himself is called in the law 'a stumbling stone and rock of offence'; (see Romans, 9:33, 1 Peter, 2:8) and the prophet says of him: 'I saw a man standing on a mountain of adamant.' [SOURCE] Before we were finally redeemed, we were under the power of the enemy and had lost the capacity to call for help, and much as our sins required it, we were not heard by God, nor could we call any of the saints to our aid. But after God in his mercy bestowed his grace upon us in his son, in the act of baptism we laid aside, like old clothes, the person we were before, with all his deeds, and put on, like new clothes, a new person made in the image of God. Then we took stones in our hands and beat them one against the other, because we attract with our prayers the attention of the saints of God, who now reign with him in heaven, asking them to gain the ear of God, our judge, and procure a pardon for our sin, lest Cerberus, whom we do not know should swallow us up, rejoicing in our death. Wolves mate on no more than twelve days in the year. They can go hungry for a long time, and after long fasts, eat a large amount. Ethiopia produces wolves with manes, so diversely coloured, men say, that no hue is lacking. A characteristic of Ethiopian wolves

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est quod insaliendo, ita visus habent alitis, ut magis profici\ciant cursui quam meatu. Homines tamen nunquam impetunt. Bru\ma comati sunt. Estate nudi. Ethiopes eos vocant theas.

never turns towards the correction of penitence. is that they leap so high that they seem to have wings, going further than they would by running. They never attack men, however. In winter, they grow long hair; in summer, they are hairless. The Ethiopians call them theas.

De \ natura canum \ Canis nomen Latinum \Grecam ethimologiam \habere videtur. Greco \enim cenos dicitur, licet \quidem a canore latra\tus appellatum existi\ment, eo quod insonat \unde et canere dicitur. Ni\chil sagatius canibus plus \enim sensus ceteris a\nimalibus habent, nam soli sua nomina cognoscunt, do\minos suos diligunt. Canum sunt plurima genera, alii ad \capiendum investigant feras silvarum, alii ab infesta\tionibus luporum, vigilando greges custodiunt ovium,\alii custodes domorum, substantiam dominorum suorum custodiunt \ne forte rapiatur, in nocte a latronibus et pro dominos \suos se morti obiciunt, voluntarie ad predam cum \domino currunt, corpus domini sui etiam mortu\um custodiunt, et non linqunt. Quorum post\tremo nature est, extra hominem esse non posse. \

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Of the nature of dogs The Latin name for the dog, canis, seems to have a Greek origin. For in Greek it is called cenos, although some think that it is called after the musical sound, canor, of its barking, because when it howls, it is also said to sing, canere. No creature is more intelligent than the dog, for dogs have more understanding than other animals; they alone recognise their names and love their masters. There are many kinds of dogs: some track down the wild beasts of the forests to catch them; others by their vigilance guard flocks of sheep from the attacks of wolves; others as watchdogs in the home guard the property of their masters lest it be stolen by thieves at night and sacrifice their lives for their master; they willingly go after game with their master; they guard his body even when he is dead and do not leave it. Finally, their nature is that they cannot exist without man

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Item de natura canum.

Also of the nature of dogs

\ Legitur in \tantum \suos diligere \dominos, ut \Garamantem \regem ab ini\micis captum \ac in custodia \mancipatum, ducenti canes \agmine facto per medias aci\es inimicorum \ab exilio redu\xerunt prelian\tes adversus \resistentes. Ja\sone licio inter\fecto canis ipsius aspernatus cibum inedia obiit. Lisimachi\ regis canis, flamme se iniecit, accenso rogo domini sui et pa\riter igni absumptus est. Apio Junio Pictinio consulibus damp\natum dominum canis cum ambigi [PL, abigi] non posset comitatus in carcerem,\mox percussum ululatu prosecutus est. Cumque ex miseratione populi Roma\ni potestas ei fieret cibi, ad os defuncti escam tulit. \Ultimo\ idem deiectum in Tyberum cadaver, adnatans sustentare conatus.

We read that dogs have such great love for their masters, as when King Garamentes was caught by his enemies and taken into captivity, two hundred dogs went in formation through enemy lines and led him back from exile, fighting off those who resisted them. When Jason [Licio] was killed, his dog rejected food and died of starvation. The dog of King Lysimachus threw itself in the flame when its master's funeral pyre was lit and was consumed by fire along with him. When Apius and Junius Pictinius were consuls, a dog that could not be driven away from its master, who had been condemned, accompanied him to prison; when, soon afterwards, he was executed, it followed him, howling. When the people of Rome, out of pity, caused it to be fed, it carried the food to its dead master's mouth. Finally, when its master's corpse was thrown into the Tiber, the dog swam to it and tried to keep it from sinking.

\Cani vero ubi vestigium leporis cervive reppererit, atque ad diverti\culum semite venerit, et quoddam viarum compitum, quod partes\ in plurimas scinditur, obiciens [obiens; PL, ambiens] singularum semitarum exordia\ tacitus secum ipse pertractat, velud sillogisticam vocem, saga\citatem colligendi odoris emittens. Aut in hanc partem, inquid\ deflexit aut in illam, aut certe in hunc se anfractum contulit.\

When a dog picks up the track of a hare or a deer and comes to a place where the trail divides or to a junction splitting into several directions, it goes to the beginning of each path and silently reasons with itself, as if by syllogism, on the basis of its keen sense of smell. 'Either the animal went off in this direction,' it says, 'or that, or certainly it took this turning.'

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Iterum de natura canum \

Again on the nature of dogs

Sepe \etiam \necis il\late evi\dentia canes \ad red\arguen\dos reos \indicia \prodiderunt, \ut mu\to eorum \testimo\nio ple\rumque \sit credi\tum. \Antiochie ferunt in remociore parte urbis quendam crepus\culo necatum virum, qui canem sibi adiunctum haberet. Mi\les quidam predandi studio minister extiterat cedis. Tectus \idem tenebroso diei adhuc exordio, in alias partes secesse\rat. Iacebat inhumatum cadaver, frequens erat spectantium \vulgus, astabat canis, questu lacrimabili domini deflebat \erumpnam. Forte is qui necem intulerat ut se habet versucia \humani ingenii quo versandi in medio auctoritate presumpta \fidem ascisceret innocentie, ad illam circumspectantis \populi accessit coronam, et velut miserans appropinquavit \

Often, also, when a murder has been committed, dogs have produced clear evidence of the guilt of the accused, with the result that their unspoken testimony is for the most part believed. They say that at Antioch, in a distant quarter of the city at dusk, a man was murdered, who had his dog with him on a lead. A soldier had been the perpetrator of the deed, with robbery as his motive. Under cover of the growing darkness, he fled elsewhere. The corpse lay unburied; the crowd of onlookers was large; the dog stayed at its master's side, howling over his sad fate. It happened that the man who had committed the crime, acting confidently in order to convince people of his innocence - such is the cunning way in which men think - joined the circle of onlookers and, feigning grief, approached

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ad funus. Tunc canis sequestrato paulisper questu doloris, \arma ultionis assumpsit, atque apprehensum tenuit, et velud \epilogo quodam miserabile carmen immurmurans, univer\sos convertit in lacrimas,

the corpse. Then the dog, briefly abandoning its doleful lament, took up the arms of vengeance, seized the man and held him, and, softly singing a pitiful song, as in the epilogue of a tragedy, moved

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fidemque probationi detulit, quod solum \tenuit ex plurimis nec dimisit. Denique perturbatus ille quod \tam manifestum rei indicium, neque odii neque inimiciciarum \neque invidie aut iniurie alicuius poterat obiectione vacuare, \crimenque diutius nequit refellere. Itaque quod erat difficilius [PL, ratione consonum] ultio\nem perpessus est, quia defensionem sibi prestare non potuit. Lingua \canis dum lingit vulnus, sanat illud. Victus eius admodum \modicus esse fertur. Catuli denique lingua vulneratorum solet \esse saluti intestinorum. Natura eius est ut ad vomitum suum rever\tatur iterumque comedat. Cumque fluvium transnataverit car\nem vel aliquid tale in ore tenens, cum viderit umbram \os suum aperit, atque dum properat aliam carnem sumere, ipsam \quam tenet amittit. Cuius figuram in quibusdam rebus predica\tores habent, qui semper admonendo ac exercendo que recta sunt \insidias diaboli propellunt, ne thesaurum domini, id est animas Christia\norum rapiendo ipse auferat. Lingua canis dum lingit vul\nus curat. Quia peccorum vulnera cum in confessione nudantur, \sacerdotum corrrectione mundantur. Intestina quoque hominis curat \lingua canis, quia secreta cordis sepe mundantur opere et sermone \doctoris. Modicus admodum victus canis dicitur esse, quia qui preest \aliis, sapientie studiis invigilat, crapulamque omnimodis vita\re debet, nam in saturitate panis Sodoma periit. Nullo demum \aditu tam cito possidet inimicus hominem quam voraci gula. \Quod canis ad vomitum redeat, significat quosdam post peractam \confessionem incaute ad perpetrata facinora redire. Quod carnem \in flumine propter concupitam umbram relinquid, significat\

everyone to tears; and the fact that the dog held that man alone, of the many that were there, and did not let him go, lent weight to its case. In the end, the murderer was at a loss because the evidence in the case was so plain; he could not clear himself by objecting that he was the victim of anyone's hate, enmity, envy or spite, and he could no longer rebut the charge. Because it was very difficult for him, he suffered punishment, because he could offer no defence.

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stultos homines propter ambicionem ignote rei, id sepe quod proprii\iuris est relinquere. Unde fit, ut dum non valent adipisci id \quod cupiunt, perdere frustra norunt id quod reliquerunt. Licisci \dicuntur canes, quod ex lupis et canibus nascuntur, cum inter se \forte miscentur. Solent et inde femine canes noctum silvis al\ligate admitti ad tigres bestias a quibus insiliri et nasci ex eo\dem fetu canes acerrimi adeo fortes ut complexu leones pro\sternant. Quocienscumque peccator vult factorem suum placere \necessarium est ei et utile, ut tres spirituales conductores querat, \qui tres spirituales legatos cum tribus donis spiritualibus ad recon\ciliationem sui coram factore conducant. Qui conductores \et legati cum suis donis spiritualibus ita disponuntur. Primus \legatus est cordis ploratus, secundus vera confessio,

foolish men who often forsake what is theirs by right out of desire for some unknown object; with the result that, while they are unable to obtain the object of their desire, they needlessly lose what they have given up.

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A dog's tongue, licking a wound, heals it. A dog's way of life is said to be wholly temperate. A puppy's tongue is generally a cure for internal injuries. It is characteristic of a dog that it returns to its vomit and eats it again. If a dog swims across a river carrying a piece of meat or anything of that sort in its mouth, and sees its shadow, it opens its mouth and in hastening to seize the other piece of meat, it loses the one it was carrying. In some ways preachers are like dogs: by their admonitions and righteous ways they are always driving off the ambushes laid by the Devil, lest he seize and carry off God's treasure - Christian souls. As the dog's tongue, licking a wound, heals it, the wounds of sinners, laid bare in confession, are cleansed by the correction of the priest. As the dog's tongue heals man's internal wounds, the secrets of his heart are often purified by the deeds and discourse of the Church's teachers. As the dog is said to be temperate in its ways, the man who is set over others diligently studies wisdom and must avoid drunkenness and gluttony in every way, for Sodom perished in a surfeit of food. Indeed, there is no quicker way for the Devil, his enemy, to take possession of man than through his greedy gullet. The dog returning to its vomit signifies those who, after making their confession, heedlessly return to wrongdoing. The dog leaving its meat behind in the river, out of desire for its shadow, signifies

Some dogs are called licisici, wolf-hounds, because they are born of wolves and dogs, when by chance these mate. In India bitches are tethered at night in the forests to breed with wild tigers, by whom they are mounted, producing very fierce dogs, so strong that with their grip they can pull down lions. Whenever a sinner wishes to please his maker, it is necessary and advantageous for him to seek out three spiritual masters, who will hire three spiritual

tertius vera penitentia. \Conductores eorum sunt, amor domini, bona voluntas, rectum opus. \Dona spiritualia sunt mundicia corporis et anime, oratio pura, \boni operis perseverantia,[qui legati et conductores cum spiritualibus] \donis sic coram tri[nitate procedunt. Coram deo patre procedit] \ploratus cum amore d[ei defferens mundiciam corporis et anime.] \Coram filio vera co[nfessio cum voluntate bona puram orati] \onem deferens. Coram spiritu sancto peni tencia vera cum recto] \opere perseverantiam bo[ni operis portans. Sint corpori debili\] \tato necessarie sunt pociones ad sanandas illius infirmita\] \tes, ita anime peccati[rici, necessaria est pocio, per quam sanetur] \spiritualis eius corruptio, fit autem pocio anime ex quatuor speciebus] \id est cordis ploratus, vera confessione, penitencia vera, operati] \one recta. Que ita co [mpetens est ad sanandas illius infirmi\] \tates, quod dum ab ea anima inungitur, statim a suis infir\mitatibus sanatur. Sed sanata si sine honesto indumento \relinqueretur, quomodo in celesti curia ubi debet presentari\

servants with three spiritual gifts in order to reconcile the man with his maker. The masters and their servants with the three gifts are in this order: the first servant is a tearful heart; the second, true confession; the third, sincere repentance. Their masters are the love of God, righteous desire and good deeds. The spiritual gifts are cleanliness of body and mind, purity of speech, and perseverance in good works. The servants and their masters with their spiritual gifts appear before the Trinity in this way: before God the Father appears the tearful heart bearing cleanliness of body and mind; before God the Son appears true confession with righteous desire and purity of speech; before the Holy Spirit appears sincere repentance with good deeds, bearing perseverance in good works. As potions are necessary for a sick body to heal its infirmities, a potion is needed to cure its spiritual corruption, a potion of four ingredients - a tearful heart, true confession, sincere repentance and good conduct. This potion is a fitting remedy for the spiritual ailments of the body because when the soul is anointed with it, it is at once cured of its frailties. But if the soul, once healed, is left without a decent covering, how, in the heavenly court where it must be presented,

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coram factore suo presentaretur. Oportet ergo ut homo qui ad \regendum et induendum eam suscepit its honeste etc com\petenter induat ut laudabiliter coram angelis eam in celo \presentare valeat. Primum indumentum unde anima vesti\ri debet, est mundicia. Nulla enim in celesti curia presentatur, \que vel hic vel in futuro non mundetur. Alia vero indumen\ta sunt, pietas, misericordia, cetereque virtutes quibus debet ve\stiri. Vera vero talibus indumentis cum tribus conductis, id est cogi\tatione pura, verbo bono, opere perfecto, in celesti gloria honeste potest \presentari, ubi remunerabitur illa beatudine, quam optinent \angeli ad quam optinendum hominem deus creavit, et tres \consiliatores ei attribuit, scilicet spiritualem intellectum, \potestatem bene agendi, et sapientiam, quibus si adquiesce\ret, regnum celeste non amitteret, sed quia illis non adquie\vit hereditatem suam amisit. \

will it be presented before its maker? The man who undertakes to order and array his soul, must clothe it decently and fittingly, therefore, so that he can present it in a praiseworthy fashion before the angels in heaven. The first garment in which the soul should be clad is purity. For no soul can be presented in the court of heaven, which now or in the future is not pure. Other garments are piety, charity and other virtues in which it should be attired.

De ove\ Quis molle pecus lanis corpore in erme, animo placidum, ab oblatione dictum, eo quod apud veteres in inicio non tauri, sed oves in sacrificio mactarentur. Ex his quibusdam videntes vocant, easque inter octo dentes duos altiores habent, quos maxime \gentiles in sacrificium offerebant. Ovis sub adventu hye \mis inexplebilis ad escam, insaciabiliter herbam rapit, eo \quod presentiat asperitatem hyemis affuturam, ut se prius herbe \

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Clad in such raiment, with the three guides, purity of thought, chasteness of speech and perfection in deeds, the soul can be presented honourably in the glory of heaven, where it will be rewarded by that blessed state which the angels enjoy, for which God created man, assigning him three counsellors, spiritual understanding, the capacity for doing good, and wisdom; if man accedes to them, he will not lose his heavenly kingdom; because man did not accede to them, he lost his inheritance. Of the sheep The sheep, a gentle animal, its body clad in wool, harmless, placid by nature, gets its name from oblatio, an offering, because men of old offered as a sacrifice not bulls but sheep. Some are called 'bidents', having two teeth among their eight which are more prominent than the others; the pagans

dedicated these, in particular, as a sacrifice. As winter approaches, the sheep is ravenous for food and devours grass insatiably, because it senses the coming severity of the season and seeks to stuff itself

Transcription

Folio 21r Translation

pabulo farciat, quam gelu adurente omnis herba deficiat. \ De vervece \ Vervex vel a viribus dictus quod ceteris ovibus sit fortior vel quod sit vir, id est masculus, vel quod vermes in capite habeat, quorum excreati pruritu, invicem se concuciunt, et pugnantes cum magno impetu feriunt. Aries vel aito to peoc, id est a marte vocatus. unde apud nos in gregibus masculi mares dicuntur, \sive quod hoc [ecus a gentibus primum aris est immolatum \ut aries quod imponeretur aris. Unde est illud, aries mactatur ad \aram. \ De agno \ Agnus dicitur quasi pius, latine autem ideo hoc nomen habere putant, eo quod pre ceteris animantibus is matrem agnoscat, adeo ut ei iam si in magno grege erret, statim balatu recognoscat vocem parentis, fe\stinatque ad matrem. Lactis quoque materni notos sibi fontes requi\rit. Mater vero inter multa agnic\culorum milia solum filium no\uit. Unus est plurimorum balatus \eadem species, sed illa tamen fetum \suum discernit a ceteris et solum \filium tanto pietatis testimonio \recognoscit. \ De hyrco \

with fodder before the grass fails in the sharp frost. Of the wether, or ram The wether gets its name, vervex, either from its strength, vires, because it is stronger than other sheep, or because it is a man, vir, that is, male, or because it has worms, vermes, in its head; irritated by the itching which these cause, wethers strike each other, butting their heads together in combat with great force. It is also called a ram, aries, from the Greek, Ares, that is, the god of war; in Latin, Mars; that is why we call the males in a flock mares. Or because, once upon a time, this animal was offered as a sacrifice by pagans on their altars: thus, aries, because it is laid upon an altar, ara. From which we get: 'the ram is sacrificed at the altar' (see Exodus, 29:18). Of the lamb The lamb is called agnus possibly from the Greek word agnos, pious. Some think that it gets the Latin form of its name because, more than any other animal, it recognises, agnoscere, its mother, so much so that, even if it strays in the midst of a large flock, it recognises its mother's voice by her bleat and hurries to her. It seeks out also the sources of mother's milk which are familiar to it. The mother recognises her lamb alone among many thousands of others. Lambs in large numbers make the same baaing noise and look the same, yet she picks out her offspring among the others and by her great show of tenderness identifies it as hers alone. Of the he-goat

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Folio 21v Translation

Hircus lascivum et petulcum animal et fervens \semper ad coitum, cuius oculi ob libidinem in transversum \aspiciunt. Unde et nomen traxit. Nam hirci sunt oculorum angeli \secundum Suetonium. Cuius natura adeo calidissima est ut adaman\tem lapidem quem nec ignis nec ferri valet domare materia \solus huius cruor dissolvat. Hedi ab edendo vocati, parvi \enim pinguissimi sunt, et saporis iocundi. Unde et ede \inde et edulium vocatur. \ De apro \ Aper a feritate ablata, f littera, et subrogata p unde apud grecos suagros idest ferus dicitur. Omne

The he-goat is a wanton and frisky animal, always longing for sex; as a result of its lustfulness its eyes look sideways - from which it has has derived its name. For, according to Suetonius, hirci are the corners of the eyes. Its nature is so very heated that its blood alone will dissolve a diamond, against which the properties of neither fire nor iron can prevail. Kids, hedi, take their name from the word for eating, edendum, for the young ones are very fat and taste delicious. As a result their name means 'eat' and 'eatable'.

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enim quod ferum est et immite, abusive agreste vocamus. \ De iuvenco \ Iuvencus dictus quod iuvare incipiat hominum usus in terra \colenda, vel quia apud gentiles iovi semper ubique iu\vencus immmmolabatur, et nunquam taurus. Nam in victimis \etiam etas considerabatur. Taurus grecum nomen est sicut et bos. \Indicis tauris colr fulvus est, volueris pernicitas. pilus in contrarium versus hiatus omne quod caput. Hi quoque circumferunt cornua flexibilitate qua volunt, tergi duricia omne telum respuunt, tam immiti feritate \

Of the boar The boar gets its name, aper, from its wildness, a feritate, the letter f being replaced by a p; for the same reason, it is called by the Greeks suagros, meaning wild. For everything which is untamed and savage we call, loosely, agreste, wild. Of the bullock The bullock is called iuvencus because it undertakes to help man in his work of tilling the ground, or because among pagans it was always a bullock which was sacrificed to Jove - never a bull. For in selecting sacrificial victims, age also was a consideration. The word for bull, taurus, is Greek, as the word for ox, bos. The bulls of India are tawny in hue and so swiftfooted that they seem to fly. Their hair grows against the nap of their coat, their mouth opens to the size of their head. They also move their horns in whatever direction they wish, and the toughness of their hides turns aside all weapons. So fierce and savage are they ...

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[De equo part] etudinis si mutentur. Aliqui preter dominum dorso nullum re\recipiunt, unde exemplum dabimus. Alexandri magni equus \Bucefala dictus, sive de aspectus torvitate, seu ab insigni quod \taurinum caput armo inustum habebat, seu quod e fronte \eius quedam corniculorum mine protuberabant, cum ab equa\rio suo alias etiam molliter sedetur accepto regio stratu neminem \unquam preter dominum vehere dignatus est. Documenta eius in preliis plu\ra sunt, quibus Alexandrum crudelissimis certaminibus sospitem \opere suo extulit. Equus Gaii Cesaris nullum preter Cesarem dor\so recepit. Regem Scitarum singulari certamine interemptum, \cum adversarius victor spoliare vellet, ab equo eius calcibus mor\suque est laceratus. Nichomede rege interfecto equus eius inedia vi\tam expulit. Cum prelio Anthiocus Galathas subegisset, Cin\tareti nomine ducis qui in acie cediderat equum insilivit pug\naturus. Isque adeo sprevit lupatos ut de industria cernuatus, \ruina pariter et se et equitem affligeret. In huiscemodi animalis \genere etas longior maribus. Legimus sane equum ad annos lxx \vixisse. Notatum etiam advertimus Opuntem nomine equum ad \gregariam venerem durasse ad annos quadraginta. Equarum libi\do extinguitur iubis tonsis, in quarum partu amoris nascitur vene \ficium, quod in frontibus preferunt editi fulvo colore caricis simile, \hipponenses nominatur. Quod si preraptum statim fuerit nequaquam \mater pullo ubera prebet fellitando. Quo equis amor fuerit speique \maioris, eo profundius nares mersitat in bibendo. Interfectis vel \morientibus dominis equi lacrimas fundunt. Solum enim equum \dicunt propter hominem lacrimare et doloris affectum sentire. Unde \et in centauris equorum et hominum natura permixta est. Solent enim \ex equorum vel mesticia vel alacritate eventum futurum dimica\turi colligere. Frequens opinio est in generosis equis ut \

[Of the horse] [... Some horses recognise their own masters, and] if these change, forget their training. Others let no-one on their back except their master - we will give an example of this. The horse of Alexander the Great was called Bucefala, either from its savage appearance, or from its brand it had a bull's-head burnt into its shoulder - or because the points of little horns grew out of its forehead. Although it was ridden by its groom at times without resisting, once it carried the royal saddle, it would never deign to carry anyone but its master the king. There are many accounts of this horse in battles where, by its own efforts, it carried Alexander unharmed from the fiercest fights. The horse of Gaius Caesar allowed no-one on its back but Caesar. When the king of the Scythians was killed in single combat, his victorious opponent sought to plunder his corpse but was mauled by the king's horse, which kicked and bit him. When King Nicomedes was killed, his horse starved itself to death. When Antiochus conquered the Galatians, he leapt on the horse of a general, Cintaretus by name, who had fallen in battle, in order to go on fighting. But the horse reacted against the bit to such an extent that it fell deliberately, injuring both itself and its rider in the fall. Among this kind of animal, the males live longer. Indeed, we read of horses living for seventy years. We note also that a stallion called Opuntes was at stud up to the age of forty. In mares, sexual desire is quenched when their mane is cropped; when they give birth, a love charm appears, which the foals display on their foreheads, tawny in colour, like a tuft of sedge, called hipponenses. If it is taken away immediately, the mother will on no account give her udders to the foal to suckle it. The deeper a horse dips its nostrils when drinking, the better its prospects. Horses weep for their slain or dying masters. It is said that the horse alone weeps for men and feels the emotion of grief on their account. Following on from this, the characteristics of horses and men are intermingled in the centaurs. Men riding into battle can infer from the low or high spirits of their mounts, what the outcome will be. The general view is that in horses of good pedigree ...

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Translation

aiunt veteres, quatuor expectantur, forma, pulcritudo,

as the ancients said, you look for four things: form,

sensorgr

meri\tum atque color. Forma ut sit validum corpus et solidum, robori conveniens altitudo, latus longum, substrictum, \maximi et rotundi clunes, pectus late patens, corpus omne \maculorum densitate nodosum, pes siccus, et cornu concavo \solidatus. Pulchritudo ut sit exiguum caput, et siccum, \pelle prope ossibus adherente. Aures breves et argute, oculi \magni, nares patule et erecta cervix. Goma densa et cauda \ungularum fixa rotunditas. Meritum, ut sit animo au\dax, pedibus alacer, trementibus membris, quod est fortitu\dinis indicium, quique ex summa quiete facile concitatur, \et excitata festinatione non difficile teneatur. Motus autem \equi in auribus intelligitur, virtus in membris trementibus. \Color hic precipue expectandus badius, aureus, roseus, mir\teus, cervinus, gilvus, glaucus, scutulatus, canus, candidus, \albus, guttatus niger. Sequenti autem ordine varius ex nigro \badioque distinctus, reliquus varius color vel cinereus deter\imus. Badium autem antiqui validum dicebant, quod inter \cetera animalia forcius vadat. Ipse est et spadix, quem Fenica\tum vocant, et dictus a colore palme quam Syrii spadicem \vocant. Glaucus vero est veluti pictos habens oculus, et quodam splen\dore perfusos. Gilvus autem melius color est subalbidus. Guttatus \albus nigris intervenientibus punctis. Candidus autem et albus, invi\cem sibi differunt. Nam albus cum quodam pallore est. Candidus \vero est niveus et pura luce perfusus. Canus dictus quia ex candido \colore et nigro est. Scutulatus vocatus propter orbes quos habet candidos \inter purpuras. Varius quod vias habet imparium colorum. Qui \autem albos tamen pedes habent, petili appellantur, qui frontem albam \calidi. Cervinus est quem vulgo gaurantem dicunt. Onosimus\

beauty, temperament and colour.

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autem dictus quod sit color eius de asino idem et cinereus. \Sunt autem hii agresti de genere orti quos equiferos dicimus \et proinde ad urbanam dignitatem transire non possunt. \Mauron niger est, nigrum enim Greci mauron vocant. Man\nus vero equus brevior est quem vulgo brunium vocant. Veredos \antiqui dixerunt quod veherent redas, id est ducerent, vel

is so called because its colour is that of an ass, whose coat is also the colour of ashes. These are found in the country, bred from the species we call equiferi, wild horses, and cannot therefore make the transition to domesticated status. The horse called mauron, a moor or arab, is black, because the Greek word for a black man is mauron. A cob, mannus, is a smaller

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As to form, the body should be sound and firm; its height consistent with strength; long and narrow in the flank; haunches, large and rounded; broad chest; the entire body knotted with the thickness of its muscles; dry hooves, supported by a curved frog. As to beauty: its head should be small and dry; the skin taut against its bones; the ears, short and neat; the eyes, large, the nostrils broad and the neck erect; the mane, and tail, thick; the hooves firmly curved. As to temperament: it should be bold of spirit, lightfooted, with quivering limbs - a sign of courage; it should be easy to rouse when it is at rest, and once it has been put to the gallop, it should not be difficult to control. You can judge the pace of a horse by the pricking of its ears, its mettle from the quivering of its limbs. The main colours to be found are: bay, golden, rosy, chestnut, tawny-red, pale yellow, blue-grey, dappled, light grey, brilliant white, ordinary white, piebald, black. After these come variegated colours based on black or bay; other mixtures or those which are the colour of ashes are the lowest sort According to the ancients, a bay, badius, was a powerful horse, because among other animals its pace was stronger. The same horse was called spadix or fenicatus, date-brown, from the palm-tree which the Syrians call spadix. The blue-grey, glaucus, is like the colour of eyes, painted and suffused with brightness. The pale yellow, gilvus, is better described by the colour 'off-white'. A piebald horse, guttatus, is white, mottled with black. The brilliant and ordinary white, candidus and albus, differ one from the other. For the ordinary white has a sort of paleness, but the brilliant white is like snow, suffused with pure, shining light. Light grey, canus, is so called because it is composed of brilliant white and black. A dappled horse, scutulatus, gets its name from its circular, shield-like, patches of brilliant white and dark brown. A variegated horse, varius, is so called because it has stripes of different colours. Those which have white feet are called petili; 'slenderfeet'; those with a white forehead callidi, 'hotheads'. The tawny-red horse, cervinus, is commonly called gaurans. The horse called vosinus

quod vias \publicas currant per quas et redas ire solitum erat. Equorum \tria genera sunt. Unum generosum preliis, et oneribus aptum, al\terum vulgare atque gregarium ad vehendum, non ad equitan\dum aptum. Tercium ex permixtione diversi generis ortum, quod \etiam dicitur bigenerum, quia ex diversis nascitur ut mulus. Mulus a \Greco tractum vocabulum habet. Greco enim hoc vocatur vel quod iu\go pistorum subactus, tardas molendo ducat in girum molas. \Judei asserunt quod Ana abnepos Esau equarum greges ab asi\nis in deserto ipse primus fecerit ascendi, ut multorum inde nova \contra naturam animalia nascerentur. Onagros quoque ad hoc admis\sos esse ad asinas, et ipsum istiusmodi reperisse concubitum, ut ex his \velocissimi asini nascerentur. Industria quippe humana \diversum animal in coitu coegit. Sicque adulterina commix\tione genus aliud reperit, sicut et Jacob contra naturam colorum \similitudines procuravit. Nam tales fetus oves illius concipi\ebant, quales umbras arietum desuper ascendentium in \aquarum speculo contemplabantur. Denique et hoc ipsum in equo\rum gregibus fieri fertur, ut generosus obiciant visibus concipi\entium, quo eorum similes concipere et creare possint. Nam et \columbarum dilectores depictas ponunt pulcherrimas co\lumbas hisdem locis quibus ille versantur, quo rapiente visu simi-les generent. Inde est quod quidam gravidas milieres iubent \nullos intueri turpissimos animalium vultus, ut scenophalos \

kind of horse, commonly called brunius 'a brown'. The ancients called post-horses veredi, because they drew carriages, vehere redas, that is, because they pulled them or because they went on public highways, via, along which carriages, reda, customarily go.

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et simias, ne visibus occurrentes similes fetus pariant. Hanc \enim feminarum esse naturam, ut quales perspexerint, sive mente \in extremo voluptatis estu dum concipiunt, talem et sobo\lem procreent, et enim animalia in usu venerio formas extrin\secus transmittunt intus eorumque saciata typis rapit species \eorum in propriam qualitatem. In animantibus bigenera di\cuntur que ex diversis nascuntur, ut mulus, ex equa et asino, bur\do ex equo et asina, ybride ex apris et porcis, tyrius ex ove et yrco, \musino ex capra et ariete, est autem dux gregis. \

or apes, lest they should bear children who look like the things they have seen. For it is said to be the nature of women that they produce as offspring whatever they see or imagine at the height of their ardour as they conceive; animals, indeed, when they are mating, transmit inwardly the forms they see outwardly and, imbued with these images, take on their appearance as their own.

De musione \ Musio appellatus \quod muribus infestus \sit. Hunc

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There are three kinds of horse. One is the noble warhorse, capable of carrying heavy weights; the second is the everyday kind, used for drawing loads but unsuitable for riding. The third is born from a combination of different species, and is also called bigener, hybrid, because it is born of mixed stock, like a mule. The word mulus, mule, comes from the Greek. It is called this in Greek because under the miller's yoke it draws the lumbering millstones, mola, in a circle to grind the corn. The Jews say that Ana, the son of the great-grandchild of Esau, was the very first to have herds of mares covered by asses in the desert, so that as a result new animals were born of many sires - against nature. It is said that wild asses were also put to she-asses and the same kind of cross-breeding was obtained in order to produce from them asses which were very fleet of foot. Indeed human activity has brought together a variety of animals to mate. And from this adulterous interbreeding man has produced a new species, just as Jacob obtained animals of the same colour - also against nature. For his ewes conceived lambs of the same colour as the rams which mounted them, seeing them reflected in water. Finally it is said that the same thing happens with herds of mares, that men put noble stallions in view of those which are about to conceive, so that they can conceive and create offspring in the stallions' image. Pigeon fanciers place images of the most beautiful pigeons in places where they flock, to catch the birds' eye, so that they may produce babies which look like them. It is for this reason that people order pregnant women not to look at animals with very ugly countenances, such as dog-headed apes ...

Among living things the name 'hybrid' is given to those born from the mating of two different species, such as the mule from a mare and an ass, the hinny from a stallion and a she-ass, the hybrid from the wild boar and the sow, the animal called tyrius from the sheep and the he-goat, and the moufflon rom the she-goat and the ram; the moufflon is the leader of

vulgus catum \a captura vocant. Alii \dicunt quod captat, id est videt. \Nam tanto acute cernit, \ut fulgore luminis noc \tis tenebras superet. Unde \a Greco venit catus, id est ingeniosus. \ De muribus \ Mus pusillum animal \Grecum nomen est, quicquid vero ex eo trahit \Latinum sit. Alii dicunt mures quod ex \humore terre nascantur. Nam humus terra et mus, \id est his in plenilunio iecur crescit, sicut que\dam maritima augentur, que rursus minuente luna deficiunt. \

the flock. Of the cat The cat is called musio, mouse-catcher, because it is the enemy of mice. It is commonly called catus, cat, from captura, the act of catching. Others say it gets the name from capto, because it catches mice with its sharp eyes. For it has such piercing sight that it overcomes the dark of night with the gleam of light from its eyes. As a result, the Greek word catus means sharp, or cunning. Of mice

De mustela \ Mustela quasi mus \longum, nam theon Greci longum \dicunt. Hec ingenio subdola in domo ubi \habitat cum catulos genuerit, de loco ad \locum transfert mutataque sede locat serpen\

The mouse is a puny animal; its name, mus, comes from the Greek, the Latin word deriving from it. Others say mures, mice, because they are produced ex humore, from the damp soil, of the earth; for humus means earth and from that comes mus, mouse. Their liver grows bigger at full moon, like the tides rise then fall with the waning of the moon. Of the weasel The weasel is called mustela, 'a long mouse', so to speak, for theon [telos] in Greek means 'long'. It is cunning by nature; when it has produced its offspring in its nest, it carries them from place to place, settling them in a series of different locations.

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tes et mures persequitur. Duo autem earum genera sunt. Altera \enim silvestre distans magnitudine. Has Greci ictidas vo\cant, altera in domibus oberrans. Quidam dicunt eas aure \concipere et ore generare, et econtrario quidam dicunt eas ore \concipere et aure generare, dicuntur etiam perite medicine, ita ut \si forte occisi fuerint eorum fetus, si invenire potuerint, redi\vivos faciant. Significant autem aliquantos qui libenter \quidem audiunt divini verbi semen, sed amore terrenarum rerum \decenti pretermittunt et dissimulant quod audierint. \

It hunts snakes and mice. There are two kinds of weasel. One, of very different size from the other, lives in the forest. The Greeks call these ictidas; the other roams around in houses. Some say that weasels conceive through the ear and give birth through the mouth; others say, on the contrary, that they conceive through the mouth and give birth through the ear; it is said, also, that they are skilled in healing, so that if by chance their young are killed, and their parents succeed in finding them, they can bring their offspring back to life.

De talpa

Weasels signify the not inconsiderable number of people who listen willingly enough to the seed of the divine word but, caught up in their love of wordly things, ignore it and take no account of what they have heard.

\ Talpa dicta quod sit dampnata ceci\tate perpetua tenebris. Est enim \absque oculis, semper terram fodit, et humum \egerit, et radices subter frugibus comedit quod \Greci aphala vocant. \

Of the mole De ericiis \ Ericius animal ex \spinis coopertum. \Quod exinde dicitur nomi\natum, eo quod subrigit \se quando spinis suis clau\ditur, quibus undique pro\tectus est contra insidi\as. Nam statim ut \aliquid presenserit, pri\mum se subrigit atque \in globum conversus \in sua se arma recol\ligit. Huius prudentia \quedam est,

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The mole is called talpa because it is condemned to darkness by its permanent blindness. For it lacks eyes, eyeless, is always digging in the ground and throwing out the soil, and feeds on the the roots of the plants which the Greeks call aphala, vetch. Of hedgehogs

nam dum \absciderit uuam derute, sese volutat supinus super eam, \et sic exhibet natis suis. Dicitur etiam echinus. Idemque echinus \

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The hedgehog is covered in prickles. From this it gets its name, because it bristles, when it is enclosed in its prickles and is protected by them on all sides against attack. For as soon as it senses anything, it first bristles then, rolling itself into a ball, regains its courage behind its armour. The hedgehog has a certain kind of foresight: as it tears off a grape, it rolls backwards on it and so delivers it to its young. It is also called echinus, urchin. This 'urchin',

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futuri providus geminas sibi respirandi vias munit ut quando \boream flaturum collegerit, septemtrionalem obstruat, quando \nothum cognoverit detegere aeris nebulam ad septemtriona\lem se conferat ut flatus declinet obvios et regione nocituros. \

thinking ahead, protects itself with twin ventilation ducts, son that when it thinks that the north wind is about to blow, it blocks the northern one, and when it knows that the south wind is giving warning of mist in the air, it goes to the northern passage to avoid the vapours blown from the opposite direction, which will do it harm.

De formicis \ Formica tres naturas habet. Prima natura est ut ordina\te ambulent, et unaqueque earum granum baiulet in ore suo. \Et he que vacue sunt, non dicunt date nobis de granis vestris, \sed vadunt per vestigia priorum usque ad locum ubi frumentum \inveniunt et afferunt frumentum in cubile suum. Habet ad pru\dentium significationem dicta sufficiant, quia sicut formice con\gregant unde remunerentur in futuro. Secunda natura quando recon\dit grana in cubile suum dividit ea in duo, ne forte pluvia \infundantur in hieme, et germinent grana et fame pereat, sic et \tu homo verba veteris et novi testamenti divide, id est discerne inter \spiritualia et carnalia, ne littera te occidat, quam lex spiritualis est sicut \apostolus ait: Littera enim occidit, spritus autem vivificat. Judei namque \solam litteram attendentes, et spiritualem intellectum contempnen\tes, fame necati sunt. Tertia natura est. Tempore messis ambu \lat inter segetes, et ore intelligit an ordei sit spica an tritici. Si \fuerit ordei, transit ad aliud spicum et odorat, et si senserit quia \tritici est, ascendit in summitatem spici, et tollens inde gra\num portat in habitaculum suum. Ordeum enim brutorum \animalium cibus est. Unde dicit Job: pro tritico prodivit mihi ordeum, \scilicet doctrine hereticorum. Ordeacee enim sunt et procul abiciende, \que dirumpunt et interficiunt animas hominum. Fuge ergo \Christiane omnes hereticos quorum dogmata falsa et inimica sunt \

Of ants

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veritati. Dicit enim scriptura: Conferte ad formicam opiger, \emulare vias eius, et esto illa sapientior. Illa enim culturam nullam \possidet neque eam qui se cogat habet, neque sub domino agit quemad\modum preparat escam, que de tuis laboribus sibi messem recon\dit. Et cum tu plerumque egeas, illa non indiget. Nulla sunt \ei clausa horrea, nulle

to the truth. For the Scriptures say: 'Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways and be wise' (Proverbs, 6:6). For the ant has no knowledge of cultivation; it has no-one to force it do anything; nor does it act under the direction of a master, telling it how to lay in a store of food. Yet it gathers in its harvest from your labours. And although you often go

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The ant has three characteristics. The first is that they march in line, each one carrying a grain of corn in its mouth. Those who have none do not say to the others: 'Give us some of your grain', but follow the tracks of those who first went out to the place where they find the corn and carry it off to their nest. Let this description serve to signify sensible men, who, like the ants, act in unity, as a result of which they will be rewarded in the future. The ant's second characteristic is that when it stores grain in its nest, it divides its supply in two, lest by chance it should be soaked in the winter rains, the seed germinate and the ant die of hunger. In the same way, you, O man, should keep separate the words of the Old and the New Testament, that is, distinguish between the spiritual and the carnal, lest the law interpreted literally should kill you, for the law is a spiritual thing, as the Apostle says: 'For the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life' (2 Corinthians, 3:6). For the Jews, who paid attention only to the letter of the law and scorned its spiritual interpretation, have died of hunger. The ant's third characteristic is that at harvest time it walks through the crop and finds out by nibbling the ears whether it is barley or wheat. If the crop is barley, the ant goes to another ear and sniffs it, and if it smells wheat, it climbs to the top of the ear and carries off the grain to its nest. For barley is food for beasts. As Job says: 'Barley grew for me instead of wheat' (see Job, 31:40), meaning the doctrine of heretics. For heresy is like barley, and should be cast away, because it shatters and destroys men's souls. Therefore, Christian, flee from all heretics; their teachings are false and hostile ...

impenetrabiles custodie, nulli inviolabi\les acervi. Spectat custos furta que prohibere non audeat, aspi\cit sua dampna possessor nec vindicat. Nigro convertatur agmi\ne preda per campos, fervent semite comitatu viantium, et que \comprehendi angusto [A, angustio ore/angustiore] non possunt humeris frumenta traduntur. \Spectat hec dominus messis et erubescit tam parca pie indu\strie negare compendia. Novit etiam formica explorare sere\nitatis tempora. Nam cum adverterit madidatos imbre fruc\tus suos humescere explorato diligentius aere, quando iugem pos\sit servare temperiem, acervos reserat suos, et de cavernis foras \suis humeris exportat, iugi sole propria frumenta siccentur. Denique \haut unquam illis diebus omnibus rumpi de nubibus imbres videbis, \nisi cum fruges suas horreis propriis formica revocaverit. \ Hic incipit de avibus \ Unum autem nomen avium sed genus \diversum. Nam sicut species sibi differunt, ita et nature \diversitate. Nam alie simplices sunt ut columbe, alie astute \ut perdix, alie ad manum se subiciunt ut accipitres, alie reformi\dant ut garamantes. Alie hominum conversatione delectantur \ut hirundo, alie in desertis secretam viam diligunt ut turtura. \Alie solo semine reperto pascuntur ut anser, alie carnes edunt et \rapinis [intendunt] ut milvus. Alie congregate, id est gregatim vo\lantes ut sturni et coturnices, alie solivage, id est solitarie propter \insidias depredandi ut aquila et accipiter, et quecumque ita sunt. \Alie vocibus strepunt ut hirundo, alie cantus edunt dulcissimos \

hungry, it lacks for nothing. It has no locked storehouses, no impenetrable security, no piles of supplies which cannot be touched. The watchman looks on at thefts which he dares not prevent, the owner is aware of his losses but takes no revenge. They carry their booty in a black column across the fields, the paths swarming with the convoy as it passes; the grains that cannot be held in their narrow mouths in narrow parts are consigned to their shoulders. The owner of the harvest looks on and blushes with shame at the thought of denying such frugal gains won by such conscientious industry.

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ut cignus et merula. Alie verba et voces hominum imitantur, ut \psitacus et pica. Sed alia sicut genere ita et moribus innumerabilia. \Nam et volucrum quot genera sint, invenire quisque non potest. \Neque enim omnes Scithie et Indie aut Ethiopie deserta quis pe\netrare potuit, qui earum genus vel differentias nosset. \

like the swan and the blackbird. Some imitate the words and voices of men, like the parrot and magpie.

The ant has also learned to watch out for periods of fine weather. For if it sees that its supplies of corn are becoming wet, soaked by the rain, it carefully tests the air for signs of a mild spell, then it opens up its stores, and carries its supplies on its shoulders from its vaults underground out into the open, so that the corn can dry in the unbroken sunshine. Finally, you will never on any of those days see rain spouted from the clouds, unless the ant has first returned its supplies of corn to its stores. Here begins the account of the birds Birds have a single name, avis, but a variety of species. For just as they differ in appearance, so they differ in nature. Some are guileless, like doves; others are cunning, like the partridge; some come obediently to man's hand, like hawks; others shun it, like the wild birds called garamantes. Some take pleasure in man's company, like the swallow; others love the solitary life of the wilderness, like turtle-doves. Some feed only on the grain they find, like the goose; others eat flesh and think only of their prey, like the kite. Some live communally, that is, they fly together in flocks, like starlings and quail; others roam the skies alone, that is, they keep to themselves because they take their prey by surprise, like the eagle or the hawk and others of that sort. Some have twittering voices, like the swallow; others sing the sweetest of songs,

Aves

There are countless others, however, differing alike in kind and habits. For it is impossible to find out how many kinds of birds there are. And anyone who could penetrate the desert places of Scythia and India or Ethiopia still could not get to know all the species of birds there or the differences between them.

\dicte eo quod vias rectas non habent sed per avia queque discurrunt. \Alites quod alis alta intendunt et ad sublimia remigio alarum \conscendant. Volucres a volando. Nam unde volare, inde \et ambulare dicimus.

Birds are called aves because they do not go in a straight line but fly at random, off-course, per avia. They are called alites, winged creatures, because it is on their wings, ale, that they reach for the skies and

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Vola enim dicitur media pars pedis sive \manus, et in avibus media pars alarum quarum motu penne \agitantur, inde volucres. Pulli dicuntur avium omnium nati. \Sed et animalium quadrupedum nati pulli dicuntur. Et homo \parvus pullus, recentes igitur nati pulli, eo quod polluti sunt, unde \et vestis nigra et pulla dicta. Ale sunt in quibus penne \per or\dinem fixe volandi exhibent usum. Vocate autem ale quod \his aves complexus alant ac fovent pullos. Penna a pendendo, \id est a volando dicta, unde et pendere. Volucres enim pennarum \auxilio moventur quando se aeri mandant. Pluma quasi piluma. \Nam sicut pili in quadrupedum corpore, ita pluma in avibus. \Avium nomina multa a sono vocis constat esse composita ut \grus, corvus, cignus, bubo, milvus, ulula, cuculus, garrulus, \graculus et cetera. Varietas enim vocis earum docuit homi\nes quid vocarentur. \ De pennis deargentatis columbe \ Columbam cuius penne sunt deargentate et po\steriora dorsi eius in pallore auri pingere et per pic\turam simplicium mentes edificare decrevi, \ut quod simplicium animus intelligibili oculo capere \vix poterat, saltem carnali discernat, et quod vix poterat auditus, \percipiat visus. Nec tantum volui columbam formando pingere, \

it is by beating them that they ascend to the heights. They are called volucres, flying creatures, from volandum, flying, For what we call 'walking' and 'flying' stem from the same mechanism. For what we call vola, the hollow, or middle part of the foot or the hand, is in birds the middle part of the wings - at the junction with the shoulders - by whose motion the flight feathers are activated; hence their name, volucres. The young of all birds are called pulli. But the young of quadrupeds are also called pulli. So, too, is a human child. The newly-born, then, are called pulli, because they are polluti, unclean; for the same reason, dark clothes are also called pulla. Birds have wings, ale, in which feathers, fixed in a particular order, demonstrate the act of flight. Wings are called ale because birds nourish, alere, and cherish their young, folding their wings around them. The flight feather, penna, is so called from pendeo, to hover, that is, fly, from which comes also 'suspend'. For birds move by means of their flight feathers when they entrust themselves to the air. The down feather, pluma, is so to speak, piluma, derived from pilus, hair. For just as there are hairs on the body of a quadruped, so there is down on birds. It is known that many bird-names are formed from the sound of their call, like grus, the crane; corvus, the raven; cignus, the swan; bubo, the owl; milvus, the kite; ulula, the screech-owl; cuculus, the cuckoo; [garrulus] graculus, the jackdaw, and others. For the particular call they give has taught man what name they should be given. Of the silver-sheathed wings of the dove It is my intention to paint a picture of the dove, whose wings are sheathed in silver and whose tail has the pale colour of gold (see Psalms, 68:13). In painting this picture I intend to improve the minds of ordinary people, in such a way that their soul will at least perceive physically things which it has difficulty in grasping mentally; that what they have difficulty comprehending with their ears, they will perceive with their eyes. I want not only to depict the dove by creating its likeness,

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sed etiam dictando describere, ut per scripturam, demonstrare picturam, \vel [PL, ut] cui non placuerit simplicitas picture, placeat saltem mora\litas scripture. Tibi igitur cui date sunt penne columbe, qui elongasti \fugiens ut in solitudine maneres et requiesceres, qui non queris \dilationem in voce corvine cras cras, sed contricionem in gemitu

but also to describe it in words, to reveal the picture through the text, so that the reader who is unimpressed with the simplicity of the picture may at least take pleasure in the moral content of the text.

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To you, therefore, who have received the wings of a dove; to you who have fled far away, to stay and be

\columbino, tibi inquam non tamen ad presens columbam, sed etiam accipi\trem pingam. Ecce in eadem pertica sedent accipiter et columba. \Ego enim de clero tu de militia ad conversionem venimus, ut in re\gulari vita quasi in pertica sedeamus, et qui rapere consueveras dome\sticas aves, nunc bone operationis manu silvestres ad conversio\nem trahas, id est seculares. Gemat igitur columba gemat, et accipiter vocem \doloris emittat. Vox enim columbe gemitus, vox accipitris questus. \In principio huius operis iccirco columbam preposui, quia sancti spiritus gratia semper \preparatur cuilibet penitenti, nec nisi per gratiam pervenitur ad veniam. \De accipitre vero post columbam subiungitur, per quem nobilium perso\ne designantur. Cum enim aliquis nobilium convertitur, \per exemplum bone operationis pauperibus presentatus. \ De columba et accipitre \ Cum scribere illiterato \debeam non miretur diligens \lector, si ad edificationem il\literati de subtilibus simplicia \dicam. Nec imputet levitati \quod accipitrem vel columbam \pingam, cum beatus Job, et \propheta David huiusmodi volucres nobis reliquerint ad \doctrinam. Quod enim doctoribus innuit scriptura, hoc \simplicibus pictura, sicut enim sapiens delectatur subtili\tate scripture, sic simplicium animus detinetur simplicitate \

at rest in solitude (see Psalms, 55:6); to you who do not seek deferment, croaking like the raven 'Cras, cras, Tomorrow tomorrow!' but express penitence in the mournful cry of the dove (see Isaiah, 38:14); to you, I say, I shall at this time depict not just the dove but also the hawk. See, on the same perch sit a hawk and a dove. For both of us - I from the clergy, you from the military have been converted, so that we should share the monastic life together, as if we sat on the same perch, and that you,who were in the habit of stealing domestic birds, should now attract wild birds to conversion, luring them with the hand of virtuous conduct; by 'wild birds', I mean worldly people. Therefore let the dove mourn, let it mourn (see Isaiah, 59:11) and let the hawk utter cries of grief. For the call of the dove is one of sorrow; the cry of the hawk, a complaint. For that reason, at the beginning of this work, I placed the dove first, because the grace of the holy spirit is always made ready for anyone who repents, and no-one will attain forgiveness except through this grace. The account of the hawk comes after that of the dove; it signifies members of the nobility. For when anyone of the nobility is converted, he furnishes an example of virtuous conduct to the poor. Of the dove and the hawk As I have to write for people who have no education, the attentive reader should not be surprised if, for their improvement, I speak in a simple way of complex subjects. He should not ascribe to triviality the fact that I depict the hawk or the dove, since the blessed Job and the prophet David left us examples of birds of that kind to illustrate their teaching. For what the written word means to teachers, a picture means to the uneducated; just as the wise take pleasure in the complexity of a text, so the mind of ordinary people is captivated by the simplicity

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picture. Ego autem plus laboro ut simplicibus placeam, quam ut \doctoribus loquar, et quasi vasculo latices infundam. Qui enim \sapientem verbis instruit, quasi vasculo pleno latices infundit. \

of a picture. Personally, I try harder to please the uneducated than to speak to the learned - as if I were pouring liquid into a vessel. For to furnish the wise man with words is like pouring liquid into a vessel that is already full.

Hic incipit de tribus columbis Here begins the account of the three doves \ Si dormiatis inter medios cleros \penne columbe deargentate, et postiora dorsi eius in pal\lore auri. In scriptura sacra fratres tres columbas legendo repperi, ex \quibus si attente considerentur simplicium mentes ad perfectionem \poterunt edoceri. Columba, scilicet Noe, columba David, columba Jesus Christi. \Noe requies, David manu fortis, Jesus salvator

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'If you sleep among the sheepfolds...a dove, its wings sheathed in silver and its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold' (see BSV, Psalmi, 67:14; NEB, Psalms, 68:11-13). In reading the Holy Scripture, brothers, I have found

interpretatur. Peccatori \autem dicitur: peccasti, quiesce. Si igitur vis esse Noe, quiesce a peccatis \ut David esse possis, operare fortia, si salvari desideras, a salvato\re salutem postula. Diverte a malo, fac bonum, inquire pacem, \diverte ad archam Noe, preliare cum David, prelia domini, inquire pa\cem cum Jesu in Jerusalem, diverte ad quietem mentis, resiste temp\tationibus, expecta pacienter salutis beneficium. De columba vero \Noe dicitur: Reversa est columba ad vesperam, ferens in ore suo ramum \olive. Ad archam Noe columba revertitur, cum ad quietem men\tis ab exterioribus animus revocatur. Revertitur ad vesperam cum defi\ciente luce mundane felicitatis, vane glorie fugit pompam ti\mens ne incurrat obscuritatem noctis, id est profunditatem perpetue \dampnationis. Olivam gerit, quia misericordiam querit. Olivam \in ore portat, dum indulgeri sibi quod deliquerat precibus exorat. De \columba vero David dicitur, et postiora dorsi eius in pallore auri. In posterioribus dorsi au\rum habetur, quia bene operanti in futuro venia promittitur. Similiter \et de salvatore legitur cum descensu columbe super eum hec vox \auditur: Hic est filius meus dilectus in quo mihi bene complacui. \Columba est sancti spiritus gratia, que super Jesum in Jordane descendisse cernitur, \quia cuilibet humili a peccatis mundato, gratia preparatur. Penitenti \igitur fit misericordia, bene operanti promittitur venia, diligenti datur gratia. \

references to three doves which, if they are carefully studied, can bring the minds of the uneducated to perfection. They are the doves of Noah, David and Jesus Christ. Noah represents peace; David, the mighty hand; Jesus, salvation. Now the sinner is told: 'Hast thou sinned? do so no more' (Ecclesiasticus, 21:1). If, therefore, you wish to be Noah, desist from sin; in order to be David, you must do brave deeds; if you long to be saved, ask for salvation from your Saviour. 'Depart from evil and do good; seek peace' (Psalms, 34:14). Turn towards the ark of Noah. Fight with David the battles of the Lord. Seek peace with Jesus in Jerusalem. Turn towards peace of mind. Resist temptation. Await patiently the favour of salvation. Of Noah's dove, it is said: 'The dove came in to him in the evening; and in her mouth was an olive branch' (see Genesis, 8:11). The dove returns to Noah's ark as the soul is recalled from external things to the inner peace of the mind. The dove returns at evening as the light of wordly pleasure starts to fade, and the soul flees from the pomp of empty glory, fearing to encounter the darkness of the night - that is, the depths of eternal damnation. The dove carries an olive branch signifying the soul seeking mercy. It carries the olive branch in its mouth, signifying the soul begging with prayers for its sins to be forgiven. Of the dove of David it is said: 'and its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold.' Its tail feathers are of gold because anyone who conducts himself virtuously in time to come is promised forgiveness. Likewise we read of our Saviour, that when the dove descended upon him, a voice was heard, saying: 'This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased' (Matthew, 3:17). The dove is the grace of the Holy Spirit, which was seen to decend upon Jesus in Jordan, because grace is made ready for anyone who is humble and cleansed of sin. To the penitent, mercy is granted; to those who are virtuous in conduct, a pardon is promised; to the loving, grace is given.

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Mistice de columba

The mystic aspects of the dove

\ Si dormiatis inter medios cleros, penne columbe deargentate et posteriora \dorsi eius in pallore auri. Columba deargentata, est ecclesia, \doctrina divini eloquii erudita. Que per similitudinem fertur \habere predicationis rostrum ratione divisum quo grana colligat ordei \et frumenti, sententias scilicet veteris et novi testamenti. Habet dextrum \et sinistrum oculum, moralem et misticum sensum. Seipsam res\picit sinistro, deum vero contemplatur dextro. Duas alas habet, activam \et contemplativam vitam. His duabus alis sedens tegitur, his dua\bus volans ad celestia sublevatur. Volamus, cum mente excedimus.

'If you sleep among the sheepfolds...a dove, its wings sheathed in silver and its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold' (see BSV, Psalmi, 67:14; NEB, Psalms, 68:11-13).

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The silver-covered dove is the Church, instructed by the teaching of the holy word. It is said that the Church has a rostrum, pulpit, for preaching, divided for the purposes of receiving the ideas of the Old and New Testament, by analogy with the beak, rostrum, of the dove, which is divided to

\Sedemus, cum inter fratres sobrii sumus. In his siquidem alis, penne sunt \inserte. Penne vero sunt doctores, ale recte actionis et divine \contemplationis firmiter inherentes. Cleros enim Grece sortes \vocamus Latine. Due sortes, duo sunt testamenta. Inter quas sortes dor\miunt, qui auctoribus veteris et novi testamenti concordant et ad\quiescunt. Et posteriora dorsi eius in pallore auri. Dorsum columbe illam partem cor\poris esse dicunt, cui radices alarum sese invicem naturaliter coniun\gunt. Ibidem cor ponitur, quod dorso proximum auro perpetue beatudi\nis in futuro operietur. Sicut aurum preciosius est argento, sic et beatitudo \futuri seculi preciosior est felicitate presenti. Posteriora igitur dorsi columbe in \pallore auri erunt, quia iusti in eterna beatudine nimia claritate fulge\bunt. \ Item de columba \ Si dormiatis inter medios cleros, penne columbe deargentate \et posteriora dorsi eius in pallore auri. Columba est quelibet fidelis anima et simplex dear\gentata in pennis, declarata in virtutibus per famam bone opinionis. \Que tot in cibum colligit seminum grana, quot ad bene operandum \assumit sibi iustorum exempla. Duos habet oculos dextrum et sinistrum, me\moriam scilicet et intellectum. In uno futura previdet, in altero transacta de\flet. Hos oculos clauserunt patres nostri in Egipto quoniam non intellexerunt \opera dei, nec fuerunt memores multitudinis misericordie eius. Duas vero habet \alas, amorem proximi et amorem dei. Una extenditur per compassionem \

gather grains of barley and corn. The dove has a right and a left eye, signifying moral and mystic perception. With the left eye the dove regards itself, but with the right, it contemplates God. It has two wings, signifying the active and the contemplative life. At rest, it is covered by them; in flight, it is raised by them to heavenly things. We are in flight, when we are in a state of ecstasy. We are at rest when we are among our brothers in a sober state of mind. Feathers are set in these wings. They are teachers, fixed in the wings of righteous behaviour and the contemplation of God. The word cleros in Greek we translate into Latin as sortes, shares assigned by lot. There are two such shares, the two Testaments. Between them rest those who agree with and trust in the authors of the Old and New Testaments. 'Its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold'. The back of the dove is said to be the part of the body to which the base of each wing is joined naturally. The heart, too, is seated there; lying just beneath the golden plumage of the dove's back, it will be covered in time to come with the gold of eternal bliss. As gold is more precious than silver, the bliss of the world to come is more precious than the joy of the moment. Therefore the tail feathers of the dove's back will be in the pale colour of gold, because the righteous will shine with surpassing brilliance in eternal bliss. Also of the dove 'If you sleep among the sheepfolds...a dove, its wings sheathed in silver and its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold' (see BSV, Psalmi, 67:14; NEB, Psalms, 68:11-13). The dove, with its silver-covered feathers, signifies every faithful and pure soul, renowned for the high esteem accorded to its virtues. The dove gathers as many grains of seed for food as the soul does examples of righteous men as models of virtuous conduct. The dove has two eyes, right and left, signifying, that is, memory and intelligence. With one it foresees things to come; with the other it weeps over what has been. Our ancestors in Egypt closed their eyes since they did not understand the works of God, nor remembered the multitude of his mercies. The dove has two wings, signifying love of one's neighbour and love of God. One is spread out in compassion

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ad proximum, alter erigitur per contemplationem ad

to its neighbour, the other is raised in contemplation

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deum. Ex his alis \procedunt penne, id est virtutes anime. He penne, argentea claritate \resplendent quoniam per famam bone opinionis audientibus argenti \more dulce tinnitum prebent. Cleros vero Grece, sortes dicimus \Latine. Quatuor autem sunt sortes, timor et spes, amor et desiderium. \Sortes sunt, quia paterne hereditatis locum nobis distribuunt. Timor \et desiderium, sortes sunt extreme, spes et amor medie. Timor a\nimum conturbat, desiderium mentem cruciat, et nisi aliquid medi\um intervenerit, animus a quiete recedit. Oportet igitur ut inter deside\rium et timorem, spem ponamus et amorem. Spes enim timorem \recreat, amor desiderium temperat. Inter spem igitur et amorem quasi inter \medias sortes quietus dormit, qui inter extremas scilicet inter timorem et \desiderium vigilat et obstupescit. Si ergo es columba vel columbe \penna, dum times et desideras inter extremas sortes vigilas, dum \speras et diligis, inter medias quietus dormis. Et posteriora dorsi eius in pallore auri. \In dorso solent onera portari, et per hec eadem possunt operum labo\res designari, per posteriora vero dorsi denotatur expectatio premii. Post \tolerantiam siquidem presentium laborum, in futuro subsequi cre\dimus iustis premia meritorum. Reddet enim deus mercedem laborum \sanctis suorum, et deducet eos in via mirabili, et hoc in pallore au\ri esse credimus, quia preciosa est in conspectu domini mors sanctorum eius. In pen\nis ergo argentum, quia in linguis eloquium, in posterioribus \vero aurum, id est post labores premium. \ Item de columba \ Si dormiatis inter medios cleros, penne columbe deargentate et posteriora dorsi \eius in pallore auri. Columba deargentata, \est absque felle malicie quelibet adhuc \vivens prelatorum persona. Que inter me\dios cleros dormit. Cleros Grece, Latine \sors, unde et clerimonia proprie vocatur hereditas que sit testa\

to God. From these wings spring feathers, that is, spiritual virtues. These feathers gleam with the brilliance of silver, since word of their renown has the sweet ring of silver to those who hear it. The Greek word cleros is what we call in Latin sortes, shares allocated by lot. In life, there are four such 'shares': fear and hope, love and desire. They are 'shares', because they allot to us a place in our Father's heritage. Fear and desire are extremes, hope and love intervene. Fear throws the soul into confusion, desire tortures the mind, and unless something intervenes between them, the soul has no peace. We must, therefore, place hope and love between desire and fear. For hope transforms fear, love moderates desire. Anyone who is between hope and love, therefore, between the two inner shares, sleeps soundly; anyone who is between the two outer ones, namely, fear and desire, lies awake and loses his wits. If, therefore, you are a dove, or the feather of a dove, when you fear and desire, you lie sleepless between the outer shares; when you hope and love, you sleep soundly between the inner. 'And its tail feathers are in the pale colour of gold.' Burdens are usually carried on the back, which can be said to signify toil; but by the tail feathers, which lie behind the back, is meant the expectation of reward. We believe that after enduring the labours of the present, the righteous will be rewarded for their merit in the future. For God will reward his saints for their labours and lead them on a wondrous road; this, we believe, is represented by 'the pale colour of gold', because 'precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints' (Psalms, 116:15). On the flight feathers, therefore, there is silver, as there is eloquence on tongues; but on the tail feathers there is gold - the reward that follows toil. Also of the dove 'If you sleep among the sheepfolds...a dove, its wings sheathed in silver and its tail feathers in the pale colour of gold' (see BSV, Psalmi, 67:14; NEB, Psalms, 68:11-13). The silver-coloured dove means any prelate, or dignitary of the Church hierarchy still living, without the bile of malice. 'If you sleep among the sheepfolds...' What the Greeks call cleros, we call sortes, shares allocated by lot; therefore, the proper meaning of clerimonia is an inheritance

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mento. Inde contigit [A, ut filii Levi inter] filios Israel

bequeathed by will. As a result, the sons of Levi,

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non haberent \sortem, id est heredit[A,-atis] partem, sed ex decimis \viverent. Due [A, sunt] autem hereditates. \Terrena veteris test-[amenti] et eterna novi. \In medio igitur istarum [A, dormit qui in con-] \temptu terrenarum et spe celestium vitam \finit, dum [PL, nec] nimis ardenter presentibus inhiat, \et futura pacienter expectat. Et posteriora dor-[A, si] \eius in pallore auri. Oculi enim iustorum videbunt \regem in decore suo. Tunc enim aurum in posterioribus habetis, \cum apparuerit in futuro gloria divine maiestatis. Corone siquidem \regum ex auro purissimo fabricantur, ex argento vero monete fi\unt quibus imagines regum imprimunt [PL, imprimuntur]. In moneta, notatur imi\tatio forme, in corona signum victorie. Moneta siquidem divi\ni eloquii, docet imitationem vite Christi. Corona vero victorie, \post labores presentis seculi finem pugne. Ibi igitur quasi in posterioribus \aurum, hic in pennis predicationis argentum, quia cum ad illa do\na columba pervenerit, iam predicationis eloquio non indigebit, sed \in eo quod in retributione percipiet, in puritate perfectionis sine fine vivet. \ De columbe pedibus \ Columba de qua hic agitur, \rubeos pedes habere perhibetur. Hec columba est ecclesia, que \pedes habuit, quibus tocius mundi spacium perambulavit. Pedes \sunt martyres, qui tot passibus terram perambulant, quot bonorum \operum exemplis viam iusticie sequentibus se demonstrant. Ter\ram tangunt cum dignis increpationibus actus et voluntates ter\renas reprehendunt. Sed, dum terra premitur, asperitate terre pedes vul\nerantur. Et sic pedes ecclesie rubei facti sunt, quia sanguinem su\um pro Christi nomine martyres effuderunt. Rubor igitur pedum \est cruor martyrum. \ De pennis deargentatis \

among the children of Israel, were to have no allotted portion, that is, no part of an inheritance, but were to support themselves from tithes. There are two inheritances. The earthly inheritance of the Old Testament and the eternal inheritance of the New. You 'sleep' between them, therefore, when you come to the end of your life with contempt for earthly things and hope for the things of heaven; when you do not gaze longingly at things of the present but wait patiently for those that are to come. 'And its tail feathers are in the pale colour of gold.' For the eyes of the righteous will see the king in his glory. You will have gold on your tail feathers, when the glory of the divine majesty appears in time to come. Kingly crowns are fashioned from the purest gold; and coins are minted from true silver, on which the royal portrait is stamped. On an ordinary coin of silver or bronze there is stamped a representation of the king's appearance; on a gold crown, the symbol of his victory. The coinage of God's word teaches us to imitate the life of Christ, but the crown of his victory teaches us that after our struggles in this world, there is an end of conflict. There is the gold, then, as if on the tail feathers of a dove. The silver, here on the flight feathers, is the silver of preaching; because when the dove comes to receive those gifts, it will no longer need the eloquence of the pulpit, but in recompense will live in the purity of perfection without end. Of the feet of the dove The dove, the subject of this account, is said to have red feet. This dove signifies the Church, which had feet on which it covered the extent of the whole world. The feet of the Church are its martyrs, who traverse the earth with as many steps as there are examples of righteous conduct whereby they demonstrate to their followers the way of righteousness. They touch the ground when they reprimand with fitting reproaches earthly deeds and desires. But when they tread on the earth, their feet are injured by its harshness. Thus the feet of the Church are turned red, because the martyrs shed their blood in the name of Christ. The red of the dove's feet, therefore, is the blood of martyrs. Of its feathers, sheathed in silver

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Columba que [A,rubeos pedes habere dicitur,] pennas deargenta\tas habuisse [A,verbis propheticis demonstr-] atur. Penne inquit \David columbe dearge-[A,ntate. Penne columbe de-]argentate sunt predicato\res ecclesie. Est autem [A, argentum

The dove, which is said to have red feet, is shown in the words of the prophet to have had silver-covered feathers. 'The wings of the dove,' says David, 'sheathed in silver.'

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divinum] eloquium. Tinnitus \[A, argenti, dulcedo verbi. Color, candor. Cand-]orem vero argentum \[A,retinet dum quili-]bet doctor mundiciam verbis predicat, et mun\[A,diciam in se habet d-]um quod docet diligit, et quod intus amat, foris \[A,operibus ostendit. Haec] sunt eloquia domini casta, argentum ig\[A, ne examinatum.] Eloquia domini casta quia nulla sunt simula\tione corrupta. Argentum examinatum igne solidatum in \qualibet perturbatione. Candor igitur argenteus in pennis est in lin\guis docentium, lene blandimentum sermonis. \ De colore alarum \ Alarum colorem scriptum non repperi, sed ex simili\tudine materialis columbe potes [PL, potest] assignari, ut si colum\bam pictam respicias, columbe materialis colorem eam habere non \contradicas. Alarum enim superficies saphirino colore superfundi\tur, quia celi speciem animus contemplantis imitatur. Sed color saphi\rinus candidis lineis distinguitur, ut saphirino colori niveus \misceatur. Color enim niveus saphirino mixtus, designat mun\diciam carnis, et amorem contemplationis. \ De posterioribus dorsi columbe \ Posteriora dorsi columbe deargentate propheta commemorat, et postea fi\nem vite presentis in quolibet homine moraliter demonstrat. \In auro puritatem mentis, in pallore vero auri designat mortificati\onem carnis. Est enim pallor, animi pacientis et mortificate \carnis innatus color. Posteriora igitur columbe deargentate in pallore auri erunt dum \puritas mentis et mortificatio carnis finem cuiuslibet morientis op\tinebunt. Sed et ideo color aureus in posterioribus dorsi columbe sa\phirino iungitur, quia contemplantis animum future beatitudinis gloria \subsequetur. Color igitur aureus in posterioribus designat eterne retributionis munus. \

The flight feathers of the dove, covered with silver, are the preachers of the Church. Silver signifies the word of God. The ringing sound of silver signifies the sweetness of the word. Its colour is shining white. Truly, silver contains the shining whiteness of purity, as when a teacher preaches purity in his words and is pure within, loving the doctrine he teaches and revealing what he loves inwardly through his outward deeds. The holy words of the Lord are like silver, tested by fire. The words of the Lord are holy because they have not been corrupted by falsehood. Silver tested by fire remains strong against onslaught. The brilliance of silver on the feathers, therefore, is what is found on the tongues of those who preach - the soft allure of the word of God. Of the colour of the dove's wings I have found no written reference to the colour of the dove's wings, but it can be attributed by analogy with the real dove; so that if you were to see a painting of a dove, you would not deny that it should have the colour of the real dove. The surface of the wings is suffused with the colour of sapphire, because the soul of a contemplative man takes on the appearance of heaven. But the sapphire colour of the wings is marked by traces of shining white, as the white of snow is tinged with sapphire. The mixture of snow-white and sapphire in the wings signifies purity of the flesh and the love of contemplation. Of the tail feathers of the dove The prophet refers to the tail feathers of the silvercovered dove and thereafter shows, in moral terms, that they refer to the end of a man's life on earth. He shows that the colour gold represents purity of mind; the pale colour of gold signifies mortification of the flesh. For paleness is the the natural colour of the suffering soul and of the mortified flesh. Therefore the tail feathers of the silver-coloured dove will have the paleness of gold as purity of mind and mortification of the flesh prevail when a dying man makes his end. But for this reason also the golden colour of the dove's tail feathers is mixed with sapphire, because the glory of the bliss to come will closely follow the soul of the contemplative man. Therefore the golden colour of the tail feathers signifies the gift of his eternal reward.

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De oculis columbe \ Oculi tui columbarum. Columba super aquas \sedere sepissime solet, ut cum viderit umbram supervenien\tis accipitris fugiens declinet. Ecclesia vero scripturis se munit, ut insidi\antis diaboli fraudes evitare possit. Hec igitur columba croceos oculos \habet. Color itaque croceus in oculis

Of the eyes of the dove

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'Thou hast doves' eyes' (Song of Solomon, 1:15). The dove spends much of its time sitting on water, so that if it sees the shadow of a hawk that is flying overhead, it can avoid it by fleeing. The Church

discretionem designat mature con\siderationis. Dum enim aliquis quid agat vel quid cogitet mature \considerat, quasi croco spiritales oculos adornat. Habet enim crocus \colorem maturi fructus. Croceus igitur oculus est maturitatis sensus. \ De colore reliqui corporis \ Color reliqui corporis, imitatur colorem \turbati maris. Mare motu fluctuum seviens ebullit, \caro motu sensium ebulliens sevit. Mare perturbationibus suis \arenas movet et sublevat, caro delectationibus suis animi levita\tem pulsat. Mare terminos suos egrediens, aquis dulcibus occurrit, \caro lasciviens, lacrimarum dulces rivulos obtundit. Mare di\versis procellarum turbinibus navigantium cursus impedit, caro \procellosa recte viventium mores in profundum mergit. Dum tantis mare \tempestatibus agitatur, undarum collisione terra fluctibus inmiscetur, et sic \ex collisione maris et terre colorem mixtum recipit mare. Similiter dum \caro suggerit, et animus non consentit, quasi ex nigro et niveo qui\dam in corpore color efficitur, qui ex diversis factus color medius ap\pellatur. Marinus igitur color in pectore columbe, tribulationem desig\nat in humana mente. \ De diversis proprietatibus columbe \ In diversis locis diversas proprietates repperi, quas inserens huic operi, an\notare curavi. Prima natura columbe est, quod pro cantu gemitum profert. \Secunda, quod felle caret. Tercia, quod osculis instat. Quarta, quod gregatim \volat. Quinta, quod ex rapto non vivit. Sexta, quod grana meliora col\ligit. Septima, quod non vescitur cadaveribus. Octava, quod nidificat \in petre foraminibus. Nona, quod super fluenta residet, ut visa accipitris \umbra, venientem cicius devitet. Decima, quod geminos nutrit pullos. \

protects itself with the scriptures, in order to escape the deceits of the Devil who plots against it. The dove, therefore, has saffron-coloured eyes. The colour of saffron in the eyes, therefore, signifies the discernment that comes with mature reflection. For when anyone considers deliberately what he should do or think, it is as if he adorns the eyes of the spirit with saffron. Saffron has the colour of ripe fruit. Therefore a saffron-coloured eye signifies the perceptivity that comes with maturity. Of the colour of the rest of the dove's body The rest of the dove's body matches the colour of a wild sea. The sea, raging with the motion of the waves, boils; the flesh, boiling with the motion of the senses, rages. The sea, in its wildness, shifts and uplifts the sands; the flesh, with its carnal pleasures, beats upon the frail soul. The sea, flowing beyond its bounds, rushes to meet quiet waters; the flesh, lusting, pounds against quiet streams of tears. The sea, with stormy winds from different directions, hampers the passage of vessels; the tempests of the flesh send to the bottom the principles of righteous living. When the sea is whipped up by storms of such force, earth is mixed with the water under the impact of the waves; and thus from the violent intermingling of sea and land, the sea acquires a mixed hue. Likewise, when the spirit will not condone the impulses of the flesh, this creates a certain colour in the body, like black mixed with white; formed from opposites, this colour is called neutral. The sea-like colour of the dove's breast, therefore, signifies the distressed state of the human mind. Of the different characteristics of the dove I have found various references to its different characteristics, which I have included in this work, and on which I have made it my business to Commentary. The first characteristic of the dove is that instead of song it brings forth a lament. The second, is that it lacks bile; the third, it likes to kiss; the fourth, it flies in flocks; the fifth, it does not live by theft; the sixth, it gathers better-quality grain; the seventh, it does not feed on corpses; the eighth, it nests in holes in rocks; the ninth, it rests on flowing water so that if it catches sight of the shadow of a hawk, it can more swiftly avoid its approach; the tenth, it rears twin chicks.

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Columba pro cantu, utitur gemitu, quia quod libens fecit, plangendo ge\mit. Caret felle, id est

The dove produces a lament instead of a song, because anything it does with pleasure, it then

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irascibilitatis amaritudine. Instat osculis, quia de\lectatur in multitudine pacis. Gregatim volat, quia conventus amat. \Non vivit ex rapto, quia non detrahit proximo. Colligit grana meliora, \id est meliora dicta. Non vescitur cadaveribus, id est carnalibus desideriis. Ni\dificat in foraminibus petre, quia spem ponit in Christi passione. Super \fluenta residet, ut visa acciptris umbra venientem cicius devitet, quia \in scripturis studet ut supervenientis diaboli fraudem declinet. \Geminos nutrit pullos, id est amorem dei et amorem proximi. Qui has igitur \naturas habet, assumat sibi contemplationis alas, quibus ad celum volet. \ [PL, De aquilone et austro ventis] \ Aquilo frigidissimus ventus est. Ab aquilone inquit \pandetur malum. Ibi sedes Sathane, inde ruine principium. \Ventus aquilo gravis temptatio est, flatus aquilonis, suggestio \temptationis, frigus negligentie torpor. Aquilo igitur venit, \quando gravis temptatio mentem cuiuslibet invadit. Aquilo vero \surgit, quando ab animo temptatio recedit. Ab aquilone inquit \et mari, aquilo, temptatio, mare, mundus. Ab aquilone igitur et \mari Christus suos congregat, cum a tumultu temptationum non \tantum iustos sed etiam peccatores sequestrat. \Ponam inquit sedem meam ad aquilo\nem et ero similis altissimo. Sedem \ad aquilonem ponere desiderat, quem penna su\perbie sursum levat, esse similis altissimo con\cupiscit, qui illi cui subesse debet per arrogan\tie spem se equalem facit. Et plus dicam non \tantum se magistro suo equiparat sed etiam se illo meliorem esse putat. Ce\cidit diabolus cum se exaltare voluit, humiliatur homo cum se exal\tare concupiscit. \Auster calidissimus est ventus. \Deus inquit ab austro veniet. Ibi sedes altissimi. Ibi \

bewails aloud. It lacks bile, that is, the bitterness born of anger. It likes to kiss because it delights in widespread peace. It flies in flocks because it likes communal life. It does not live by theft, because it takes nothing from its neighbour. It gathers betterquality grain, that is, better precepts. It does not feed on corpses, that is, on carnal desires. It nests in holes in rocks because it places its hope in Christ's passion. It rests on flowing waters, so that by sighting the hawk's shadow it can avoid more swiftly the hawk's approach, as one studies the scriptures to avoid the plotting of the Devil, who comes without warning. It rears twin chicks, that is the love of God and the love of one's neighbour. Let anyone who has these qualities assume the wings of contemplation and with them fly to heaven. [Of the north wind and the south wind] The north wind is a very cold wind. 'Out of the north an evil shall break forth' (Jeremiah, 1:14). There Satan dwells; and thence is the source of ruin. The north wind represents the weight of temptation; the breath of the wind is the first intimation of temptation; its coldness, the numbing effect of moral negligence. The north wind comes, therefore, when serious temptation possesses the mind. It rises when temptation withdraws from the soul. 'From the north,' says Isaiah, 'and from the sea...' (see 49:12). The north wind represents temptation; the sea, the world. Therefore Christ gathers his followers away from north wind and from the sea, since he keeps not only the righteous but also sinners away from the moral torment of temptation. 'I will set my throne in the north,' says Satan, 'and I will be like the Most High' (see Isaiah, 14: 13, 14). Uplifted on the wings of pride, he wishes to set his throne in the north; he longs to be like the Most High, presumptuously making himself the equal of one to whom he should be subject. And more than that, I say, he not only compares himself with his master but also thinks himself better. The Devil fell because he sought to exalt himself; man is humbled when he desires to rise in the world. The south wind is a very hot wind. God, it is said, will come from the south (see BSV, NEB, Habakkuk,3:3). There is the seat of the Most High. There

Transcription dilectionis ardor. Inde sinceritas veritatis. Auster a serena regione \procedit, quia deus in serenitate morum requiescit. Ibi pascit. Ibi \cubat. Ibi quies mentis. Ibi contemplationis refectio. Auster \sancti spiritus graciam designat. Flatus austri benignitatem spiritus sancti. Calor \amor. Auster igitur venit,

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Translation is the flame of love. From there comes the purity of truth. The south wind blows from a tranquil quarter, because God reposes in tranquility of character. There he finds nourishment; there he finds rest. There is to

quociens gracia sancti spiritus mentem cuiuslibet \ascendit. Surgit, quociens a mente gracia recedit. [A, D]eus \inquit ab austro veniet. Ab aquilone diabolus, a austro deus. \Ille tenebras ignorantie inhabitat, iste serenitatem caritatis \amat. Frigus aquilonis, poros carnis restringit, calor austri, \clausos aperit. Quod enim frigus avaricie stringendo retinet, \apertis elemosine manibus caritas larga prebet. Penna siquidem \vetus in infernum mergit, nova vero, animum ad celestia desi\deranda sustollit. Peccata enim gravant, virtutes vero sublevant. \ Item de accipitre \ Accipiter avis animo \plus armata quam ungulis virtu\tem maiorem in minore corpore gestans. \Hic accipiendo, id est, a capiendo nomen sump\sit. Est autem rapiendis aliis avibus \avida. Ideo vocatur accipiter hoc est raptor. \Unde et Paulus dicit: Sustinetis enim, siquis accipiat vos. \Ut enim diceret: Siquis rapit, dixit: Siquis accipit. Fertur autem \accipiter circa pullos suos impius esse, nam dum viderit eos posse \temptare volatus, nullas eis prebet escas, sed verberat pennis \et a nido precipitat, atque a tenero compellit ad predam, ne \adulti pigrescant. Cavet ne in tenera etate pigrescant, ne sol\vantur deliciis, ne marcescant ocio, ne discant cibum magis \expectare quam querere, ne nature sue deponant vigorem, inter\mittunt studium nutriendi, ut in usum [i]rapiendi audere \compellant. Beatus Gregorius de acciptre quomodo plumescat. \

be found peace of mind; there, too, the refreshment of contemplation. The south wind signifies the grace of the Holy Spirit. The breath of the wind represents the beneficence of the Holy Spirit; its heat represents love. It comes therefore, whenever the grace of the Holy Spirit grows within in a man's mind. It rises whenever that grace withdraws from the mind. God, it is said, will come from the south. The Devil from the north; God from the south. The Devil lives in the darkness of ignorance; God delights in the tranquility born of love of one's fellow-man. The cold of the north wind causes the pores of the flesh to close tightly; the heat of the south wind opens them up again. For what cold avarice holds back in a tight fist, bountiful charity offers as alms in open hands. If old wings carry the soul down to hell, new wings carry it up to the heavenly things it longs for. For the sins of the soul weigh it down; its virtues raise it up. Next, of the hawk The hawk is a bird armed rather with spirit than with claws, having great courage in its small body. It gets its name, accipiter, from accipiendo, accepting - that is, a capiendo, taking to itself. For it greedily seizes other birds. For that reason it is called accipite, meaning one who seizes by force. Therefore Paul says: 'You suffer if a man take of you' (Corinthians 2, 11:20); but while he means to say 'siquis rapit, if any man seizes something from you by force', he says 'siquis accipit, if any man take'. It is said that the hawk is lacking in parental care towards its young, for when it sees that they are able and trying to fly, it does not feed them but beats them with its wings, throws them from the nest and forces them from a tender age to catch prey for themselves lest, when they are fully grown, they should become lazy. It takes care lest in their childhood they grow idle, or are given up to pleasure, or grow weak from inactivity, or learn to expect food rather than to seek it for themselves, or abandon their natural vigour. Hawks stop bothering to feed their young in order to make them bold enough to seize food for themselves. The blessed Gregory on the hawk and how it moults

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Nunquid per sapientiam tuam plumescit accipiter expan\dens alas tuas [PL, suas] ad austrum? Unde

'Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom and stretch her wings toward the south?' (Job 39:26).

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beatus Gregorius: Agrestibus \accipitribus moris est, ut flante austro alas expandant quatinus \eorum membra ad laxandum pennam veterem venti tepore \concalescant. Cum vero ventus deest alis contra radium solis \expansis atque percussis, repente sibi auram faciunt, sicque apertis poris \vel veteris exiliunt, vel nove succrescunt. Quid est ergo accipitrem \in austro plumescere, nisi quod unusquisque sanctorum tactus flatu \sancti spiritus concalescit, et usum vetuste conversationis abiciens novi \hominis formam sumit? Quid apostolus ammonet dicens: Expolian\tes nos [PL, vos] veterem hominem cum actibus suis, et induentes novum. \Et rursum: Licet is qui foris est noster homo corrumpatur, tamen is qui \intus est renovatur de die in diem. Vetustam autem pennam proice\re est, inveterata studia dolose actionis amittere. Et novam pen\nam sumere est, mitem ac simplicem bene vivendi sensum tenere. \Penna namque veteris conversationis gravat, et pluma nove immu\tationis sublevat, ut ad volatum tanto leviorem quanto novi\orem reddat. Et bene ait: Expandens alas suas ad austrum, \expandere est per adventum sancti spiritus nostras confitendo cogitationes \aperire, ut iam non libeat defendendo nos tegere sed accusando \publicare. Tunc ergo accipiter plumescit, cum ad austrum alas ex\pandit, quia tunc se unusquisque virtutum pennis induit, cum sancto spiritu \cogitationes suas confitendo substernit. Qui enim fatendo vetera non \detegit, nove vite opera minime producit. Qui nescit lugere quod gra\vat, non valet proferre quod sublevat. Ipsa namque compunctio\nis vis poros cordis aperit, et plumas virtutum fundit. Cumque se \studiose mens de pigra vetustate redarguit, alacri novitate \iuvenescit. Dicatur ergo beato Job: Nunquid per sapientiam tuam plu\mescis accipiter, expandens alas tuas [PL, suas] ad austrum, id est, cuilibet \

On which the blessed Gregory Commentarys: It is the custom of hawks in the wild to spread their wings when the south wind blows, so that their limbs are warmed by the wind to release their old feathers. When there is no wind, they create a breeze by spreading their wings to face the rays of the sun and beating them; and thus, as the pores of their body open, either their old plumage falls out, or new feathers grow in. What does it signify, therefore, that the hawk moults in the south wind, if not that every saint is warmed by the touch of the breath of the Holy Spirit and, casting aside his old way of life, takes on the form of a new man? As the Apostle admonishes us, saying: 'Ye have put off the old man with his needs; and have put on the new man' (Colossians, 3:9). And again: 'But though our outward man perish, yet the inward man is renewed day by day' (Corinthians 2, 4:16). To throw off the old plumage is to abandon a longstanding attachment to a deceitful way of life. To assume new plumage is to hold to a way of life that is gentle and simple. For the plumage of the old way of life weighs you down, while that of the new growth raises you up, so that the newer the plumage, the lighter it is for flight. The phrase 'stretching its wings to the south' is well chosen. 'To stretch' here means to reveal our thoughts by confessing them through the influence of the Holy Spirit, so that we no longer choose to conceal our sins by defending them but choose to reveal them openly by accusing ourselves of them. So, therefore, the hawk moults when it spreads its wings to the south wind, as we each clothe ourselves in the plumage of virtue when we lay our thoughts open to the Holy Spirit by confessing them. For if you do not reveal your old sins by confessing them, you will by no means accomplish the works of the new life. If you cannot bewail the sins that weigh you down, you will not have the strength to accomplish the works that can raise you up. For the power of remorse alone opens the pores of the heart and causes the plumage of virtue to grow. When the mind zealously convinces itself that it has been neglectful in the past, it becomes renewed, eager and refreshed. Therefore let the blessed Job be told: 'Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom and stretch her wings toward the south?' that is,

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electo, tu intelligentiam contulisti, ut flante spiritu sancto cogna\tionum alas expandat, quatenus pondera vetuste conversationis\ abiciat, et virtutum

you, O God, have conferred on all the elect the insight so that by the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, they may spread the wings of their thoughts in order to cast off

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plumas in usum novi volatus sumat, ut \hinc videlicet colligat, qui [PL, quod] vigilantiam sensus in semetipso ex se\non habet, qui hanc ex se conferre aliis nequaquam valet. \ De domestico et silvestre accipitribus\ Due sunt species accipitris\ domesticus scilicet et silvestris. Idem tamen sed diversis temporibus potest esse sil\vestris et domesticus. Silvestris, rapere consuevit domesticas volucres \et domesticus silvestres. Silvestris quas rapit, continuo devorat,\ domesticus captas domino suo relinquendas servat. Porro dominus\ eius captarum volucrum ventres aperit, et earum corda accipitri\ in cibum tribuenda sumit. Interiora ventris cum fimo eicit, qui \intus remanens putredinem carnium cum fetore gignit. \Moraliter silvestris accipiter captas volucres et rapit et devorat, \quia quilibet perversus actus et cogitationes simplicium dissipare \non cessat. Domesticus vero accipiter est quilibet spiritualis pater. Qui tociens \silvestres volucres rapit, quotiens seculares ad conversionem predi\cando trahit. Captat occidit, dum seculares mundo mori per car\nis mortificatione cogit. Dominus autem eius, id est omnipotens dominus, ventres \earum aperit, quia molliciem carnalium per scriptas increpando solvit. \Corda vero extrahit dum cogitationes secularium per confessionem \manifestas facit. Interiora ventris cum fimo eicit, quando memoriam \peccati fetentem reddit. Ad mensam itaque domini capte vo\lucres veniunt, dum in corpus ecclesie peccatores [PL, doctorum] dentibus masti\cati sese convertunt. \ Qualiter accipiter plumescere debeat\ Domesticis accipitribus quo melius plumescere debeant, \munita ac tepentiva requiruntur loca. Loca munita \sunt claustra. In quibus dum silvestris accipiter ponitur, ut dome\sticus fiat, clausus tenetur. Ibi veteres pennas emittit, et novas\

the weight of their old way of life, and take on the plumage of virtue to fly anew. From this, evidently, Job is to infer that the man has no alertness of perception within himself, who can by no means transfer it from himself to others. Of domestic and wild hawks There are two kinds of hawk, domestic and wild. It is the same bird, however, but at different times it can be wild or domestic. The wild hawk is accustomed to prey on tame birds; the domestic hawk on wild. The wild hawk eats the prey it catches immediately; the domestic hawk keeps what it catches to leave for its master. Furthermore, its master opens the stomachs of the captured birds and takes their hearts to give them as food to his hawk. He throws away the intestines with the ordure, which produces putrefaction of the flesh with a stench if it remains inside. In a moral sense, the wild hawk seizes and devours the birds it catches as an evil man ceaselessly frustrates the actions and thoughts of ordinary people. The domestic hawk, in contrast, is like a spiritual father. As the hawk seizes wild birds, so the spiritual father leads worldly men to conversion by his preaching. As the hawk kills what it captures, so the spiritual father forces worldly men die to the world, through mortification of the flesh. The master of the domestic hawk, that is, the Lord Almighty, opens the stomachs of its prey when he cleanses weakness of the flesh by rebuking it through the Scriptures. He takes out the hearts when he exposes the thoughts of worldly men through confession. He throws out the intestines and ordure of the stomach when he makes the memory of sin offensive to us. As birds taken by the hawk come in this way to its master's table, so sinners, ground by the teeth of teachers, turn into the body of the Church. How the hawk should moult To allow domestic hawks to moult more easily, you need a mew that is secure and warm. Secure mews are like cloisters. When a wild hawk is placed there, in order to be tamed, it must be locked up. There it lets fall its old feathers and

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assumit, quia quilibet claustralis [qui] pristinis viciis spoliatur, novi \hominis virtutibus adornatur. Nec inde extrahitur, nisi prius eiectis veteribus \pennis nove soliduntur. Sed cum firmus in volatu fuerit eiectus \foras ad manum venit. Similiter si aliquis conversus de claustro \exeat, necesse est ut ad manum bone operationis accedat, et inde \emissus volet, ut ad

acquires new ones, as anyone entering the cloister is deprived of his former vices and adorned with the virtues of a new man.

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The hawk is not released from the mew until its old feathers have been cast off and the new ones are firmly in place. But when it is strong enough to fly and

desideranda celestia toto nisu mentis \seipsum levet. \ Quod accipiter in sinistra manu gestatur \ Accipiter in sinistra manu gestari solet, ut in dexteram ad \aliquid capiendum emissus volet. Leva inquit eius \sub capite meo, et dextera illius amplexabitur me. Leva sunt \bona temporalia, dextera vero sunt eterna. In leva ergo sedet, qui \bonis temporalibus presidet. In dextera vero volat, qui toto affectu \mentis eterna desiderat. Ibi capiet accipiter columbam, id est, quilibet \mutatus in melius sancti spiriti recipiet gratiam. \ Explicit de columba et accipitro. Incipit de turture et de passere \ Post columbe gemitum et acci\pitris questum, ne diutius differam [,] \planctum turturis et clamorem pas\seris velocius scribam, nec tantum \scribam, sed etiam pingam. Qualiter \turtur heremi secretum diligat, et \passer solitarius in tecto clamare non \desinat, ut sub exemplo turturis, \teneas mundiciam castitatis, et sub \exemplo passeris, ames custodiam callide circumspectionis, \et ut vivas caste, et ambules caute. \ De turture \ Turtur de voce vocate, avis pudica, et semper in monti\um iugis, et in desertis solitudinibus commorans. Tecta \enim hominum et conversationem fugit, et commoratur in silvis. \

is released outside, it comes to settle on the hand. Likewise, if a convert leaves the cloister, he must settle on a virtuous way of life, and when he is flown from that perch he should soar with all his will to heavenly things, the object of his desires. Why the hawk is carried on the left hand The hawk is customarily carried on the left hand, so that when it has been let off the leash to catch something, it should fly back onto the right. 'His left hand', it is written, 'is under my head, and his right hand doth embrace me' (Song of Solomon, 2:6). The left hand represents temporal possessions; the right, eternal life. Those who manage temporal possessions sit on the left. Those who desire eternal life with all their heart fly on the right. It is there that the hawk will catch the dove - that is, anyone who has changed for the better will receive the grace of the Holy Spirit. The end of the account of the dove and the hawk. The beginning of the account of the turtle dove and the sparrow. After the mournful note of the dove and the plaintive call of the hawk, lest I linger too long, I shall write more speedily of the lament of the turtle-dove and the cry of the sparrow - and not only write of them, but also portray them. My purpose is to show how the turtle-dove cherishes the solitude of the wilderness, and the sparrow cries ceaselessly, alone on the roof; so that, following the example of the turtle dove, you may cleave to the purity that comes of chastity, and following that of the sparrow, you may take pleasure in acting shrewdly and prudently; living chastely and going your way with caution. Of the turtle dove The turtle dove, so called from the sound it makes, turtur, is a shy bird, and stays all the time on mountain summits and in deserted, lonely places. It shuns the houses and society of men and keeps to the woods.

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in silvis, que etiam hyemis \tempore deplumata, in trun\cis arborum cavis habitare \perhibetur. Turtur etiam ni\do suo ne pullos suos incur\set lupus, squille folia super\iacit. Novit enim quod huius\modi folia lupi fugere con\sueverunt. Fertur enim tur\tur ubi iugalis proprii fuerit amissione viduata per talem u\sum thalami et nomen habere coniugii eo quod primus amor \fefellerit eam dilecti morte deceptam, [quoniam] et infidelis ad \perpetuitatem fuit et amarus ad gratiam, qui plus doloris ex \morte, quam suavitatis ex caritate generaverit. Itaque iterare

[in woods, repeated]. Even in the winter time, when it has lost its plumage, it is said to to live in the hollow trunks of trees.

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The turtle dove also overlays its nest with squill leaves, in case a wolf should attack its young. For it knows that wolves usually run from leaves of this kind. It is said that when the she-bird is widowed by the loss of her mate, she holds the name and rite of

\coniunctionem recusat, nec pudoris iura aut complaciti \viri resolvit federa, illi soli suam caritatem reservat, illi \custodit nomen uxoris. Discite mulieres quanta sit vidui\tatis gratia que etiam in avibus predicatur. Quis igitur has leges turturi \dedit? Si hominem quero, non invenio. Homo enim nul\lus est ausus quando nec Paulus ausus est leges viduitatis tenen\de prescribere. Denique ipse ait: Volo igitur iniorues nubere, fili\os procreare, matres familias esse, nullam occasionem dare \adversario. Et alibi. Bonum est illis si hic permaneant. Quod \si se non continent nubant. Melius est enim nubere, quam \uri. Optat Paulus in mulieribus quod in turturibus perseverat. \Et alibi iuniores hortatur ut nubant, quia mulieres nostre turturum \pudiciciam implere vix possunt. Ergo turturibus dominus hanc infu\dit gratiam vel affectum, hanc virtutem continentie dedit qui \solus potest prescribere, quod omnes sequantur. Turtur non uritur flore iuventutis \

marriage in such esteem, that because her first experience of love has deceived her, cheating her with the death of her beloved, since he has become permanently unfaithful and a bitter memory, causing her more grief by his death than he gave her pleasure from his affection, for this reason she refuses to marry again, and will not relax the oaths of propriety or the contract made with the man who pleased her. She reserves her love for her dead mate alone and keeps the name of wife for him. Learn, you women, how great is the grace of widowhood, when it is proclaimed even among the birds. Who, therefore, gave these laws to the turtle dove? If I look for a man as law-giver, I cannot find him. For there is no man who would dare - not even Paul dared - to prescribe laws for observing widowhood. He said only:'I will therefore that the younger women marry, bear children, guide the house, give none occasion to the adversary to speak reproachfully'(1 Timothy, 5:14). And elsewhere: 'It is good for them if they abide even as I. But if they cannot contain, let them marry; for it is better to marry than to burn' (1 Corinthians, 7:8,9). Paul desires in women what in turtle doves is an enduring characteristic. And elsewhere he urges the young to marry, because it is only with difficulty that our women achieve the virtue of turtle doves. Therefore it was God who infused the turtle doves with this grace or capacity for affection, giving them the virtue of continence; God, who alone can set forth the law which all should follow. The turtle dove is not inflamed by the flower of youth

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non temptatur occasionis illecebra. Turtura nescit primam fidem\ irritam facere quia novit castimoniam servare, prima conu\bii sorte premissam.\ De palma et turture\ Sicut palma multipli\cabo dies. Palma dies\ multiplicat, quia tarde proficit\ priusquam in altum crescat. Si\militer iustus tarde proficit,\ priusquam ad hoc perveniat\ ad quod tendit.\ Est enim iusti\ desiderium, ut\ perveniat ad \ celeste regnum. Si ad [PL, Sed] hoc\ desiderium mundi impedit\ ut ad optata nisi tarde perveni\re possit. Palma multipli\cat dies, nec tamen eam frigus\ hiemis vel nimius calor\ estatis impediunt quin\ semper virescat. Similiter\ iustus semper viret nec\ aliquo impeditur quin in\ proposito bone operationis\ perseveret. Frigus hyemis,\ est torpor vel negligentia\ refrigerate mentis. Nimius\ calor estatis, est ardor libi\dinis, vel iracunde flamma\ seu incendium\ cupiditatis.\ Nec palma igitur \ marcescit fri\gore, nec nimio estatis u\ritur calore, sic nec iustus\ premitur qualicumque temp\tatione. Aliter palma dies\ multiplicat, quia iustus\ dies antiquos ad memori\am reducit, et annos eter\nos in mente tractat. Pau\citatem dierum sibi nuntiat,\ et ex alia parte longitudi\nem dierum in futuro sperat. Qui hec igitur

and is not affected by chance temptation. It cannot go back on its first pledge of love because it knows how to preserve the chastity which it plighted as the first duty of marriage.

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Of the palm-tree and the turtle dove 'I shall multiply my days as the palm' (see Job 29:18). The palm-tree 'multiplies its days', because it grows slowly before it reaches its full height. In the same way, a righteous man proceeds slowly before he attains what he strives for. For he longs to attain the kingdom of heaven. But worldly desire prevents him from attaining his chosen goal other than at a slow pace. The palm-tree multiplies its days. Neither the cold of winter nor the extreme heat of summer, however, prevent it from flourishing at all times. In the same way, a righteous man grows ever stronger and nothing hinders him in his pursuit of virtuous conduct. The cold of winter represents the sluggishness or

intra se colligit, multipli\cando dies sicut palma vivendo [A, vincendo] in altum crescit.\ Item de palma\ Statura tua assimilata est palme\

heedlessness of a mind that lacks religious zeal. The extreme heat of summer represents the ardour of lust, or the flame of wrath or the smouldering fire of covetouness. As the palm-tree, therefore, does not wither in the cold nor burn in the great heat of summer, so a righteous man does not feel the pressure of any sort of temptation. The palm-tree multiplies its days in another sense, as when a righteous man recalls to his memory the days past and contemplates in his mind the years of eternity. He tells himself how few his past days have been and, looking at it from the other side, trusts in a long line of days to come. If you take this teaching to heart, you will grow to a great height, multiplying your days and triumphing over adversity, like the palm-tree. Again of the palm-tree 'Thy stature is like to a palm-tree' (Song of Solomon, 7:7).

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Statura ecclesie vel cuiuslibet fidelis anime, assimilatur palme.\ In statura cuiuslibet hominis notatur parvitas vel magnitudo in\ membris per liniamenta corporis. Habet autem statura [PL, staturam] palme iustus,\ si apud se modicus, apud deum magnus. In se humilis, coram deo\ sublimis. Hec palma est Christus, cui assimilatur iustus. Dum enim tribu\lationes quas passus est Christus patitur, stature palme iustus assimilatur.\ Unde apostolus: Qui erunt participes tribulationum, erunt participes\ et glorie. Qui igitur membrum corporis est, que sunt capitis sentire debet. Iam\ palma crevit in altum, iam cacumen illius penetravit celum, iam\ capite sunt capitis come qui sunt elate palmarum, id est electe ani\marum, adhuc stipes rugoso cortice, id est ecclesia circumdata tribulatio\num asperitate in terra figitur, et rami, id est sancti in eterna felicitate gloriantur.\ Item de palma\ Iustus ut palma florebit. Iustus plantatur, floret\ et fert fructum, plantatur in domo domini in atriis domus dei nostri.\ Domus dei nostri est domus conversionis. Est autem atrium ante domum.\ Ante domum conversionis siquidem, est autem atrium renuntiationis.\ Qui enim mundum renuntiat, palmam victorie qua mundum\ vicit in atriis domus domini plantat. Plantatur igitur in domo con\versionis, floret per famam bone opinionis fert fructum recte\ operationis. Seorsum significat [PL, Sed quorsum figit] radicem? Quomodo crescit? Quomodo roboratur?\ Radicatur per fidem, crescit per spem, roboratur per caritatem. Mirum\ est tamen quod de iustis dicitur: Plantati in domo domini in atriis domus dei nostri florebunt. Mirum\ est quod plantantur in domo et florent in atrio. Sed fortasse per fidem\ plantatur iustus [PL, plantantur intus], per exemplum boni operis florent exterius et sic per\

The stature of the Church or of the soul of one of the faithful can be compared to that of a palm-tree. In the stature of a man one notes the smallness or largeness of the limbs by the outline of the body. But the righteous man has the stature of a palm-tree; if he appears of only modest size to himself, to God he is tall; humble in himself, before God he is exalted.

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This palm-tree is Christ, to whom the righteous man can be compared. For when he suffers the tribulations which Christ endured, the righteous man takes on the stature of the palm-tree. Thus the Apostle says: 'Those who will partake of suffering will also partake in glory' (see 2 Corinthians, 1:7). If you are a limb of the body, you must experience what goes on in the head. The palm-tree has already grown to its full height; its tip has already pierced the sky; there is already hair on its head, which is the foliage of the palm bud, that is, the elect among souls. The trunk, with its rough bark - the Church wrapped around with the roughness of sorrow - is set firmly in the ground, and its branches - the saints - glory in eternal happiness. Again of the palm-tree 'The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree.' (Psalms, 92:12). The righteous man is planted, he flourishes and bears fruit; he is planted in the house of the Lord, in the courts of the house of our God. The house of our God is the house of conversion. In front of the house is the forecourt. Since it is in front of the house of conversion, it must be the forecourt of

famam bone opinionis foras exit odor floris. Vel aliter, plantatur\ in domo, florent in atrio, quia iusti plantantur in presenti ecclesia et flore immar\cescibili florebunt in eterna vita. Ibi etiam cum flore recipient fruc\tum, id est cum mundicia carnis et anime, future retributionis premium.\

renunciation. For those who renounce the world plant in the forecourt of the house of the Lord the palm of the victory by which they overcame the world. The rightous man is planted, therefore, in the house of conversion; he flourishes through his renown; he bears the fruit of virtuous conduct. But to what end does he set down roots? How does he grow? How does he become strong? He takes root through faith, he grows through hope, he becomes strong through charity. What is said in the psalm about the righteous is, however, strange: 'Those that he planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of our God' (Psalms, 92:13) It is strange that they are planted in the house and flower in the forecourt. Perhaps they are planted inside by reason of their faith; through the example of their good works they flower externally, and thus through their renown the scent of their flower spreads outside. Alternatively, the righteous are planted in the house but flower in the forecourt, because they are planted in the Church of today and will flourish, without their flower fading, in eternal life. There also they will receive, with the flower, the fruit; that is, with their pureness of body and soul, the prize of recompense to come.

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Item de palma\ Ascendam in palmam et apprehendam \ fructus eius. Palma iuxta terram gracilis et aspera, versus ce\lum grossior et pulchra. Est igitur ascensus difficilis, sed fructus dulcis.\ Minuitur ascendentis labor, dum sentitur odor. Difficultatem as\census aufert dulcedo gustus. Palma est Christus, fructus salus:\ Salus inquit populi ego sum. Gustate et videte quoniam suavis est\ dominus. Spes salutis in ligno crucis. Ascende igitur in palmam, id est at\tende crucis victoriam. Per scalam siquidem crucis, ascendes ad\ solium victoris. Tolle et tu crucem tuam et sequere eum. Qui\ affligit carnem, tollit crucem. Palma manum victoris or\nat, et iustus palmam victorie, in manu victorie bene operando\ portat. Tria dicuntur esse de quibus iustus victoriam debet adquire\re. Mundus, caro, diabolus. Iustus mundum vincit, dum \ eum suis oblectationibus contempnit. Carnem superat, dum eam\ per abstinentiam domat. Diabolum domat et eum sibi subicit,\ dum a suis finibus expellit. Palmam igitur in manu gestat, qui de\ his tribus bene operando triumphat.\ De cedro et passeribus qui in ramis cedri nidificant\ In bona significatione cedrus et libanus quando \ ponuntur, sic in canticis canticorum per Salomonem dicitur: Spes [PL, species] eius ut\ Libani, electus ut cedri. Libanus Fenicis est mons terminus Judee\ contra septemtrionem. Arbores illius proceritate specie et robore ce\terarum silvarum ligna precellunt. Per montem Libanum sane intel\ligere possumus eminentiam virtutum. Terminus est Judee

Again of the palm-tree

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'I will go up to the palm-tree, I will take hold of the boughs thereof' (Song of Solomon, 7:8). The palm, near the ground, is slender and rough; towards the sky, it is thicker and beautiful. It is, therefore, difficult to climb, but the fruit is sweet. The effort of climbing is lessened when you can smell the scent of the fruit. The difficulty of climbing is removed by sweetness of its taste. The palm-tree is Christ; the fruit, his salvation: 'I am the salvation of the people' (see Psalms, 35:3), and 'O taste and see that the Lord is good' (Psalms, 34:8). The hope of salvation is in the wood of the cross. Climb the palm, therefore, that is, strive for the victory of the cross. By climbing the ladder of the cross, you will attain the victor's throne. You. too, can carry your cross and follow Christ. Anyone who mortifies his flesh, carries the cross. The palm adorns the victor's hand, and the righteous man carries the palm of victory in the hand of victory, won by his virtuous conduct. There are said to be three things over which the righteous man must win victory. The world, the flesh and the Devil. He triumphs over the world when he scorns it with its delights. He overcomes the flesh when he subdues it by his abstinence. He conquers the Devil and forces him to submit when he banishes him from his life. He

con\tra septemtrionem ne diabolus mentes vere confitentium intret\ per temptationem. Arbores illius proceritate specie et robore alias ar\bores precellunt, dum quelibet fideles anime proceritate desiderii,\ specie castitatis, robore perseverantie, alias antecedunt. Per cedrum\ intelligimus Christum. Hec est cedrus alta Libani conformata ysopo\

who triumphs over these three things by virtuous conduct, therefore, bears the palm of victory in his hand. Of the cedar and the sparrows that nest in its branches When the words 'cedar' and 'Lebanon' are placed together, it is in a good sense. As Solomon says in the Song of Songs: 'his countenance is as Lebanon, excellent as the cedars' (5:15). Lebanon is a mountain of Phoenicia at the northern limit of Judaea. Its trees surpass the timber of other trees in height, appearance and strength. By Mount Lebanon we can doubtless understand excellence in virtues. It stands at the northern limit of Judaea, to prevent the Devil from entering by means of temptation the minds of those who are sincerely praising the Lord. Its trees surpass others in height, appearance and strength, as every faithful soul surpasses others in the exalted nature of its desire, the splendour of its chastity and the strength of its constancy. By the cedar we understand Christ. He is the tall cedar of Lebanon, similar in form to the hyssop

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qui cum esset sublimis, factus est\ humilis. Passeres sunt predi\catores. Pulli sunt hi qui ver\bo predicationis sunt procreati.\ Nidus, quiete mentis locus.\ In hac igitur cedro nidificant, qui\ tranquille vivendo de eterna be\atitudine non desperant. Sunt\ cedri Libani quas plantavit dom\minus. Cedri Libani sunt\ divites huius mundi. Pas\seres sunt cenobiorum rectores.\ Pulli discipuli. Nidus, offici\narum locus. In his cedris\ passeres nidificant, quia rectores animarum in possessionibus divi\tum cenobia locant. Ibi passeres clamare non cessant, ut sibi a deo\ escam querant. A deo sibi escam querant, qui verbi divini eloquii\ quasi cibo saciari volunt. Die ac nocte clamitant, qui [PL, quia] pro suis bene\factoribus toto annisu mentis deum rogant. In mundo tranquille\ mentis pennas contemplationis nutriunt, quibus ad predictam\ cedrum quam citius poterunt evolare contendunt. Circa ligna Li\bani volitant, quia viam seu mores virorum sublimorum scire desi\derant. Ex his lignis Libani Salomon ferculum fecisse legitur, quia\ ecclesia de viris sublimibus et infatigabilibus (A, fatigatur; PL, edificatur).\ Item de cedro\ Sicut [PL, sunt] cedri quas non plantavit dominus non plan\tavit in propria voluntate, non dilatavit in cupiditate. Omnis\ plantatio quam non plantavit pater meus celestis, eradicabitur. Hii\ cedri Libani sunt divites superbi. In his nidificant herodii et accipitres\

which, although it grew tall, was made humble.

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Sparrows are preachers. Their fledglings are those born of the word as it is preached. Their nest is a place where there is peace of mind. Build your nest in the cedar, therefore, if you are one of those who, by living at peace, have not given up hope of eternal bliss. There are those cedars of Lebanon which the Lord planted. They represent the rich of the world. Sparrows represent the heads of monasteries; fledglings are their disciples. The nest represents convent buildings. Sparrows nest in these cedars, because spiritual rulers place their convents on the estates of the rich. There the sparrows call ceaselessly, seeking food from God. Let all those who wish to be filled with the word of God as with food, seek their nourishment from him. Day and night the sparrows call out, like those who pray with all their heart to God on behalf of their benefactors. Their minds at peace in the midst of the world, they care for their wings, the wings of contemplation, on which they seek to fly to the cedar as swiftly as they can. They fly around the trees of Lebanon, because they wish to know of the life and behaviour of spiritually eminent men. From this timber of Lebanon

we read that Solomon made himself a chariot (see Song of Songs, 3:9), as the Church was made from illustrious and untiring men. Again of the cedar There are those cedars which the Lord did not plant. He did not plant them of his own will, he did not extend their number out of desire. 'Every plant which my heavenly Father hath not planted shall be rooted up' (Matthew, 15:13) These cedars of Lebanon are the rich and proud. Gyrfalcons and hawks nest in them

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id est raptores. Nidos componunt, quia in possessionibus divitum raptores\ munitiones construunt. Pulli sunt complices raptorum seu mini\stri. He volucres in cedris ut rapiant latent, quia raptores nocendi\ potentiam, a principibus perversis habent. Sed: dominus confringet cedros Libani, id est\ divites mundi, quosdam per penitentiam quosdam per vindictam. Per penitentiam\ confringet, [quando] [PL, quia] sicut vitulum Libani comminuet. Comminuet sicut vitulum\ Libani ad imitationem vite Christi, ut fiat vitulus sacrificiis aptus, ut car\nem mortificet, et cum Christo crucem portet. Per vindictam confringet alios\ quia eterno igni reservandos. Predicta cedrus succisa multis proficit, quia\ Christus morte propria mundum redemit. Nisi enim granum frumenti cadens in terram\ mortuum fuerit, ipsum solum manet. Si autem mortuum fuerit, multum fructum affert. Cedrus ergo succiditur dum Christus moritur.\ Mors siquidem Christi multis proficit, descendens ad inferos, surgens a mortuis\ ascendens in celos spem resurgendi morientibus dedit. Quid enim prodesset\ vivere tribulationibus concuti, ad extremum mori, nisi sequeretur spes resur\gendi? Et quid prodesset resurrexisse, nisi constans esset hominem immortalem\ absque supplicio sine fine manere? Similiter cum cedrus quam plantavit\ dominus succiditur, multum proficit quia ad eterne beatudinis edificium transfertur.\ Si autem cedrus quam non plantavit dominus succisa fuerit, non minime utilitatis e\rit, quia que nullum fructum ferebat in Libano, id est in seculo, pondus edificii succisa\ sustinet in spirituali templo. Ita dico si cedri superbiam succidas per penitenciam, si\ vero per vindictam succidas gehenne incendiis illam concremandam in perpetuum servas.\ De pellicano\ Similis factus sum pellicano solitudi\nis. Pellicanus Egiptiaca avis est, habitans in solitu\dine Nili fluminis unde et nomen sumpsit. Nam Canopos\ Egyptus dicitur. Amatorum est nimis filiorum. Qui cum genuerit\ natos et ceperint crescere, percuciunt parentes suos in faciem.\ Sed parentes repercucientes eos occidunt. Tercia vero die mater\ eorum percuciens costam suam aperit latus suum et incumbit \

that is, birds of prey. They make nests there as robbers build strongholds on the estates of the rich. Their fledglings are their accomplices or henchmen. These birds hide in the the cedars in order to catch their prey, as robbers are empowered to commit crimes by evil rulers.

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But 'the Lord breaketh the cedars of Lebanon' (Psalms, 29:5), that is, he will destroy the rich of the world, some by repentance, some by vengeance. The Lord will break some by repentance as he will humble the calf of Lebanon. He will humble them like the calf of Lebanon (see BSV, Psalmi, 28:6; NEB, Psalms, 29:6), in imitation of the life of Christ, making of each rich man a calf fit for sacrifice, who will mortify his flesh and carry his cross with Christ. He will break others by vengeance because they will be kept for eternal fire. Many profit from the felling of the aforesaid cedar, as when Christ with his death redeemed the world. 'Except a corn of wheat fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone; but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit' (John, 12:24). Therefore the felling of the cedar represents the death of Christ. Truly, many benefitted from the death of Christ; by descending into hell, rising from the dead and ascending into heaven, he gave to the dying the hope of resurrection. For what good is there in living afflicted by distress and in dying at the end, if hope of resurrection does not follow? And what good is resurrection unless it is agreed that immortal man lives on without endless punishment? Likewise, when the cedar which the Lord planted is felled, it is of great profit, because it is transferred to the dwelling-place of eternal bliss. But if the cedar which the Lord did not plant is felled, it, too, will be of no little use, because the tree which bore no fruit in Lebanon, that is, in this secular world, may, when it is felled, support the weight of the

building in a temple of the spirit. What I have said applies only if you cut down the pride of the cedar with repentance. If, however, you cut it down with vengeance, you consign it to the fires of Gehenna to be reduced forever to ashes. Of the pelican 'I am like pelican of the wilderness' (Psalms, 102:6). The pelican is a bird of Egypt, living in the wilderness of the River Nile, from which it gets its name. For Egypt is known as Canopos. It is devoted to its young. When it gives birth and the young begin to grow, they strike their parents in the face. But their parents, striking back, kill them. On the third day, however, the mother-bird, with a blow to her flank, opens up her side and lies

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super pullos suos et effundit sanguinem super corpora mor\tuorum, et sic suscitat eos a mortuis. Mistice pellicanus\ significat Christum, Egiptus mundum. Pellicanus habitat in so\litudine, quia Christus solus de virgine dignatus est nasci sine viri\li copulatione. Est autem solitudo pellicani, quod immu\nis est a peccato sic et vita Christi. Hec avis rostro suos pullos oc\cidit, quia verbo predicationis incredulos convertit. Super pullos\ suos flere non desinit, quia Christus cum resuscitaret Lazarum\ misericorditer flevit. Et sic post tres dies sanguine suo pullos vi\vificat, quia Christus proprio sanguine suo redemptos salvat. Mora\liter autem per pellicanum intelligere possumus non quemlibet iu\stum, sed a carnali voluptate longe remotum. Per Egyptum, vi\tam nostram ignorantie tenebris involutam. Egyptus enim\ tenebre interpretatur. In Egipto igitur solitudinem facimus, dum\ a curis et voluptatibus seculi longe sumus. Sic et iustus in civi\tate solitudinem facit, dum immunem se in quantum huma\na fragilitas patitur a peccato custodit. Rostro pellicanus pullos\ suos occidit, quia iustus cogitationes et opera que male gessit,\

on her young and lets her blood pour over the bodies of the dead, and so raises them from the dead. In a mystic sense, the pelican signifies Christ; Egypt, the world. The pelican lives in solitude, as Christ alone condescended to be born of a virgin without intercourse with a man. It is solitary, because it is free from sin, as also is the life of Christ. It kills its young with its beak as preaching the word of God converts the unbelievers. It weeps ceaselessly for its young, as Christ wept with pity when he raised Lazarus. Thus after three days, it revives its young with its blood, as Christ saves us, whom he has redeemed with his own blood. In a moral sense, we can understand by the pelican not the righteous man, but anyone who distances himself far from carnal desire. By Egypt is meant our life, shrouded in the darkness of ignorance. For Egiptus can be translated as 'darkness'. In Egypt, therefore, we make a wilderness (see Joel, 3:19), when we are far from the preoccupations and desires of this world. Thus the righteous man creates solitude for himself in the city, when he keeps himself free from sin, as far as human frailty allows. The pelican kills its young with its beak because the righteous man considers and rejects his sinful thoughts and deeds

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ore proprio iudicat et confundit dicens: Confitebor adversum\ me iniusticiam meam domino, et tu remisisti impietatem\ peccati mei. Super eos triduo deflet quicquid cogitatione locuti\one et opere male

out of his own mouth, saying: 'I said, I will confess my transgressions unto the Lord, and thou forgavest the iniquity of my sin' (Psalms, 32:5). It weeps for its young for three days: this teaches us that whatever

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gesserit, lacrimis deleri docet. Et sic pullos\ suos aspersos sanguine vivificat, dum carnis et sanguinis opera\ minuit, et actus spiritales bene vivendo servat. Huius etiam\ volucris natura talis dicitur esse, quod semper afficitur macie et quicquid glutit\ cito digerit, quia venter eius nullum habet diverticulum in quo retine\at cibum. Non igitur cibus ille corpus impinguat, sed tantum sustinet\ et confortat. Huic siquidem pellicano heremite vita fit similis\ qui pane pascitur, nec querit replecionem ventris, qui non\ vivit ut comedat, sed comedit ut vivat.\ De nicticorace\ Factus sum sicut nicticorax\ in domicilio. Nicticorax\ est avis que amat tenebras noctis.\ In parietinis habitat quia in ru\inis maceriarum que sunt sine\ tecto domicilium servat. Lucem\ refugit, in nocte volitans cibum\ querit. Mystice nicticorax Christum\ significat qui noctis tenebras amat, quia non vult mortem peccatoris\ sed ut convertatur et vivat. Ita enim deus pater dilexit mundum ut pro\ redemptione mundi morti traderet filium. Quod autem peccatores\ tenebre vocentur, apostolous testatur dicens: Fuistis aliquando tenebre,\ nunc autem lux in domino. Habitat nicticorax in rimis parietum\ quia Christus nasci voluit de populo Judeorum: Non sum inquit missus nisi\ ad oves que perierunt domus Israel. Sed Christus opprimitur a rimis, quia\ occiditur a Judeis. Lucem refugit, quia vanam gloriam detestatur et odit.\ Cum enim leprosum curaret ut nobis exemplum humilitatis da\

we have done wrong by thought, word or deed, is expunged by tears. It revives its young by sprinkling them with its blood, as when we concern ourselves less with matters of flesh and blood and concentrate on spiritual acts, by conducting ourselves virtuously. It is also a characteristic of this bird, they say, that it always suffers from thinness, and that whatever it swallows, it digests immediately, because its stomach has no separate pocket in which to retain food. Food does not fatten its body, therefore, but only sustains it and gives it strength. Indeed, the life of a hermit is modelled on the pelican, in that he lives on bread but does not seek to fill his stomach; he does not live to eat but eats to live. Of the night-owl 'I am like the night-owl in its dwelling-place' (BSV, Psalmi, 101:7; NEB, Psalms, 102:6). The night-owl is a bird that loves the darkness of the night. It lives in decaying walls because it sets up house in the ruins of roofless dwellings. It shuns the light, flying at night in search of food. In a mystic sense, the night-owl signifies Christ. Christ loves the darkness of night because he does not want sinners - who are represented by darkness to die but to be converted and live (see Ezekiel, 18:32). For God the father so loved the world that he gave his son to death for the redemption of the world (see John, 3:16-17). That sinners are called 'darkness', is borne out by the apostle, saying: 'For ye were sometimes darkness, but now are ye light in the Lord' (Ephesians, 5:8). The night-owl lives in the cracks in walls, as Christ wished to be born one of the Jewish people, saying: 'I am not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel' (Matthew, 15:24). But Christ is crushed in the cracks of the walls, because he is killed by the Jews. Christ shuns the light in the sense that he detests and hates vainglory. For when he cared for a leper, in order to give us a lesson in humility,

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ret, ait leproso: Vide nemini dixeris. De hac luce dicitur: Auferetur\ ab impiis lux sua, id est presentis vite gloria. Ipse autem est lux inacces\sibilis: que illuminat omnem hominem. Lux igitur refugit lu\cem, id est veritas humane glorie vanitatem. In nocte volitans escas\ querit, quia peccatores in corpus ecclesie predicando convertit. Moraliter\ autem nicticorax non quemlibet iustum nobis innuit, sed eum qui\ inter homines degens ab intuitu hominum se in quantum potuit\ abscondit. Lucem refugit, quia humane laudis gloriam non attendit.\ De qua luce dicitur: Nonne lux impii extinguetur nec splendebit

he said to the leper: 'See thou tell no man' (Matthew, 8:4). Of this light it is said: 'And from the wicked their light is witholden' (Job, 38:15), that is, the glory of present life. He himself is the light inaccessible 'which lighteth every man' (John, 1:9). The light, therefore, shuns the light, that is, the truth shuns the vanity of worldly glory.

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The night-owl flies at night in search of food, as Christ converts sinners into the body of the Church by preaching.

flam\ma ignis eius. Lucem dicit presentis vite prosperitatem. Sed lux impii\ extinguitur, quia fugitive vite prosperitas cum ipsa terminatur. Nec splende\bit flamma ignis eius? Ignem dicit temporalium desideriorum fervo\rem. Cuius flamma est decor vel potestas externe que de interno eius \ ardore procedit. Sed non splendebit quia in die exitus omnis exterior\ decor et potestas peribit. In nocte vigilat, dum peccatorum tenebras \ attendens eorum errores vitat. Habitat in rimis parietum, dum \ mundi defectum considerat, et expectat occasum. Escam in nocte\ querit, quia peccantium vitam recogitans de exemplis iustorum\ mentem pascit.\ De epopo\ Avis que dicitur epopus quando viderit parentes eius [senuis-]\ se et caligasse oculos eorum, evellit plumas eorum et ocu\los eorum lingit et calefacit eos et renovantur parentes ipsius, quasi\ dicens parentibus suis, sicut laborastis nutrientes me similiter ego\ facio vobis. Si autem hoc faciunt sibi invicem irrationabiles quan\to magis rationabiles homines parentum suorum nutrimenta\ mutua reddere debent, quia lex dicit: Qui maledixerit patri vel\ matri morte morietur, et est quasi patricida et matricida. Ecce\ quomodo epopi plumas parentum evellunt, et oculos eorum\ lingunt, et eos calefaciunt, ut pristinam sanitatem recuperent.\

In a moral sense, moreover, the night-owl signifies to us not just any righteous man, but rather one who lives among other men yet hides from their view as much as possible. He flees from the light, in the sense that he does not look for the glory of human praise. It is said of this light: 'Will the light of the wicked not be put out, and the spark of his fire not shine?' (see Job, 17:5). 'Light' here signifies the prosperity of present life. The light of the wicked is extinguished, in the sense that the prosperity of our fleeting life ends with life itself. Will the flame of his fire not shine? 'Fire' here is the passion of temporal desires. Its flame is the splendour or outward show of power which comes from its inner fire. But it will not shine because on the day of death all outward splendour and power will perish. The night-owl keeps watch in the night, as when the righteous man, alert to the darkness of sinners, avoids their errors. It lives in the cracks of walls, in the sense that he considers the weakness of the world and awaits its downfall. It seeks food by night, as when he reflects upon the life of sinners and uses their example to nourish the mind of the righteous. Of the hoopoe When the bird called the hoopoe sees that its parents have grown old and that their eyes are dim, it plucks out their old plumage and licks their eyes and keeps them warm, and its parents' life is renewed. It as if the hoopoe said to them: 'Just as you took pains in feeding me, I will do likewise for you.' If birds, who lack reason, do as much for each other, how much more should men, who have the power of reason, support their parents in return; because the law says: 'And he that curses his father, or his mother, shall surely be put to death' (Exodus, 21:17); it is as if he were guilty of parricide or matricide. See how the hoopoes pluck their parents' plumage and lick their eyes, in order that they should regain their former health.

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De pica\ Pice quasi poetice, quod verba in discrimi\ne vocis exprimant ut homo, per ramos enim\ arborum pendule importuna garruli\tate sonantes, et si nequeunt linguas in\ sermone explicare, sonum tamen humane\ vocis imitantur, de qua congrue quidam ait: Pica loquax\ certa dominum te voce salutat. Si me non videas esse ne\gabis avem. Picus a Pico Saturni filio nomen sumpsit, eo quod\ in auspiciis utebatur. Nam ferunt hanc avem quiddam habere\

Of the magpie Magpies are like poets, because they utter words, with a distinct sound, like men; hanging in the branches of trees, they chatter rudely, and even if they cannot get their tongues round words, they nevertheless imitate human speech. On this subject someone aptly said: 'The chattering magpie, firm of voice, greets you as lord. If you do not see me, you will deny that I am a bird' (Martial, Epigrams, 14: 76). The woodpecker, picus, gets its name from Picus son

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of Saturn, because he used it for taking auguries. For they say that this bird has something

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divinum, illo indicio quod\ in quacumque arbore nidi\ficaverit, clavum vel quic\quid aliud fixum diu he\rere non potest, quin sta\tim excidat ubi illa inse\derit.\ De corvo\ Corvus sive corax,\ nomen a sono gut\turis habet, quod voce cora\cinet. Fertur hec avis quod\ editis pullis escam non ple\ne prebeat, priusquam in eis per\ pennarum nigredinem\ similitudinem proprii coloris\ agnoscat. Postquam vero eos te\tros plumis aspexerit, in\ toto agnitos abundantius, hic prior in cadaveribus oculum pe\tit. Corvus in divina pagina diversis modis accipitur, ut per cor\vum aliquando predicatorum, aliquando peccatorum, aliquando diabolus intelligitur.\

divine about it; the proof of this is, if a woodpecker nests in any tree, a nail or anything fixed in the trunk will not stay there for long, but will fall out as soon as the bird sits in its nest. Of the raven The raven gets its name, corvus or corax, from the sound it makes in its throat, because it utters a croak. It is said that when its young have been hatched, this bird does not feed them fully until it sees that they have black feathers similar to its own. But after it has seen that they are of dark plumage, and has recognised them as of its own species, it feeds them more generously. When this bird feeds off corpses, it goes for the eyes first. In the Scriptures, the raven is perceived in a variety of ways; it is sometimes taken to mean a preacher, sometimes a sinner, sometimes the Devil.

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Ysidorus [in libro, deleted] in libro ethimologiarum dicit, quod corvus\ prius in cadaveribus petit oculum, quia in carnalibus intellectum discre\tionis extinguit, et sic per oculum extrahit cerebrum. Per oculum \ cerebrum extrahit, qui [PL, quia] extincto discretionis intellectu, sen\sum mentis evertit. Iterum per corvum quilibet peccator intelli\gitur, qui quasi peccatorum plumis nigrescentibus vestitur. Sunt autem\ quidam peccatores qui de misericordia dei desperant. Sunt et alii qui ad\ hoc religiosorum precibus [ad]iuventur exorant. De quibus dicitur:\ Corvi paverunt Heliam. Per corvos igitur peccatores intelligi volunt,\ qui de sua substantia religiosis pascunt. Illos enim Helias signi\ficat, quos locus et habitus religionis occultat. Sunt alii qui des\perant, terrenis inhiant, cum intus debent esse foras spectant. De\ quibus scriptura dicit: Corvus ad archam non rediit, quia forsitan\ aquis diluvii interceptus periit, vel cadaveribus inventis, forsitan\ supersedit. Similiter peccator qui carnalibus desideriis foras pascitur,\ quasi corvus qui ad archam non rediit, curis exterioribus detinetur.\ Sed in bona significatione corvus accipitur, ut per corvum quilibet\ doctus predicator intelligatur. Unde per beatum Job dicitur: Quis preparat\ corvo escam suam, quando pulli eius ad dominum clamant, vagantes eo quod\ non habeat cibos? Corvus sicut ait beatus Gregorius, est quisque predi\cator doctus, qui magna voce clamat, dum peccatorum suorum\ memoriam quasi quandam coloris nigredinem portat. Cui nascun\tur in fide discipuli, sed fortasse adhuc considerare

In his book of Etymologies, Isidore says that the raven picks out the eyes in corpses first, as the Devil destroys the capacity for judgement in carnal men, and proceeds to extract the brain through the eye. The raven extracts the brain through the eye, as the Devil, when it has destroyed our capacity for judgement, destroys our mental faculties.

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Again, the raven can be taken to mean a sinner, since it is clad, so to speak, with the dark plumage of sin. There are some sinners who despair of God's mercy. Others pray that they may be helped to find it by the prayers of the pious. Of the second sort, it is said: 'The ravens fed Elijah' (see 1 Kings, 17:6). By 'ravens' we are meant to understand the sinners who support the religious from their own resources. Elijah signifies those who live hidden in the habit and house of a religious order. The former sinners who despair, long for worldly things and look outwards when they should look inwards. Of these the scripture says: 'The raven did not return to the ark' (see Genesis, 8:7); perhaps because it was caught up and perished in the flood, or perhaps because it found corpses and settled on them. In the same way, the sinner who gratifies himself outwardly with carnal desires, like the raven that did not return to the ark, is held back by external preoccupations.

infirmitatem\ propriam nescunt, fortasse a peccatis preteritis memoriam avertunt.\ Et per hoc eam quam assumi oportet contra huius mundi gloriam, hu\militatis nigredinem non ostendunt, hii velut ad accipiendas\ escas os aperiunt, cum doceri de secretis sublimibus querunt. Set\ eis doctor suus alimenta predicamentorum sublimium tanto \

But the raven can also be interpreted in a good sense, as a learned preacher. On this subject, it says in the book of the blessed Job: 'Who provideth for the raven his food? when his young ones cry unto God, they wander for lack of meat' (38:41). The raven, as the blessed Gregory says, is the learned teacher who cries out in a loud voice, carrying the memory of his sins like blackness around him. He produces disciples in the faith, but perhaps they cannot yet address their own weakness, perhaps they shun the memory of their former sins. As a result they do not show the blackness of humility, which they ought to adopt against worldly glory. They open their mouth as if for food when they seek instruction in the mysteries of religion. But their teacher imparts the nourishment of sublime preaching only to the extent

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minus tribuit, quanto illos peccata preterita minus digne defle\re cognoscit. Expectat quippe atque ammonet ut a nitore vi\te presentis prius per penitentie lamenta nigrescant, et tunc demum\ congrua predicationis subtilissime nutrimenta percipiant. Corvus\ in pullis ora inhiantia respicit, sed ante in eis pennarum nigredine\ indui corpus querit, et discretus doctor interna misteria eorum sensi\bus non ministrat quos adhuc ab hoc seculo nequaquam se abiecisse con\siderat. Et quo se a temporali gloria non evacuant, eo a spirituali re\fectione ieiunant. Eisque inhiantibus in ore cibum revocat, dum ex\ ea intelligentia quam ceperit, esurientibus discipulis alimenta vite\ loquendo sumministrat. Quos tanto ardentius de superioribus reficit,\ quanto verius a mundi nitore nigrescere penitentie lamentatione\ cognoscit. Pulli autem dum nigro se pennarum colore vesti\unt, de se etiam volatum promittunt, quia cum magis discipuli abiec\ta de se sentiunt, quo magis sese despicientes affligunt, eo am\plius spem provectus sui in altiora pollicentur. Unde et curat doctor\ festinantius alere, quos iam per quedam iudicia [PL, indicia] providet posse\ et aliis prodesse. Que doctrine discretio dum caute a predicatore\ custoditur, ei divinitus largior copia predicationis datur. Dum enim\ per caritatem compati afflictis discipulis novit, dum per discretionem\ congruum doctrine tempus intelligit, ipse non solum pro se, sed etiam\ pro eis quibus laboris sui studia impendit, maiora intelligentie\ munera percipit. Unde aperte dicitur: Quis preparat corvo escam suam\ quando pulli eius ad deum clamant vagantes eo quod non habeat\ cibos? Cum enim pulli ut sacientur clamant, corvo esca prepara\tur, quia dum verbum dei boni auditores esuriunt, pro reficiendis\ eis maiora doctoribus intelligentie dona tribuuntur. Cuius pulli,\ id est predicatores ex eo editi, non in se presumunt, sed in viribus redemp\

that he sees they have repented fittingly of their past sins. Indeed he expects and admonishes them first to change from the gaudiness of their present life into a sombre hue, through the sorrow of repentance, and only then to receive the nourishment they need, in the form of sermons on the the most complex subjects.

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Although the raven sees that the mouths of its young are open, waiting to be fed, it first checks to see if their bodies are covered with black feathers. Equally, the discerning teacher will not dispense the inner mysteries to the minds of those of his disciples whom he considers have still not rejected this world. For as long as they do not rid themselves of temporal glory, they are starved of spiritual nourishment. The raven brings back food in its beak to its openmouthed offspring, as the teacher, drawing on the understanding which he has acquired, dispenses in words the food of life to his hungry pupils. The more sincerely, in his eyes, they abandon the glitter of the world to grow dark with the sorrow of repentance, the keener he is to give them refreshment in the form of instruction on higher matters. When the raven's young clothe themselves in black feathers, they also give promise of flying, as the more the teacher's pupils despise themselves, the more their conscience is troubled because of their worthlessness, the greater is their promise of rising to a higher realm. For this reason the teacher is careful to feed more quickly those who, as he can already tell from certain signs, have the ability to be of use to others. If he carefully preserves this judgement in his preaching, he will receive, by God's will, a greater opportunity for

preaching. For when he knows how to share, out of love, the troubles of his disciples, when he can discern that the time is right for teaching, he will receive greater gifts of understanding not only for himself but also for those to whom he devotes his attention and his efforts. On which subject it is said, plainly: 'Who provideth for the raven his food? When his young ones cry unto God, they wander for lack of meat' (Job 38:41). For when the young cry out to be fed, food is prepared for them by the raven, in the same way that righteous listeners, hungering for the word of God, receive as food from their teachers the greater gifts of understanding. The raven's young, that is, the Next generation of preachers whom the preacher himself has raised up by his instruction, do not trust in themselves but in the strength of their Redeemer.

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toris sui. Unde bene dicitur: Quando pulli eius ad deum clamant.\ Nichil enim sua virtute posse se sciunt, et quamvis anima[rum]\ lucra piis vocibus esuriant, ab illo tamen qui cuncta intrinsecus\ operatur hec fieri exoptant. Vera enim fide comprehendunt, quia [PL, quod] nec \ qui plantat est aliquid neque qui rigat, sed qui incrementum dat [PL, deus].\ Quod vero dictum est: vagantes eo quod non habeant cibos. In\ hac vagatione nil aliud quam estuantium predicatorum vota\ signantur. Qui dum in ecclesie sinum recipere pullos ambiunt,\ magno ardore succensi, nunc ad hos nunc ad illos colligen\dos desiderium mittunt. Quasi quedam quippe vagatio est\ ipsa cogitationis estuatio. Et velud ad loca varia mutatis\ moribus transeunt, dum pro adiuvandis animabus in modos in\numeros in partes diversas esuriente mente discurrunt.\ Potest hec auctoritas aliter exponi, ut per corvum intelligantur\ quidam ecclesiarum prelati, peccatorum fuligine nigri. Qui non\ tantum escam suam sibi parant sed etiam preparant, ut pre ceteris delica\cius vivant. Quorum pulli, sunt eorum discipuli. Qui ad deum\ clamant, et tamen murmurant quod eorum magistri in cibum\ delicatiora sumant. Vagantes a claustris exeunt, et sic ha\bundantiam victualium sibi querunt. Sunt et alii maiores cor\vi, potestate maiores dignitate sublimes qui quandoque populos\ in ecclesiis congregant, ieiunia predicant, ipsi tamen in diebus ieiuni\orum carnes edunt et sic simplices scandalizant et offen\dunt. Inde populi vagantes mente dubitant, verum prelati\ qui ieiunia docent ea populis prodesse credant. Et hoc ad presens\ de corvo dixisse sufficiat, donec aliquis de eo pociora dicat.\ De gallo\ Gallus a castratione vocatus.\ Inter ceteras enim aves huic soli testiculi adimuntur,\ veteres enim abscisos gallos vocabant. Sicut autem a leone\

In this respect, it is well said: 'When his young ones cry unto God ...' (Job, 38:41). For they know that they can do nothing through their own virtue alone, and however much they hunger with pious voices for the riches of their souls, they hunger with pious voices, they long for these things to be brought about by him, however, who brings about all things inwardly. For they understand with true faith that 'neither is he that planteth any thing, neither he that watereth but God that giveth it increase' (1 Corinthians, 3:7-8).

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It is said: 'They wander for lack of meat' (Job, 38:41). 'Wandering' here signifies nothing else but the vows of preachers moved by passion. While they travel about to receive their young into the bosom of the Church, inflamed with great ardour, they apply their yearning zeal to gather in now some, now others. In fact, the very heat of their intention is itself a kind of wandering. It also represents the way in which they travel to a variety of places where life is different, when they hurry here and there, eager of mind, to help souls in innumerable ways in different places. This statement in Job can be explained in another way: that the raven signifies certain prelates, or dignitaries of the Church, black from the soot of their sins. They not only get food for themselves but also get it dressed, with the result that they live more luxuriously than others. The raven's young, in this interpretation, represent the prelates' disciples. 'The young', it is said, 'cry unto God'. The disciples, however, grumble that their masters eat too well. They leave the cloister and wander off in search of an abundance of food.

There are other, bigger ravens; these are the prelates eminent in power and rank who, gathering their congregation in Church, urge it in their sermons to fast, while they themselves eat flesh on fast-days, thus scandalising and offending ordinary people. This puts doubts in the people's mind and they wonder if the prelates who advocated fasting really believe that it is worthwhile. This is enough about the raven for the moment, until someone else says something more significant about it. Of the cock The cock, gallus, gets its name from the act of castration. For alone among other birds its testicles are removed, and the ancients called castrated men galli. As from the lion

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leena, et a dracone dracena, ita \ a gallo gallina, cuius membra\ ut ferunt quidam et si auro\ liquenti misceantur consumi ai\unt. Est etiam galli cantus\ suavis in noctibus, et non solum\ suavis sed etiam utilis, qui quasi\ bonus cohabitator et dormien\tem excitat, et sollicitum ad\monet, et viatem solatur, processum noctis canora significatione\ prestans. Hoc canente, latro suas relinquit insidias. Hoc\ ipse lucifer excitatus oritur celumque illuminat. Hoc canente mesticiam\ trepidus nauta deponit, omnisque crebro vespertinis flatibus ex\citata tempestas et procella mitescit. Hoc devotus affectus exilit\ ad precandum legendi quoque munus instaurat. Hoc devocius postre\mum canente, ipsa ecclesia Petra culpam suam diluit, quam priusquam\ gallus cantaret, negando contraxit. Istius cantu spes omnibus \ redit, egris relevatur incommodum, minuitur dolor vulnerum,\ febrium flagrantia mitigatur, revertitur fides lapsis, Jesus titubantes\ respicit, errantes corrigit, denique respexit Petrum et statim\ error abscessit, pulsa est negatio, secuta est confessio quod non fortu\ito accidisse sed ex sententia domini lectio docet.\ Item Gregorius de gallo \ Quis dedit gallo intelligentiam? De gallo queritur a quo\ ei intelligentia tribuatur. Sed hec questio solvitur si beatus Gre\gorius loquens in moralibus audiatur. Intelligentiam sicut ait beatus Gregorius\ gallus accipit, ut prius nocturni temporis horas discutiat, et tunc\ demum vocem excitationis emitat, quia videlicet sanctus quisque predi\cator prius in auditoribus suis qualitatem vite considerat, et tunc\ demum ad erudiendum congruam vocem predicationis format.\

the lioness gets her name leena, and the she-dragon dracena from the dragon draco, so the hen gets her name gallina from the cock. People say that the cock's limbs, if mixed with liquid gold, are consumed by it. The crowing of the cock at night is a pleasant sound, and not only pleasant but useful; like a good partner, the cock wakes you when are asleep, encourages you if you are worried, comforts you if you are on the road, marking with its melodious call the progress of the night. With the crowing of the cock, the robber calls off his ambush; the morning star itself is awakened, rises and lights up the sky; the anxious sailor sets aside his cares, and very often each tempest and storm whipped up by evening winds moderates. At cockcrow the devout of mind rise eagerly to pray, able once again to read the office. When the cock crowed assiduously for the last time, Peter himself, the rock of the Church, washed away his guilt, which he had incurred by denying Christ before cockcrow. With the crowing of the cock, as with the words of Jesus, hope returns to everyone, the troubles of the sick are eased, the pain of wounds is lessened, the raging heat of fevers is moderated, faith is restored to those who have fallen. Jesus watches over those who falter, he corrects those who stray; in short, he looked at Peter and immediately his sin went away, his denial was put out of mind, his confession followed. This reading of the text teaches us that things do not happen by accident but by the will of our Lord. Again of the cock, this time from Saint Gregory

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Who gave the cock its understanding? That is the question: who endowed it with understanding? But this question is answered if you listen to the words of the blessed Gregory on the subject of morality. The cock gets its understanding, says Gregory, so that it can first dispel the night-time hours, then at last utter the cry that awakes, in the same way that a holy preacher first considers the circumstances of his congregation, and only then develops a preaching style suitable for instructing them.

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Quasi enim horas noctis di-[A, scernere est peccatorum merita] \ diiudicare. Quasi horas noctis [A, discernere actionum tenebras]\ apta increpationis voce cor-[A,ripere. Gallo itaque intelligentia de-]\ super tribuitur, quia doctor [PL, doctori] veri-[A,tatis discretionis virtus ut no-]\ verit, quibus, quid, quando v-[A, el quomodo inferat divinitus ministratur.]\ Non enim una eademque cunc-[A, tis exhortatio convenit quia nec]\ cunctos par morum qualitas ast-[A, ringit. Sepe enim aliis officiunt]\ que aliis prosunt. Nam et plerum-[A, que herbe que hec animalia reficiunt]\ alia occidunt, et lenis sibilus [A, equos mitigat catulos instigat]\ et medicamentum quod hunc morbum imminuit alteri vires\ iungit, et panis qui vitam fortium roborat, parvulorum \ necat. Pro qualitate igitur audientium formari debet sermo doc\torum, ut et ad sua singulis congruat, et tamen a communis edi\ficationis arte nunquam recedat. Quid enim intente mentes au\ditorum sunt, nisi quasi quedam in cythara tensiones strate corda\rum? Quas tangendi artifex ut non sibimet ipsi dissimile canticum\ faciant dissimiliter pulsat. Et iccirco corde consonam modulati\onem reddunt quia uno quidem plectro, sed non uno impulsu feri\untur. Unde et doctor quisque ut in una cunctos virtute caritatis e\dificet, ex una doctrina, non una eademque exhortatione tangere\ corda audientium debet. Habemus vero aliud quod de galli huius intel\ligentia considerare debeamus, quia profundioribus horis noctis valen\tiores ac profundiores edere cantus solet, cum vero matutinum iam\ tempus appropinquat leniores ac minuciores omnimodo voces\ format. In quibus galli huius intelligentia quid nobis innuat\ considerata predicatorum discretio demonstrat. Qui cum iniquis\ adhuc mentibus predicant, aliis et magnis vocibus eterni iudicii\ terrores intimant, quia videlicet quasi in profunde noctis tenebris\ clamant. Cum vero iam auditorum suorum cordibus veritatis lucem\

Deciding how sinners should be punished is like marking the hours of the night. To mark the hours of the night, is to reprimand in a suitably reproachful voice the darkness of their deeds. Thus understanding has been assigned to the cock from above, as the virtue of judgement has been given by God's will to the teacher of the truth, so that he can tell to whom, what, when and how he should respond. For the same kind of encouragement does not suit everyone, because we are not all bound by the same standard of behaviour. Often what harms some helps others. Frequently, the grasses which refresh these animals kill those; a soft whistle calms horses, but excites young dogs; the remedy which heals one ailment makes another worse; and the food which builds up strong men kills babies. The language of teachers must therefore be adapted to the condition of their listeners, so that it should meet each one's needs yet never lack the capacity to instruct them all at the same time. For what are the attentive minds of listeners if not the strings stretched on a lyre? The musician strikes each one differently so that it is not out of tune with the rest. And therefore the strings give a harmonious sound because they are struck with a single plectrum but not with the same stroke. For this reason a teacher should touch the strings of his listeners in order to instruct them all in the single virtue of love, drawing on one doctrine, but with more than one form of encouragement. We should, however, consider something else in the context of the cock's power of understanding. It has the habit of crowing very loudly and deeply in the darkest hours of the night, but produces, as dawn approaches, a softer and less forceful sound. In this case, the thoughtful judgement of preachers shows what the understanding of the cock should signify to us. When they preach to minds which have hitherto been evil, they evoke the terrors of eternal judgement at

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the top of their voice, as if they were cocks crowing in the darkest hours of the night. But when they realise that the light of truth is already present in the hearts of their listeners,

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adesse cognoscunt, clamoris sui magnitudinem in levitatem\ dulcedinis vertunt, et non tam illa que sunt de penis terribilia quam\ ea que sunt blanda de premiis proferunt. Qui etiam tunc minutis\ vocibus cantant, quia propinquante mane [PL, divine lucis] subtilitate quadam queque\ de misteriis predicant, ut sequaces sui eo minutiora queque de cele\stibus audiant, quo luci veritatis appropinquant. Et quos dormien\tes longus galli cantus excitaverat, vigilantes succisior delec\tat, quatinus correcto cuilibet cognoscere de regno subtiliter\ dulcia libeat, qui prius de iudicio adversa formidabat. Quod bene\ per Moysen exprimitur cum ad producendum exercitum tube clan\gere concisius iubentur. Scriptum namque est: Fac tibi duas tubas ar\genteas ductiles. Et paulo post: Cum concisus clangor increpue\rit, movebuntur [PL, castra]. Per duas enim tubas exercitus ducitur, quia per duo\ precepta caritatis ad procinctum fidei populus vocatur. Que iccirco ar\gentee fieri precipiuntur, ut predicatorum verba lucis nitore pareant,\ et auditorum mentem nulla sui obscuritate confundant. Ic\circo autem ductiles, quia necesse est ut hii qui venturam vitam predicant,\ tribulationum presentium tunsionibus [PL, contusionibus] crescant. Bene autem dicitur:\ Cum concisus clangor increpuerit movebuntur castra, quia ni\mirum predicationis sermo cum subtilius ac minutius agitur, auditorum\ corda contra temptationum certamina ardentius excitantur.\ Est adhuc aliud in gallo sollerter intuendum, quia cum edere\ cantum parat prius alas excutit, et semetipsum feriens vigilian\tiorem reddit. Quod patenter cernimus si sanctorum predicatorum vitam\ vigilanter videmus. Ipsi quippe cum verba predicationis monent, prius\ se in sanctis actionibus exercent, ne in semetipsis torpentes opere, alios\ excitent voce. Sed ante se per sublimia facta excuciunt, et tunc ad\ bene agendum alios sollicitos reddunt. Prius cogitationum\ alis semetipsos feriunt, quia quicquid in se inutiliter torpet, sollicita

they transform their loud tones into a sweet and gentle voice, drawing attention not so much to the terrors of punishment as to the enticements of reward. They also crow quietly then like cocks because, with the approach of the dawning of divine enlightenment, they preach with a degree of refinement about the mysteries, so that their followers may hear a more detailed account of heavenly things and draw near, as a result, to the light of the truth. The lengthy crowing of the cock rouses those who are asleep; when shorter, it pleases them when awake, as those who have reformed their character take pleasure in learning in detail about the delights of divine rule, having earlier feared the calamity of divine judgement. This is well put by Moses, when God orders him to sound the trumpets in short blasts, in order to send the army forward. For it is written: 'Make thee two trumpets of silver' (Numbers, 10:2); and a little later: 'When ye blow an alarm, then the camps ... shall go forward' (Numbers, 10:5). The army is led by two trumpets, as God's people are summoned by two rules of love to be ready to fight for the faith. The trumpets are ordered to be of silver, for this reason, that the words of preachers should be clearly visible from the brightness of their light so that they should not confuse the mind of their listeners with any obscurity. The trumpets are made of beaten silver, because those who preach of the life to come must grow under the blows of the misfortunes of the present. The text: 'When ye blow an alarm, then the camps ... shall go forward' (Numbers, 10:5), is also apt, because it is a fact that the words of a sermon, when delivered very precisely and with attention to detail, stir the hearts of the listeners with greater fire in the struggle against temptation. There is something else about the cock to which we should give skilful consideration: before it prepares to utter its crow, it first beats its wings, and by striking itself makes itself more alert. We can see this clearly if we look closely at the lives of holy preachers. Before they instruct us with a sermon, they exercise themselves in holy conduct, unwilling to urge others on by voice while they themselves are sluggish in action. First, they give themselves a shake by performing lofty deeds, then they impart to others the desire to act well. First they beat themselves with the wings of thought, in the sense that they detect whatever is uselessly sluggish within themselves

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investigatione deprehendunt, districta animadversione cor\rigunt. Prius sua punire fletibus curant, et tunc que aliorum\ sunt punienda denuntiant. Prius ergo alis insonant quam\ cantus emittant, quia antequam verba exhortationis proferant\ omne quod locuturi sunt operibus clamant. Et cum perfecte\ insemet ipsis vigilant, tunc dormientes alios ad vigilias\ vocant. Sed unde tanta doctori intelligentia ut et sibi perfecte\ vigilet, et dormientes ad vigilias sub quibusdam clamoris\ provectibus vocet, ut et peccatorum tenebras prius caute discuciat,\ et discrete postmodum lucem predicationis ostendat, vel singu\lis iuxta modum et tempora congruat, et simul omnibus qui\ illos sequantur ostendat? Unde ad tanta et tam subtiliter tenditur,\ nisi intrinsecus ab eo a quo est conditus doceatur? Quia igitur laus\ intelligentie tante non predicatoris virtus est sed auctoris,\ recte per eundem auctorem dicitur: [Vel] quis dedit gallo intel\ligentiam? Nisi ego qui doctorum mentes quas mire ex ni\chilo condidi, ad intelligenda que occulta sunt mirabilius\ instruxi. Potest etiam de gallo dici, quod sint quidam ecclesie\ prelati quibus a Deo [PL, intelligentia datur; nec tamen iuxta intelligentiam a Deo] sibi datam aliquid operantur. Non seipsos alis\ excitant nec alios monent, ut ad bene operandum surgant. \ Seipsos amant et sic ocio et voluptati vacant. Horas noctis\ sicut gallus non annuntiant, quia culpas delinquentium non\ accusant. Confessionis et penitentie discrecionem non atten\dunt, sed in adquirendis rebus transitoriis intelligentiam adeo sibi\ datam ponunt. Animarum lucra querere noverunt ea\tamen que ad delectationem carnis pertineant, tota mente que\runt. Sunt et alii nimis simplices et illiterati, qui quasi gal\lus sedent in pertica regiminis, id est in pertica prelationis, locum

by careful self-examination, and they correct it by severe self-reproach. First they carefully punish their own faults, weeping as they do so, then they make known the faults of others which should be punished. They flap their wings noisily before they crow, in the sense that before they offer words of encouragement, they proclaim by their deeds all the virtues of which they are going to speak. And when they themselves are fully awake, then they rouse others from their sleep. But from where does the teacher get such understanding, that he stays fully awake to his own state and rouses with his cries those who sleep; that he first carefully scatters the darkness of sin, and afterwards with judgement reveals the light of preaching, showing it to them individually as befits their circumstances, and simultaneously to all who follow them? From where does he get this understanding, which extends to so many things so acutely, unless he be instructed inwardly by the Lord his maker? As it is not a characteristic of a preacher but of an author to praise such great understanding, it is therefore rightly said by the author I have already quoted: 'Who gave the cock its understanding? If not I who created from nothing the minds of teachers, as by a marvel, and taught them, even more marvellously, to understand things which are hidden?' It can also be said on the subject of the cock, that there are certain prelates of the Church [to whom God gave understanding but who do not do anything with it]. They do not flap their wings to bestir themselves, nor do they encourage others to rise and lead good lives. They love themselves and so devote themselves to repose and desire. They do not mark the hours of the night like the cock, in the sense that they do not denounce the guilt of the wicked. They do not apply their judgement to confession or repentance, but use the understanding given to them for the acquisition of transitory things. They have learned how to seek the good of souls, yet they apply their minds entirely to those things which relate to the pleasures of the flesh. There are others who are excessively simple and unlearned, who are poised like cocks on the the perch of government, that is, the perch of preferment

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occupant, et tamen officium divine legis ignorant. Sedent et ta\ cent, seipsos pascunt, nec gregem [mark] sibi commissum ad pascua\ eterne viriditatis

yet they are ignorant of their duties under the law of God. They sit and say nothing; they attend to their own spiritual nourishment, but they do not lead the

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ducunt. Et hic igitur cui intelligentia datur nec\ populo verbum dei predicat, et hic qui tacet quia nescit quid dicat\ uterque caveat, ne quasi gallus de pertica cadat, filios suos Heli\ sepe corripuit, sed quia manum correctioni non adhibuit, fractis\ cervicibus de sella cecidit. Antequam moreretur mortem filiorum vidit,\ et archam domini ab allophilis captam fuisse cognovit.\ De strucione Est animal quod dicitur\ assida, quod Greci strato\ camelon vocant, Lati\ ni vero strucion. Habet\ quidem pennas, sed non\ volat, pedes autem cameli\ similes. Cum vero venerit\ tempus ut ova sua pa\ riat, elevat oculos suos\ ad celum et intendit\ si illa stella que dicitur Virgilia appareat, non enim ponit ova\ sua, nisi quando oritur illa stella. Quando enim viderit circa mensem iu\ nium ipsam stellam fodit in terram ubi ponat ova sua et coo\ perit sabulo, cum ascenderit de loco illo statim obliviscitur eorum\ et nunquam redit ad ova sua. Tranquillitas quidem aeris et temperies\ hoc prestare videtur ut estate calefacta arena excoquat ova sua\ et educat pullos. Si ergo assida cognoscit tempus suum et obli\ viscitur posteritatis suo[e] ac terrena postponens sequitur celestia, quanto\ magis o homo tibi ad bravium superne vocationis tendendum est,\ propter quem deus homo factus est, ut eriperet te de potestate tenebrarum,\

flock committed to them to the green pastures of eternity. Let them take care, therefore, those who are endowed with understanding and do not use it to preach the word of God, and those who say nothing because they do not know what to say, lest like the cock they fall from their perch. Eli often reprimanded his sons, but because he did not reinforce his rebukes with his hand, he fell from his seat and broke his neck. Before he died he witnessed the death of his sons and learned that the ark of the Lord had been captured by another tribe (see Samuel 1, 2:22-25; 4:18). Of the ostrich There is an animal called assida which the Greeks call stratocamelon, but Latin-speakers strucio, the ostrich. It has wings but does not fly, and its feet are like those of the camel. When the time comes for it to lay eggs, it raises its eyes to the sky and looks to see if the star called Vergiliae, the Pleiades, has appeared, for it will not lay its eggs until that star has risen. When the ostrich sees the star, around the month of June, it digs in the ground, deposits its eggs in the hole it has made and covers them with sand. When it gets up from the hole, it immediately forgets the eggs and never returns to them. The effect of the calm, mild air seems to be that the sand in the summer heat hatches the eggs, bringing forth the chicks. If, therefore, the ostrich knows its time and forgets its young, and pursues heavenly things to the exclusion of earthly ones, how much more, O man, should you strive for the prize of the summons from on high, you for whom God was made man, to deliver you from the power of darkness

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et collocaret cum principibus populi sui in regno glorie sue.\ Item de strutione Penna strucionis similis est pennis herodii et\ accipitris. Quis herodium et accipitrem nesciat, aves\ reliquas quanto volatus sui velocitate transcendat? Strucio\ vere penne eorum similitudinem habet, sed volatus eorum celeritatem\ non habet. A terra quippe elevari non valet, et alas quasi ad volatum\ specie tenus erigit, sed tamen nunquam se a terra volando suspendit. Ita sunt\ nimirum omnes ypocrite qui dum bonorum vitam simulant,\ imitationem sancte visionis habent, sed veritatem sancte actionis non habent.\ Habent quippe volandi pennas per speciem, sed in terram repunt per action\ nem, quia alas per figuram sanctitatis extendunt, sed curarum secularium\ pondere pregravati, nullatenus a terra sublevantur.\ Speciem namque Phari\ seorum reprobans dominus quasi

and set you together with the princes of his people in his kingdom of glory.

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Again of the ostrich The wing of the ostrich resembles those of the gyrfalcon and the hawk. Who does not know how the speed of the gyrfalcon and hawk in flight exceeds that of other birds? The ostrich certainly has wings like theirs but not their speed of flight. Truly, it has not the capacity to be lifted from the ground and gives only the impression of spreading its wings as if to fly; however, it never supports itself above the earth in flight. It is exactly the same with all those hypocrites who pretend to live a life of piety, giving the impression of

strucionis pennam redarguit,\ que in opere aliud exercuit, et in colore aliud ostendit dicens: Ve\ vobis scribe et Pharisei ypocrite. Ac si diceret: Sublevare vos videtur\ species penne; sed in infimis vos deprimit pondus vite. De hoc pondere\ per prophetam dicitur: Filii hominum usquequo graves corde. Huius strucionis con\ versurum se ypocrisim dominus pollicetur, in prophetam dicens: Glorificabit\ me bestia agri, dracones et struciones. Quid enim draconum nomine\ nisi in aperto maliciose mentes exprimuntur, que per terram semper in infimis\ cogitationibus repunt? Quid vero per strucionis\ vocabulum nisi hii qui\ se bonos simulant designantur? Qui sanctitatis vitam quasi volatus\ pennam per speciem retinent, sed per opera non exercent. Glorificari itaque se\ Dominus a dracone vel strucione asserit, quia et aperte malos et ficte\ bonos plerumque ad sua obsequia ex intima cogitatione convertit.\ Habemus quod in considerationem strucionis huius de accipitre et hero\ dio attentius perpendamus. Accipitris quippe et herodii parva sunt\ corpora sed pennis densioribus fulta, et iccirco cum celeritate transvo\ lant, quia eis parum inest quod aggravat, multum quod levat. At contra\

holiness without the reality of holy behaviour. They certainly have wings, as far as appearance goes, but in terms of action, they creep along the ground, because they spread their wings only to give an illusion of holiness, but they cannot possibly raise themselves from earth, weighed down as they are by the weight of worldly preoccupations. For the Lord rebuked the pretensions of the Pharisees as if he exposed the wing of the ostrich, which does one thing in deed and another in show, saying: 'Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!' (Matthew, 23:14). It is as if he were saying: 'Your wings look as they they had the power to raise you up, but the weight of your life forces you down into the depths.' Of this weight, the prophet says: 'Sons of men, how long will you have a heavy heart?' (see BSV, NEB, Psalms, 4:2). The Lord promises that he will convert the hypocritical ostrich, saying through the prophet: 'The beast of the field shall honour me, the dragons and the ostriches' (see BSV, NEB, Isaiah: 43:20). For what is meant by the word 'dragons', if not, clearly, malicious minds, which creep across the earth forever, revealing themselves in the basest thoughts? Who are signified by the word 'ostrich' if not those who pretend to be worthy? Those who lead a life of holiness, in appearance, like the wing that seems to have the power of flight, but do not put it into practice by their deeds. Thus the Lord declares that he will be glorified by the dragon or the ostrich, when he converts to his side, deep in their hearts, both those who are openly evil and those who pretend to be worthy. In considering the ostrich, we should look more carefully at the hawk and the gyrfalcon. Their bodies are small but their feathers are more densely packed; as a result, they fly at great speed, because they have little to weigh them down, much to uplift them. In contrast

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strucio raris pennis [mark] induitur, et immani corpore gravatur,\ ut et si volare appetat ipsa pen[n]arum paucitas molem tanti\ corporis in aere non suspendat. Bene ergo in herodio et acciptre\ electorum persona signatur, qui quamdiu in hac vita sunt sine quan\ tulocumque culpe contagio esse non possunt. Sed cum eis parum\ quid inest quod deprimit, multa virtus bone actionis suppetit, que\ illos in superna sustollit. At contra ypocrita et siqua facit pauca que\ elevent, perpetrat multa que gravent. Neque nulla bona agit ypocrita\ sed quibus ea ipsa deprimat multa perversa committit.\ Pauce igitur penne\ strucionis corpus non sublevant, quia parum bonum ypocrite multi\ tudo prave actionis gravat. Hec quoque ipsa strucionis\ penna ad pen[nas]\ herodii et acciptris similitudinem coloris

the ostrich has few feathers and is weighed down with a huge body, so that even if it were to try to fly, its sparse feathers would not support the mass of such a large a body in the air.

sensorgr

The gyrfalcon and the hawk, therefore, well represent the elect who, in this life, are not without the contamination of sin, no matter how trivial. But when the very small amount of sin that is within them causes them to sink, the large amount of virtue amassed from their good works is at hand to lift them back up to the heights. In contrast, the hypocrite, even if he does a few good things to raise him up, does many bad things to weigh him down. He does not fail entirely to do good

habet, virtutis vero simi\ litudinem non habet. Illorum namque concluse et firmiores sunt, et vo\ latu aerem premere virtute soliditatis possunt. At contra strucionis\ penne dissolute eo volatum sumere nequeunt, quo ab ipso quem\ premere debuerant aere transcenduntur. Quid ergo in his aspicimus, nisi quod\ electorum virtutes solide evolant, ut ventos humani favoris\ premant? Hypocritarum vero actio quamlibet recta videatur, volare non\ sufficit, quia videlicet fluxe virtutis pennam humane laudis au\ ra pertransit. Sed cum unum eundemque bonorum malorumque habitum cernimus,\ cum ipsam in electis ac reprobis professionis speciem videmus, unde intel\ ligentie nostre suppetat, ut electos a reprobis ut a falsis veros compre\ hendendo discernat perspicimus. Quod tamen cicius agnoscimus si inteme\ rata memoria preceptoris nostri verba signamus, qui ait: Ex fructibus\ eorum cognoscetis eos. Neque enim pensanda sunt que ostendunt in\ ymagine, sed que servant in actione. Unde hic postquam speciem stru\ cionis huius intulit, mox subiunxit facta dicens: Que derelinquit\ in terra ova sua. Quid enim per ova nisi tenera adhuc proles exprimitur,\ que diu fovenda est ut ad vivum volatile perducatur? Ova quippe\

but commits many perverse deeds by which he cancels out what good he has done. The few feathers of the ostrich, therefore, do not lift up its body, in the sense that the large number of the hypocrite's bad deeds, compared to his too few good deeds, weigh him down. The wing of the ostrich is similar in colour to those of the gyrfalcon and the hawk, but does not resemble them in strength. For theirs are compressed and stronger and, in flight, can press down on the air because of their density. In contrast, the wings of the ostrich are loose, to the extent that they cannot sustain flight because the air, on which they are meant to press, passes over them. What do we see in this, if not that the solid virtues of the elect fly up, pressing down on the currents of human favour? But the deeds of the hypocrites, although they seem correct, cannot support flight, because clearly the breath of human praise flows through the wing of slack virtue. But when we discern the same outward aspect among the good and the bad, when we see the very same appearance of religious observance among the elect and the sinful, we perceive what should inform our understanding, that it may distinguish the elect from the sinful, as it separates true men from false. We will recognise the distinction more quickly, however, if we fix indelibly in our memory the words of our teacher, who said: 'Ye shall know them by their fruits' (Matthew, 7:16). For you should not judge them by the image they present of themselves but by the principles they observe in their actions. As a result, the author of the book of Job, after introducing the image of the ostrich, thereupon adds examples of its behaviour, saying: 'It abandons its eggs in the ground' (BSV; see NEB, Job, 39:14). What is meant by its eggs if not the child, still of tender years, who has to be cherished over a long period in order that it might be turned into a living bird? Indeed, the eggs

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insensibilia in semetipsis sunt; sed tamen calefacta in vivis\ volatilibus convertuntur. Ita nimirum parvuli auditores ac filii\ certum est quod frigidi insensibilesque remaneant, nisi doctoris sui\ sollicita exhortatione calefiant. Ne igitur derelicti in sua in sensibili\ tate torpescant, assidua doctorum voce fovendi sunt, quousque\ valeant et per intelligentiam vivere, et per contemplationem vo\ lare. Quia vero ypocrite quamvis perversa semper operentur, loqui tamen recta non\ desinunt, bene autem loquendo in fide vel in conversationem filios\ pariunt, sed eos

have in themselves no capacity for feeling; they are nevertheless transformed, when kept warm, into living birds. Thus it is undoubtedly a fact that children and young people will remain cold and indifferent unless they are warmed by the careful encouragement of their teacher.

sensorgr

Lest they grow inactive and insensitive through neglect, therefore, they must be cherished by the diligent instruction of teachers, until they are able to live by their own capacity for understanding and take

bene vivendo nutrire non possunt, recte de hac struci\ one dicitur, que derelinquit in terra ova sua. Curam namque filiorum\ ypocrita negligit qui ex amore intimo rebus se exterioribus subdit, in\ quibus quantomagis extollitur, tanto minus de prolis sue defectu cru\ ciatur. Ova ergo in terra dereliquisse est, natos per conversionem filios\ nequaquam a terrenis actibus interposito exhortationis nido suspen\ dere. Ova in terra dereliquisse est, nullum celestis vite filiis exem\ plum prebere. Quia enim ypocrite per caritatis viscera non calent, \de torpore prolis edite, id est de ovorum suorum frigore nequaquam dolent.\ Et quanto se libentius terrenis actibus inserunt, tanto negligentius\ eos quos generaverint agere terrena permittunt. Sed quia derelictos ypocri-\ tarum filios superna cura non deserit, nonnullos namque etiam ex talibus\ intima electione prescitos, largite gratie respectu calefacit, recte\ subiungitur: Tu forsitan in pulvere calefacies ea? Ac si dicat: Ut\ ego, qui illa in pulvere calefacio, quia [scilicet] parvulorum animas in\ medio peccantium positas, amoris mei igne succendo. Ova ergo\ dominus in pulvere derelicta calefacit, quia parvulorum animas\ predicatorum suorum sollicitudine destitutas, etiam in medio\ peccantium positas, amoris sui igne succendit. Hinc est enim quod\ plerosque cernimus et in medio populorum vivere, et tamen vitam tor\ pentis populi non tenere. Hinc est enim quod plerosque cernimus et\

flight on the wings of contemplation. Even though hypocrites are forever doing wrong, they never cease to utter pious speeches and by their eloquence produce offspring in the faith or as they go about among men; yet they cannot bring them up properly, by example. It is therefore rightly said of the ostrich that it 'abandons its eggs in the ground'. The hypocrite neglects to take care of his offspring, when he substitutes for intimate love a preoccupation with external things; the more he is absorbed in these, the less he suffers from the absence of his offspring. To abandon eggs in the ground is the same as failing to keep the young, born through association with men, away from earthly things in a protective nest of spiritual encouragement. To abandon eggs in the ground is the same as failing to furnish the young with the example of heavenly life. Because hypocrites are not fired deep down with love, they are untroubled by the inactivity of their offspring, in the same way as the ostrich is untroubled by the coldness of its eggs. The more willingly hypocrites involve themselves in earthly affairs, the more negligent they are in allowing their offspring to lead an earthbound life. But God's care does not desert the neglected offspring of the hypocrites; he warms some of them, foreknown and secretly chosen, with his bountiful grace. It is, therefore, rightly added in the text: 'Can you perhaps warm them in the dust?' (BSV and see NEB, Job, 39:14). As if God were to say: 'As I warm them in the dust, because I kindle with the fire of my love the souls of the young set amidst sinners.' The Lord warms the neglected eggs in the dust, therefore, in the sense that he kindles with the fire of his love the souls of the very young, who have been deprived of the care of his preachers and are, in addition, surrounded by sinners. From this we see that there are many living among the masses who do not share their sluggish way of life. From this we see that there are many

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malorum turbas non fugere, et tamen superno ardore flagrare. Hinc est quod plerosque\ cernimus ut ita diximus in frigore et calore [PL, calere] unde enim nonnulli inter\ terrenorum hominum torpores positi, superne spei desideriis inardes\ cunt. Unde et inter frigida corda succensi sunt, nisi quia omnipotens deus\ derelicta ova scit etiam in pulvere calefacere, et frigoris pristini in\ sensibilitate discussa, per sensum spiritus vitalis animare, ut nequaquam\ iacentia in infimis torpeant, set in vivis volatilibus versa, sese ad\ celestia contemplando, id est volando suspendant. Notandum\ vero est quod in his verbis non solum

do not avoid the commotion caused by the wicked, yet are still fired with zeal for heavenly things. From this we see that many, as we said, are warm, though they live in the cold; for some, surrounded by the sluggish ways of the earthbound, glow with desire of heavenly hope.

sensorgr

How is it that those surrounded by the cold-hearted are warmed, if not because Almighty God knows to warm the neglected eggs even when they are left in the dust, and having dispelled the numbness originally caused by the cold, animates them with the

ypocritarum actio perversa reprobatur,\ sed bonorum etiam magistrorum siqua forte subrepserit elatio pre\ mitur. Nam cum de se dominus dicit quod derelicta ova ipse in pul\ vere calefacit, profecto aperte indicat, quia [PL, quod] ipse operatur intrinsecus per verba\ doctoris, qui et sine verbis ullius hominis calefacit quos voluerit\ in frigore pulveris. Ac si aperte doctoribus dicat: Ut sciatis quia ego\ sum qui per vos loquentes operor, ecce cum voluero cordibus hominum\ etiam sine vobis loquor. Humiliata cogitatione doctorum, ad expri\ mendum ypocritam sermo convertitur, et qua fatuitate torpeat ad\ huc sub strucionis facto plenius indicatur. Nam sequitur: Obliviscitur\ quod pes conculcet ea aut bestia agri conterat. Quid in pede nisi transitus\ operationis accipitur? Quid in agro, nisi mundus iste signatur? De quo in evangelio\ dominus dicit: Ager autem est mundus. Quid in bestia nisi antiquis ho\ stis exprimitur? Qui huius mundi rapinas insi[d]ians, humana morte\ cotidie saciatur, de qua per prophetam pollicentem dicitur: Et mala bestia\ non transibit per eam. Strucio itaque ova deserens obliviscitur quod pes\ conculcet ea quia videlicet ypocrite eos quos in conversatione filios ge\ nerant derelinquunt et omnino non curant, ne aut exhortatio\ nis sollicitudine aut discipline custodia destitutos, pravorum\ operum exempla pervertant. Si enim ova que gignunt diligerent [A, diligenter]\ nimirum metuerent, ne quis ea perversa opera demonstrando\

spirit of life, so that far from lying motionless here below, they are turned into living beings capable of flight, raising themselves up towards heavenly things by contemplation, that is, by flying? Note that these words condemn not only the evil of hypocrites but are also intended to check the pride of righteous teachers, if it should creep out. For when the Lord says that it is he who warms the neglected eggs in the dust, he shows plainly that he acts inwardly through the words of the teacher, even though he can, without any man's words, warm those whom he wishes, as they lie in the cold of the dust. It is as if he says plainly to the teachers: 'So that you should be in no doubt that I am he who works through you when you speak - behold, if I wish, I can also speak to the hearts of men without you.' The teachers, humbled in their thoughts, focus their words on the hypocrite, showing how the folly of his sluggishness can be very fully shown by the behaviour of the ostrich. For the text continues: 'The ostrich forgets that a foot may crush its eggs or a beast of the field trample on them' (see NEB, Job, 39:15). What is to be understood by the foot, if not the passage of everyday life? What is signified by the field, if not the world? On this subject, the Lord says in the Gospel: 'The field is the world' (Matthew, 13:38). What is represented in the beasts if not the ancient enemy, who plots the plunder of the world and gluts himself daily on human death? On this, the prophet promises: 'Nor any ravenous beast shall go up thereon' (Isaiah, 35:9). Thus, as the ostrich, deserting its eggs, forgets that they may be trampled underfoot, it is evident that hypocrites abandon the young they have produced as they associate with men and care nothing for them, lest they should fail to undo the examples of evil either by dutifully encouraging or vigilantly teaching the young they have abandoned. If they loved the eggs they bear, there is no doubt that they would fear lest anyone should by the example of bad works

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calcaret. Obliviscitur etiam quod bestia agri conterat quia nimirum\ si diabolus in hoc mundo seviens editos in bona conversatione\ filios rapiat, ypocrita omnino non curat. Habent ergo veraces magistri\ super discipulos suos timoris viscera, ex virtute caritatis, ypocrite\ tanto minus commissis sibi metuunt, quanto nec sibimetipsis quod timere\ debeant reprehendunt. Et quia obduratis cordibus vivunt, ipsos etiam\ quos generant filios nulla pietate amoris agnoscunt. Unde adhuc\ sub strucionis specie subditur: Ducatur [Duratur] ad filios qui quasi non sunt sui.\ Que enim caritatis gratia non infundit, proximum suum etiam si

trample on them.

sensorgr

The ostrich also forgets that the beast of the field will destroy its eggs, just as the hypocrite does not care at all if the Devil, raging in this world, snatches the young who are the product of edifying association. True teachers, therefore, by virtue of the love with which they are endowed, have the deepest fears for their pupils; hypocrites are as unconcerned for their charges as they are unable to grasp for themselves what indeed there is to be feared.

ipse\ hunc deo genuit extraneum respicit, ut profecto sunt omnes ypocrite.\ Quorum videlicet mentes dum semper exteriora appetunt, intus\ insensibiles fiunt, et in cunctis que agunt dum sua semper expe\ tunt, erga affectum proximi nulla caritatis compassione molles\ cunt. Et quia caritas viscera nesciunt, eorum mens quanto per mundi\concupiscentiam in exteriora resolvitur, tanto per affectionem suam\ interius obduratur. Et torpore insensibili frigescit intrinsecus quia\ amore dominabili [PL, damnabili] mollescit foris. Sed [PL, seque] ipsam considerare non\ valet, quia cogitare sese minime studet. Cogitare vero se non po\ test quia tota[m expuncted] apud semetipsam non est, tota vero esse apud semet\ ipsam non sufficit, quia per quot concupiscentias rapitur, per tot\ a semetipsa species dissipatur. Et sparsa in infimis iacet, que\ collecta si vellet ad summa consurgeret. Unde iustorum mens quando\ per custodiam discipline a cunctorum visibilium fluxus ap\ petitu constringitur, collecta apud semetipsam intrinsecus integratur.\ Qualisque deo vel proximo esse debeat plene conspicit, quia nichil su\ um exterius derelinquit. Et quanto ab exterioribus abstracta compes\ citur, tanto aucta in infimis inflammatur. Et quo magis ardet,\ eo ad deprehendenda vicia amplius lucet. Hinc est enim quod sancti\ viri dum se intra semetipsos colligunt, mira ac penetrabili acie\

Because hypocrites are hard of heart, they do not recognise their children in a dutiful fashion with love. Again, this is illustrated by the image of the ostrich: 'She is hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers' (Job, 39:16). For the man who is not imbued with the grace of charity, sees his neighbour, even though he is born of God, as a stranger, exactly as all hypocrites do. As hypocrites continually seek external things, their minds inwardly lose all capacity for feeling, and in everything they do, as they strive on their own behalf, their hearts are unmoved by any loving compassion towards their neighbour. Because they do not know love at its deepest level, their mind is hardened by their self-love on the inside to the same extent that it is opened up, through their worldly longing, on the outside. Their mind grows cold and insensitive on the inside, because it grows soft with the love that brings condemnation on the outside. The mind of the hypocrite lacks the capacity to examine itself, because it has not the least desire to do so. It cannot reflect upon itself because it is not in full control of itself; nor indeed has it the power so to be, because it is fragmented by as many imaginings as the desires which seize it. The hypocrite's mind lies scattered in the depths; yet it could, if it were it whole and if it so wished, rise to the heights. That is why the mind of the righteous, because it is restrained by the observance of discipline from desiring transient, visible things, is renewed and kept inwardly whole. It sees clearly what its attitude should be towards God or a neighbour, because it leaves nothing of itself outwith its control. The more it is restrained from external things, the more its capacity is increased to burn with a deep fire. The more it burns, the more it illuminates the vices that are to be detected. The result is that holy men, when they are whole within, with marvellously keen sight

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occulta etiam aliena delicta, deprehendunt. Sequitur: Cum tem\ pus fuerit, in altum alas erigit. Quid enim alas huius strucionis\ accipimus, nisi pressas hoc tempore quasi complicitas [PL, complicatas] ypocrite cogita\ tiones? Quas cum tempus fuerit in altum elevat, quia oportunita\ te comperta eas superbiendo manifestat. Alas in altum erigere est,\ per effrenatam superbiam cogitationes aperire. Nunc autem quia sanctum\ se simulat quia in semetipso stringit que cogitat, quasi alas in\ corpore per humilitatem plicat. Eat igitur ypocrita et nunc suas lau\ des appetat, postmodum vitam proximorum premat, et quandoque se in ir\ risione sui conditoris exerceat, ut quo elatiora semper excogitat,\ eo se suppliciis attrocioribus immergat. Unde subditur: Obliviscitur\ quod pes conculcet ea, et bestia agri conterat. Tunc ova\ pes

seize on the sins of others even when they are hidden.

sensorgr

The text continues: 'When the time comes, the ostrich spreads its wings.' What are we to understand by the wings of the ostrich, if not the thoughts of the hypocrite, confined by considerations of the present, like wings tightly folded together? When the time comes, the ostrich raises its wings high, because it has found an opportunity to display them with pride. To spread the wings on high is to reveal your thoughts through unbridled pride. Now, because the hypocrite represents himself as holy, he keeps his thoughts to himself, as if folding his wings against his body in humility. Let the hypocrite go, therefore, now to seek praise, then to criticize the life of his

calcat,\ et bestia agri conterit cum in terra deseruntur, quia videlicet humana cor\ da dum semper terrena cogitare, semper que ima sunt agere appe\ tunt, ad conterendum se agri bestie, id est diabolo sternunt, ut cum\ diu infima cogitatione abiecta sunt, quandoque maiorum criminum\ perpetratione frangantur. Sequitur: Ducatur [PL, Induratur] ad filios qui quasi non sunt\ sui. Quasi non suos respicit, quos aliter vivere quam docuit, ipsa\ deprehendit. Et durescente sevicia terrores admonet, seque in eorum\ cruciatibus exercet, atque invidie facibus inflammata quibus non\ laboravit ut possent vivere, laborat ut debeant interire.\ Ypocrite ergo qui per strucionem intelligitur consuetudo talis esse perhi\ betur, ut de nullo alio curam habeat, sed de his que agit in se glorietur,\ et sibi soli bonum quod agit, pre ceteris asscribat.\ De vulturibus Vultur a volato tardo nominatus putatur. Magnitudine\ quippe corporis precipites volatus non habet. Vultures autem\ sicut et aquile etiam ultra maria cadavera sentiunt. Alcius quippe\ volantes multaque [multa que] montium obscuritate celantur, ex alto illi con\ spiciunt. Negantur enim vultures indulgere concubitui, et coniugali\

neighbours, let him at any time occupy himself in deriding his creator, and he will be plunged into torments whose severity will match his own vainglorious thoughts. It follows then that 'the ostrich forgets that a foot may crush its eggs or a beast of the field trample on them'. The foot crushes the eggs and the beast of the field tramples on them when they are left in the earth as, clearly, the hearts of men, when they devote themselves constantly to thoughts of earthly things and the basest deeds, fling themselves down to be crushed by the hooves of the beast of the field, that is, the Devil, so that, when they have long been degraded by base thoughts, they may at some time be destroyed by committing serious crimes. The text continues: 'The ostrich treats its young harshly as if they were not its own'. The hypocrite regards his young as if they were not his own, when he finds them living otherwise than he had taught them. And, with increasing fury, he threatens them with terror and sets himself to torment them; fired by the burning brands of hatred, the hypocrite, who made no effort to ensure that his young should live, makes every effort to ensure that they die. The hypocrite, therefore, whom we take to be represented by the ostrich, is characterised as follows: he cares for no-one but himself, but glorifies himself in all he does and attributes to himself alone, beyond all others, the good that he does. Of vultures The vulture, it is thought, gets its name because it flies slowly. The fact is, it cannot fly swiftly because of the large size of its body. Vultures, like eagles, perceive corpses even beyond the sea. Indeed, flying at a great height, they see from on high many things which are hidden by the shadows of the mountains. It is said that vultures do not indulge in copulation and

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usu nuptialis\ copule sorte\ misceri, atque\ ita sine ullo\ masculorum\ concipere semine\ et sine coniunc\ tione generare,\ natosque ex his\ in multam eta\ tis longevitatem\ procedere, ut usque\ ad centum an\ nos vite eorum\ series producatur, nec facile eos angusti evi finis excipiat. Quid\ aiunt qui solent natura ridere misteria cum audiunt quod virgo ge\ neravit et impossibilem innupte cuius pudorem nulla viri consue\ tudo temerasset existimant partum. Impossibile

and are not united with the other sex in the conjugal act of marriage; that the females conceive without the male seed and give birth without union with the male; and that their offspring live to a great age, so that the course of their life extends to one hundred years, and that an early death does not readily overtake them.

sensorgr

What can they say, those people who are by nature

putatur in dei\ matre quod in vulturibus possibile non negatur. Avis sine masculo\ parit et nullus refellit, et quia desponsata Maria virgo peperit,\ pudoris eius faciunt questionem. Nonne advertimus quod dominus\ ex ipsa natura et astrueret veritatem. Vultures mortem homi\ num signis quibusdam annuntiare consueverunt, Quo indicio\ docti atque instructi sunt, ut cum bellum lacrimabile inter se\ adverse acies instruant, multo predicte volucres sequantur agmi\ ne et eo significent quod multitudo hominum casura sit bel\ lo, futura preda vulturibus.\ Item de vulturibus \ Semitam ignoravit avis, nec intuitus est oculos [oculus] vulturis.\ Quis hoc loco avis nomine nisi ille signatur, qui corpus\

accustomed to mock the mysteries of the Christian faith, when they hear that a virgin gave birth, yet maintain that childbirth is impossible for an unmarried woman, whose virginity is undefiled by intercourse with a man? What they do not deny is possible in vultures, they think is impossible in the mother of God. female bird gives birth without a male and noone disputes it; but because Mary, betrothed as a virgin, gave birth, they question her chastity. Do we not make them aware that our Lord, from his very nature, affirms the truth? Vultures regularly foretell from certain signs that men will die. This is one such sign, from which they learn and make ready: when opposing armies prepare for the lamentable event of war, the birds follow in a large flock, signifying by this that many will fall in battle - to be the vultures' prey. Again of vultures 'There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen' (Job, 28:7). Who is meant here by the word 'bird' if not he who

Translation by his ascension made a place in heaven for our fleshly body, which he assumed? Christ is also fittingly represented by the word 'vulture'. The fact is, if a vulture, in flight, sees a corpse, it sets itself down to feed on it, and is often overtaken by death when it descends to the dead animal from a great height. It is right, therefore, that Christ, who was God's mediator and our redeemer, should be signified by the name 'vulture'. While remaining in the heights of his divinity, like the vulture flying on high, he saw the corpse of our mortality below and descended from heaven to the earth beneath; he deigned, indeed, to become man for our sake; and when he sought man, the living thing that had no life, he who in himself had eternal life, met his death at our hands. But the aim of this vulture, Christ, was our resurrection, because when he had been dead for three days, he delivered us from eternal death. For the treacherous people of Judea saw Christ as a mortal man, but little thought

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that by his death he would destroy ours. They, indeed, saw the vulture, but paid no attention to its eyes. They would not consider the ways of Christ's humility, by which he raised us to the heights, and so were like the bird that knows not the path. For they gave no serious thought to the fact that Christ's humility raised us to heaven and the purpose of his death was to restore us to life. Thus 'the fowl does not know the way, the eye of the vulture has not seen it', means that even if the Jews saw Christ, whom they put to death, they were unwilling to see how far the glory of our life would follow from his death. They were, in consequence, incensed to commit cruel acts of persecution, they refused to hear the words of life, they rejected the preachers of the kingdom of heaven by arresting them, treating them savagely, putting them to death. The preachers, rejected, left Judea where they had been sent and were dispersed among the Gentiles. Such is the nature of the vulture, that the sinner can also be represented by it. The vulture follows the army to fill itself with corpses, as the sinner follows the evil men of the Devil's army, modelling himself on their ways. The vulture feeds on the corpses of the dead as

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carnalibus desderiis que mortem generant delectatur. Vultur\ etiam pedibus libenter graditur, unde et a quibusdam gradipes appel\ pellatur, quia terrena peccator amat, et terrenis inhiat, quandoque etiam\ vultur in altum volat, quia peccator ad celestia mentem quoque le\ vat, sed qua intentione hoc faciat, alter ignorat. Quis \enim intuetur\ oculos [oculus] vulturis, id est\ intentionem cogitationis? Hoc enim omnipotens sibi\ reliquid quod cogitationes hominum solus novit. Nota etiam ut\ ait Ysidorus a volatu tardo nominetur. Tarde enim cum volare ce\ perit a terra recedit, quia peccator aut vix aut nunquam terrena de\ sideria derelinquit. De [gruibus] Grues de propria voce\ nomen sumpserunt.\ Tali enim sono susur\ rant. Nec piguerit me\ minisse quatinus expedi\ tiones suas dirigant.\ Sub quodam milicie eunt\ signo, et ne pergentibus ad\ destinatam terram vis\ flatuum renitatur, are\ nas devorant, sublatisque lapillulis a[d] moderatam gravitatem sabu\ rantur. Tunc contendunt in altissima, ut de excelsiori specula\ intueantur quas petant terras. Hee autem dum properant, unam\ sequuntur litterato, fidens meatu preit cateruas. Volatus desidia\ castigat, voceque cogit agmen. Et ubi obraucata est, succedit alia.\ Concors cura omnium pro fatigatis adeo ut si qua defecerit con\ gruant universe lassatasque sustollant, usque dum vires ocio\ recuperentur. Grues in nocte sollicitam exercent\ custodiam.\ Dispositos vigiles cernas, et ceteris consortibus gregis quiescentibus,\

a sinner delights the in carnal desires which bring about death. The vulture willingly goes on foot, and for this reason is called by some gradipes, 'footslogger', in the same way that the sinner loves and longs for earthly things. Sometimes the vulture flies on high, as the sinner also raises his mind to heavenly things, but with what purpose no-one else knows. For who looks at the eyes of the vulture, that is, at what lies behind men's thoughts? The Almighty reserves this to himself; he alone knows the thoughts of men. Note also that Isidore says that the vulture gets its name from volatu tardus, slow in flight. For it leaves the ground slowly when it takes flight, as the sinner hardly ever or never abandons his earthly desires. Of cranes Cranes take their name, grues, from the sound of their own particular call. or such is the low, muttering sound they make. It is interesting to recall how cranes organise their journeys. They go to some extent in military formation, and in case the wind should be against them on their way to their chosen land, they eat sand and ballast themselves to a reasonable weight by picking up small stones. Then they fly as high as they can, so that a from higher vantage point they can look out for the lands they seek. As they fly swiftly on their way, they follow one of their number in a V-shaped formation. Confident in its navigation, it leads the flocks. It scolds the laggards and keeps the formation together with its calls. When it grows hoarse, another takes over. Cranes are united in their concern for those who tire, to such an extent that if any drop out, they all surround the exhausted birds and support them until their strength is restored by this period of rest. At night cranes keep careful watch. You can see the sentinels at their posts; while the other members of the flock sleep,

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alie circueunt et explorant ne qua ex parte insidie temptentur,\ atque omnem deferunt impigro sui vigore cutelam. Post ubi vi\ giliarum fuerit tempus impletum, perfuncta munere in somp\ num se premisso clamore componit ut excitet dormientem,\ cui vicem munis traditura est. At illa volens suscipere\ sortem nec usu nostro invita et pigrior sompno

others do the rounds and check lest they should be ambushed from any quarter; with their tireless energy, they ensure total vigilance.

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When the crane's turn on watch is over and its duty is done, it settles down to sleep, first giving a cry to wake one of those already asleep, whose turn it is to

renuntiat sed impigre\ suis excutitur stratis, vicem exequitur, et quam accepit graciam pari cura\ atque officio representat. Ideo nulla desertio, quia devocio naturalis.\ Ideo tuta custodia[,] quia voluntas libera. Grues autem nocte excubi\ as dividunt, et ordinem vigiliarum per ordines et vices faciunt,\ tenentes lapillos suspensis digitis quibus sompnos arguant. Quod\ cavendum erit clamor indicat. Etatem in illis color prodit nam se\ nectute nigrescunt. Possumus autem per vigiles intelligere quoslibet dis\ cretos fratres communiter fratribus temporalia provident, et de sin\ gulis specialiter curam habent, ad obsequia fratrum pro posse suo vigilant,\ ut ab eis incursus demonum et accessus secularium prudenter re\ pellant. Grues vero que ad hoc eliguntur ut pro aliis vigilent, in pe\ de a terra suspenso lapillum tenent timentes ne si aliqua earum\ dormiat, lapsus a pede lapillus cadat, si autem cadat evigilans\ clamat. Lapis est Christus, pes, mentis affectus. Si enim aliquis pedibus\ incedit, sic mens suis affectibus quasi pedibus ad optata tendit. Si\ quis igitur ad custodiam sui vel fratrum vigilet, lapillum in pede, id est Christum\ in mente portet, aut summo opere caveat ne si in peccato dormierit,\ lapillus a pede, id est Christus a mente recedat. Si autem cecidit per confessio\ onem clamet, ut dormientes excitet, id est fratres tam pro se quam pro eorum ex\ cessibus, ad vigilantiam circumspectionis invitet. Etatem in illis\ olor prodit, nam in senectute nigrescunt. Hic enim color in senec\ tute seni competit, cum pro peccatis plangendo gemit. Cum enim\ que male gessit senex commemorat, in senectute colorem mutat.\

be on duty. The new guard take up its allotted task willingly, not refusing, as we do, gracelessly, because we want to go on sleeping; instead, rousing itself readily from its resting-place, it takes its turn and repays the service it has received with equal attention to duty. Cranes do not desert the flock, because they are devoted by nature. They keep a safe watch, because they do it of their own free will. They divide the watches at night and take them in turns, according to a roster, holding small stones in their claws to ward off sleep. They give a cry when there is cause for alarm. Their colouring shows their age, for as they grow older, it grows darker. We can take the sentinel cranes to mean those discerning brothers who provide temporal goods for their brethren in common and have a special concern for each one of the community. They watch over the obedience of their brothers, as far as they can, protecting them prudently from the assaults of devils and the incursions of this world. The cranes who are chosen to watch over the others hold a small stone in their claw, which is raised off the ground, fearing lest any of them fall asleep, in which case the stone will slip from their claw and fall; if it falls, the crane wakes up and cries out. The stone is Christ; the claw, the disposition of the mind. For as anyone goes on foot, so the mind strives with its dispositions for its desires, as if on foot. If, therefore, anyone stands guard over himself or his brethren, let him carry a stone in his claw, that is, keep Christ in his mind; or let him be very careful lest, if he sleeps in sin, the stone should fall from his claw, that is, Christ depart from his mind. If, however, the stone has fallen, let him cry out by means of confession, that he may awake those who sleep, that is, let him urge his brethren to watch out attentively as much for him as for their own faults. The colouring of the cranes reveals their age, for it grows darker as they grow older. This colour in old age refers to the elderly when they weep for their sins. For when the elderly remember their faults, they change colour in their latter years.

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Mutat enim amorem pristine delectationis in dolorem contricio\ nis. Ecce qualiter per naturam volucrum doceri potest vita religi\ osorum. \ De milvo \ Milvus mollis et [PL, est] viribus et vo\ latu, quasi mollis avis,\ unde et nuncupatur rapacissimum\ tamen et semper domesticis avibus insidi\ atur. Sicut enim in libro ethimo\ logiarum Ysidori legitur: milvus\ a molli

For the old change their love of former pleasures into the sadness of repentance.

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Behold how, through the nature of birds, we can teach the nature of the religious life. Of the kite

volatu nominatur. Est enim\ milvus mollis viribus. Illos autem mil\ vus significat quos mollices voluptates [PL, mollities voluptatis] temptant. Cadaveribus\ milvus vescitur, quia carnalibus desideriis voluptuosi delectantur. Circa\ coquinas et macella milvus assidue volitat, ut siquid crude\ carnis ab eis proiciatur fori[a inserted]s, velocius rapiat. Per hoc enim milvus eos\ nobis innuit, quos cura ventris sollicitos reddit. Qui igitur huius mundi\ sunt, voluptuosa querunt, macella frequentant, et coquinis in\ hiant. Milvus timidus est in magnis; audax in minimis. Sil\ vestres volucres rapere non audet, domesticis autem insidiari so\ let. Insidiatur pullis ut illos rapiat, et quos incautos repperit, velo\ cius necat. Sic molles et voluptuosi teneros pullos rapiunt, quia\ simpliciores et indiscretos suis moribus aptant, et ad perversos usus per\ trahunt. Super eos lente volando incautos decipiunt, dum eos\ blandis sermonibus adulando seducunt. Ecce quomodo volucres que\ ratione carent peritos homines et ratione intentos per exempla per\ verse operationis docent. \ De psitaco Sola India mittit avem psitacum colore viridi torque pu\ nicea, grandi lingua, et ceteris avibus laciore, unde et articu\ lata verba exprimit, ita ut si eam non videris, homine loqui putes.\

It is weak in strength and in flight - a puny bird, mollis avis, from which it gets its name, milvus. It is, however, a bird of prey, always preying on domestic birds. As we read in the book of Etymologies of Isidore: 'The kite, milvus, derives its name from mollis volatu, weak in flight. For the kite is a weakly bird.' The kite signifies those who are tempted by effete pleasures. It feeds on corpses, as pleasure-seekers take delight in carnal desires. It constantly hovers around kitchens and meat-markets so that if pieces of raw meat are thrown out from them, it can seize them quickly. In this the kite represents to us those who are motivated by concern for their stomach. Those who are of this world, therefore, seek pleasure, frequent meat-markets and gaze with longing at kitchens. The kite is timid in big matters, bold in small. It dares not seize wild birds but customarily preys on domestic ones. It lies in wait to seize their young and when it encounters unwary youngsters, it kills them quickly. In the same way, the effete and pleasure-seeking seize infants of tender years, in the sense that they teach the more simple and undiscerning their own habits and lead them into perversion. As kites deceive the unwary by flying over them slowly, the pleasureseekers lead the young astray by flattering them with sweet words. See how birds who lack the capacity of rational thought instruct through examples of evil conduct men who are experienced and intelligent. Of the parrot India alone produces the bird called the parrot, green in colour, with a deep-red neck and a large tongue, broader than those of other birds, with which it utters distinct words; so that if you did not see it, you would think it was a man talking

Transcription Ex natura autem salutat di\ cens ave vel kere. Cetera nomina\ institutione discit. Hinc est illud.\ Psitacus a vobis aliorum nomina discam:\ Hoc didici per me dicere: Cesar ave.\ Cuius rostri tanta duricia est, ut cum\ e sublimi precipitatur in saxum, ni\ su oris se excipiat, et quodam quasi fun\ damento utatur extra ordinarie fir\ mitatis. Caput vero tantum valens, ut siquando ad discendum\ plagis sit admonendum nam studet ut quod ad homines lo\ quatur, ferrea sit ferula verberandus. Nam cum in pullo est atque\ adeo intra alterum etatis sue annum, que monstrata sunt et\ cicius discit et retinet tenacius, paulo senior obliviosus est et indocilis.\ De ibice \ Est avis que dicitur\ ibis

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Translation Characteristically, it greets you by saying in Latin or Greek: 'Ave' or 'Kere!' - 'Hail!' It will learn other words if you teach it. Which explains the lines: 'Like a parrot, I will learn other people's names from you, but this I have learned by myself to say: Hail, Caesar!' (Martial, Epigrams, 14, 73). The parrot's beak is of such hardness that if it falls from a height on to a rock, it takes the impact on its mouth, using it as base of uncommon toughness. Its skull is so thick, that if ever you have to admonish it with blows to learn - for it tries hard to speak like

rostro suo pur\ gans alvum. Hec serpen\ tum ovis utitur et mortici\ nis, et ex eis gratissimum\ cibum pullis suis repor\ tat. Nam in aqua ingredi\ timet, quia natandi natu\ ram nescit, sed iuxta litus\ die noctuque obambulat, querens aut mortuos pisciculos, aut\ aliqua cadavera que ab aqua eiecta fuerint foras. Signifi\ cat carnales homines qui mortiferis operibus quasi escis utuntur\ quibus misere anime nutriuntur ad penam. Tu vero Christiane qui aqua\ spirituque sancto renatus es, ingredere ad spirituales aquas misteriorum dei,\

men - you should beat it with an iron rod. For when it is young, up to two years of age, it learns what it is told very quickly and keeps it firmly in mind; when it is a little older, it is forgetful and is difficult to teach. Of the ibis There is a bird called the ibis; it purges its stomach with its beak. It feeds on the eggs of snakes and on carrion, and from them carries back food to its young, which they eat with great pleasure. Yet it fears to go into water, because it does not know how to swim, but walks about near the shore day and night, looking for dead fish of a small size or corpses which have been washed up. The ibis signifies carnal men who feed, as it were, on deadly deeds, on which they nourish themselves to the condemnation of their wretched souls. But you, a Christian, reborn by water and the holy spirit, enter the spiritual waters of the mysteries of God

Transcription et inde sume tibi mundissimos cibos quos enumerat apostolus dicens:\ Fructus autem spiritus est caritas, gaudium, pax, pacientia, longani\ mitas, et cetera. Nisi sol et luna extenderint radios suos, non lucent.\ Volucres nisi extenderint alas suas, volare non poterunt. Sic ergo tu homo\ si te signo crucis non munieris, gemineque dilectionis alas non\ extenderis, ad quietissimum portum celestis patrie per medias huius\ mundi procellas transmeare non poteris. Denique cum Moyses elevaret\ manus suas, superabat Israel. Cum vero remitteret manus suas, superabat Ama\ lech. \ De yrundine \ Turtur et yrundo et ciconia\ cognoverunt adventus sui\ diem. Israel autem non cognovit\ iudicium domini. De turture\ superius diximus, restat autem\ ut de yrundine et ciconia postea\ disseramus. Unde Ysidorus: yrundo\ dicta quod cibos non sumit residens, sed in aere escas capiat et comme\ dat. Garrula avis per tortuosos orbes et flexuosos volans circuitus\ pervolans, et in nidis construendis, educandisque fetibus sollertis\ sima habens etiam quiddam prescium, quod lapsura deferat, nec appe\ tat culmina. A diris quoque avibus non impeditur, nec unquam preda est,\ maria transvolat ibique hyeme commoratur. Hirundo miniscula avis\ corpore, sed egregie pio sublimis affectu, indiga rerum omnium,\ preciosiores auro nidos, quia sapienter nidificat. Nidus enim\ sapientie preciosior est auro. Quid enim sapientius quam ut volandi\ vaga libertate pociatur, et hominum domiciliis parvulos suos et\ tecta commendet ubi sobolem nullus incurset. Nam illud est\ pulchrum ut a primo ortu pullos humane usu conversationis\ assuescat, et prestet ab iminicarum avium insidiis tuciores. Tum\

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Translation and thereafter eat the purest of food of which the apostle spoke, saying: 'But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace longsuffering etc' (see Galatians, 5:22). If the sun and moon did not send forth their rays, they would give no light. If birds did not spread their wings, they could not fly. Thus, you, O man, if you do not protect yourself with the sign of the cross, and spread the wings of twofold love, you will not be able to pass through the tempests of this world to that most peaceful haven of the heavenly land. 'And it came to pass, when Moses held up his hand, that Israel prevailed: and when he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed' (Exodus, 17:11). Of the swallow 'The turtle-dove and the stork and the swallow observe the time of their coming. But my people know not the judgment of the Lord' (see Jeremiah, 8:7). We have talked of the turtle-dove; that leaves the swallow and after it the stork to be discussed Isidore says this about it: 'The swallow is so called because it does not feed on the ground but catches its food and eats it in the air. It is a twittering bird that flies in twisting, turning loops and circuits, is highly skilled in building its nest and rearing its young, and has also a kind of foresight because it lets you know when buildings are about to fall by refusing to nest on their tops. In addition, it is not harrassed by birds of prey nor is it ever their victim. It flies across the sea

and winters there.' The swallow is a tiny bird but of an eminently pious nature; lacking in everything, it constructs nests which are more valuable than gold because it builds them wisely. For the nest of wisdom is more precious than gold. And what is wiser than to have, as the swallow does, the capacity to fly where it likes and to entrust its nest and its young to the houses of men, where none will attack them. For there is something attractive in the way that the swallow accustoms its young from their earliest days to the company of people and keeps them safe from the attacks of hostile bird Then

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illud preclarum quod quadratam domum sibi sine ullo adiutore\ tanquam artis perita componit. Legit enim festucas ore easque luto\ linit ut glutinare possit, sed quia lutum pedibus deferre non potest\ summitates pennarum aqua infundit, ut facile his pulvis ad\ hereat, et limus fiat, quo paulatim festucas vel minutos surcu\ los sibi colligat atque adherere faciat. Eo genere nidi tocius fabricam\ struit, ut quasi pavimento solo pulli eius in terra edes suas sine\ offensione versentur, ne pedem aliquis interserat per rimulas textu\ rarum, aut teneris fetibus frigus irrepat. Sed hoc industrie offi\ cium prope commune multis avibus, illud vero singulare in quo est\ preclara cura pietatis et prudens intellectus et cognitionis insig\ ne, tum que[d]am medice artis pericia quod si qua pulli eius fuerint\ cecitate suffusi oculos sive compuncti, habet quoddam medendi genus\ quo po[s inserted]sit eorum lumina intercepto visui reformare. Per hyrundinem\ sicut auctoritas testatur, aliquando superbia mentis, aliquando contricio\ contribulati cordis intellegitur. Quod per yrundinem superbia desig\ netur, per Tobiam dicitur: Cum iactasset se inquit Tobias iuxta pa\ rietem et obdormisset, contigit ut ex nido hirundinum dor\ mienti illi calida stercora insiderent super oculos eius, fieretque cecus.\ Unde Beda super Tobiam: Hyrundo propter levem volatum, superbiam\ cordis levitatemque figurat, cuius immundicia confestim excecat,\ nec eum videre permittit qualis fuerit. Quod autem per irundinem\ contricio cordis intellegi debeat propheta dicens demonstrat: Sicut\ pullus yrundinis inquit sic clamabo. Intelligimus igitur per yrun\ dinem quemlibet discretum doctorem, per yrundinis pullum\ clamantem discipulum, per clamorem, mentis contricionem.\ Clamat pullus yrundinis, dum querit a magistro verbum predi\ cationis. Clamat pullus yrundinis, dum per confessionem ma\ gistro manifestat affectum contriti cordis. Si nosci clamorem\

remarkably, the swallow creates a regularlyproportioned home for itself without any assistance, like a skilled craftsman. For it gathers bits of straw in its mouth and smears them with mud so that they stick together; but because it cannot carry the mud in its claws, it dips the tips of its wings in water, so that dust sticks to them easily and turns into slime, with which to gather to itself bits of straw or tiny twigs, a few at a time, and makes them stick. It makes the whole fabric of the nest in this fashion, in order that its young can live safely as if on a solid floor in houses on the ground, lest any of them insert a foot between the small gaps in the woven fabric or the cold should get to the very young.

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This conscientiousness is fairly common among most birds, yet what is distinctive about the swallow is its special loving care, shrewd intelligence and the extraordinary quality of its understanding. Then there is its skill in the arts of healing: if its young are infected by blindness or pricked in the eye, it has some kind of healing power with which it can restore their vision. The swallow, as this example proves, can be taken to represent, in some cases, pride of mind; in others, the repentance of the afflicted heart. That the swallow signifies pride is illustrated by Tobit: When he lay down beside a wall, says Tobit, and fell asleep, it happened that warm excrement fell on his eyes from a swallows' nest as he slept and he became blind (see Tobit, 2:10). Bede Commentarys on this: 'The swallow, on account of its lightness in flight, represents pride and levity of heart; their impurity causes immediate blindness, and prevents one from seeing what he is. That we should interpret the swallow as the contrite heart is demonstrated by the prophet, who says: 'Like a crane or a swallow, so will I chatter' (see Isaiah,

38:14). We understand by the swallow, therefore, a discerning teacher; by the swallow's young, the teacher's disciple, crying out; by the cry, a contrite heart. The fledgling cries out as the disciple asks his teacher to preach to him. The fledgling cries out as, by confession, the disciple shows his teacher the contrition in his heart. If you know the cry

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yrundinis, nisi fallor questum designat anime penitentis. Hi\ rundo cibos residens non sumit, sed in aere quas capit escas edit, quia\ qui terrena non diligit, remotus a terrenis celestia querit. Garrula\ avis esse dicitur quia querulosis orationibus sepius delectatur, per fluxuosos cir\ cuitus pervolat, ut adversa obedientie precepta mentem subiectus\ flectat. In nidis construendis educandisque fetibus sollertissima.\ Nidum construit, quia in fide passionis Christi spem fixam ponit. Sol\ lers in educandis fetibus, id est in docendis subiectis fratribus. Habet etiam\ quiddam pre[s]cium, quod deserat lapsura, nec appetat culmina. Quid\ dam enim pre[s]cium habent qui vere penitent, quod casum presentis seculi\ fugiant, et per mansura sine fine querunt. Hyrundo aliis avibus\ non impetitur nec unquam preda est. Rapaces aves nunquam yrundinem\ rapiunt, quia contriti corde demonibus nunquam preda sunt. Yrun\ do maria transvolat, quia vere penitet amaritudines et tumul\ tus huius mundi exire desiderat. Ibique hieme commoratur. Cum enim\ yemps ingruit et frigus antecedit [PL, accedit] tunc iustus ad calorem cari\ tatis transit. Ibique pacienter expectat, donec frigus temptationis a\ mente recedat. Novit pia avis annuntiare adventus sui testi\ monio, veris inicium. Revertitur yrundo post frigus yemis, ut an\ nuntiet inicium veris. Similiter iustus post frigus nimie temp\ tationis revertitur ad temperantiam moderate mentis, ut qui frigus\ temptationis evaserat, ad estatem, id est dilectionis amorem [PL, calorem] mo\ derate per ascensus boni operis accedat. Hec est igitur natura yrundinis,\ id est anime penitentis, que semper querit veris inicium, quia in omnibus\ tenet discrecionis et temperantie modum. Ecce qualiter simplex\ eos instruit, quos ab inicio divina providentia discretos facit.\ De ciconia \ Ciconie vocate a sono quo crepitant\ quasi cicanie que sonum oris pocius esse quam vocis quia\ quatiente rostro faciunt. Hee veris nuntie, societatis comites,\

of the swallow, it signifies, unless I am mistaken, the lament of the penitent soul. The swallow does not feed on the ground but eats what it catches in the air, as those who have no love for earthly things, seek, far away from them, the things of heaven. It is said to twitter, like those who frequently take pleasure in plaintive pleas. It flies in winding circles, as those who bend their minds in submission to the rules of obedience. The swallow is expert in building nests and bringing up its young. In constructing a nest, it resembles those who fix their hope in the faith of Christ's passion. It is skilled in bringing up its young, that is, like those who are skilled in teaching the brethren in their charge. The swallow has a kind of foresight, because it tells us which buildings which are about to fall by refusing to nest on their tops. Those who are truly penitent have a kind of foresight, in that they flee from the fall of this world and seek life without end. It is not harassed by other birds and is never their prey. Birds of prey never fall upon it, in the same way that the contrite of heart are never the prey of devils. The swallow flies across the sea, as the truly penitent long to quit the sorrows and commotions of this world. There it stays during in winter. As, when winter assails us, and the cold comes, the righteous man migrates to the warm region of love. There he waits patiently until the coldness of temptation passes from his mind. The pious bird knows how to proclaim, in witness of its coming, the beginning of spring. The swallow returns after the cold of winter to announce the beginning of spring. Likewise, the righteous man returns after the coldness of great temptation to the temperate climate of a well-regulated mind, in order that, having escaped the cold of temptation, he may ascend by means of good works to summer, that is, the warmth of the due measure of love. This, then, is the nature of the swallow, that is to say,

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of the penitent soul: it longs all the time for the beginning of spring, as the soul holds to the way of good judgement and moderation in all things. See how something simple, like the swallow, can teach those to whom divine providence from the beginning gave the capacity of discernment. Of the stork Storks get their name, ciconie, from the creaking sound they make, like crickets, cicanie. The sound comes from their mouth rather than their voice, because they make it by clashing their bills. Storks are the heralds of spring; they share a sense of community;

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serpentis hostes, maria transvolant, in Asiam collecto\ agmine pergunt. Cornices\ duces precedunt, et ipse quasi\ exercitus prosequuntur. Eximia\ illis circa filios pietas. Nam\ adeo nidos impensius fo\ vent, ut assiduo incubitu\ plumas exuant. Quantum\ autem tempus impende\ rint in fetibus educandis,\ tantum et ipse invicem a pul\ lis suis aluntur. Ciconie\ sonum oris pro voce quatiente rostro flaciunt [PL,faciunt]. Illos autem\ pretendunt qui cum fletu et stridore dentium quod male\ gesserunt ore promunt. Hee sunt nuntie veris, quia ceteris\ demonstrant temperantiam converse mentis. Societatis sunt\ comites, quia libenter habitant inter fratres. Dicitur etiam de ciconia\ quod serpentium sit inimica. Serpentes sunt perverse cogitatio\ nes, seu perversi fratres, quos ciconia rostro percutit, dum iustus\ pravas cogitationes restringit, vel perversos fratres perungenti [PL, pungenti]\ invectione reprehendit. Maria transvolant, in Asiam collec\ to agmine pergunt. Asia interpretatur elevata. Maria igitur transvo\ lat et Asiam pergit, qui spretis mundi tumultibus ad altio\ ra tendit. Eximia illis circa filios pietas ut assiduo incu\ bitu super eos exuant plumas. Assiduo incubitu sup[er] pul\ los ciconie plumas exuunt, quia dum prelati subiectos nutri\ unt, superfluitatis et levitatis a se plumas evellunt. Quantum\ autem tempus impenderint in fetibus educandis, tantum et ipse\ invicem a pullis suis aluntur. Quantum pulli eorum indigent\ tamdiu ciconie eos nutrire debent, quia in quantum indigent

they are the enemies of snakes; they fly across the sea, making their way in flocks to Asia. Crows go in front of them as their guides, the storks following them as if in an army. Storks possess a strong sense of duty towards their young. They are so keen to keep their nests warm that their feathers fall out as a result of the constant incubation. But their young spend as much time caring for them when they grow old, as they spend caring for their young. Storks make a sound by clashing their bills. They represent those who 'with weeping and gnashing of teeth' (Matthew, 8:12) proclaim from their own mouths the evil they have done. Storks herald the spring, like those who demonstrate to others the moderation of a mind that has undergone conversion. They have a sense of community like those who live willingly in the community of their brothers. It is said also that the stork is the enemy of snakes. Snakes are evil thoughts or evil brothers; the stork strikes snakes with its bill, as the righteous check evil thoughts or reprimand their wicked brothers with penetrating rebukes. Storks fly across the sea and make their way in flocks to Asia. Asia signifies heavenly things. Those people also fly across the sea to Asia, therefore, who, scorning the commotions of the world, aim for higher things. Storks are are notably devoted to their young, with the result that their feathers fall out from constant incubation. Storks lose their feathers from the constant incubation of their young in the same way

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that prelates, when they nourish those in their charge, pluck out from their own bodies the feathers of excess and weakness. Young storks spend as much time caring for their parents as their parents spent on rearing them. Storks must nourish their young in proportion to their need, in the same way that

Transcription discipuli, tamdiu verbo doctrine debent eos alere pre\ lati. Similiter subiecti prelatos suis laboribus fovere de\ bent, ut eis ministrent necessaria quibus egent. Turtur\ igitur et yrundo et ciconia illos reprehendunt, qui Christum in\ carne advenisse non credunt, et iudicium domini futurum\ non pertimescunt.\ De [merula] \ Ysidorus de merula: Merula\ antiquitus medula [PL, modula] vocabatur,\eo quod moduletur. Alii merulam\ aiunt vocitatam quia sola volat\ quasi mera volans. Hec cum in om\nibus locis nigra sit, in Achaia tamen\ candida est. Merula est avis parva\ sed nigra. Illos autem innuit, quos peca\ ti nigredo tingit. Merula dulcedine proprie vocis, mentem\ movet in affectum delectationis. Illos autem demonstrat\ figurate, quos voluptas carnis per suggestionem temptat. De ea\ siquidem beatus Gregorius in libro Dialogorum scribit qualiter\ beato Benedicto volitans occurrit, qualiter tantus post disces\ sum volucris, temptatus fuerit ardore libidinis. Ait enim:\ Quadam vero die dum solus esset beatus Benedictus, temptator affu\ it. Nam nigra parvaque avis que vulgo merula vocatur\ circa eius faciem volitare cepit, eiusque vultui importu\ ne insistere, ita ut capi manu posset, si hanc vir sanctus\ tenere voluisset. Sed signo crucis edito, recessit avis.\ Tanta autem carnis temptatio avi eadem recedente se\ cuta est, quantam vir sanctus nunquam fuerat expertus. Quan\ dam namque aliquando feminam viderat, quam ma\ lignus spiritus ante eius mentis oculos reduxit. Tan\ taque igne servi dei animum in specie illius accendit, ut\

Translation prelates should feed their disciples with instruction according to their need. Likewise the prelates' flock should support them with their efforts and provide them with the necessities they lack. Thus the turtle-dove, the swallow and the stork are a living reproach to those who do not believe that Christ came in the flesh and do not go in fear of the judgement of the Lord to come. Of the blackbird Isidore says of the blackbird: 'The blackbird in ancient times was called medula, because it sang rhythmically.' Others say that it was called merula, because it flew on its own, mera volans, so to speak. Although it is black wherever it is found, there is a white species in Achaia. The blackbird is small but black. It represents those tainted by the blackness of sin. The blackbird both moves and charms itself by the sweetness of its own voice. It represents those who are tempted by the suggestion of carnal pleasures. In fact, the blessed Gregory refers to this in his book of Dialogues, when he recounts how the blackbird came on the wing to the blessed Benedict and how after the departure of the bird, he was tempted with the fire of lust. Gregory says: One day when the blessed Benedict was alone, the tempter appeared. For a small, black bird, commonly called a blackbird, began to fly around his head and to come up close to his face in a cheeky fashion, so that Benedict could have taken it in his hand if the saint had wanted to hold it. But he made the sign of the cross and the bird flew away. Such a temptation of the flesh as followed the departure of the bird, the saint had never experienced. For the evil spirit now brought before his inner eye the image of a woman whom Benedict had once seen. And the mind of the servant of God burned with such fire at the sight of her, that

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se in eius pectore amoris flamma vix caperet, et iam [PL ut etiam] pene de\ serere heremum voluptate victus deliberaret. Cum subito su\ perna gratia respectus, ad semetipsum reversus est, atque urticarum et\ veprium iuxta densa succrescere frutecta conspiciens, exutus\ indumento quo indutus erat, nudum se in illis spinarum\ aculeis et urticarum incendiis proiecit. Ibique volutatus toto ex\ eis corpore vulneratus exiit, et per cutis vulnera eduxit a corpore vul\ nus mentis, quia voluptatem traxit in dolorem. Merula igitur vo\ litans, est suggestio voluptatem temptans. Qui igitur abicere cu\ piunt voluptatem merule, oportet ut exemplo beati Benedic\ ti transeant ad correctionem discipline, et sic delectationem\ mentis extrahant per afflictionem carnis. In regionibus Achaie\ sunt sicut Ysidorus testatur candide merule. Candida merula,\ est voluntas munda. Achaia vero, soror laborans interpretatur.\ Due sorores sunt Rachel et Lia, activa scilicet et contemplati\ va vita. Lia, laboriosa interpretatur. Activa vita docet elemo\ sinas impendere, indiscretos docere mundiciam castitatis\ habere, propriis manibus laborare. Hic est labor active vite,\ hec est soror laborans. Hec est Achaia, videlicet activa vita.\ In Achaia igitur quasi merule candide sunt, qui in activa vi\ ta pure vivunt. \ De bubone \ Ysidorus de bubone.\ Bubo a sono vocis compositum\ nomen habet, avis feralis, onu\ sta quidem plumis, sed gravi semper\ detenta pigricia, in sepulchris\ die noctuque versatur et semper com\ morans in cavernis. Unde Rabanus:\ Bubo inquit, in tenebris pecca\ torum deditos, et lucem iusticie fugientes significat. Unde\

the flame of his love could scarcely contain itself in his breast and, overcome by desire, he now almost resolved to quit the wilderness. When suddenly, touched by the grace of heaven, he recovered himself, and seeing thick bushes of nettles and thorns growing nearby, he stripped off the garment he was wearing and threw himself naked amid the pricking thorns and stinging nettles. And having rolled in them, he emerged with his body covered in wounds, and through these wounds to his skin he discharged from his body the wound to his soul, because he transformed his desire into pain. The blackbird in flight, therefore, represents enticement, tempting you to desire. If you want, therefore, to reject the desire symbolised by the blackbird, you must follow the example of the blessed Benedict and turn instead to the correction of discipline and thus rid yourself of pleasures of the mind by inflicting pain on your flesh. In the regions of Achaia, according to Isidore, there are white blackbirds. A white blackbird represents purity of will. But by Achaia we understand the industrious sister. There are two sisters, Rachel and Leah, namely the active and the contemplative life. Leah we take to be the industrious one. The active life teaches us to devote ourselves to works of charity, to teach men who lack discernment, to have the purity of chastity, to work with our own hands. This is Achaia, the active life. In Achaia, therefore, like the white blackbirds, live those who live chastely the active life. Of the owl Isidore says of the owl: 'The name owl, bubo, is formed from the sound it makes. It is a bird associated with the dead, weighed down, indeed, with its plumage, but forever hindered, too, by the weight of its slothfulness. It lives day and night around burial places and is always found in caves.' On this subject Rabanus says: 'The owl signifies those who have given themselves up to the darkness of sin and those who flee from the light of righteousness.' As a result

Transcription inter immunda animalia in Levitico deputatur. Unde per bubonem\ intelligere possumus quemlibet peccatorem. Bubo a sono vocis dicitur\ quia os ex abundantia cordis loquitur, nam quod cogitat mente,\ profert voce. Avis feda esse dicitur, quia fimo eius locus in quo habitat\ commaculatur, quia peccator illos cum quibus habitat, exemplo\ perversi operis dehonestat. Avis onusta plumis, id est, superfluitate\ carnis et levitate mentis, sed gravi quidem detenta pigricia.\ Detinetur inertia et pigritia g[ra]ravi, quia

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Translation it is classed among the unclean creatures in Leviticus (see 11:16). Consequently, we can take the owl to mean any kind of sinner. The owl gets its name from the sound it makes, because its mouth speaks when its heart is overfull, for what it thinks about in its mind, it utters with its voice. It is said to be a filthy bird, because it fouls its nest

peccatores ad bene operandum\ sunt inertes et pigri. Die noctuque moratur in sepulcris, nam de\ lectatur peccato, quod est fetor humane carnis. Habitat enim in ca\ vernis nec per confessionem exit foras, sed lucem veritatis odit.\ Ab aliis avibus visus, magnis earum clamoribus proditur, magnis\ etiam incursionibus vexatur. Si enim peccator ad lucem cogniti\ onis veniat, magnum bene agentibus derisionis questum\ prestat. Et cum in peccato deprehensus aperte fuerit, ab aliis repre\ hensionis verba audit. Plumas evellunt et rostro lacerant,\ quia et carnales actus peccatoris bene agentes reprehendunt, et\ superfluitatem dampnant. Infelix ergo dicitur, quia infelix est\ qui ea que prediximus operatur. \ [De hupupa] \ Hupupam Greci appellant, eo\ quod stercora humana consi\ deret [considat], et fetenti pascatur fimo, avis\ spurcissima et cristis exstantibus ga\ leata, semper in sepulcris et humano\ stercore commorans, cuius sanguine\ quisquis se inunxerit, dormitum\ pergens demones suffocantes se vide\ bit. Unde Rabanus: Hec avis sceleratos\ peccatores significat homines qui sordibus peccatorum assidue de\ lectantur. Hupupa etiam luctum amare dicitur, quia [seculi] tristicia\

with its droppings, as the sinner dishonours those with whom he lives, by the example of his evil ways. It is weighed down with its plumage, as the sinner is with an excess of carnal pleasure and with fickleness of mind; but it is truly hampered by the weight of its sloth. It is hindered by the weight of its idleness and sloth, as sinners are lazy and slothful in acting virtuously. It spends its days and nights around burial places, as the sinner delights in sin, which is like the stench of decaying human flesh. For it lives in caves like the sinner who will not emerge from darkness by means of confession but detests the light of truth. When other birds see the owl, they signal its presence with loud cries and harrass it with fierce assaults. In the same way, if a sinner comes into the light of understanding, he becomes an object of derision to the virtuous. And when he is caught openly in the act of sinning, his ears are filled with their reproaches. As the birds pull out the owl's feathers and tear at it with their beaks, the virtuous censure the carnal acts of the sinner and condemn his excesses. The owl is known, therefore, as a miserable bird, just as the sinner, who behaves in the way we have described above, is a miserable man. [Of the hoopoe] The Greeks call the bird by this name because it roosts in human ordure and feeds on stinking excrement. The filthiest of birds, it is capped with a prominent crest. It lives in burial places amid human ordure. If you rub yourself with its blood on your way to bed, you will have nightmares about demons suffocating you. On this subject, Rabanus says: 'This bird signifies wicked sinners, men who continually delight in the squalor of sin.' The hoopoe is said to take pleasure in grief, as the sorrow of this world

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mortem spiritus operatur, propter quod oportet eum qui diligit deum semper\ gaudere sine intermissione orare, in omnibus gratias agere quia gaudi\ um spiritus est fructus. De hupupa etiam Phisiologus dicit, quia [PL, quod]\ cum senuerit et volare non possit, filii eius ad eum veniunt\ et pennas vetustissimas a corpore ipsius evellunt, eamque fovere\ non cessant, donec sicut ante assumptis viribus volare pos\ sit. Exemplum igitur perversis hominibus tribuunt, qui

brings about the death of the spirit; for this reason those who love God should 'rejoice evermore, pray without ceasing and in every thing give thanks' (see 1 Thessalonians, 5:16-18) 'for the fruit of the Spirit is joy' (see Galatians, 5:22).

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In addition, Physiologus says of the hoopoe that when it grows old and cannot fly, its offspring come and pull out the oldest feathers from its body and constantly

patres\ suos cum senuerint a domibus propriis expellunt, qui eos cum\ deficiant sustentare renuunt, qui ipsos cum adhuc parvu\ li essent educaverunt. Videat ergo homo rationabilis quid patri\ vel matri debeat, cum irrationabilis creatura quod predixi\ [A, imus in necessitate cum senuerint parentibus reddat. \ De noctua \ Noctua dicitur, eo quod nocte circumvolat, et per diem non possit videre. Nam exorto splendore solis, visus illius hebetatur. Noctua autem non est bubo. Nam bubo maior est. Nicticorax ipsa est noctua, quia noctem amat. Est enim avis lucifuga, et solem videre non patitur.] Hec avis figuram gerit Judeorum,\ qui veniente domino salvatore ad salvandos eos reppule-\ runt eum, dicentes: Non habemus regem nisi Caesarem, et plus\ dilexerunt tenebras quam lucem. Tunc dominus convertit se ad nos\ gentes et illuminavit nos sedentes in tenebris et umbra mortis,\ de quibus dicitur: Populus quem non cognovi servivit mihi, et in alio\ propheta: Vocabo non plebem meam plebem, et non dilectam dilectam.\ De populo Judeorum, filii alieni et cetera. \ [De vespertilione] \ Vespertilio animal ignobile, a vespere nomen accepit. Est\ autem volatile idemque quadrupes, et dentibus utitur

care for it, until it has recovered its strength as before and can fly. The young hoopoes provide, therefore, an example to those evil men who, when their parents grow old, throw them out of their home; who refuse to support, when they are weak, the parents who raised them when they were still in their infancy. Let man, who is endowed with reason, learn his duty to his mother and father, from the way in which this creature, which lacks reason, provides (as we have already shown) for its parents' needs when they are old. Of the night-owl The night-owl, noctua, is so called because it flies at night and cannot see in the daytime. For its sight is dimmed by brightness of the sun when it has risen. The night-owl, noctua, is not the same as the owl, bubo, which is bigger. But the night-crow, nicticorax, is the same as the night-owl, because it loves the night. For it is a bird which shuns the light and cannot bear to see the sun. This bird symbolises the Jews who, when the Lord our Saviour came to save them, rejected him, saying: 'We have no king but Caesar' (John, 19:15); and 'loved darkness rather than light' (John, 3:19). Then our Lord turned to us, the Gentiles, and gave us light as we sat in darkness and the shadow of death; of the Gentiles it is said: 'A people which I knew not shall serve me' (Samuel 2, 22:44; Psalms, 18:44); and in another prophet: 'I will call them my people, which were not my people; and her beloved, which was not beloved' (Romans, 9:25; see Hosea, 2:23). Of the people of the Jews, the sons of strangers etc. [Of the bat] The bat, a lowly animal, gets its name from vesper, the evening, when it emerges. It is a winged creature but also a four-footed one, and it has teeth,

Transcription quos in avibus repperire non soleas. Parit ut quadrupedia, non\ ova sed pullos viventes. Voli\ tat autem non aliquo volatu\ pennarum sed menbrane sue fulta remigio quo suspensa ve\ lut pennarum volatu cir\cumfertur atque vegetatur. Habet\ et illud hoc vile animal quod\ sibi invicem adherent et quasi specie botrionis ex aliquo loco pendent, ac si se ultima queque laxa\ verit, omnes resolvuntur, quod fit quodam munere caritatis que dif\ [A, ficile in hominibus huiusmodi reperitur. \ De gragulo \ Rabanus de gragulo: Gragulus a garrulitate nuncupatur, ut non quidam volunt, pro eo quod

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Translation which you would not usually find in birds. It gives birth like a quadruped, not to eggs but to live young. It flies, but not on wings; it supports itself by making a rowing motion with its skin, and, suspended just as on wings, it darts around. There is one thing which these mean creatures do, however: they cling to each other and hang together from one place looking like a cluster of grapes, and if the last lets go, the whole group disintegrate; it a kind of act of love of a sort which is difficult to find

gregatim volent, cum sit manifestum, ex voce eos nuncupari. Est enim loquacissimum genus et vocibus inportunum, quod vel philoso-]phorum vanam loquacitatem, vel hereticorum verbositatem noxiam\ significare potest. Potest adhuc et aliud dici de natura graguli. Gra\ guli enim garrulos designant et gulosos. Qui enim gulo\ sitati student, post cibum libenter rumores referunt, et aures\ detractioni prebent. Gragulus in silvis degit, de una arbore\ in aliam garriendo transit, quia garrulus homo de his cum\ quibus habitat, etiam turpia que de eis noverit aliis narra\ re non cessat. Gragulus cum aliquem transire conspicit\ garrit, et cum aliquos occultos repperit similiter agit, quia\ garrulos homo non tamen detrahit secularibus, sed et eis quos religio\

among men. [Of the jay] Rabanus says of the jay: 'The jay gets is name from its talkativeness, garrulitas; not, as some would have it, because jays fly in flocks, gregatim; clearly, they are named for the cry they give. It is a most talkative species of bird and makes an irritating noise, and can signify either the empty prattle of philosophers or the harmful wordiness of heretics.' More can be said of the nature of the jay. For jays signify both gossips and gluttons. For those who devote themselves to gluttony take pleasure, after eating, in repeating gossip and in lending an ear to slander. The jay lives in the woods and flies chattering from one tree to another, as a talkative man ceaselessly tells others about his neighbours, even the shameful things he knows about them. When the jay sees someone pass, it chatters, and if it finds anyone hiding from the world, it does the same, just as a talkative man slanders not only worldly men but also those

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Transcription nis occultat locus. Gragulus captus aliquando repositus clauditur\ ut articulata verba doceatur. Similiter cum aliquis secularis ad conversi\ onem venerit, verba reli[li]gionis addiscit, ut lingua volucris verba\ loquatur hominis, ut qui inordinate loqui consueverat, ordinate\ loqui hactenus assuescat. Quandoque cum evenit quod gragulus qui\ clausus tenebatur evadit, et qui prius garrulus fuerat, per egressionem\ magis clamat. Eodem modo garrulus homo cum vitam religionis ar\ ripit, vix linguam suam deserit, sed si forte relicto habitu foras exie\ rit, bonum religionis in malam partem detrahendo quasi garriendo\ vertit. Moneat igitur natura volucris quis recipi debeat ad con\ sortium religionis. Discretus igitur doctor cum aliquem recipere\ debet, saltem prius cohabitatione probet. A quodam viro dis\ creto et religioso didici, quod sint quedam diversitates ho\ minum que vix ordinate in religione possint detineri.\ Si autem queras qui sint ut evitari possint, hii sunt pic\ tores, medici, ioculatores, et quidam alii qui diversas [PL, regiones] discur\ rere sunt assueti. Huiusmodi homines vix possunt esse\ stabiles. Ars pictoris valde est delectabilis. Cum enim pic\ tor ecclesiam, capitulum, refectorium, vel aliquas officinas\ pinxerit, ad aliud monasterium si ei concessum fuerit roga\ tus ab aliquo causa pingendi transit. Opera Christi pingit in\ pariete, sed utinam ea teneret in mente. Vestiret coloribus,\ exemplo et moribus. Ars vero medicine multis indiget, et vix\ proprietate caret. Qui hanc exercet, necesse est ei ut aroma\ tibus et speciebus habundet. Cum aliquis ecclesie vicinus in\ firmitate premitur, medicus ut ad infirmum veniat\ rogatur. Si autem abbas eum ire non permiserit, iram in\ currit. Medicus quandoque videt, quod ordinate eum videre\ non licet. Tangit quod religioso tangere non convenit.\ De incertis per experimenta loquitur, sed quia experimentum est\

Translation hidden whom a religious house conceals. A jay, captured and finally secured, is shut away on its own to learn to speak words clearly. Likewise, when a man of this world comes to conversion, he learns to speak the words of religion as the bird speaks the words of men; so that he who used to speak in a confused fashion, may thereafter grow accustomed to speak articulately. Sometimes it happens that a jay, held in confinement, escapes; then the bird, which was formerly talkative, makes even more noise after its escape. In the same way, a talkative man who takes up the religious life abandons with difficulty his power of speech; but should he quit his order and go back out into the world, he turns the good that comes of a religious life into something bad, by uttering slander, as if he were a jay chattering. Let the nature of this bird, therefore, serve as a warning to those who wish to be received into a religious community. Let the discerning teacher, therefore, when he has to receive a candidate into his community, at least examine him before he takes up communal residence. I have learned from a man both discerning and devout that there are certain kinds of men who cannot easily be maintained in a religious order. If you want to know who they are, to avoid them, they are painters, doctors, entertainers and certain others who are in the habit of wandering to different parts. Men of this sort find it hard to lead stable lives. The art of the painter is highly agreeable. For when he has decorated a church, a chapter-house, a refectory or some domestic buildings of a convent, he goes on to another religious house, to paint that, if after being asked, he has been given leave to do so. He decorates a wall with the acts of Christ - but if only he would keep them in mind! He would deck them in colour, by his example and his conduct! The art of medicine needs many things and is scarcely without the things it needs. Those who practise it need aromatic plants and drugs in quantity. When someone living in the neighbourhood of a church is suffering from an illness, the physician is asked to attend the sick man. If, however, the abbot will not allow him to go, he incurs the wrath of the patient and the doctor. The physician sometimes sees things which it is ordained that he should not see. He touches things which the religious are not allowed to touch. He speaks of uncertain things, drawing on his experience, but because experience is

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Transcription fallax ideo sepe fallitur, sed hoc religioso non expedit\ quod nisi vera loquatur. Promittit ecclesie sue lucrum si\ eat ad egrotum, sed tacet scandalum et anime sue damp\ num. Nostis forsitan de monacho medico Justo nomine,\ sed utinam iusto operatione qui in medicamine tres au\ reos absconderat quid de eo beatus Gregorius dicat, qui\ licet ei in infirmitate servierit, in correctione tamen\ ei non pepercit. Fratres ante mortem ei loqui prohibuit, post\ mortem vero in sterquilinio sepeliri[i] iussit. Sic autem est\ absolutus post mortem, pecunia tua tecum sit in perdicio\ nem. Sed et ioculatores ante conversionem leves cum ad\ conversionem veniunt, sepius usi levitate leviter recedunt.\ Illi vero qui per diversas regiones discurrere sunt consueti, si te\ dio claustri fuerint aggravati, citius a claustris exeunt\ quia terrarum diversitates noverunt. \ De lucinia \Lucinia avis inde nomen sumpsit quia cantu suo\ significare solet surgentis ex\ ortum diei quasi lucenia.\ Est enim pervigil custos cum\ ova quodam sinu corporis et\ gremio fovet, insompnem\ longe[i] noctis laborem cantile\ ne suavitate solatur. Ut mihi vi\ detur, hec summa eius est inten\ tio quo possit non minus dul\ cioribus modulis quam fotu corporis animare fetus ovaque fo\ vere. Hanc imitata tenuis illa mulier sed pudica, incussum\ mole lapidem brachio trahens ut possit alimentum panis\ suis parvulis non deesse nocturno cantu mestum pauperta\ tis mulcet affectum, et quamvis suavitatem lucinie non possit\

Translation deceptive, he is as a result often mistaken. But it is of no advantage to this religious man to speak nothing but the truth. He promises that his church will benefit if he goes to the sick man, but he says nothing of the temptation to sin and the harm to his soul. You know, perhaps, of the monk and physician, called Justus - if only he had acted justly! - who hid three gold pieces in a remedy. Perhaps you know, too, what the blessed Gregory says of him. Although Gregory cared for Justus in his sickness, he did not, however, forbear to punish him. He forbade his brothers to speak to Justus before his death and after it, ordered him to be buried in a cess-pit. Moreover, after his death, Justus was absolved with the words: 'Thy money perish with thee' (see Acts, 8:20). Entertainers also, fickle of mind before conversion, when they come to conversion more often resort to fickleness and with fickleness leave the order. As for those who are used to wandering off to different places, if they feel oppressed by the irksome routine of the cloister, they quit it more quickly, because they have experienced the variety of life in other lands. Of the nightingale The nightingale is so called because it signals with its song the dawn of the new day; a light-bringer, lucenia, so to speak. It is an ever-watchful sentinel, warming its eggs in a hollow of its body, relieving the sleepless effort of the long night with the sweetness of its song. It seems to me that the main aim of the bird is to hatch its eggs and give life to its young with sweet music no less than with the warmth of its body. The poor but modest mother, her arm dragging the millstone around, that her children may not lack bread, imitates the nightingale, easing the misery of her poverty with a night-time song, and although she cannot imitate the sweetness of the bird,

Transcription imitari, imitatur tamen eum sedulitate pietatis.\ [De ansere] \ Anser vigilias noctis as\ siduitate clangoris te\ statur. Nullum autem animal\ ita odorem hominis sentit ut\ anser. Unde et clangore eius\ Gallorum ascensus in Capito\ lio deprehensus est. Unde Ra\ banus: Hec providos homines et erga custodiam suam bene\ vigilantes, significare potest. Anserum due sunt species\ domestice videlicet et campestres. Campestres in altum\ et ordinate volant, illosque

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Translation she matches it in her devotion to duty. [Of the goose] The goose marks the watches of the night by its constant cry. No other creature picks up the scent of man as it does. It was because of its noise, that the Gauls were detected when they ascended the Capitol. Rabanus says in this context: 'The goose can signify

designant qui remoti a terre\ nis ordinem bene vivendi servant. Domestici vero in vicis\ simul habitant, multociens conclamant, seipsos rostris\ lacerant, illos significant qui et si conventus amant, lo\ quacitate tamen et detractioni vacant. Campestres anse\ res omnes sunt coloris cinericii, nec aliquam earum\ variam sive niveam vidi. In domesticis vero non solum ha\ betur color cinericius, sed etiam varius vel albus. In cam\ pestribus habetur color cinericius, id est in his qui a seculo sunt remoti\ penitentie vilis habitus. Hii vero qui in urbibus vel in vicis\ habitant, pulchrioris coloris vestem portant. Anser pre\ ceteris animalibus supervenientis hominis odorem sen\ tit, quia discretus homo per bonam vel malam famam\ alios licet longe remotos, cognoscit. Cum igitur anser odo\ rem supervenientis hominis sentit, nocte clamare non de\ sinit, quia cum negligentias ignorantie discretus frater\ in aliis videt, clamare debet. In Capitolio quondam Ro\ manis profuit clamor anseris, et in Capitolio [PL, capitulo] cotidie cum\

men who are prudent and look out for their own safety.' There are two kinds of geese, domestic and wild. Wild geese fly high, in a an orderly fashion, signifying those who, far away from earthly things, preserve a rule of virtuous conduct. Domestic geese live together in villages, they cackle together all the time and rend each other with their beaks; they signify those who, although they like conventual life, nevertheless find time to gossip and slander. All wild geese are grey in colour; I have not seen any that were of mixed colour or white. But among domestic geese, there are not only grey but variegated and white ones. Wild geese are the colour of ashes, that is to say, those who keep apart from this world wear the modest garb of penitence. But those who live in towns or villages wear clothes that are more beautiful in colour. The goose, more than any other animal, picks up the scent of a someone happening by, as the discerning man knows of other men by their good or bad reputation, even though they live far away. When, therefore, a goose picks up the scent of a man approaching, it cackles endlessly at night, as when a discerning brother sees in others the negligence that comes with ignorance, it is his duty to call attention to it. The cackling of geese on the Capitol once helped the Romans, and in our chapter-house daily, when

Transcription negligentias viderit clamor discreti fratris hostem repel\ lit antiquum. Clamor anseris urbem Romanam ab im\ petu hostium servavit immunem, clamor discreti fratris\ ne turbetur a perversis custodit vitam communem. Forsi\ tan divina providentia naturas volucrum nobis non propo\ neret, nisi eas nobis in aliquo forte prodesse vellet.\ [De ardea] \ Ardea vocata, quasi ar\ dua, propter altos vola\ tus, formidat imbres, et super\ nubes evolat, ut procellas nu\ bium sentire non possit. Cum\ autem volaverit, significat\ tempestatem. Hanc multi\ Tantalum vocant. Unde Ra\ banus: Hec avis potest signi\ ficare animas electorum, que formidantes perturbationem\ huius seculi, ne forte procellis persecutionum instigante diabo\ lo involvantur, intentionem suam super omnia tempora\ lia ad serenitatem patrie celesti[s]s ubi assidue vultus dei\ conspicitur, mentes suas elevant. Licet ardea cibos in aquis\ querat, in silvis tamen et in altis arboribus nidum locat,\ quia iustus qui rebus labentibus et transitoriis seipsum pascit,\ in raris sublimibusque spem ponit. Et cuius sustentatur\ transitoriis, eius anima delectatur eternis. Ardea pullos in\ nido rostro defendere nititur, ne ab aliis avibus rapiantur.\ Eodem modo iustus forti invectione percutit, quos perversos ad\ decipiendum subiectos novit. Quedam vero earum habent\ colorem

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Translation the discerning brother sees evidence of negligence, his warning voice serves to repel the old enemy, the Devil. The cackling of the goose saved the city of Rome from enemy attack; the warning voice of the discerning brother guards the life of his community from disruption by the wicked. Divine providence would not, perhaps, have revealed to us the characteristics of birds, if it had not wanted the knowledge to be of some benefit to us. [Of the heron] It is called heron, ardea, as if from ardua, meaning 'high', because of its capacity to fly high in the sky; it fears rain and flies above the clouds to avoid experiencing the storms they bring. A heron taking wing shows a storm is coming. Many people call the heron Tantalus, after the king who betrayed the secrets of the gods. Rabanus says on this subject: 'This bird can signify the souls of the elect, who fear the disorder of this world, lest they be caught up by chance in the storms of persecution stirred up by the Devil, and raise their minds, reaching above all worldly things to the tranquility of

album, quedam cinericium, uterque tamen color\ in bonam partem ponitur, si per album mundicia, per cineri\ cium penitentia designetur. Eiusdem enim generis sunt\

their home in heaven, where the countenance of God is forever to be seen. Although the heron seeks its food in water, nevertheless it builds its nest in woodland, in tall trees, as the righteous man, whose sustenance is uncertain and transitory, places his hope in splendid and exalted things. The soul of man sustained by transitory things, rejoices in the eternal. The heron tries with its beak to prevent its nestlings from being seized by other birds. So the righteous man lashes with his tongue those who, to his knowledge, are evilly inclined to deceive the gullible. Some herons are white, some grey, but both colours can be taken in a good sense, if white signifies purity, grey, penitence. To the same kind

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[De perdice] \ Perdix de voce nomen\ habet, avis dolosa et\ immunda. Nam masculus\ in masculum insurgit, et\ obliviscitur sexum libido\ preceps. Adeo autem frau\ dulenta, ut alter alterius\ ova diripiat. Verumptamen\ fraus fructum non habet. Nam dum pulli audiunt vocem\ proprie genitricis naturali quodam instinctu hanc que\ eos fovit relinqunt, et ad eam que eos genuit rever\ tuntur. Huius exemplum imitatus est diabolus qui ge\ nerationem eterni conditoris rapere contendit, et si quos\ insipientes et sensu proprii vigoris carentes aliquo modo\ poterit congregare, fovet illos illecebris corporalibus.\ Set ubi vox Christi audita fuerit ab eis, sumentes sibi alas\ spirituales provide evolant, et se Christo commendant.\ Concinnantur\ a perdicibus munitione sollerti.\ Spineis enim fruticibus receptus\ suos vestiunt, ut animalia que\ infestant arceantur asperis surcu\ lorum. Ovis stragulum pulvis\ est atque clanculo revertuntur in indicium loci, conver\ satio frequens fatigat, plerumque femine transvehunt par\ tus ut mares fallant, qui eos sepissime affligunt, impaci\ entius adulantes. Dimicant circa conubium, victosque cre\ dunt feminarum vice venerem sustinere. Ipsas libido sic\ agitat, ut si ventus a masculis flaverit, fiant pregnantes\

Of the partridge The partridge gets its name from the sound it makes. It is a cunning and unclean bird. For one male mounts another and in their reckless lust they forget their sex. The partridge is so deceitful that one will steal another's eggs. But the trick does not work. For when the young hear the cry of their real mother, their natural instinct is to leave the bird that is brooding them and return to the mother who produced them. The Devil imitates their example, trying to rob the eternal Creator of those he has created; if he succeeds somehow in bringing together men who are foolish and lack any sense of their own inner strength, he cossets them with seductive pleasures of the flesh. But when they have heard the voice of Christ, growing spiritual wings, they wisely fly away and entrust themselves to Christ. The nests built by partridges are skilfully fortified. For they cover their hiding-place with thorny bushes so that animals attacking them are kept at bay by the prickly branches. The partridge uses dust to cover its eggs and returns secretly to the place, which it has marked. Frequent intercourse tires it. The females often carry their young in order to deceive the males, who frequently attack the chicks, all the more impatiently when the chicks fawn on them. The males fight over their choice of mate, and believe

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they can use the losers for sex in place of the females. The latter are so affected by lust, that if the wind blows towards them from the males, they become pregnant

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odore. Tunc siquis hom-[A, inum ubi incubat appropin]\ quaverit, egresse mat-[A, res sese venientibus sponte offe]\ runt, et simulata debili-[A, tate vel pedum vel alarum, quasi]\ statim capi possint, gre-[A, ssus fingunt tardiores, hoc men]\ datio illicitant obvios [A, et illudunt quo adprovecti long]\ gius a nidis avocentur. N-[A, ec in pullis studium segnius]\ ad cavendum. Cum vis-[A, os se persentiscunt resupinati]\ glebulas pedibus attoll-[A, unt, quorum obtentu tam cal-]\ lide proteguntur, ut la-[A, teant deprehensi.]\ [De altione] \ Altion mariti\ ma avis est\ que in littoribus fetus\ suos edere solet, ita\ ut arenis ova sua\ deponat medio fere\ hieme. Nam id tem\ poris fovendi habet\ deputatum partubus\ quando maxime\ insurgit mare litori\ busque vehementior\ fluctus illiditur, quo magis repentine placiditatis solemp\ nitate avis huius eluceat gratia. Namque ubi undosum fue\ rit mare positis ovis subito mitescunt, et omnes cadunt\ ventorum procelle flatusque aurarum mitescunt, ac placidum\ ventis stat mare, donec ova foveat altion sua. Septem\ autem dies fotus sunt, quibus decursis educit pullos, fetusque\ absolvit. Ilico alios quoque septem adiungit dies quibus\ enutriat partus suos, donec incipiant adolescere. Nec\ mireris tam exiguum nutrimenti tempus cum absolutio\

by the males' scent. Then, if any man approaches the place where the patridge is brooding, the mothers come out and deliberately show themselves to them; pretending that their feet or wings are injured, they put on a show of moving slowly, as if they could be caught in no time; by this trick they act as decoys to the approaching men and fool them into moving far away from the nest. The young are not slow, either, to watch out for themselves. When they sense that they have been seen, they lie on their backs holding up small clods of earth in their claws, camouflaging themselves so skilfully, that they lie hidden from detection. [Of the halcyon] The halcyon is a seabird which produces its young on the shore, depositing its eggs in the sand, around midwinter. It chooses as the time to hatch its young, the period when the sea is at its highest and the waves break more fiercely than usual on the shore; with the result that the grace with which this bird is endowed shines forth the more, with the dignity of an unexpected calm. For it is a fact that when the sea has been raging, once the halcyon's eggs have been laid, it suddenly becomes gentle, all the stormy winds subside, the strong breezes lighten, and as the wind drops, the sea lies calm, until the halcyon hatches its eggs. The eggs take seven days to hatch, at the end of which the halcyon brings forth its young and the hatching is at an end. The halcyon takes a further seven days to feed its chicks until they begin to grow into young birds. Such a short feeding-time is nothing to marvel at, since the completion

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fetuum tam paucorum dierum sit. Tantam autem gratiam\ minuscula avis divinitus indultam habet, ut hos xiiii\ dies nautaci presumpte serenitatis observent, quos et alti\ onidas vocant, quibus nullus motus procellose tempesta\ tis horrescat.\ [De] fulica \ Est volatile, sat intel\ ligibile et prudentis\ simum animal, cadavere\ non vescitur, nec aliun\ de pervolat sive oberrat,\ sed in uno loco commoratur\ et permanet usque in finem\ et ibi escam suam

when the hatching process takes so few days.

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This little bird is endowed by God with such grace that sailors know with confidence that these fourteen days will be days of fine weather and call them 'the halcyon days', in which there will be no period of stormy weather. [Of the] coot

habet\ et requiescit. Sic ergo\ omnis fidelis se conser\ vet et vivat, non huc\ atque illuc per diversa oberrans circumvolet sicut faciunt [PL, heretici]\ non desideriis secularibus et voluptatibus delectetur,\ sed semper in uno loco se contineat, et quiescat in ecclesia\ catholica ubi dominus habitare facit unanimes\ in domo ibique habeat cotidianum victum suum id est\ panem immortalitatis potum vero preciosum sangui\ nem Christi reficiens se super mel et favum suavissi\ mis eloquiis domini. [De fenice] \ Fenix Arabie avis dicta quod colorem feniceum\ habeat, vel quod sit in toto orbe singularis et\ unica. Hec quingentos ultra annos vivens, dum\ se viderit senuisse, collectis aromatum virgultis, ro\ gum sibi instruit, et conversa ad radium solis alarum\ plausu voluntarium sibi incendium nutrit, seque urit.\

It is a winged creature, fairly clever and very wise; it does not feed on corpses and it does not fly or wander aimlessly but stays in one place until it dies, finding both food and rest there. Let every one of the faithful, therefore, maintain himself and live like that; let them not scurry around, straying this way and that, down different paths, as heretics do; let them not be enticed by the desires and pleasures of this world; but let them stay in one place, finding peace in in the catholic Church, where the Lord provides a dwelling-place for those who are spiritually in harmony, and there let them subsist daily on the bread of immortality, drinking the precious blood of Christ, refreshing themselves on the most sweet words of the Lord, 'sweeter than honey and the honeycomb' (Psalms, 19:10) [Of the phoenix] The phoenix is a bird of Arabia, so called either because its colouring is Phoenician purple, , or because there is only one of its kind in the whole world. It lives for upwards of five hundred years, and when it observes that it has grown old, it erects a funeral pyre for itself from small branches of aromatic plants, and having turned to face the rays of the sun, beating its wings, it deliberately fans the flames for itself and is consumed in the fire.

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postea vero die nona avis de cineribus suis sur\ git. Huius figu\ ram gerit dominus\ noster Jesus Christus qui dicit: Po\ testatem habeo\ ponendi ani\ mam meam et iterum su\ mendi eam.\ Si ergo fenix mor\ tificandi atque\ vivificandi se\ habet potesta\ tem, cur stulti\ homines irascuntur in verbo dei qui verus dei fi\ lius est qui dicit: Potestam habeo ponendi animam\ meam et iterum sumendi eam. Descendit namque sal\ vator noster de celo ala[s] suas suavitatis odoribus novi et\ veteris testamenti replevit, et in ara crucis seip\ sum deo patri pro nobis optulit, et tercia die resur\ rexit.\ Fenix etiam significare potest resurrectionem\ iustorum, qui aromatibus virtutum collectis\ restaurationem prioris vigoris, post mortem sibi\ preparant. Fenix est Arabie avis. Arabia vero inter\ pretatur campestris. Campus, est hic mundus, Ara\ bia, est secularis vita, Arabes, seculares. Arabes feni\ cem appellant singularem. Singularis est quilibet\ iustus, a curis secularibus omnino remotus. Fenix quoque\

But on the ninth day after that, the bird rises from its own ashes. Our Lord Jesus Christ displays the features of this bird, saying: 'I have the power to lay down my life and to take it again' (see John, 10:18). If, therefore, the phoenix has the power to destroy and revive itself, why do fools grow angry at the word of God, who is the true son of God, who says: 'I have the power to lay down my life and to take it again'? For it is a fact that our Saviour descended from heaven; he filled his wings with the fragrance of the Old and New Testaments; he offered himself to God his father for our sake on the altar of the cross; and on the third he day he rose again. The phoenix can also signify the resurrection of the righteous who, gathering the aromatic plants of virtue, prepare for the renewal of their former energy after death. The phoenix is a bird of Arabia. Arabia can be understood as a plain, flat land. The plain is this world; Arabia is worldly life; Arabs, those who are of

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this world. The Arabs call a solitary man phoenix. Any righteous man is solitary, wholly removed from the cares of this world. The phoenix also

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avis in locis Arabie perhibetur degere, atque eam\ usque ad annos quingentos longeva etate procede\ re. Que cum sibi finem vite esse adverterit, facit\ sibi [de] thecam de thure et mirra et ceteris odo\ ribus in quam impleto vite sue tempore intrat\ et moritur. De cuius humore carnis exurgit ver\ mis paulatimque adolescit, ac processu statuti tem\ poris, induit alarum remigia, atque in superioris a\ vis speciem formamque reparatur. Doceat nos igitur\ hec avis vel exemplo sui resurrectionem credere\ que et sine exemplo et sine rationis perceptione ip\ sa sibi insignia resurrectionis instaurat, et utique\ aves propter hominem sunt non homo propter avem.\ Sit igitur exemplum nobis quia auctor et creator\ avium\ sanctos suos\ imperpe\ tuum peri\ re non pas\ sus, resur\ gentem\ eam sui\ semine\ voluit\ reparari.\ Quis igitur huic\ annunti\ at diem\ mortis ut faciat sibi thecam et impleat eam bo\ nis odoribus atqe ingrediatur in eam et moriatur

is said to live in places in Arabia and to reach the great age of five hundred years. When it observes that the end of its life is at hand, it makes a container for itself out of frankincense and myrrh and other aromatic substances; when its time is come, it enters the covering and dies. From the fluid of its flesh a worm arises and gradually grows to maturity; when the appropriate time has come, it acquires wings to fly, and regains its Previous appearance and form.

Transcription illic, ubi odoribus gratis fetor funeris possit aboleri?\ Fac et tu homo tibi thecam et expolians te veterem hominem\ cum actibus suis novum indue. Theca tua et vagina tua\ Christus est qui te protegat et abscondat in die malo. Vis\ scire quia theca protectio est? Pharetra inquit mea protexi\ eum. Theca ergo tua est fides, imple eam bonis virtutum tu\ arum odoribus, hoc est castitatis misericordie atque iusticie, et \ in ipsa penetralia fidei suavis factorum prestantium odore\ redolentia tutus ingredere. Ea te amictum fide exitus\ vite huius inveniat, ut possint ossa tua pinguescere, et sint sicut ortus ebrius, cuius cito semina suscitantur.\ Cognosce ergo diem mortis tue, sicut cognovit et Paulus\ qui ait: Bonum certamen certavi cursum consumma\ vi fidem servavi, ideoque reposita est mihi corona iusticie.\ Intravit igitur in thecam suam quasi bonus fenix quam bono\ replevit odore martyrii. Sic igitur fenix incenditur, sed ex eius\ cinere fenix iterum nascitur vel procreatur. Cum ergo fenix mori\ tur, et ex eius cinere fenix iterum nascitur. Hoc exemplo agitur\ ut future resurrectionis veritas a singulis fieri credatur. Non est\ maius miraculum fides future resurrectionis,

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Let this bird teach us, therefore, by its own example to believe in the resurrection of the body; lacking both an example to follow and any sense of reason, it reinvests itself with the very signs of resurrection, showing without doubt that birds exist as an example to man, not man as an example to the birds. Let it be, therefore, an example to us that as the maker and creator of birds does not suffer his saints to to perish forever, he wishes the bird, rising again, to be restored with its own seed. Who, but he, tells the phoenix that the day of its death has come, in order that it might make its covering, fill it with perfumes, enter it and die

Translation there, where the stench of death can be banished by sweet aromas? You too, O man, make a covering for yourself and, stripping off your old human nature with your former deeds, put on a new one. Christ is your covering and your sheath, shielding you and hiding you on the evil day. Do you want to know why his covering is your protection? The Lord said: 'In my quiver have I hid him' (see Isaiah, 49:2). Your covering, therefore, is faith; fill it with the perfumes of your virtues - of chastity, mercy and justice, and enter in safety into its depths, filled with the fragrance of the faith betokened by your excellent conduct. May the end of this life find you shrouded in that faith, that your bones may be fertile; let them be like a well-watered garden, where the seeds are swiftly raised. Know, therefore, the day of your death, as Paul knew his, saying: 'I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith:

quam ex cinere\ facta resurrectio fenicis. Ecce volucrum natura simplicibus\ resurrectionis augmentum [PL, argumentum] prestat, et quod scriptura\ predicat, opus nature confirmat. \ [De caladrio] \ Caladrius sicut dicit Phisiologus\ totus est albus nullam partem habens nigram.\ Cuius interior fimus oculorum caliginem curat. Hic\ in atriis regum invenitur. Siquis est in egritudine\ ex hoc caladrio cognoscitur, si vivat an moriatur. Si\ ergo est infirmitas hominis ad mortem, mox ut vi\ derit infirmum avertit faciem suam ab eo\ et omnes\

Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness' (2 Timothy, 4: 7-8). And he entered, therefore, into his covering like the worthy phoenix, filling it with the sweet odour of martyrdom. In this way, therefore, the phoenix is consumed by fire but from its ashes is born or brought forth again. When it dies, it is also born again from its ashes. The point of this example is that everyone should believe in the truth of the resurrection to come. Faith in the resurrection to come is no more of a miracle than the resurrection of the phoenix from its ashes. See how the nature of birds offers to ordinary people proof of the resurrection; that what the scripture proclaims, the working of nature confirms. [Of the caladrius] The bird called caladrius, as Physiologus tells us, is white all over; it has no black parts. Its excrement cures cataract in the eyes. It is to be found in royal residences. If anyone is sick, he will learn from the caladrius if he is to live or die. If, therefore, a man's illness is fatal, the caladrius will turn its head away from the sick man as soon as it sees him, and everyone

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cognoscunt quia moriturus est. Si autem infirmitas eius pertinuerit\ ad vitam, intendit in faciem et assumit omnem egritudinem\ hominis intra se, et volat in aera contra solem, et comburit\ infirmitatem eius et dispergit eam, et sanatur infirmus. Caladrius\ habet personam salvatoris nostri. Totus est candidus dominus noster\ nullam habens nigredinem, qui peccatum non fecit nec inventus est\ dolus in ore eius. Veniens autem dominus de excelsis avertit faciem\ suam a Judeis propter incredulitatem illorum, et convertit se ad nos\ gentes tollens infirmitates nostras, et peccata nostra portans, exaltatus\ in lignum crucis et ascendens in altum captivam duxit cap\ tivitatem dedit dona hominibus. Sed et cotidie predictus caladrius\ infirmitates nostras visitat, mentem per confessionem considerat,\ et eos sanat, quibus gratiam penitendi prestat. Ab illis vero faciem aver\ tit, quorum cor impenitens novit. Istos respuit, sed illos in quos\ faciem intendit, sanos reddit. Sed dicis quia caladrius secundum legem\ immundus est, Christo assimilari non debet. Johannes tamen dicit de deo: Quia sicut Moyses exaltavit serpentem in deserto ita exaltari oportet filium hominis,\ et in lege dictus est prudentior omnibus bestiis serpens. Leo et a\ quila immunda sunt, et tamen Christo assimilata sunt, secundum decus\

knows that the man is going to die. But if the man's sickness is one from which he will recover, the bird looks him in the face and takes the entire illness upon itself; it flies up into the air, towards the sun, burns off the sickness and scatters it, and the sick man is cured.

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The caladrius represents our Saviour. Our Lord is pure white without a trace of black, 'who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth' (1 Peter, 2:22). The Lord, moreover, coming from on high, turned his face from the Jews, because they did not believe, and turned to us, Gentiles, taking away our weakness and carrying our sins; raised up on the wood of the cross and ascending on high, 'he led captivity captive and gave gifts unto men, (Ephesians, 4:8). Each day Christ, like the caladrius, attends us in our sickness, examines our mind when we confess, and heals those to whom he shows the grace of repentance. But he turns his face away from those whose heart he knows to be unrepentant. These he casts off; but those to whom he turns his face, he makes whole again. But, you say, because the caladrius is unclean accoording to the law, it ought not to be likened to Christ. Yet John says of God: 'And as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son

of man be lifted up' (4:14); and according to the law, 'the serpent was more subtil than any beast of the field' (Genesis, 3:1). The lion and the eagle are unclean, yet they are likened to Christ, because of their royal rank

Transcription regale quia leo rex ferarum est, et aquila volatilium.\ De coturnice \ Coturnices a sono\ vocis dictas quas Greci\ ortigias vocant eo quod vise\ fuerint primum in Ortigia\ insula. Hee[c] adveniendi habent\ tempora. Nam estate depulsa\ maria transeunt ortigometra\ dicitur que gregem ducat. Hanc\ terre propinquantem, accipi\ ter videns rapit, ac propterea\ cura est universis ducem sollicitare generis externi, pro qua [PL, per quam] caveant\ prima discrimina, cibos gratissimos semina venenorum habent, quam ob\ causam veteres eas vesci interdixerunt, solum enim hoc animal\ sicut et homo caducum patitur morbum. Coturnices adveniendi\ habent tempora, nam maria transeant, estate depulsa. Calor\ estatis, est ardor caritatis. Frigus hiemis, est temptatio refri\ gerate mentis. Ab amore igitur proximi, per mare mundi huius trans\ meat iustus ad amorem dei, ut in calida regione semper maneat\ qui semper calore dilectionis in semetipso flagrat, ut vitet frigus\ hiemis, procellas videlicet et ventos improvise temptationis.\ Ortigometra dicitur que gregem ducit, eam terre propinquantem acci\ piter videns rapit. Terra, sunt terrena desideria. Maria, mundi\ pericula. Accipiter insidians, diabolus per suggestionem temptans.\ Propinquantem igitur terre, accipter videns rapit, quia eos qui terrena\ querunt diabolus secum trahit. Prelatus igitur qui gregem ante\ cedit, diligenter provideat, qua intentione terrena petat, utrum\ in suos usus ea redigat, vel ad necessitatem fratrum ea querat,\ ne accipiter, id est, diabolus eum rapiat, qui postpositis spiritalibus\ terrenis inhiare non cessat. Propterea cura est universis ducem

Translation because the lion is king of the beasts; the eagle, king of the birds. Of the quail Quails are so called from their call; the Greeks call them ortigie because they were first seen on the island of Ortigia. Quails have fixed times of migration. For when summer gives way to winter, they cross the sea. The leader of the flock is called ortigometra, 'the quailmother'. The hawk, seeing the quail-mother approaching land, seizes it; because of this, the quails all take care to attract a leader from another species, through whom they guard against this early danger. Their favorite food is the seed of poisonous plants. For this reason, the ancients forbade them to be eaten; for alone among living things, the quail suffers, like man, from the falling sickness. Quails have fixed times of migration. For when summer gives way to winter, they cross the sea. The heat of summer is the warmth of love. The cold of winter is the temptation of the lethargic mind. From love of his neighbour, therefore, the righteous man crosses the sea of this world to love of God, that he mat stay forever in a warm land, burning continually with the heat of love within, in order to avoid the cold of winter, namely, the storms and winds of unexpected temptation. The leader of the flock is called the quail-mother. The hawk, seeing it approaching land, seizes it. The land represents earthly longings; the sea, the dangers of the world. The hawk, lying in wait, is the Devil, who tempts us by suggestion. Seeing the quail-mother approaching land, therefore, the hawk seizes it, as the Devil drags off with him those who seek earthly things. Let the churchman, therefore, who heads his flock, take careful heed of his purpose in seeking earthly things, whether he acquires them for his own use or seeks them to meet the need of his brothers, lest the hawk, that is, the Devil, should seize him, if he has neglected the things of the spirit and has not ceased to long for the things of this earth. Because of this, the quails all take care to attract a leader

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sollicitare generis externi per quem caveant prima discrimina.\ Duo sunt genera hominum, bonorum videlicet et malorum. Generis\ externi, sunt homines perversi. Iusti igitur perversos sibi preponunt, dum casus\ et eventus eorum diligenter attendunt. Dum hec igitur attente con\ siderant, prima peccandi discrimina considerando vitant. Hec avis\ sicut homo caducum morbum patitur, quia spiritalis homo sicut et car\ nalis aliquociens peccare perhibetur. Nec quociens peccat moritur, quia ei pe\ nitendi gratia non negatur. Unde scriptum est: Septies in die cadit iustus,\ nec tamen desinit esse iustus. Quociens enim iustus peccat, totiens\ adicit ut resurgat. \ De cornice \ Cornix annosa avis\ apud Latinos Greco nomine\ appellatur. Quam aiunt\ augures, hominum curas\ significationibus agere, insi\ diarum vias monstrare,\ futura predicere. Magnum\ nefas hec credere est, ut\ deus consilia sua cornicibus\ mandet. Huius inter multa auspicia tribuunt, et pluvias proten\ dere [PL, portendere] vocibus. Unde est illud: Tunc cornix plenam pluviam vo\ cat improba voce. Discant homines amare filios ex usu et pieta/te cornicum, que etiam volantes filios comitatu sedulo prose\ quuntur, et sollicite ne teneri forte deficiant, cibum suggerunt,\ ac plurimo temporis spacio nutriendi officia non relinquunt.\ At vero femine nostri generis cito ablactant etiam illos quos dili\ gunt, et cum se diciores sunt lactare fastidiunt. Pauperiores\ si fuerint abiciunt parvulos et exponuntur [PL, exponunt] et deprehensos\ abnegant. Ipse quoque divites ne per plures suum patrimonium\ dividatur, in utero proprios necant fetus, et parricidalibus succis\

of another species, through whom they guard against this early danger. There are two kinds of men, the good and the bad. The 'other species' is that of wicked men. The righteous, therefore, place the wicked before them, and watch closely what happens to them. By watching carefully, they see the early danger of sin, and avoid it. This bird, like man, suffers from the falling sickness, in the same way that the spiritually-minded man, just like the carnally-minded man, is said to sin at times. No matter how often he sins, he does not die, because the grace of penitence is not denied him. On this subject it is written: 'The righteous man falls seven times in a day' yet he does not cease to be righteous (see Proverbs, 24:16). For as often as the righteous man sins, so often does he go on to rise again. Of the crow The crow is a long-lived bird, called cornix in Latin and Greek. Soothsayers assert that the crow can represent by signs the concerns of men, show where an ambush is laid and foretell the future. It is a great crime to believe this - that God confides his intentions to crows. Among the many omens attributed to crows is that of presaging by their caws the coming of rain. Hence the line: 'Then the crow loudly cries for rain' (Virgil, Georgics, 1, 388). Let men learn from the crow's example and its sense of duty, to love their children. Crows follow their young in flight, escorting them attentively; they feed them anxiously in case they weaken. A very long time passes before they give up their responsibility for feeding their offspring. In contrast, women of our human race wean their babies as soon as they can, even the ones they love. Rich women are altogether averse to breastfeeding. If the women are poor, they cast out their infants, expose them and, when the babies are found, deny all knowledge of them. The rich themselves also kill their children in the womb, to avoid dividing their estate among many heirs; and with murderous concoctions

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in ipsa genitali alvo pignora sui ventris extingunt, priusque\ aufertur vita quam traditur. Quis docuit nisi homo filios abdi\ cari? Quis repperit tam immitia patrum iura? Quis inter nature\ fraterna consortia fratres impares fecit? Unius divitis filii diverse sorti\

they destroy in the uterus the children of their own womb; they would rather take away life than transmit it.

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What creature but man has taken the view that

cedunt. Alius tocius paterne sortis asscriptionibus inundatur, alius\ opulente hereditatis patrie deplorat exhaustum, atque inopem\ portionem. Nunquid natura divisit merita filiorum? Ex pari\ omnibus tribuit, quod ad nascendi et vivendi possint habere sub\ stantiam. Ipsa vos doceat non discernere patrimonio, quos titulo\ germanitatis equastis, etenim quibus dedistis communiter\ esse quod nati sunt, non debetis his ut communiter habeant id\ quod una substituti sunt invidere. \ De cigno \ Olor avis quam\ Greci cignum\ vocant. Olor autem\ dicitur quod sit totus albus\ plumis. Nullus enim\ meminit cignum ni\ grum. Olo enim Grece\ totus dicitur. Cignus autem\ a canendo est appellatus\ eo quod carminis\ dulcedinem modu\ latis vocibus fundit.\ Ideo autem suaviter eum canere dicunt quod collum longum\ et inflexum habet, et necesse est eluctantem vocem per longum et flex\ uosum iter varias reddere modulationes. Ferunt autem in hiper\ boreis partibus precinentibus citharedis, olores plurimos advocari\ apteque admodum concinere. Olor autem Latinum est nomen\ nam Greci cignus dicunt. Naute vero sibi hunc bonam prognosim

children can be renounced? What creature but man has endowed parents with such barbarous rights? What creature but man, in the brotherhood created by nature, has made brothers unequal? Different fates befall the sons of a single rich man. One enjoys in abundance the rights and titles of his father's entire heritage; the other complains bitterly at receiving an exhausted and impoverished share of his rich patrimony. Did nature distinguish between what each son should receive? Nature has shared things equally among everyone, giving them what they need to be born and survive. Let nature teach you to make no distinction, when dividing your patrimony, between those whom you have made equal by the title bestowed by brotherhood; for truly as you have bestowed on them the equal possession of the fact of their birth, so you should not grudge them the equal enjoyment of their status of brotherhood. Of the swan The swan, olor, is the bird which the Greeks call cygnus. It is called olor because its plumage is wholly white; no-one can recall seeing a black swan. In Greek olos means 'entire'. The swan is called cignus, from its singing; it pours forth the sweetness of song in a melodious voice. They say that the swan sings so sweetly because it has a long, curved neck; inevitably, a voice forcing its way through a long, flexible passage produces a variety of tones. They say, moreover, that in the far north, when bards are singing to their lyres, large numbers of swans are summoned by the sound and sing in harmony with them. The Latin name for the swan, I repeat, is olor; the Greeks call it cignus. Sailors say that seeing a swan is a good omen for them;

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facere dicunt, sicut Emilianus ait: Cignus in auspiciis semper\ letissimus ales, hunc optant naute quia se non mergit in undis.\ Cignus plumam habet niveam et carnem nigrum. Moraliter color\ niveus in plumis designat effectum simulationis qua caro\ nigra tegitur, quia peccatum carnis simulatione velatur. Cignus dum\ in flumine natat, cervicem capitis erectam gestat, quia superbus qui\ cum rebus transitoriis trahitur, etiam labentium rerum possessione\ ad tempus gloriatur. Ferunt in hiperboreis partibus precinentibus citha\ redis olores plurimos advolare apteque admodum concinere,\ quia qui voluptatibus totis desideriis inhiant, quasi advolantes vo\ luptuosis concordant. Sed et in extremis cum cignus moritur,\

as Emilianus said: 'When you are observing birds for omens, the swan is always the most favorable bird to see; sailors set great store by it because it does not plunge beneath the waves'.

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The swan has snow-white plumage and dark flesh. In a moral sense, the white colour of its plumage signifies the effect of deception, whereby the dark flesh is hidden, in the same way that a sin of the flesh is concealed by pretence. When the swan swims in a river, it holds its neck and head high, as a proud man is led astray by transitory things and even glories at the time in his temporary

valde dulciter moriens canere perhibetur. Similiter cum de hac vita\ superbus egreditur, adhuc dulcedine presentis seculi delectatur et que\ male gessit ad memoriam moriens reducit. Cum vero pluma\ nivea cignis exuitur, in verum [PL, veru] positus ad ignem torretur.\ Similiter cum dives superbus moriens exuitur mundana gloria, des\ cendens ad flammas inferni cruciabitur per tormenta, et qui ci\ bum querere consueverat in imis, in abyssum descendens fit\ cibus ignis. \ De anatibus \ Anas ab assiduitate\ natandi nomen\ aptum accepit, ex quo\ genere quedam Germanie\ dicuntur quod plus ceteris\ nutriant. Anser anas\ nomen dedit per dirivati\ onem vel a similitudine\ vel quod ipsa natandi frequentiam habeat. Iste vigilias noc\ tis clangoris assiduitate testatur. Nullum autem animal ita\ odorem hominis sentit ut anser. Unde et clangore eius Gallorum

possessions. They say that in the far north, when bards are singing to their lyres, large numbers of swans fly there and sing in harmony with them. In the same way those who long for sensuous pleasure with all their hearts, like the swans flying north, harmonise with other pleasure-seekers. But when, at the very end, the swan dies, it is said to sing very sweetly as it is dying. Likewise, when the proud man departs this life, he still delights in the sweetness of this present world and, dying, remembers the evil he has done. When the swan is plucked of its white plumage, it is set on the spit and roasted at the fire. Likewise, when a rich, proud man is stripped at death of his worldly glory, he will descend to the fires of hell where he will be tormented; he who used to seek food in the lowest places, descending into the abyss, is fed into the fire. Of ducks The duck, anas, has been aptly named because it is constantly swimming, natare. Some of its species are called Germanie, 'from Germany', because they eat more than the rest. The goose, anser, derives its name from the duck, either because they are similar or because the goose too is constantly swimming. The goose marks the watches of the night by its constant cry. No other creature picks up the scent of man as it does. It was because of its noise, that the Gauls

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ascensus in capitolio deprehensus est . Omnium autem genera\ volucrum bis nascuntur, primum enim ova gignuntur, inde ca\ lore materni corporis formantur et animantur. Ova autem dicta\ ab eo quod intrinsecus humore sint plena. Nam humidum\ est quod exterius humorem habet, vividum quod interius, quidam\ autem putant ovum Grecam habere originem nominis. Illi enim\ dicunt oa v littera ablata. Ova autem quedam inani vento\ concipiuntur, sed tamen non sunt generabilia nisi que fuerint concubi\ tu masculino concepta, et seminali spiritu penetrata. Ovorum\ vim tantam dicunt ut lignum perfusum eo non ardeat ac ne\ vestis quidem contra aduratur. Admixta quoque calce glutina\ re fertur vitri fragmenta. \ De pavone \ Pavo\ nomen\ de sono vo\ cis habet, cuius\ caro tam\ dura est ut\ petredinem [putredinem]\ vix sentiat\ nec facile coquatur, de quo quidam sic ait: Miraris quociens\ gemmantes explicat alas, si potes hunc sevo tradere dura coco.\ Classis Salomonis per mare semel per tres annos ibat in

were detected when they ascended the Capitol.

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Each species of bird is born twice; for first the eggs are produced, then they are given form and life by the warmth of the mother's body. They are called eggs, ova, because inside they are full of fluid. Anything that has fluid on the outside is umidum, 'wet'; anything with fluid on the inside is called vividum, 'life containing'. Some people think that the word ovum is of Greek origin. For the Greeks call eggs oa, losing the v. Some eggs are conceived by useless wind; nothing can be hatched from them, however, unless they have been conceived through intercourse with a male bird and penetrated by the spirit carried in his seed. Such is the quality of eggs, they say, that wood soaked in them will not burn, nor clothing, in turn,

Tharsis, de\ ferens inde aurum et argentum, dentes elephantorum et simias\ et pavos. Tharsis interpretatur exploratio gaudii. Est autem\ gaudium presentis seculi et futuri. Gaudium presentis vite, fine\ clauditur. Gaudium vero future, nequaquam fine terminatur. Gaudium\ presentis vite, dolor et tristicia sequitur. Gaudium vero future, non\ dolor nec tristicia subsequetur. Gaudium presentis seculi est honoribus\ sublimari, rebus transitoriis ad tempus perfrui, abundare paren

catch fire. In addition, eggs mixed with chalk, it is said, will glue pieces of glass together. Of the peacock The peacock gets its name, pavo, from the sound of its cry. Its flesh is so hard that it hardly decays and it cannot easily be cooked. A certain poet said of it: 'You are lost in admiration, whenever it spreads its jewelled wings; can you consign it, hard-hearted woman, to the unfeeling cook?' (Martial, Epigrams, xiii, 70) 'Solomon's fleet went to Tharsis once every three years and brought from there gold and silver, elephants' teeth and apes, and peacocks' (see 2 Chronicles, 10: 21). Tharsis we take to mean the search for joy. There is the joy of this world and the joy of the world to come. The joy of this life is limited. But the joy of the life to come is wholly unlimited. Pain and sadness each follow the joy of this life. But neither pain nor sadness follows the life to come. Joy in this world consists of being elevated by honours, enjoying to the full and for the moment things which are transitory, enjoying a wide circle of relations

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tum copia, et eorum delectari presentia. Cum autem aliquis pri\ vatur honoribus spoliatur rebus, cum aliquis amicorum moritur, tunc\ dolor sequitur. Hoc gaudium igitur semper doloribus immiscetur. Per tres\ annos semel classis Salomonis per mare mitittur in Tharsis. Clas\ sis Salomonis, est virtus confessionis. Hac classe per huius mundi\ mare vehimur, ne submergamur. In Tharsis ergo mittitur, que\ inde aurum et argentum dentes elephantorum simias et pa\ vos deferre perhibetur. Aurum et argentum in Tharsis esse dicitur,\ id est viri sapientia clari, eloquentia periti. Qui dum presentis seculi\ gaudium implorant et exquirunt seipsos cognoscunt, et dum\ per classem Salomonis de Tharsis ad Jerusalem veniunt, in pace ecclesie\ per confessionem puriores fiunt. De hoc auro purissimo fecit rex\ Salomon scuta aurea. Scuta aurea sunt, qui pure vivunt, et\ alios ab incursu diaboli defendunt. Ex predicto etiam argento\ fiunt tube argentee, id est doctores ecclesie. Attulit etiam simias et pa\ vos, id est derisores et delicatos ut qui in Tharsis derisores et de\ licati fuerant, in pace conversionis humiles existant. Attulit\ etiam classis Salomonis dentes elefantorum detractiones su\ perborum. Dum enim verbis bonis operibus simplicium detrahunt, quasi dentibus eorum ossa rodunt. Nota quod dentes elefantis\ materia fiunt eboris. Et de materia eboris, fit thronus Salomo\ nis. Qui enim rapina vivere consueverant, subiecti vero Sa\ lomoni seipsos postea sedem parant. Per tres annos semel clas\ sis Salomonis, ire consueverat in

and taking pleasure in their company. But when you are deprived of your honours or robbed of your possessions, when one of your friends dies, then grief follows. Joy in this world, therefore, is always mingled with sadness.

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Once every three years the fleet of Solomon is sent across the sea to Tharsis. Solomon's fleet is the virtue of confession. In this fleet we are transported across the sea of this world, that we might not be drowned in it. The fleet is sent to Tharsis, therefore, from where it is said to bring back gold, silver, elephants' tusks, apes and peacocks. There is said to be gold and silver in Tharsis, that is, men eminent in their wisdom, skilled in their oratory. When they earnestly desire the joy of this world, they gain knowledge of themselves; and when they come with Solomon's fleet to Jerusalem, there in the peace of the Church they become purer through confession. From this purest of gold, King Solomon made golden shields. The shields of gold are those who live chastely and defend others from the attacks of the Devil. In addition, from the silver mentioned above, silver trumpets were made, that is, the teachers of the Church. The fleet also brought apes and peacocks, that is, the

Tharsis. Primus annus mora\ liter est cogitatio, secundus locucio, tercius operatio. Cum igitur de his tribus\ simul confessio agitur, quasi a servis Salomonis per tres annos\ semel in Tharsis itur. Sed, et Josaphat rex Juda sicut ystoria dicit\ classes in mare fecit, que navigarent in Ophir propter aurum, et ire\ non potuerunt quia confracte sunt in Asion Gaber. Josaphat iu\ dicans Judas confessio interpretatur. Josaphat autem rex Juda dicitur,

mockers and the effete, so that those who had been, in Tharsis, scoffers and pleasure-seekers might live with humility in the peace of conversion. Solomon's fleet also brought back elephants' tusks, that is, the proud with their disparaging words. For when the proud speak disparagingly of the good works of ordinary people, it is as if they gnawed with their teeth on these people's bones. Note that the tusks of elephants are of ivory. And from ivory the the throne of Solomon was made. For those who had been accustomed to live by preying on others, by submitting themselves to Solomon, thereafter furnished a seat for others to sit on. Once every three years Solomon's fleet used to go to Tharsis. In moral terms, the first year is meditation; the second, discourse; the third, action. When confession treats of all three stages together, it is as if a voyage is made by Solomon's servants to Tharsis once every three years. But, as history relates, 'Jehosaphat, king of Judah, built sea-going fleets, that they might sail to Ophir for gold; and they could not, for they were wrecked at Asiongaber' (see 1 Kings, 22:48). Jehosaphat we take to mean 'judging'; Judah, 'confession'. Jehosaphat is called 'king of Judah'

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quia iudicium confessionis [PL, confessioni] dominatur. Cum enim peccator in confes\ sione seipsum iudicat, tunc rex Josaphat in Judea regnat. Ophir\ vero herbosum interpretatur. Herbosa terra dicitur que aliquo non\ elaboratur. Que vestitur abundantia graminis, ut moveat affec\ tum delectationis. In hoc herboso voluptuosi sedent, desidiosi\ iacent. Sedent assiduitate, iacent dissolutione. Hoc herbosum\ est hic mundus sterilis et infecundus. In Ophir igitur classis Josa\ phat ire propter aurum nititur, ut dum mundi casus attenditur\ mentis puritas adquiratur. Set cum agitur in Asion Gaber clas\ sis Josaphat fracta fuisse perhibetur. Gaber sicut Jeronimo dicitur\ iuvenis sive fortis interpretatur. Non igitur mirum si classem confes\ sionis frangat impetus iuventutis. Quoniam de premissis plura dixi\ mus, restat ut de pavone de quo agere intendimus, aliquid\ postea dicamus. Pavo sicut Ysidorus dicit, a sono vocis\ nomen accepit. Cum enim ex improviso clamare ceperit, pavo\ rem subitum audientibus incutit. Pavo igitur a pavore dicitur, cum per\ vocem eius pavor audientibus inferatur. Pavo dum in Tharsis\ habitat, delicatos designat. Cum vero per classem in Jerusalem delatus\ fuerit, doctorum predicantium figuram gerit. Duras habet carnes\ et putredini resistentes, que vix a coco coquantur foco, vel a ca\ lore epatis coqui possint in stomacho. Tales sunt doctorum\ mentes quos nec flamma cupiditatis exurit, nec calor libidi\ nis accendit. Habet pavo vocem terribilem, incessum simplicem,\ caput serpentinum, pectus saphirinum. Habet etiam in alis\ plumas aliquantulum rufas. Habet etiam caudam longam, et ut\ ita dicam quasi oculis plenam. Habet pavo vocem terribilem quando\ predicator minatur peccatoribus iNextinguibilem Gehenne ignem. Sim\ pliciter incedit quociens in operibus suis humilitatem non excedit.\ Habet caput serpentis dum captum [PL, caput] mentis tenetur sub custodia cal\ lide circumspectionis. Color vero sapharinus in pectore, celeste\

because judgement governs confession. For when a sinner judges himself in confession, then it is as if King Jehosaphat ruled in Judah. But Ophir is taken to mean 'grassland'. We call ground which has not been cultivated 'grassland'. It is deep in grass, producing a sense of pleasure. The effete sit on the grass, and the indolent lie on it. They sit endlessly, they lie wantonly. This stretch of grass is the world, barren and infertile. Jehosaphat's fleet, therefore, seeks to go to Ophir for gold, as we might seek purity of mind, waiting for the destruction of the world. But while they were at Asion Gaber, Jehosaphat's fleet is said to have been wrecked. Gaber, as Jerome says, means 'young' or 'strong'. It is not surprising, therefore, if the rashness of youth wrecks the fleet of confession. Since we have said a great deal by way of introduction, it remains for us Next to discuss the peacock, the subject we intended to deal with. The peacock, as Isidore says, gets its name from the sound of its cry. For when it starts, unexpectedly, to give its cry, it produces sudden fear in its hearers. The peacock is called pavo, therefore, from pavor, fear, since its cry produces fear in those who hear it. When the peacock lives it Tharsis, it signifies the effete. But when it is brought by the fleet to Jerusalem, it represents learned teachers. The peacock has hard flesh, resistant to decay, which can only with difficulty be cooked over a fire by a cook, or can scarcely be digested in the stomach, because of the heat of its liver. Such are the minds of teachers; they neither burn with the flame of desire, nor are they set alight by the heat of lust. The peacock has a fearful voice, an unaffected walk, a serpent's head and a sapphire breast. It also has on its wings feathers tinged with red. In addition, it has a long tail, covered with what I might call 'eyes'. The peacock has a fearful voice, as does a preacher when he threatens sinners with the unquenchable fire of Gehenna. It walks in an unaffected way, in the sense that the preacher does not overstep the bounds of humility in his behaviour. It has a serpent's head, as the preacher's mind is held in check by wise circumspection. But the sapphire colour of its breast

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desiderium designat [A in mente. Color r]ubeus in

signifies that the preacher longs in his mind for

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pennis, amo\ rem designat contemplationis. Longitudo caude, longitudi\ nem innuit future vite. Quod autem quasi oculos in cauda habet,\ ad hoc pertinet quod unusquisque doctor previdet quod periculum\ in fine singulis imminet. Est etiam in cauda color viridis, ut\ inicio conveniat finis. Varietas igitur colorum designat diversita\ tem virtutum. Nota etiam quod pavo dum laudatur caudam\ erigat, quia prelatus quilibet adulantium laudibus per vanam glo\ riam mentem levat. Pennas in ordine ponit, quia quicquid doctor\ agit se ordinate fecisse credit. Cum autem caudam erigit, po\ steriora nudantur, et sic quod laudatur in opere, deridetur in elati\ one. Oportet igitur ut pavo caudam summissam gerat, ut quod\ doctor agit, cum humilitate fiat.\ De aquila / Aquila ad acumine oculorum vocata, tanti enim dicitur esse\ contuitus ut super maria immobili penna feratur nec\ humanis pateat obtutibus de tanta sublimitate pisciculos na\ tare videat ad tormenti instar descendens, raptam predam pen\ nis ad litus pertrahat. Cum vero senuerit, gravantur ale ipsius, et\ obducuntur caligine oculi eius. Tunc querit fontem et contra eum\ evolat in altum usque ad aerem solis, et ibi incendit alas suas\ similiter et caliginem oculorum exurit in radio solis. Tunc de\ mum descendens in fontem trina vice se mergit, et statim reno\ vatur in multo vigore alarum, et splendore oculorum. Sic et tu\ homo qui vestimentum habes vetus, et caligant oculi tui, que\ re spiritualem fontem domini et eleva mentis oculos ad deum qui est\ fons iusticie et tunc renovabitur sicut aquile iuventus tua. Asse\ ritur quoque quod pullos suos radiis solis obiciat, et in medio ae\ ris ungue suspendat. Ac siquis repercusso solis lumine intrepidam\ oculorum aciem in offenso intuendi vigore servaverit, is probatur\ quod veritatem nature demonstravit. Qui vero lumina sua radio\

heaven. The red colour in the the peacock's feathers signifies his love of contemplation. The length of the tail indicates the length of the life to come. The fact the peacock seems to have eyes in its tail, is a reference to every teacher's capacity to foresee the danger that threatens each of us at the end. The colour green, [on the peacock's serpent-like head], is also present in the tail, that the end might match the beginning. The diversity of the peacock's colouring, therefore, signifies the diversity of the virtues. Note also that the peacock, when it is praised, raises its tail, in the same way that any churchman gets ideas above his station out of vainglory at the praise of flatterers. The peacock sets out its feathers in an orderly fashion; in the same way, a teacher believes that no matter he does, he has done it in an orderly way. But when the peacock lifts its tail, it exposes its rear, in the same way that whatever is praised in the conduct of the teacher is derided when he succumbs to pride. The peacock, therefore, should keep its tail down, just as what a teacher does, he should do with humility. Of the eagle The eagle is so called because of the sharpness of its eyes, for it is said to be of such keen vision that it glides above the sea on unmoving wings, out of human sight, yet from such a height sees small fish swimmming below and, swooping down like a missile thrown from a siege engine, it seizes its prey on the wing and carries it to land. When the eagle grows old, however, its wings grow heavy, and its eyes grow dim. Then it seeks out a spring and, turning away from it, flies up into the atmosphere of the sun; there it sets its wings alight and, likewise, burns off the dimness in its eyes in the sun's rays. Descending at length, it immerses itself in the spring three times; immediately it is restored to the full strength of its wings, the former brightness of its eyes. In the same way, you, O man, with your old clothes and dim eyes, should seek the spiritual spring of the Lord and raise the eyes of your mind to God, the fount of righteousness, and your youth will be renewed like that of the eagle. It is also said of the eagle that that it exposes its young to the sun's rays, holding them in its claws in mid-air. If any of them, struck by the light beating down from the sun, maintains a fearless gaze without damaging its sight, this is taken as proof that it has shown itself true to its nature. But if the young bird turns its eyes away from the rays

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solis inflexerit, quasi degener et indignus tanto patre reicitur\ nec estimatur educatione dignus, qui fuit indignus suscep\ tione. Non ergo eum acerbitate nature, sed iudicii integritate con\

it is rejected as unworthy of its kind and of such a father and, being unworthy of being begotten, it is considered unworthy of being reared. The eagle condemns it not in a harsh manner but with the honesty of a judge.

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dempnat. Nec quasi suum abdicat, sed quasi alienum recu\ sat. Hanc tamen ut quibusdam videtur regalis avis inclemen\ tiam plebeie avis excusat clementia. Avis cui nomen fulica\ est, que Grece dicitur fene, susceptum illum sive abdicatum, si\ ve non agnitum aquile pullum cum sua prole connectit, atque intermiscens suis eodem quo proprios fetus materne sedulita\ tis officio, et pari nutrimentorum subministratione pascit et\ nutrit. Ergo fene alienos nutrit, nos vero nostros inimici crudeli\ tate proicimus. Aquila enim si proicit, non quasi suum proicit, set\ quasi degenerem non recognoscit, nos quod peius est quos no\ stros recognoscimus abdicamus.\ Item de aquila \ Aquile vocabulo in sacra scriptura aliquando maligni spiritus\ raptores animarum, aliquando presentis seculi potestates,\ aliquando vero vel subtilissime sanctorum intelligentie vel incar\ natus dominus ima celeriter transvolans et mox summa repe\ tens designatur. Aquilarum nomine insidiatores spiritus exprimun\ tur. Jeremia attestante qui ait: Velociores fuerunt persecutores\ nostri aquilis celi. Persecutores enim nostri aquilis celi velociores sunt,\ cum tanta contra nos maligni homines faciunt, ut ipsas etiam\ aerias potestates inventionibus malicie preire videantur. Aquile\ vocabulo potestas terrena figuratur. Unde et per Ezechielem dicitur:\ Aquila grandis magnarum alarum, longo membrorum\ ductu, plena plumis et varitate venit ad Libanum, et tulit\ medullam cedri, et summitatem frondium eius evulsit. Qua\ videlicet aquila, quis alius quam Nabuchodonosor rex Babilo\ nis designatur? Qui pre universitate [,i>PL, pro immensitate] exercitus magnarum ala\ rum, pro diurnitate temporum longo membrorum ductu, pro mul\ tis diviciis plena plumis, pro innumera autem terrene glorie com\ positione plena varietate describitur. Que venit ad Libanum\ et tulit medullam cedri, et summitatem frondium eius evulsit\

He does it, not as a father denying his own child, but as one rejecting another's. seems to some, however, that the kindness of the common variety of the bird excuses the unkindness of its regal counterpart. The ordinary bird is called fulica, coot; in Greek, fene. Taking up the eaglet, abandoned or unacknowledged, the coot adds it to its brood, making it one of the family, with the same maternal devotion as it shows to its own chicks, and feeds and nourishes the eaglet and its own brood with equal attention. The coot, therefore, feeds another's young, while we cast off our own with the cruelty of an enemy. For the eagle, even if it rejects its young, does not cast them off as if they were its own, but will not even acknowledge them, as if they were unworthy of its kind. We, which is worse, abandon those we have already acknowledged as our own. Again of the eagle The word 'eagle' in the Holy Scriptures signifies sometimes evil spirits, ravishers of souls; sometimes the rulers of this world. Sometimes, in contrast, it signifies either the acute understanding of the saints, or the Lord incarnate flying swiftly over the depths then seeking once more the heights. The word 'eagle' represents those who lie in ambush for the spirit. This is confirmed by Jeremiah, who says: 'Our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heaven' (Lamentations, 4:19). For our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of heaven when wicked men do such things against us that they seem to exceed the very rulers of the air in their evil machinations. The word 'eagle' also symbolises earthly power. Ezekiel says with reference to this: 'A great eagle with broad wings and long limbs, in full plumage, richly patterned, came to Lebanon. It took away the marrow of a cedar-tree, it plucked the highest foliage' (see Ezekiel, 17:3-4). This eagle - whom else does it signify but Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon? By the vastness of the eagle's great wings is represented the vastness of Nebuchadnezzar's army; by the length of its limbs, the length of his days; by its full plumage, his great wealth; by its rich patterning, his immeasurable

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earthly glory. 'The eagle came to Lebanon and took away the marrow of a cedar tree, it plucked the highest foliage',

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quia Judee celsitudinem petens, nobilitatem eius regni quasi\ medullam cedri abstulit. Et dum tenerrimam regum pro\ lem a regni sui culmine captivando sustulit, quasi summi\ tatem frondium eius evulsit. Aquile vocabulo, subtilis sanctorum\ intelligentia exprimitur. Unde isdem propheta dum sub anima\ lium specie evangelistas quatuor se vidisse describeret, in eis quartum\ animal, id est Johannem significans qui volando terram deseruit, qui per subtilem intelligentiam in terra misteria verbum videndo pe\ netravit. Similiter qui adhuc [PL, haec] terrena mente deserunt, velut\ aquila cum Johanne per contemplationem petunt celestia. Item\ beatus Gregorius de aquila: Sicut aquila volans ad escam. Moris\ quippe aquile est ut irreverberata acie radios solis aspiciat.\ Sed cum refectionis indigentia urgetur, eandem oculorum\ aciem quam radio solis infixerat, ad respectum cadaveris\ inclinat. Et quamvis ad alta evolet, pro sumendis tamen carnibus\ terram petit. Sic videlicet sic antiqui patres fuerunt, qui\ in quantum humanitatis infirmitas admittebat, crea\ toris lucem erecta mente contemplati sunt. Sed incarnan\ dum hunc in mundi fine prescientes, quasi a solis radiis ad\ terram oculos deflexerunt, et quasi de summis adima veni\ unt, dum deum super omnia, et hominem inter omnia ag\ noscunt. Quem pro humano genere passurum morturumque\ conspiciunt, qua scilicet morte semetipsos refici atque reformari\ ad vitam noverunt, quasi more aquile post contemplatos\ radios solis in cadavere escam querunt. Aliter. Sicut aquila\ volans ad escam. Aquila enim alto valde volatu suspen\ ditur, et annisu prepeti ab ethere libratur, sed per appetitum ven\ tris terram expetit, seseque a sublimibus repente deorsum fun\ dit. Sic sic humanum genus in parente primo ad ima de sub\ limibus corruit, quod nimirum condicionis sue dignitas\

as Nebuchadnezzar, seeking dominion over Judea, carried off the nobility of that kingdom as if they were the marrow of the cedar. And when he carried the weakest offspring of the kings from the throne of the kingdom by taking him captive, it was as if he had plucked the highest foliage of the cedar. The word 'eagle' represents the acute understanding of the saints. The same prophet, Ezekiel, when he described how he had seen the four evangelists in the form of animals, saw the fourth among them, that is, the one signifying John, as an eagle, which left the earth in flight; as John, on earth, penetrated the mysteries with his acute understanding by reflecting on the word. Likewise, those who still leave behind their earthly mind, seek heavenly things, as the eagle with John, through contemplation. Again, the blessed Gregory on the subject of the eagle: 'Like the eagle that hasteth to the prey' (Job, 9:26). It is the custom of the eagle to look at the sun's rays with unwavering gaze. But when it is driven by lack of food, it turns the gaze, formerly fixed on the sun's rays, to a search for a corpse. And although it flies high in the sky, it heads towards the earth for meat to seize. Clearly, the ancient fathers acted in the same way, contemplating the light of the Creator with an upward-reaching mind, insofar as their human frailty allowed. But when, foreseeing that he would become flesh at the end of the world, they turn their eyes as if from the sun's rays to the earth, and come down from the heights to the depths, they acknowledge God above all things and man amid all things. They see that God will suffer and die for mankind, knowing that by his death they will be restored and refashioned in newness of life, just as, in the manner of the eagle, after staring at the sun's rays, they seek food in a corpse. There is an another interpretation. 'Like the eagle that hasteth to the prey'. The eagle flies suspended at a great height and by the swift beating of its wings hangs poised in the air, but because of the longings of its stomach, it seeks the earth, hurling itself suddenly down from the heights. Thus, in the same way, the human race in the person of its first ancestor Adam, fell from the heights to the depths, because without doubt the dignity of his state

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in rationis celsitudinem quasi in aeris libertate suspenderat.\ Sed quia contra preceptum cibum

set him him at the height of reason, as if in the freedom of the air. But because, against God's order,

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contigit, per ventris concupiscen\ tiam ad terras venit, et quasi post volatum carnibus pascitur, quia illa libera contemplacionis inspiracula perdidit, et deor\ sum corporeis voluptatibus letatur. Item de aquila. Reno\ vabitur ut aquile iuventus tua. Solet [PL, dici] de aquila dum se\ nectute premitur, quod rostrum illius adunccetur ita ut sumere\ cibum nequeat sed macie languescat. Veniens ad petram rostrum\ acuit, et sic cibum capiens, iterum iuvenescit. Petra est Christus, aquila quilibet iustus, qui ad petram rostrum acuit, dum se\ ipsum Christo per bonam operationem conformem reddit. \ De apibus \ Apes dicte,\ vel quod se\ pedibus alligent, vel\ pro eo quod sine pedibus\ nascuntur. Nam\ postea et pedes et\ pennas accipiunt.\ Hee sollertes in\ generandi mellis\ officio assignatas\ incolunt sedes, do\ micilia inenarrabili\ arte componunt, et ex variis floribus condunt. Textisque ceris\ innumera prole castra replent. Exercitum et reges habent, prelia\ movent.\ Fumum fugiunt, tumultu exasperant, has plerique\ experti sunt de boum cadaveribus nasci. Nam pro his creandis vi\ tulorum occisorum carnes verberant ut ex putrefacto cruore\ vermes creentur, qui postea efficiuntur apes. Proprie tamen apes\ vocantur orte de bobus sicut crabrones de equis, fuce de mulis,\

he took food, he came down to earth, driven by the longing in his stomach, and now feeds on meat, like the eagle after its flight, because he lost those free air-currents of contemplation, and now takes pleasure, on the ground, in carnal desires. Again of the eagle. 'Thy youth is renewed like the eagle's' (Psalms, 103: 5). It is usually said of the eagle that, when it suffers from old age, its beak grows hooked so that it cannot eat food but grows weak from under-nourishment. When it comes upon a rock, it sharpens its beak, and taking food once more, regains its youth. The rock is Christ; the eagle, a righteous man, who sharpens his beak on the rock when he renders himself like Christ through virtuous conduct. Of bees Bees, apes, are so called either because they hold on to things with their feet, or because they are born without feet (the Latin word for 'foot' is pes). For afterwards they acquire both feet and wings. Expert in the task of making honey, they occupy the places assigned to them; they construct their dwelling-places with indescribable skill, and store away honey from a variety of flowers. They fill their fortress, made from a network of wax, with countless offspring. Bees have an army and kings; they fight battles. They flee from smoke; they are irritated by noise; many are found to have been born from the corpses of oxen. To produce them, you beat the flesh of dead calves, so that worms come forth from the putrefying blood; these later become bees. Properly speaking, however, only the creatures that come from oxen are called bees; those that come from horses, are hornets; those from mules, drones;

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vespe de asinis. Castros Greci appellant qui in extremis fa\ vorum partibus maiores creantur, quos aliqui reges putant di\ ci quod castra ducant. Sole apes in omni genere animantium\ communem in omnibus sobolem habent, unam omnes colunt\ mansionem, unius patrie clauduntur lumine [PL, limine] in commune om\ nibus labor, communis cibus, communis operatio, communis \ usus et fructus est [et] communis volatus. Quid plura? Comm\ unis omnibus generatio, integritas quoque corporis virginalis,\ omnibus communis et partus quoniam nec inter se ullo concubitu\ miscentur, nec libidine resolvuntur, nec partus quatiuntur doloribus\ et subito maximum filiorum examen emittunt, foliis atque\

wasps, from asses. The Greeks call the larger bees which are produced on the outer parts of the honeycomb castros; some think they should be called 'kings' because they they are leaders in the fortress.

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Bees, alone among all the kinds of living things, raise their offspring communally, live in a single dwelling, are enclosed within a single homeland, and share their toil, their food, their tasks, the produce of their labour and their flight. What else? Procreation is common to all, as is the purity of their virginal body in the common process of birth, since this is achieved without intercourse or

herbis ore suo prolem legentes. Ipse sibi regem ordinant, ipse po\ pulos creant, et licet posite sub rege sunt tamen libere. Nam\ et prerogativum iudicii tenent, et fide devocionis affectum\ quia et tanquam a se substitutum diligunt, et tanto honorant\ examine. Rex aut[em] non sorte ducitur, quia in sorte eventus est\ non iudicium. Et sepe irrationabili casu sortis melioribus ulti\ mus quisque prefertur. Apibus autem rex nature claris formatur\ insignibus ut magnitudinem corporis prestet, et speciem. Tum\ quod in rege precipium est, morum mansuetudinem. Nam\ etsi habet aculeum, tamen eo non utitur ad vindicandum, sunt\ enim leges nature non scripte litteris sed impresse moribus ut lenio\ res sint ad puniendum qui potestate maxima pociuntur\ sed et apes ille que non obtemperaverint legibus regi, peni\ tentie condempnatione se multant ut immoriantur aculei sui\ vulnere, quod Persarum populi hodieque servare dicuntur, ut pro\ commissi precio ipsi in se proprie mortis exequantur sententia. Itaque\ nulli sic regem, non Perse qui gravissimas in subditos habent leges, non Indi, non populi Samaritarum [PL, nec Sauromatae] tanta quanta apes reveren\ tia devocionis observant, ut nulle e domibus exire audeant in\

lust; they are not wracked by labour pains, yet they produce at once a great swarm of offspring, collecting them with their mouths from leaves and grass. They choose their own king, they appoint themselves his people; but although they are subject to the king, they are nevertheless free. For they have the right of selecting him and of offering him their loyalty, because they love him as one whom they have chosen and honour him with such a responsibility. Moreover, the king is not chosen by lot, because in such cases the outcome is a matter of chance not judgement. And often, by the unpredictable chance of fate, the least suitable candidate is chosen over better ones. Among bees, the king has outstanding natural characteristics, standing forth by virtue of the size and appearance of his body. And, what is essential in a king - a merciful nature. For even if he has a sting, he does not use it for revenge, for there are laws of nature, unwritten but embedded in custom, that those who are endowed with the greatest power should be the more lenient in administering punishment. The bees who do not comply with the laws of the king, repent and punish themselves and die by their own sting. It is custom that the Persians are said to preserve today: that those who have committed a crime pay the price by carrying out their own sentence of death. Thus no peoples serve their king with the devotion shown by the bees: not the Indians, nor the Persians, who are subject to exceedingly harsh laws, nor the Sarmatians. Their devotion is such that no bees dare leave their living areas

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aliquos procedere pastus, nisi rex fuerit primo egressus et volatus\ sibi vendicaverit principatum. Processus autem per rura redolentia\ ubi inhabitantes orti floribus ubi fugiens rivus per gramina\ ubi amena riparum. Illic ludus alacris iuventutis, illic cam\ pestre exercicium, illic curarum remissio. Opus ipsum suave\ de floribus, de herbis dulcibus, fundamina castrorum prima\ ponuntur. Quid enim aliud favus, nisi quedam castrorum \ species. Denique ab his presepibus apium fucus arcetur. Que castra\ quadrata tamen possunt habere artis et gracie, quantum habent crates fa\ vorum in quibus minute atque rotunde cellule connexione sui\ invicem fulciuntur. Quis architectus eas docuit exagona illa\ cellularum indiscreta laterum equalitate componere, ac tenues inter domorum septa ceras suspendere, stipare mella et\ intexta floribus horrea nectare quodam distendere. Cernas omnes certare de munere, alias invigilare querendo victum, alias\ sollicitam castris exhibere custodiam, alias futuros explora\ re ymbres, et speculari concursus

in search of food, unless the king has gone first and has claimed his place at the head of the flight.

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Their flight takes them over a scented landscape, where there are gardens of flowers, where a stream flows through meadows, where there are pleasant places on its banks. There young people play lively games, there men exercise in the fields, there you find release from care. The bees' pleasant labours amid the flowers and sweet grasses provide the foundations of their fort. For what else is a honey-comb in the bee-hive but a kind of fortress? After all, from the hives drones are kept out. What four-cornered fort, however, could possibly have the skilled workmanship and elegance that there is in the honey-combs, in which tiny, round compartments are connected one to another for support? What master of construction taught the bees to construct six-sided compartments, each side of the

nubium, alias de floribus\ ceras fingere, alias rorem infusum floribus ore colligere, nullam\ tamen alienis insidiari laboribus et raptu vitam querere, atque\ utinam raptorum insidias non timerent. Habent tamen\ spicula sua et inter mella fundunt venenum si fuerint laces\ site, animasque ponunt in vulnere ardore vindicte. Ergo\ mediis castrorum vallibus humor ille roris infundit, pau\ latimque processu temporis in mella cogitur, cum fuerit liqui\ dus ab exordio et coalitu cere florumque odore flagrare\ mellis incipit suavitatem. Merito quasi bonam operariam\ scriptura apem predicat dicens: Vade ad apem et vide quo\ modo operaria est eius imitare operationem. Operationem namque\ quam venerabilem mercatur apes cuius laborem reges et me\ diocres ad salutem sumunt, appetibilis est omnibus et cara.\

same, unvarying length; to hang between the walls of each living area fine beds of wax; to compress the honey-dew; and to fill their storehouses, woven from flowers, with a kind of nectar? You can see how the bees all compete with each other in carrying out their duties: some keeping watch over those who are seeking food; some keeping a careful guard on the fort, that is, the hive; some keeping a look-out for rain, their eye on the massing clouds; some making wax from the flowers; some collecting in their mouth the dew poured from the flowers. You can see too, however, that no bees lie in wait for other creatures, to take advantage of their toil; and none take a life by force. If only they themselves did not need to fear the ambushes of thieves! Nevertheless, they have their own weapon, the sting, and pour poison into the honey-dew if they are provoked; and when they inflict a wound in the heat of revenge, they lay down their lives in the act. In recesses deep in its fortress, the hive, the bee pours out the dewy moisture, and gradually with the passage of time it is compressed into honey, although it was liquid to begin wit; and by contact with the wax and the scent of flowers, it begins to glow with sweetness of honey. The Scripture might justifiably extol the bee as a good workman, as it does the ant, saying: 'Go to the bee and see how it works and imitate its way of working' (see Proverbs, 6:6). For the bee is engaged in a highly respected branch of industry; kings and commoners alike consume its product for the sake of their health; it is much sought-after and loved by all.

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Audis quid dicat prophetus: Mittit utique te ut apicule illius sequa\ ris exemplum, imiteris operationem. Vide quam laboriosa quam grata\ sit, fructus eius ab omnibus desideratur et queritur, nec pro persona\ rum diversitate discernitur, set indiscreta sui gratia regibus\ pariter ac mediocribus equali suavitate dulcescit. Nec solum\ voluptati set etiam saluti est, fauces obdulcat, et curat vulnera,\ internis quoque medicamentum infundit ulceribus. Itaque cum\ sit infirma robore apes valida est vigore sapientie et amore\ virtutis. Denique regem suum apes summa protectione defen\ dunt, et perire pro eo pulchrum putant. Incolumi rege nesci\ unt mutare iudicium, mentem inflectere. Amisso rege\ fidem servandi muneris derelinqunt, atque ipse sua\ mella diripiunt, quod is qui principatum habuit mu\ neris interemptus est. Itaque cum aves alie vix in anno\ edant singulos fetus, apes geminos creant, et duplici ceteris\ fecunditate preponderant. \ De arbore que dicitur perindens \ Perindens est arbor in India. Fructus autem\ huius arboris dulcis est totus et valde suavis,\

Hear what the prophet would say. It is a fact that God instructs you to follow the example of that little bee and imitate its way of working. See how industrious it is, how much it is loved; everyone longs for and seeks out its fruit of its labour; this is not kept for certain kinds of people only, but grows sweet in the mouths of kings and commoners, to the enjoyment of all without distinction.

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Honey is not only a source of pleasure but of health; it soothes the throat and heals wounds; and it acts as a remedy for internal ulcers. Thus although the bee may be weak in terms of physical strength, it is strong in terms of its vigorous good sense and love of virtue. Lastly, bees defend their king, giving him the utmost amount of protection, and think it a noble act to die for him. When their king is safe, they cannot change their judgement or alter their opinion. When they

columbe autem delectantur in fructibus huius\ arboris, habitantque in ea pascentes fructus\ eius. Draco autem inimicus est columbis, timetque arborem\ et umbram eius ubi columbe morantur, et non potest appropriare [PL, appropinquare]\ arbori neque umbre eius. Si enim umbra arboris venerit ad\ occidentem, fugit draco ad orientem, et si venerit umbra\ eius ad orientem, fugit ad occidentem. Si autem evenerit\ ut columba inveniatur extra arborem aut umbram eius\ occidit eam draco. Arborem deum patrem intellige, umbram\ filium, sicut Gabriel dicit ad Mariam: Spiritus sanctus superveniet\ in te et virtus altissimi obumbrabit tibi. Fructum, celestem\ sapientiam deum, scilicet spiritum sanctum. Vide ergo homo\

have lost their king, they abandon the faithful discharge of their duty and plunder his store of honey, because he who commanded their loyalty is slain. Although other birds barely produce a single brood in any one year, bees produce two, and being thus twice as fertile, they outnumber the rest. Of the tree called perindens The perindens is a tree in India. Its fruit is sweet throughout and exceedingly pleasant; doves delight in it and live in the tree, feeding on it. The dragon is the dove's enemy; it fears the tree and its shadow, in which the doves dwell; and it cannot approach either the tree or its shadow. If the shadow lies towards the west the dragon flees to the east, and if the shadow falls towards the east, the dragon flees to the west. If it should happen that a dove is caught out of the tree or its shadow, the dragon kills it. Take the tree as God, the shadow as his son; as Gabriel says to Mary: 'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee' (Luke, 1:35). Take the fruit to be the wisdom of God, that is, the Holy Spirit. Therefore see to it, O man,

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ne postquam acceperis spiritum sanctum hoc est spiritualem columbam\ intelligibilem de celo descendentem et manentem super te foris\ fias ab eternitate, alienus a patre et filio et spiritu sancto, et draco te in\terimat, id est diabolus. Nam si tu habeas spiritum sanctum non potest tibi\

that, after you have received the Holy Spirit, that is the spiritual, apprehensible dove, descending and remaining upon you, you are not caught outside eternity, set apart from the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit; and that the dragon, that is, the Devil, does not kill you. For if you have the Holy Spirit, the dragon cannot

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appropinquare draco. Attende ergo homo et permane in fide\ catholica, ibique habita ibique persevera, in una ecclesia catholica. Ca\ve quantum potes ne extra domum foris inveniaris, et com\prehendat te ille draco serpens antiquus et devoret te sicut\ Judam qui mox ut exiit a domino foras et fratribus apostolis\ statim a demone devoratus est et periit. \ De serpentibus \Anguis omnium serpentium est genus quod compli\cari et torqueri potest, et inde anguis quod angu\losus sit et nunquam rectus. Colubrum ab eo dictum\ quod colat umbras, vel quod in lubricos tractus flexibus sinu\osis labatur. Nam lubricum dicitur, quicquid labitur dum tenetur\ ut piscis, serpens. Serpens autem nomen accepit quia occultis\ accessibus serpit, non apertis passibus set squamarum minutis\ simis nisibus repit. Illa autem que quatuor pedibus nituntur sicut\ lacerte et

cannot come near you. Take heed, therefore, O man, and stay within the catholic faith, live within it, remain steadfast within it, within the one catholic church. Be as careful as you can that you are not caught outside the doors of that house, that the dragon, the serpent of old, does not seize you and devour you, as Judas was at once devoured by the devil and perished, as soon as he had gone forth from the Lord and his brother apostles.

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Of snakes The word anguis is applied to the entire species of snake, because the snake's body can be folded and bent; as a result, it is called anguis because it forms a series of angles, angulosus, and is never straight.

stiliones, non serpentes sed reptilia nominantur. Serpen\tes autem reptilia sunt que pectore et ventre reptant. Quorum\ tot venena, quot genera, tot pernicies, tot dolores, quot colores\ habentur.\ De draconibus \Draco\ maior cunc\torum ser\pentium\ sive animan\tium omni\um super ter\ram. Hinc\ Greci dracon\

The snake is also called coluber, either because it lives in the shadows, colere umbras, or because it wriggles along in a slippery way, in sinuous coils. For anything that slithers when you hold it, like a fish or a snake, is called lubricus, 'slippery'. The snake gets its name, serpens, because it creeps up under cover, not by visible steps, but crawling along by the tiniest movements of its scales. Creatures which go on four feet, like lizards and newts are called not snakes but reptiles. Snakes are reptiles too, because they crawl, reptare, on their chests and bellies. There are as many poisonous snakes as there are species; as many which bring death or suffering, as there are colours among them. Of the dragon The dragon is bigger than all other snakes or all other living things on earth. For this reason, the Greeks

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ta vocant, unde et dirivatum est in Latinum; ut draco diceretur.\ Qui sepe ab speluncis abstractus fertur in aerem, concitaturque\ propter eum aer. Est autem cristatus, ore parvo, et artis fistulis\ per quas trahit spiritum et linguam exerat. Vim autem non in dentibus\ set in cauda habet, et verbere pocius quam ictu nocet. Innoxius ta\men a venenis. Sed ideo huic ad mortem faciendam venena\ non esse necessaria dicunt, quia siquem ligaverit occidit. A quo\ nec elephans tutus est sui corporis magnitudine. Nam circa se\mitas delitescens, per quas elephantes soliti gradiuntur crura eorum\ nodis illigat, ac suffocatos perimit. Gignitur autem in Ethiopia\ et India, ubi in ipso incendio est iugis estus. Huic draconi assi\milatur diabolus qui est immanissimus serpens, sepe a spelun\ca in aerem concitatur, et lucet propter eum aer, quia diabolus ab\ imis se erigens transfigurat se in angelum lucis, et decipit stultos\ spe false glorie leticieque humane. Cristatus esse dicitur, quia ipse est rex\ superbie, vim non in dentibus sed in cauda habet, quia suis viribus perditis\ mendacio decipit quos ad se trahit. Circa semitas per quas elefan\tes gradiuntur delitescit, quia iter eorum ad celum nodis peccatorum\ illigat, ac suffocatos perimit, quia siquis criminum vinculo irretitus\ moritur, sine dubio in inferno dampnatur.\ De basilisco \Basiliscus Grece Latine\ interpretatur regulus\ eo quod sit rex serpentium\ adeo ut eum videntes fu\giant, quia olfactu suo eos\ necat. Nam et hominem\ si vel aspiciat interimit.\ Siquidem ab eius aspectu\ nulla avis volans illesa\ transit, sed quamvis sit procul, eius ore combusta devoratur.\

call it dracon, from this is derived its Latin name draco.

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The dragon, it is said, is often drawn forth from caves into the open air, causing the air to become turbulent. The dragon has a crest, a small mouth, and narrow blow-holes through which it breathes and puts forth its tongue. Its strength lies not in its teeth but in its tail, and it kills with a blow rather than a bite. It is free from poison. They say that it does not need poison to kill things, because it kills anything around which it wraps its tail. From the dragon not even the elephant, with its huge size, is safe. For lurking on paths along which elephants are accustomed to pass, the dragon knots its tail around their legs and kills them by suffocation. Dragons are born in Ethiopia and India, where it is hot all year round. The Devil is like the dragon; he is the most monstrous serpent of all; he is often aroused from his cave and causes the air to shine because, emerging from the depths, he transforms himself into the angel of light and deceives the foolish with hopes of vainglory and worldly pleasure. The dragon is said to be crested, as the Devil wears the crown of the king of pride. The dragon's strength lies not in its teeth but its tail, as the Devil, deprived of his strength, deceives with lies those whom he draws to him. The dragon lurks around paths along which elephants pass, as the Devil entangles with the

knots of sin the way of those bound for heaven and, like the dragon, kills them by suffocation; because anyone who dies fettered in the chains of his offences is condemned without doubt to hell. Of the basilisk The basilisk's name in Greek, translated into Latin, regulus, means 'little king'. It is so called because it is the king of crawling things, who flee when they see it, because it kills them with its scent. It will even kill a man just by looking at him. Indeed, no bird can fly past unharmed by its gaze but, however far away, will be burnt up and devoured in its mouth.

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A mustelis tamen vincitur quas illic homines inferunt cavernis\ in quibus delitescunt. Itaque ea visa fugit, quem illa persequitur\ et occidit. Nichil enim parens ille rerum sine remedio constituit.\ Est autem longitudine semipedalis albis maculis lineatus.\ De regulis \ Reguli autem sicut scorpiones arentia\ queque sectantur, et postquam ad aquas venerint [PL, ibique aliquem morderint] idro\phobas et limphaticos faciunt. Sibilus idem est qui\ et regulus, sibilo enim occidit antequam mordeat vel exurat.\ De vipera \ Vipera dicta quod\ vi pariat. Nam cum\ venter eius ad partum\ ingemuerit catuli non\ expectantes maturam\ nature solucionem\ corrosis eius lateribus\ erumpunt vi cum ma\tris interitu. Ferunt\ autem quod mascu\lus ore inserto vipere semen expuat. Illa autem ex voluptate\ in rabiem versa, caput maris ore recepto precidit, ita fit ut uterque\ parens pereat, masculus cum coit, femina cum parit. De vipera\ dicit sanctus Ambrosius quia nequissimum genus bestie est et super\ omnia que serpentium sunt generis astutior ubi coeundi cu\piditatem assumpserit, murene maritime notam sibi requirit\ copulam vel novam preparat. Progressaque ad litus sibilo testi\ficata presentiam sui, ad coniugalem amplexum illam evocat.\ Murena autem invitata non deest, et venenate serpenti ex\petitos usus sue impertit coniunctionis. Quid sibi sermo huius\modi vult nisi ferendos esse mores coniugum, et si absens est eius\

The basilisk can be conquered by weasels. Men put them into the caves where the basilisks lie hidden. The basilisk, seeing the weasel, flees; the weasel pursues and kills it. For the Creator has made nothing without a remedy. The basilisk is half-a-foot in length, with white stripes. Of the basilisk, or regulus [continued] Basilisks, like scorpions, seek out dry places; after they have come to water and bite anyone there, they make that person hydrophobic and send them mad. The creature called sibilus is the same as the regulus, or basilisk; for it kills with its hiss before it bites or burns. Of the viper The viper is so called because the female gives birth with force, vi pariat. For when her belly aches with labour pains, her young do not wait to be released at the right time according to nature, but gnawing through her sides burst forth, leaving their mother dead. They say that the male spits his seed into the female, with his head inserted in her mouth. Mad with lust she bites it off. Thus it comes about that both parents die; the male during intercourse; the female at birth. Saint Ambrose says of the viper that it the vilest kind of creature and more cunning than the whole serpent species. When it feels the desire for intercourse, it goes in search of a lamprey already known to it or prepares to copulate with a new partner. It goes to the shore and makes its presence known with a hiss, inviting her to its conjugal embrace. The lamprey, once invited, does not demur and shares with the poisonous snake the union it seeks. What should these words signify to us if not that we should put up with the behaviour of our partner, and even if his whereabouts

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comperienda presentia? Sit licet asper, fallax, inconditus lubri\cus, temulentus, quid peius veneno quod in coniuge mu\rena non refugit, vocata non deest, et serpentis lubricum\ sedula caritate complectitur. Ille tua mala portat et le\vitatis feminee facilitatem, tu virum tuum non potes mu\lier sustinere. Adam per Evam deceptus est, non Eva per Adam.\ Quem vocavit ad culpam mulier, iustum est ut eum gu\bernatorem assumat, ne iterum feminea facilitate labatur.\ Sed horridus et incultus est. Semel placuit, nunquid vir\ frequenter est eligendus. Comparem suum et bos requirit\ et equus diligit. Et si mutetur alius tamen trahere iugum nes\cit compar alterius, et se non tutum putat. Tu iugalem re\pudias tuum, et putas sepe esse mutandum, et si uno defue\rit die superducis rivalem, et statim incognita causa quasi cog\nita iniuriam pudoris exequeris. Vipera absentem requirit,\ absentem vocat et blando proclamat sibilo, atque ubi adventare\ comparem senserit, venenum evomit, reverentiam marito\ deferens verecundata nuptialem gratiam. Tu mulier advenien\[en]tem de longinquo maritum contumeliis repellis. Vipera\ mare prospectat, explorat iter coniugis. Tu iniuriis viam\ viro obstruis. Tu licium moves venena, non reicis. Tu con\iugalis amplexus tempore dirum virus exestuas, nec eru\bescis nuptias nec revereris maritum. Sed etiam tu vir, pos\sumus enim etiam sic accipere, depone tumorem cordis, asperi\tatem morum cum tibi sedula uxor occurrit, propelle indig\nationem cum blanda coniux ad caritatem provocat. Non\ es dominus sed maritus, non ancillam sortitus es, sed uxorem.\ Gubernatorem te deus voluit esse sexus inferioris, non prepo\tentem. Redde vicem studio, redde amori gratiam. Vipera vene\num suum fundit, tu non potes duriciam mentis deponere?

cannot be discovered, we are to behave as if he were present? Let him be harsh, deceitful, uncouth, unreliable, drunken: are any of these things worse than the poison from which the lamprey, in intercourse, does not shrink? When she is invited, she is not found wanting and embraces the slimy snake with sincere affection. The man puts up with your mischief and your feminine tendency towards triviality. Can you, o woman, not stand by your man? Adam was deceived by Eve, not Eve by Adam. It is right that the woman should accept as her governor the man whom she urged to do wrong, lest she fall again through her feminine disposition. But he is rough and uncouth! He pleased you once. Are you saying that a husband should be chosen on a frequent basis? The ox seeks his partner, the horse cherishes his. If a partner is changed, however, the one that is left cannot bear the other's yoke and feels insecure. You reject your conjugal partner and often think of changing him. If one day he is absent, you bring in a rival and at once, having discovered no reason for doing so, you avenge the injury done to your honour as if you had discovered some reason. The female viper searches for her absent male, enticing him with a seductive hiss, and when she senses that he is approaching, she spits out her poison, modestly showing reverence to her husband and the obligations of marriage. You, o woman, repel your husband with reproaches when he returns from afar. The viper gazes out to sea, he searches for a sign that she is on her way. You put obstacles in your husband's way. You stir up the poison of strife, you do not get rid of it. You emit a foul venom in the midst of your wifely embrace, you show no shame at the thought of your marriage vows, you show no regard for your husband. But you too, O man, for we can also bring you into the discussion, set aside the passion in your heart and the roughness of your manner when your loving wife comes to meet you, Get rid of your ill-humour when your wife sweetly rouses you to express your love. You are not her master but her husband; you have gained not a maidservant but a wife. God wished you to govern the weaker sex, not rule it absolutely. Return her care with attention; return her love with grace. The viper pours out its poison; can you not get rid of your harsh attitude?

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Si habes naturalem rigorem, debes temperare eum contempla\tione coniugii, et reverentia coniunctionis deponere animi\ feritatem. Potest et sic accipi. Nolite querere viri thorum alie\num, nolite insidiari alie copule. Grave est adulterium, nature\ iniuria est. Duos primum deus fecit Adam et Evam, hoc est vi\rum et uxorem, et uxorem de viro hoc est de costa Ade et iussit\ ambos esse in uno corpore, et in uno spiritu vivere. Quid unum\ separas corpus, quid unum dividis spiritum? Nature adulterium est.\ Sed hoc docet murene et vipere non iure generis, sed ardore\ libidinis expetitus amplexus. Discite o viri quia [qui] alienam permol\lire querit uxorem. Cuius serpentis sibi asciscere cupiat contuber\nium, cui etiam comparandus ipse serpenti sit. Festinet ad\ viperam, que se in gremium ubi non directo tramite veritatis\ sed lubrico devii amoris infundit. Festinat ad eam que vene\num suum resumit ut vipera. Que fertur peracto coniunctionis\ munere, venenum quod vomuerat rursus haurire. \ De aspide \ Aspis vocata quod morsu venena immittit et spargit. Ios\ enim Greci venenum dicunt, et inde aspis quod morsu\

If you are severe by nature, you should moderate your manner in consideration of your married state and set aside your harshness out of regard for your relationship. There is another issue. Do not, O men, seek out someone else's bed, do not plot another liaison. Adultery is a serious sin; it does harm to nature. In the beginning God made two beings, Adam and Eve, that is, man and wife; and he made the woman from the man, that is, from Adam's rib; and he ordered them both to exist in one body and to live in one spirit. Why separate the single body, why divide the single spirit? Adultery happens in nature. The eager embrace of the lamprey and the viper makes the point: it takes place not according to the law of the species but from the heat of lust. Learn, O men, that he who seeks to seduce another man's wife is to be compared with that snake with whom he seeks a relationship. Let him hurry off to the viper, which slithers into his bosom, not by the honest way of truth but the slimy route of inconstant love. He hurries to a woman who recovers her poison as the viper does. For they say that after the task of mating is over, the viper sucks up the poison that it had spat out beforehand. Of the asp The asp, aspis, is so called because it injects poisons with its bite, spreading them throughout the body. For the Greek word for poison is ios, and from this comes the word aspis, because

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venenato interimit. Currit quidem semper patenti ore et vapo\ranti. Huius diversa genera et species et dispares effectus ad\ nocendum. Fertur autem cum ceperit pati incantatorem qui\ eam in quibusdam carminibus propriis evocat ut eam de caver\na producat, illa cum exire noluerit unam aurem in terram\ premit, alteram cauda obturat et operit, atque voces illas magicas\ non audiens, non exit ad incantantem. Tales quidem sunt\ homines istius mundi qui in desideriis terrenis aurem depri\munt unam. Aliam vero de perpetratis, ne audiant vocem domini\ dicentis: Qui non renuntiaverit omnibus que possidet, non po\test meus esse discipulus nec servus. Hoc quoque solum aspides fa\ciunt ut aures obturant. Isti vero et oculos suos excecant ne vide\ant celum neque recordentur operum domini. Dissa autem genus\ est aspidis que Latine situla

it kills with a poisonous bite. It moves quickly with its mouth always open and emitting vapour.

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There are various kinds and species of asps which inflict harm with different effects. It is said that when the asp begins to endure a snakecharmer summoning it with music designed for that purpose, to bring it out of its cave, and it does not want to come out, it presses one ear to the ground, and blocks and covers the other with its tail, and deaf to those magic sounds, does not go out to the man who is charming him. Of a similar nature are the men of this world, who close one ear with earthly desires. The other they block with their deeds, lest they hear the voice of the

dicitur, quia quem momorderit, siti perit.\ Ypnale genus aspidis dicta, quod sompno necat. Hanc sibi Cleo\patra apposuit, et ista morte quasi sompno soluta est. Emorro\sis aspis nuncupatus, quod sanguinem sudet. Qui ab eo morsus\ fuerit, ita languescit, ut dissolutis venis quicquid vite est per san\guinem evocet. Grece enim sanguis emath dicitur. Prester aspis\ semper ore patenti et vaporanti currit, cuius poeta sic meminit:\ Oraque distendens avibus [avidus] fumantia prester. Hic quem percusserit\ distenditur, enormique corpulentia necatur, extuberatum enim pu\tredo sequitur. Spectaficus aspis qui dum momorderit hominem\ statim eum consumit, ita ut liquefiat totus in ore serpentis.\ Cerastis serpens dictus, eo quod in capite cornua habeat similia\ arietum. Ceraste enim Grece cornua vocantur. Sunt autem illi quadrige\mina cornicula quorum ostentatione veluti esca illiciens sollicitata\ animalia perimit, totum enim corpus tegit arenis, nec ullum in\dicium sui prebet, nisi ex ea parte qua invitatas aves vel anima\lia capit. Est autem flexuosus plusquam alii serpentes, ita ut spinam\

Lord saying: 'Whosoever he be of you that foresaketh not all that he hath, he cannot be my disciple or servant' (see Luke, 14:33). Asps do no more than merely close their ears. Men of this world blind their eyes lest they see heaven and are reminded of the works of the Lord. The dissa is a kind of asp, called situla in Latin, because those it bites die of thirst, sitis. There is a kind of asp called ypnalis, because it kills you by sending you to sleep. It was this snake that Cleopatra applied to herself, and was released by death as if by sleep. The emorrosis is an asp, so called because it kills by making you sweat blood. If you are bitten by it, you grow weak, so that your veins open and your life is drawn forth in your blood. For the Greek word for 'blood' is emath. The prester is an asp that moves quickly with its mouth always open and emitting vapour, as the poet recalled like this: 'The greedy prester that opens wide its foaming mouth' (Lucan, Pharsalia, 9, 722). If it strikes you, you swell up and die of gross distention, for the swollen body putrefies immediately after. The spectaficus is an asp which, when it bites a man, destroys him, so that he turns entirely into fluid in the snake's mouth. The cerastis, is so called because it has horns on its head like a ram's. For the Greek word for 'horns' is ceraste. It has a set of four small horns and, displaying them, it persuades animals that they are good to eat, then kills its prey; for it covers its entire body with sand, so that no trace of it shows, except the part with which it catches the birds or animals it has attracted. It bends more than other snakes, so that

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non habere videatur. \ De scitali serpente \ Scitalis serpens est\ vocata quod tanta\ prefulget tergi varietate ut no\tarum gratia aspicientes se retar\det. Et quia reptando pigrior est\ quos assequi non valet, mira\culo sui stupentes capit. Tan\ti autem fervoris est ut etiam hyemis tempore exuvias corporis\ ferventes exponat, de quo Lucanus: Et scitalis pressis etiam nunc\ sola pruinis, exuvias positura suas.\ De anphivena \ Anphivena dicta eo\ quod duo capita habeat,\ unum in loco suo alterum\ in cauda, currens ex utroque capite,\ tractu corporis circumlato. Hec\ sola serpentium frigori se com\mittit, prima omnium precedens\ de qua idem Lucanus: Et gravis\ in geminum vergens caput\ anphivena.\ Cuius oculi lucent\ velud lucerne.\ De ydro \ Est ani\mal in\ Nilo flumine\ quod dicitur idrus\ in aqua vivens.\ Greci

it seems to have no spine.

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Of the snake called scitalis The snake called scitalis gets its name because it glitters with such a variety of colour on its back that it slows down those who look at it on account of its markings. And because it is not a keen crawler and cannot overtake the prey it pursues, it catches those who are stunned by the marvel of its appearance. It gets so hot that even in winter it casts off its burning skin, something to Lucan refers: The scitalis alone can shed its skin while the rime is still scattered over the ground' (Pharsalia, 9, 717). Of the anphivena

enim\ idros aquam\ The anphivena is so called because it has two heads, one where its head should be, the other on its tail; it moves quickly in the direction of either of its head, with its body forming a circle. Alone among snakes it faces the cold and is the first to come out of hibernation. Lucan, again, says of it: 'The fell amphisbaena, that moves towards each of its two heads' (Pharsalia, 9, 719). Its eyes glow like lamps. Of the ydrus A creature lives in the River Nile which is called idrus, because it lives in water. For the Greek word for water is idros

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vocant. Inde dicitur aquatilis serpens a quo isti obturgescunt cuius\ morbum quidam boam dicunt, eo quod fimo bovis remedietur.\ Idra draco multorum capitum qualis fuit in Lerna insula vel\ pallude provincie Archadie. Hec Latine excedra dicitur quod uno\ ceso tria capita excrescebant, sed hoc fabulosum est, nam constat\ idram locum fuisse evomentem aquas, vastantem vicinam\ civitatem, in quo uno meatu clauso multi erumpebant. Quod\ Hercules videns loca exhausit, et sic aque clausit meatus. Nam\ idra ab aqua dicta est. Hic idrus satis est inimicus cocodrillo,\ et hanc habet naturam et consuetudinem, ut cum viderit coco\drillum dormientem in littore, vadit aperto ore et involuit\ se in luto quo facilius possit in faucibus eius illabi. Cocodrillus\ igitur subito vivum eum transglutit. Ille vero dilanians omnia\ viscera eius non solum unus, sed etiam exit illesus. Sic ergo mors\ et infernus figuram habent cocodrilli, quorum inimicus est\ dominus Jesus Christus. Nam assumens humanam carnem des[cen]\dit ad infernum, et dirumpens omnia viscera eius eduxit\ eos qui iniuste tenebantur ab eo. Mortificavit enim ipsam\ mortem resurgens ex mortuis, et illi insultat propheta dicens:\ O mors ero mors tua, morsus tuus ero inferne. \ De boa angue \ Boas anguis\ Italie immensa mo\les prosequitur greges armen\torum et bubalos et pluri\mo lacte irriguis se uberibus\ innectit, et sugens interimit,\ atque inde a bovum depopu\latione boas nomen accepit. \ De iaculo \

Thus it is called aquatilis serpens, 'water-snake'. Those who are bitten by it swell up, a sickness called by some boa, because it can be cured by the dung of an ox, bos. The idra is a dragon with many heads of the kind that lived on the island, or marsh, of Lerna in the province of Arcadia. It is called in Latin excedra because when one of its heads is cut off, three grow in its place. This is a myth, however, for it is accepted that the hydra was a place where water gushed out, destroying the town nearby; where, as one outlet was closed up, many others burst open. Seeing this, Hercules drained the marsh and so closed the water-spouts. For the word idra is so called from the Greek word for water. The idrus is a worthy enemy of the crocodile and has this characteristic and habit: when it sees a crocodile sleeping on the shore, it enters the crocodile through its open mouth, rolling itself in mud in order to slide more easily down its throat. The crocodile therefore, instantly swallows the idrus alive. But the idrus, tearing open the crocodile's intestines, comes out whole and unharned. For this reason death and hell are symbolised by the crocodile; their enemy is our Lord Jesus Christ. For taking human flesh, he descended into hell and, tearing open its inner parts, he led forth those who were unjustly held there. He destroyed death itself by rising from the dead, and through the prophet mocks death, saying:'O death, I will be thy plagues; O grave, I will be thy destruction' (Hosea, 13:14). Of the snake called boas The boas is a snake found in Italy; it is of a vast weight; it follows flocks of cattle and of gazelles, fastens on their udders when they are full of milk and sucking on these, kills the animals; from its ravaging of oxen, bos, it has got its name boas.

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Of the iaculus

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Iaculus serpens volans, de quo Lucanus: Iaculique volantes.\ Exiliunt enim in arboribus, et dum aliquid obvium fu\erit, iactant se super eum et perimunt. Unde et iaculi dicti sunt.\ De sirenis \ In Arabia autem serpentes albi sunt cum alis, que sirene\ vocantur, que plus currunt ab equis, sed etiam et volare\ dicuntur, quorum tantum virus est ut morsum ante mors\ insequatur quam dolor.\ [De sepe] \ Seps exigua serpens que non solum corpus sed et ossa\ veneno consumit, cuius poeta sic meminit: Ossa que\ dissolvens cum corpore tabificus seps. \ [De dipsade] \ Dipsa serpens tante\ exiguitatis fertur ut cum calcatur non videatur, cuius venenum\ ante extinguit quam sentiatur, ut facies preventa morte nec\ tristiciam inducat morituro, de quo poeta: Signiferum iu\venem Tyreni sanguinis Aulum Torta caput retro dipsa\ calcata momordit. Vix dolor aut sensus dentis fuit.\ De lacerto \ Lacertus reptile genus\ est vocatus, ita quod\ brachia habeat. Genera\ lacertorum plura, ut\ botrax, salamandra,\ saura, stellio. Botruca\ dicta quod rane ha\beat faciem, nam Greci ranam botrucam vocant.\ De salamandra \ Salamandra vocata quod\ contra incendia valeat, cuius inter omnia venenata\ vis maxima est. Cetera enim singulos feriunt, hec plurimos\ pariter interimit. Nam et si arrepserit omnia poma inficit\

fly' (Pharsalia, 9, 720). For they spring into trees and when anything comes their way, throw themselves on it and kill it. As a result, they are called iaculi, 'javelin-snakes'. Of sirens In Arabia there are white snakes, with wings, called sirens, which cover the ground faster than horses, but are also said to fly. Their is poison is so strong that if you are bitten by it you die before you feel the pain. [Of the seps] The seps is a small snake which consumes with its poison not just the body but the bones. The poet refers to it as: 'The deadly seps, that destroys the bones with the body' (Lucan, Pharsalia, 9, 723). [Of the dipsa] The dipsa is a snake which is said to be so small that you tread on it without seeing it. Its poison kills you before you feel it, with the result that the face of anyone dying in this way shows no sadness from the anticipation of death. The poet says of it: 'So Aulus, a standard-bearer of Etruscan blood, trod on a dipsa, and it drew back its head and bit him. He had hardly any pain or feeling of the bite' (Lucan, Pharsalia, 9, 737). Of the lizard The lizard is called a kind of reptile, because it has arms. There are many kinds of lizards, such as the botrax, the salamander, the saura and the newt. The botruca is so called because it has the face of a frog and the Greek word for 'frog' is botruca. Of the salamander The salamander is so called because it is proof against fire. Of all poisonous creatures, it has the strongest poison. Other poisonous creatures kill one at a time; it can kill several things at the same time. For if it has crawled into a tree, it poisons all the apples

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veneno, et eos qui edint occidit. Qui etiam vel si in puteum cadat\ vis veneni eius potantes interficit. Ista contra incendia repugnans\ ignes sola animalium extinguit. Vivit enim in mediis\ flammis sine dolore et consumptione, et non solum quia non uritur\ sed extinguit incendium. \ De saura serpente

and kills those who eat them. In addition, if it falls into a well, the strength of its poison kills those who drink the water. It resists fire and alone among creatures can put fires out. For it can exist in the midst of flames without pain and without being consumed by them, not only because it does not burn

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but because it puts the fire out. Of the snake called the saura

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Saura lacertus qui quando senescit cecantur oculi eius, et\ intrat per foramen parietis aspiciens contra orientem\ et orto sole intendit et illuminatur. \ De stellione\ Stellio de colore inditum nomen habet. Est enim tergo\re pictus lucentibus guttis in modum stellarum. De quo\ Ovidius: Aptumque colori. Nomen habet variis stellatus corpore\ guttis. Hic autem scorpionibus adeo contrarius traditur, ut viso\ eo pavorem his afferat et torporem. Sunt et alia genera ser\pentium, ut admodite, elephantie, camedracontes. Postremo\ quantus nominum, tantus mortuum numerus. Omnes ser\pentes natura sua frigide sunt nec percuciunt nisi quando calescunt.\ Nam quando sunt frigidi nullum tangunt. Unde et venena eorum\ plus die quam nocte nocent. Torpent enim noctis algore, et merito\ quia frigidi sunt nocturno rore. In se enim adducunt vapo\rem corporis frigide pestes, et nature gelide. Unde et in hieme\ in nidos torpent, estate solvuntur. Inde est quod quicumque veneno\ serpentium percutitur primum obstupescit, et postea ubi in illo ca\lefactum ipsum virus exarserit, statim hominem extinguit. Ve\nenum autem dictum, quia per venas vadit. Infusa enim pestis eius per\ venas vegetatione[m] corporis aucta discurrit, et animam exigit.\ Unde non potest venenum nocere, nisi hominis tetigit sanguinem.\ Lucanus: Noxio serpentium est, admixto sanguine pestis. Omne autem\ venenum est frigidum, et ideo anima que est ignea fugit venenum\ frigidum. In naturalibus bonis que nobis et irrationabilibus\ animantibus videmus esse communia, vivacitate quadam sensus\ serpens excellit. Unde legitur in Genesi: Serpens autem erat sapi\

The saura is a lizard which goes blind when it grows old; it enters a crack in a wall and, looking toward the east, it bends its gaze on the rising sun and regains its sight. Of the newt The newt, stellio, gets its name from its colouring. For it is adorned on its back with shining spots like stars, stella. Ovid says of it: 'Its name fits its colour; it is starred on the body with spots of various colours' (see Ovid, Metamorphoses, 5, 461). It is said to be so hostile to scorpions, that the sight of it paralyses them with fear. There are other species of snakes, like the admodite, elephantia, camedracontes. Finally, it can be said that snakes inflict as many kinds of death as they have names. All snakes are cold by nature; they will only strike you when their body warms up. For as long as it is cold, they will touch no-one. As a result, their poison is more harmful by day than by night. For they become sluggish in the cold of the night; and rightly so, because they grow cold in the night-time dew. For the deathly cold and freezing weather draw off the warmth of the body. Thus in winter they lie inactive in their nests; in summer, they grow lively again. So, if you are struck by a snake's poison, you are numbed at first; then, when the venom warms up and begins to burn, it kills you at once. Their poison is called 'venom', venenum, because it spreads through your veins. For when its deathly effect is introduced, it courses in every direction through the veins, increased by the quickening of the body, and drives out life. As a result, poison cannot hurt unless it infects your blood. Lucan says: 'The poison of snakes is only deadly when mixed with the blood' (Pharsalia, 9, 614). All poison is cold; as a result, the soul, which is by nature hot, flees from the poison's icy touch. In terms of the natural qualities which we observe that we, reasoning beings, share with animals, who have no capacity for reason, the serpent stands out by virtue of its lively intelligence. On this subject, it says in Genesis: 'Now the serpent was

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entior, omnibus pecoribus terre. \ De natura serpentium \ Serpens vero tres\ habet naturas, pri\ma eius natura hec est.\ Cum senuerit caligant\ oculi eius, et si voluerit\ novus fieri, abstinet\ se et ieiunat multis\ diebus donec pellis eius\ relaxetur, et querit angustam\ rimam in petra et in\trat in eam, et contri\bulat se et deponit\ veterem pellem. Et nos per multam tribulationem et absti\nentias pro Christo deponamus veterem hominem et indumen\tum eius, et queramus spiritualem petram Christum, et angustam\ fissuram, id est angustam portam. Secunda eius natura est, cum vene\rit ad flumen bibere aquam non portat suum venenum\ secum, sed in foveam dimittit illud. Debemus et nos cum in\ collectam venimus aquam vivam atque sempiternam hau\rientes audire divinum sermonem et celestem in ecclesia, abi\cere a nobis venenum, id est terrenas et malas concupiscentias. Ter\cia natura eius est, si viderit nudum hominem, timet eum, et\ si viderit vestitum, exilit in eum. Sic et nos spiritualiter\ intelligamus quia primus homo Adam quamdiu fuit nudus\ in Paradiso non prevaluit serpens exilire in eum, sed postquam\ est indutus, id est mortalitate corporis, tunc exilivit in eum ser\pens. Si habes ergo in te mortalem vestem, id est veterem hominem,\ et inveteratus fueris dierum malorum, exilit in te serpens.\ Si autem expolies [PL, exspolies] te indumento principum et potestatum\

more subtle than any beast of the field' (3:1). Of the nature of snakes The snake has three characteristics. The first of these is that when it grows old, its eyes grow dim; if it wants to regain its youth, it fasts for many days until its skin grows loose; then it seeks out a narrow crack in a rock, enters it, and scrapes through, sloughing off its old skin. Let us, too, through much affliction and abstinence in Christ's name, slough off our former self and garb, and seek Christ, the spiritual rock, and the narrow crack, that is 'the strait gate' (Matthew, 7:13). The snake's second characteristic is this: when it comes to a river to drink water, it does not bring its venom with it, but discharges it into a pit. When we come together in church, drinking in the living, eternal water, to hear God's heavenly word, we too should get rid of our venom, that is, earthly and evil desires. The snake's third characteristic is this: if it sees a naked man, it fears him; if it sees him clothed, it attacks him. In the same way, we are to understand in spiritual terms, that for as long as Adam, the first man, was naked in Paradise, the serpent was unable to attack him; but after he was clothed, that is, in mortal flesh, then the serpent assaulted him. If you are clad in mortal clothes, that is, in your former self, and if you have grown old in evil days, the serpent attacks you. If, however, you divest yourself of the robes of princes and of the power

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seculo huius tenebrarum, tunc non poterit exilire in te serpens, id est\ diabolus. Serpens quoque pastu feniculi cecitatem repellit ex\ceptam. Itaque ubi oculos sibi obduci senserit, nota remedia pe\tit, ne fraudatur effectu. Testudo visceribus pasta serpentis,\ cum venenum adverterit sibi serpere, origano medicinam sue sa\lutis exercet. Ieiuni hominis sputum si serpens gustaverit, moritur.\ Dicit autem Plinius: Creditur quod si serpentis caput etiam si cum\ duobus digitis evaserit, nichilominus vivit. Unde et totum\ corpus obicit pro capite ferientibus. Anguibus universis hebes visus\ est, raro in adversum contuentur. Nec frustra cum oculos non\ in fronte sed in timporibus habeant, adeo ut cicius audiant quam\ aspiciant. Nullum autem animal in tanta celeritate linguam\ movet ut serpens, adeo ut triplicem linguam habere videatur,\ cum una sit. Serpentium humida

of the darkness of this world, then the serpent, that is, the Devil, cannot attack you.

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The snake, at the onset of blindness, wards it off by eating fennel. Thus, when it feels its eyes growing dim, it has recourse to remedies it knows, knowing that it can rely on their effect. The tortoise, when it feeds on the snake's entrails and becomes aware of the venom spreading through its own body, cures itself with oregano. If a snake tastes the spittle of a fasting man, it dies. Pliny says:It is believed that if the head of a snake escapes, even if only two fingers' length of the body is attached, it continues to live. For this reason it places

sunt corpora, adeo ut quaque\ eunt viam humore designent. Vestigia sunt serpentium talia\ ut cum pedibus carere videantur, costis tamen et squamarum ni\sibus repunt, quas a summo gutture usque ad imam alvum pa\rili modo dispositas habent. Squamis enim quasi unguibus, costis\ quasi cruribus innituntur. Unde si in qualibet corporis parte ab\ alvo usque ad caput aliquo ictu collidatur, debilis reddita cursum\ habere non possit, quia ubicumque ille ictus inciderit, spinam sol\vit, per quam costarum pedes et motus corporis agebantur. Serpen\tes autem diu vivere dicuntur, adeo ut deposita veteri tunica\ senectutem deponere atque in iuventutem redire perhibeantur.\ Tunice serpentium exuvie nuncupantur, eo quod his quando\ senescunt sese exuunt. Dicuntur autem exuvie et induvie quia\ exuuntur et induuntur. Pytagoras dicit de medulla hominis\ mortui que in spina est serpentem creari. Quod etiam Ovidius\ in Metamorphoseorum libris commemorat dicens: Sunt qui\ cum putrefacta spina sepulchro mutari credant, humanas\

its whole body in the way to protect its head against its assailants. All snakes suffer from poor sight; they can rarely see what is in front of them. This is not without reason, since their eyes are not at the front but in the temples of the head, so that they hear better than they see. No creature moves its tongue as swiftly as the snake, to such an extent that it seems to have a triple tongue, when in fact there is only one. The bodies of snakes are moist, so that wherever they go, they mark their path with moisture. The tracks of snakes are such that, since they seem to lack feet, they crawl using their flanks and the pressure of their scales, which are laid out in the same pattern from the throat to the lowest part of the belly. For they support themselves on their scales as if on claws, and on their flanks as if on legs. As a result, if a snake is struck on any part of the body, from the belly to the head, it is disabled and cannot get away quickly, because where the blow falls, it dislocates the spine, through which the footlike movement of the flanks and the motion of the body are activated. Snakes are said to live for a long time, to such an extent that it also claimed that when they shed their old skins, they shed their old age and regain their youth. The snake's skin is called exuvie, because they shed it, exuere, when they grow old. We refer to clothing as both exuvie and induvie because it is both taken off, exuere, and put on, induere. Pythagoras says that the snake is created from the marrow of dead men, which is to be found in the spine. Ovid has the same point in mind in the Metamorphoses, when he says: 'There are those who believe that when the spine has rotted in the grave, the human

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angue medullas. Quod si creditur merito evenit ut sicut per ser\pentem mors hominis, ita et hominis morte serpens. \ Incipit de vermibus \ Vermis est animal\ quod plerumque de carne vel de ligno\ vel de quacumque re terrena sine ullo\ concubito gignitur, licet non nunquam\ et de ovis nascantur, sicut scorpio. Sunt\ autem vermes aut terre aut aque,\ aut aeris, aut carnium, aut frondi\um aut lignorum, aut vestimentorum.\ Aranea vermis aeris ab areis [PL, aeris] nutrimento cognominata, que\ exiguo corpore longa fila deducit, et tele semper intenta, nunquam\ desinit laborare, perpetuum sustinens in sua arte dispendium.\ Multipes terrenus ex multitudine pedum vocatus, qui con\tractus in globum urnas amplificat. Sanguissuga vermis\ aquatilis dicta quod sanguinem sugit, potantibus enim insidi\atur. Cumque illabitur faucibus vel ubi uspiam adheserit, sangui\nem haurit,

marrow changes into a snake'. This, if it can be believed, has a certain justice, for as the snake brings about the death of man, so it is created by the death of man.

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Here begins the account of worms The worm is a creature which generally springs from flesh, or wood or some other earthly material, but not as the result of intercourse, although occasionally they are hatched from eggs, like the scorpion. There are worms that live in earth or in water, in air, in flesh, in leaves or in wood, or in clothes. The spider, aranea, is a worm of the air, and gets its name from the fact that it lives on air; it draws out

et cum nimio cruore maduerit, evomit quod hau\sit, ut recentiorem denuo sugat. Scorpio vermis terrenus, qui\ pocius vermibus asscribitur non serpentibus, animal armatum aculeo\ et ex eo Grece vocatum quod caudam figat, et arcuato vulnere\ venena diffundat. Proprium autem scorpionis est, quod manus\ palmam non feriat. Bombocis frondium vermis, ex cuius\ textura bombicinium conficitur, appellatus autem hoc nomine\ ab eo quod evacuetur dum fila generat, et aer solus in eo remanet.\ Eruca frondium vermis, in olere vel pampino involuta ab ero\dendo dicta, de qua meminit Placitus [PL, Plautus]: Imitatus[r] nequam bestiam\ et maleficam pampinium involutam. Implicat se idem nec\ advolat, ut locusta huc illucque discurrens, semipasta dimittit,\ sed permanet perituris frugibus et tardo lapsu et pigris morsibus\

long threads from its small body, and devotes itself continually to spinning its web, never ceasing to toil, constantly suffering loss in its art. The land-based millipede, multipes, is so called from its large number of feet; rolled up in a ball, it swells in pitchers. The leech, sanguissuga, a water worm, is so called because it sucks blood, sanguinem sugere, and takes by surprise anyone who is drinking water. When it slides down the throat or adheres to any other part of the body, it drains the blood and when it can hold no more, it vomits what it has already swallowed in order to start sucking fresh blood again. The scorpion is a land worm, to be classed rather with worms than snakes; it is armed with a sting, aculeus, and from that it gets its Greek name, because it sticks its tail into its victim and spreads the poison through the bow-shaped wound. It is a characteristic of the scorpion, that it will not sting the palm of the hand. The silk-worm is a leaf worm; from the threads it weaves, we make silk. It gets its name because it empties itself when it makes thread and only air is left inside its body. The caterpillar is a leaf worm, often found enveloped in a cabbage or a vine; it gets its name from erodere, 'to eat away'. Plautus recalls it in this way: 'She imitates the wicked and worthless beast, wrapped in vine leaves' (Cistellaria, 728-30). It folds itself up and does not fly about like the locust, which hurries from place to place, in all directions, leaving things halfeaten, but stays amid the fruit that is destined to be destroyed and, munching slowly,

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universa consumit. Teredonas Greci vocant lignorum\ vermes quod terendo edant. Hos nos tarmites dicimus ita\ enim apud Latinos ligni vermes vocantur, quos tempore\ importuno cese arbores gignunt. Tinea vestimentorum\ vermis dicta quod terat, et eo usque insideat, quo erodat.\ Unde et pertinax, quod in eandem rem idemtidem urgeat.\ Vermes carnium emigramus, lumbricus, ascaride, coste, pediculi,\ pulices, lendex, tarmus, ricinus, usia, cimex. Emigramus\ vermis capitis vocatus, lumbricus vermis intestinarum, dictus\ quasi lumbicus, qui labitur, vel quod in lumbis sit. Pediculi ver\mes carnis a pedibus dicti, unde et pediculosi dicuntur, quibus\ pediculi in corpore efervescunt, pulices vero vocati sunt, quod\ ex pulvere magis nutriantur. Tarmus vermis est lardi. Ricinus\ vermis est canis vocatus eo quod hereat in auribus canum. Ce\nos enim Grece canis est. Usia est vermis porci appellata, quia\ urit. Nam ubi momorderit adeo locus ardet, ut ibi vesice\ fiant. Cimex de similitudine cuiusdam herbe vocatur, cuius\

consumes everything.

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The Greeks call the wood worm teredon because they eat by gnawing their way into wood. We call them termites, for in Latin that is the name given to wood worms, which are hatched from trees felled at the wrong season. The worm found in clothes is called tinea because it gnaws at fabrics, and burrows into them until they are eaten away. For this reason, it is called pertinacious, pertinax, because it works away all the time at the same thing. Worms of the body are the emigramus, the stomachworm, the ascaride, the coste, the louse, the flea, the lendex, the tarmus, the tick, the usia, the bug. The emigramus is a worm of the head.

fetorem habet, proprie autem vermis in carne putrida nascitur. Ti\nea in vestimentis, eruca in olere, teredo in ligno, tarmus in\ lardo. Vermis non ut serpens apertis passibus vel squamarum\ nisibus repit, quia non est illis spine rigor ut colubri, sed in\directum corpusculi sui partes gradatim porigendo con\tractas, contrahendo porrectas, motus explicat, sicque\ agitatus prolabitur. \ Incipit de piscibus \ Pisces dicti unde et pecus, a pascendo scilicet.\ Reptilia ideo dicuntur hec que natant, eo\ quod reptandi habeant speciem et naturam.\ Quamvis se in profundum mergant, tamen\ in natando repunt. Unde et David ait: Hoc mare magnum et spaciosum manibus illic reptilia quorum\

The stomach-worm, lumbricus, creeps into or lives in the loins, lumbus. Lice, pediculi, are worms of the body which get their name from their feet, pedes; people on whose bodies lice swarm are called lousy, pediculosi. Fleas, pulices, however, are so called because they live mainly on dust, pulvis. The tarmus is a worm found in pork fat. The tick, ricinus, is a worm associated with dogs, so called because it sticks to their ears, aures; for cenos is the Greek for 'dog'. The usia is a worm found in pigs, so called because it burns, urere. For when it bites, the place burns so much that blisters form. The bug, cimex, gets its name from its resemblance to a plant which has the same stench; properly speaking, this worm originates in putrid meat. To repeat, you find the moth in clothes, the caterpillar in vegetables, the termite in wood and the tarmus in pork fat. The worm does not crawl like a snake with visible steps or by the pressure of its scales, because it lacks the firm spine which you find in snakes; but, moving in a straight line, by expanding the contracted parts and contracting the expanded parts of its little body, it unfolds in motion and, impelled in this way, creeps forwards. Here begins the account of fish Fish, pisces, get their name, like cattle, pecus, from the word for grazing, namely, pascere. They are called reptiles because, when they swim, they have the appearance and manner of crawling. Although they can dive deep, nevertheless they crawl as they swim. On this subject David says: 'So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable' (Psalms, 104: 25)

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[De balena] \ [A ... Sic illi paciuntur qui incredulo animo sunt, et ignorant diaboli astucias spem suam in eum ponentes, atqe suis operibus se obligan-]tes, simul merguntur cum illo in Gehennam ignis. Natura belue est\ talis quando esurit aperit os suum, et odorem quendam bene\ olentem exalat de ore eius, cuius dulcedinem ut sentiunt mino\res pisces, congregant se in ore eius. Cum vero senserit os suum\ esse repletum, subito claudit os suum et transglutit eos. Sic pa\ciuntur illi qui sunt modice fidei addicti voluptatibus et leno\ciniis ad escam, quamsi

[Of the whale]

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[They suffer in the same way, those who are unbelievers and know nothing of the Devil's cunning, who place their hope in him,] bind themselves to do his work, together they will be plunged with him into the fires of Gehenna. The nature of this animal is such that when it feeds, it opens its mouth and breathes out from it a kind of sweet-smelling odour, so that when smaller fish scent

quibusdam odoribus subito absorbentur a diabolo.\ Item de balena \ Balene autem sunt immense\ magnitudinis bestie ab emittendo et fundendo aquas\ vocate ceteris enim bestiis maris alcius iaciunt undas, balenim\ Grece emittere dicitur. Masculus balene est musculus enim\ coitu concipere hec belua perhibetur. \De belua que dicitur serra \ Est belua in mari que dicitur serra, pennas habens immanes.\ Hec cum viderit navim in pelago velificantem, elevat\ pennas suas super aquam et contendit velificare contra navim\ stadiis triginta vel quadraginta, et non sustinens laborem deficit, et deponens\ pennas ad se attrahit eas. Unde vero maris iam lassam reportant\ ad locum suum in profundum. Hec belua figuram habet seculi. Navis\ vero iustorum habet exemplum, qui sine periculo et naufragio fidei\ transierunt per medias huius mundi procellas et tempestates. Serra vero\ id est belua illa que non valuit velificare cum navi, figuram il\lorum gerit, qui in inicio ceperunt bonis operibus insistere, postea\ non permanentes in eis, victi sunt diversis viciorum generibus que\ illos tanquam fluctuantes maris unde mergunt usque ad inferos. Non\ enim incipientibus sed perseverantibus premium promittitur. \ De delfinibus \ Delfines certum habent nomen vel vocabulum\ quod voces hominum sequantur, vel quod ad simphoniam\ gregatim conveniunt. Nichil in mari velocius. Nam plerumque\ naves salientes transvolant, quando autem preludunt in fluctibus et un\darum se molibus saltu precipiti feriunt, tempestates significare\

it, they gather in its mouth. When the whale feels that its mouth is full, it closes it suddenly and swallows the fish. They suffer in the same way, those who are of limited faith, who succumb to the food of desires and enticements, they are suddenly devoured by the Devil as if they had been overwhelmed by certain scents Again of the whale Whales are beasts of huge size, so called because of their habit of drawing in and spouting out water; for they make waves higher than other sea creatures; the Greek word balenim [balein] means 'to emit'. The male is called musculus; for it is alleged that the females conceive by intercourse. Of the monster called the flying-fish. There is a sea monster called the flying-fish, which has huge wings. When it sees a ship under sail on the sea, it raises its wings over the water and tries to keep pace with the ship for three or four miles; when it fails to keep pace, it lowers its wings and folds them. The waves carry it, exhausted, back to its home in their depths. The flying-fish represents this world. The ship symbolises the righteous, who sail through its storms and tempests without putting their faith in danger or at risk of shipwreck. But the flying-fish, which could not keep up with the ship, represents those who at the start apply themselves to good works, but do not afterwards persevere with them and yield to all sorts of vice, which carry them, like the restless waves of the sea, down to hell. For the prize goes not to those who begin the race, but to those who stay the course. Of dolphins Dolphins are known by that particular name or word because they follow the sound of men's voices, or gather in schools at the sound of music. There is no swifter creature in the sea. For they often leap through the air over ships; but when they play beforehand in the swell and leap headlong through the mighty waves, they seem to foretell storms.

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videntur, hi proprie simones nominantur. Est et delfinum genus\ in Nilo flumine dorso seriato qui cocodrillos tenera ventrium\ secantes interimunt. \ De porcis marinis \ Porci marini qui vocantur vulgo suilli, quia dum que\ runt escam more suis terram sub aquis fodunt. Circa\ guttur enim habent oris officium, et nisi rostrum arenis inmer\gant, pastum non

They are correctly called simones.

sensorgr

There is a species of dolphin in the River Nile, with a serrated back, which kills crocodiles by cutting into the soft parts of their bellies. Of sea-pigs

colligunt. Gladius dicitur eo quod rostro mu\crinato sit, ob hoc naves perfossas mergit. Serra nuncupata quia\ serratam cristam habent, et subter natans naves secat. Scorpio dictus\ quia ledit dum manu tollitur, tradunt decem cancris est comici [PL, cum ozymi] ma\nipulo alligatis omnes qui ibi sunt scorpiones ad eundem\ locum congregari. \ De cocodrillo \ Cocodrillus a croceo colore dictus, gignitur in Nilo flumi\ne animal quadrupes in terra et aqua valens, lon\gitudine plerumque viginti cubitorum, dentium et ungui\um immanitate armatum. Tantaque cutis duricia ut quam\vis fortium ictus lapidum tergo repercuciat, non nocet, nocte\ in aquis die in humo quescit. Ova in terra fovet, masculus\ et femina vices servant. Hunc pisces quidam serratam ha\bentes cristam tenera ventrium desecantes interimunt.\ Lupum aviditas piscem appellavit in captura ingeniosum.\ Denique circumdatus rete, fertur arenas arare cauda, atque\ ita conditus transire rete. Mullus vocatus quod mollis sit\ atque tenerrimus, cuius cibo tradunt libidinem inhibere,\ oculorum aciem hebetant, homines quibus sepe pastus pis\cem olent. Mullus in vino necatus hi qui inde biberint te\dium vini habent. Mugilis nomen habet, quod sit multum agilis.\ Nam ubi dispositas senserit piscatorum insidias, confestim\ retrorsum rediens ita transilit rete, ut volare piscem vide\as. Innumeri itaque usus innumera genera piscium. Alii\

Sea-pigs are commonly called swine, because when they seek food, they dig under the water like swine digging into the ground. For they have what serves as a mouth around their throat, and unless they immerse their snout in the sand, they cannot gather food. The sword-fish is so called because its snout is pointed; it sinks ships by piercing them with it. Sawfish, serra, are so called because they have a serrated crest; they swim under ships and saw through their keels. The sea-scorpion is so called because it wounds you if you pick it up in your hand; they say that if ten crabs are bound with a handful of basil, all the scorpions around will gather at that place. Of the crocodile The crocodile, cocodrillus, gets its name from its saffron colour, croceus; it comes from the River Nile, a four-legged creature, at home on land and in water, sometimes twenty cubits in length, armed with huge teeth and claws. So hard is its skin that even if you struck it on the back with blows from heavy stones, you would not harm it. It rests by night in the water, by day on the bank. It hatches its eggs on land, male and female taking turns to guard them. Certain fish with serrated crests kill it by cutting open the soft part of its belly. Its wolf-like greed for fish gives the pike its name, lupus. It is a tricky fish to catch. It is said that when it is finally surrounded by the folds of the net, it ploughs up the sand with its tail and, hidden, swims through the net. The mullet, mullus, is so called because it is delicate, mollis, and very tender; they say that eating it curbs lust; eating mullet can also impair your vision; men who often eat it give off a fishy smell. If you soak a dead mullet in wine, those who drink the liquor afterwards develop a loathing for wine. Another kind of mullet, mugilis, gets its name because it is extremely agile, multum agilis. For when it is aware of the way in which fishermen have set their nets for it, it does not delay, but pulls back, then leaps over the net, so that you can actually see the fish fly. The ways of fish are countless, as are their species. Some

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ova generant ut varii maiores quos vocant tructas, et

lay eggs, like the speckled, large fish called trout, and

sensorgr

aquis\ fovenda committunt. Aqua igitur animat et creat, et adhuc\ mandati illius tanquam legis perpetue munus exesequitur,\ blanda quedam mater animantium. Alii vivos fetus edunt,\ de suo corpore ut cete ingentia, delphines et foce aliaque cetera\ huiusmodi, que cum ediderint partus siquid forte insidiarum\ terrorisque presenserint circa catulos suos unquam moliri, quo tu\eantur eos vel tenere etatis pavorem materno affectu compri\mant, aperire ora et innoxio partus suos dente suspendere,\ interno quoque recipere corpore, et genitali feruntur alvo abscondere.\ Quis humanus affectus hanc piscium pietatem possit imitari?\ Oscula nobis sacietati sunt, illis non satis est aperire viscera,\ natosque recipere, ac revocare integros, atque iterum fotu quodam\ sui caloris animare, et spiritu adolere suo duosque in corpore uno\ vivere donec aut [PL, ad] securitatem deferant, aut corporis sui obiectu\ natos suos defendant a periculis. Quis hec videns et si possit ob\tinere non tante piscium pietati cedat? Quis non miretur et stu\peat, ut servet natura in piscibus, quod non servat in hominibus?\ Plerique in suspicione novercalibus odiis appetiti, suos occiderunt\ filios, alie in fame ut legimus partus proprios comederunt. Huma\nis pignoribus mater sepulchrum facta est, piscium proli uterus paren\tis sicut murus vallo quodam intimorum viscerum pignora\ inoffensa conservat. Diversa igitur piscium genera, diversos usus habent.\ Alii ova generant, alii vivos et formatos pariunt fetus. Et qui\ ova generant, non nidos texunt ut aves, non diuturni fotus\ laborem induunt, non cum molestia sui nutriunt. Cecidit o\vum, quod aqua gremio quodam nature sue quasi nutrix blanda\ suscepit, et animal celeri fotu reddidit. Continuo, enim, tactu pa\rentis animatum ovum cecidit, et piscis exivit. Tum deinde\ quam pura et inviolata successio, ut nullus sed generi suo misceatur.\

leave them in the water to hatch. Water, therefore, gives the life and form and, a gentle mother to living things, fulfils this obligation as if she were obeying an immutable law. Other fish produce living offspring from their bodies, like the great whales, dolphins, seals and others of this sort; when they have produced their young and have, perhaps, a premonition that these are ever threatened by some kind of trap or in danger, in order to protect them or to calm with a mother's love the fear of those of tender years, they are said to open their mouths and hold their young, without harming them, in their teeth, and also to take them back into their body, concealed in their womb. What human affection can equal the sense of duty that we find in fish? For us, kisses suffice. For them, it is not enough to open the innermost parts of their body, to swallow their young then bring them back whole, to give their offspring life once again with their own warmth, to breathe into their young their own breath, and to live as two in one body until either they have carried them off to safety or by interposing their own bodies, have protected their young from the threatened danger. Which fisherman seeing this, even if he were still able to catch the fish, would not give in to such a display of duty? Who would not marvel and stand amazed that nature has preserved in fish a quality that is not found in men? Many men, acting out of mistrust, driven by malevolence and hatred, have killed their children; we have read of others, women, who have eaten their own children in times of famine. The mother thus becomes a tomb for her infants. To the spawn of the fish, however, the mother's womb is like a wall; she preserves her harmless brood by turning her innermost parts into a sort of fortress. The different species of fish, therefore, have different habits. Some lay eggs, others produce living, fullformed offspring. Those who lay eggs do not weave nests like birds; they do not go through the bother of a long process of hatching their young; and they do not have the trouble of feeding them. The egg has been laid, and the water has reared it on what is, in effect, her own natural bosom, like a gentle nurse, incubating the egg quickly so that it becomes a living thing. For, given life by the constant touch of its mother, the water, the egg disintegrates and the fish emerges. How pure and unspoiled this process of generation is, involving, as it does, no creature outside that particular species.

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Nesciunt enim alienorum piscium adulterina contagia,

For male fish know nothing about adulterous contacts

sensorgr

sicut ea\ que coeunt. Asinorum equarumque inter se genera magna cura\ hominum perpetrantur vel rursus cum equis asine miscentur, que\ sunt vere adulteria nature. Nam utique maius est quod in nature\ colluvione committitur quam quod in persone iniuria. Et o homo ista\ procuras interpres adulterii iumentalis, et illud animal preciosius putas\ quod adulterinum, quam quod verum est. Ipse genera aliena confun\dis, diversaque misces semina, et ad vetitos coitus plerumque cogis\ invitos, et hoc industriam vocas, hoc quia de hominibus facere non\ potes ut diversi generis commixtio fetum possit excludere,\ tollis homini quod natus est, et virum de viro exuis, abscisaque\ corporis parte, sexum necas, spadonem efficis, ut quod negavit\ natura in hominibus, impleret audatia. Quam bona autem ma\ter aqua, hinc considera. Tu homo docuisti abdicationes patrum\ in filios, separationes, odia, offensas, disce que sit parentis et\ filiorum necessitudo. Vivere pisces sine aqua non queunt, nec\ a sue parentis consortio separari, neque a sue altricis discerni mu\nere. Et hoc fit natura quadam ut separati moriantur ilico. Quid\ autem de densitate dicam dentium? Non enim ut oves aut\ boves ex una parte dentes habent, sed utraque pars armata est den\tibus qui in aqua sunt, et si diutius cibum versarent, et non cito\ transmitterent, aquarum illuvione de dentibus eorum esca pos\set auferri ac dilui. Ideo densos et acutos habent dentes ut cito\ incidant cito conficiant cibum, et ut facile et sine aliqua mora\ et dilatione transmittant. Denique non ruminant. Solus tamen\ scarus ruminare perhibetur ut ferunt quibus aut eventus aut\ usus fuit aut studium comprehendere, sane nec ipsi a suis poten\tie evasere violentiam, et avaricie potentiorum subiectum\ ubique inferiores sunt, quo quisque infirmior eo prede patet. Et\ plerique quidem herbis pascuntur, minor apud illos esca maioris\

with fish of other species, like the females with whom they copulate. Species of donkeys and mares are created by interbreeeding with the special intervention of man, or in the other way, when horses mount asses; in the context of nature, these are truly acts of adultery. For undoubtedly, what is done in a natural context by interbreeding is more significant than what happens in a personal context by injury. O men, you bring these things about as an agent of adultery between animals and you consider a hybrid animal more valuable than one which is pure bred. You interbreed different species and mix the seed of one with another, and frequently you force animals unwillingly to take part in intercourse which is forbidden, and you call this 'industry'; because you cannot interbreed among men, in such a way that the mixing of two species can exclude the creation of offspring, you take away from a man what he was born with, you take the virility from a man, you destroy his sex by cutting off part of his body and you create a eunuch, so that what nature denies in man, your presumption achieves. As to how good a mother water is, think about this. You, O man, have taught the denial, separation, hatred, crimes, of fathers against sons; learn what is essential to that relationship. Fish cannot live without water; they cannot be separated from the company of their parent; they cannot be parted from the services of their wet-nurse. If this should happen, it is their nature, when separated, to die there and then. What can I tell you about the quantity and density of their teeth? For creatures that live in water are not like sheep or cattle, whose teeth grow in one part of the mouth, but every part of their mouth is armed with teeth, and if they are slow to chew their food and swallow it, it can be washed down and dissolved by the flow of water from their teeth. Their teeth are close-set and sharp, so that they can cut food quickly and consume food quickly, and swallow it without delay or hesitation. In short, they do not ruminate, that is, chew the cud. Only the scarus is reported to be a ruminant, chewing on everything that it takes in by chance, habit or purpose. It is a fact that fish cannot escape violence from their own kind, and wherever there are smaller fish, they become the subject of the greed of more powerful fish, so that a weaker species is the prey of a stronger. There are many, indeed, which feed on vegetation. But among fish the smaller species is the food of the larger;

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est, et rursus ipse maior a validiore invaditur, et sic esca al\terius, predator alieni. Itaque usu venit ut cum ipse alium devo\raverit, ab alio devoretur, et unum ventrem utrumque con\veniat, cum devoratore proprio devoratus, sitque simul in uno\ viscere prede vindicteque consortium. Et ex ipsis sponte forte hec\ accrevit iniuria, sicut in nobis non ex natura cepit, sed ex ava\ricia. Aut quia ad usum hominum dati sunt, in signum quoque\ facti sunt, ut in his nostrorum morum vicia videremus, et eorum\ caveremus exempla, nequis pocior inferiorem invaderet, datu\rus in se potentiori exemplum iniurie. Itaque qui alium ledit\ sibi laqueum parat. Et tu piscis es qui viscera invadis aliena,\ qui demergis infirmum qui credentem persequeris usque in pro\fundum. Cave ne dum illum persequeris, incidas ipse validi\orem, et deducat te in alienas insidias qui tuas vicat, priusque\ tuam expectet erumpnam, qui te persequente propriam formidabat.\ Escarius dictus eo quod escam solus ruminare perhibetur, denique\ alii pisces non ruminant. Tradunt autem hunc ingeniosum\ esse. Namque inclusum vasis non fronte erumpere, nec infestis\ viminibus caput inserere, sed adversum caude ictibus crebris lax\are fores, atque ita retrorsum redire. Quem luctatum eius\ si forte alius escarius videat, apprehensa mordiciis cau\da adiuvat nisus erumpentis. Echenais et semipedalis\ pisciculus nomen sumpsit, quod navem adherendo teneat,\ ruant licet venti, seviant procelle, navis tamen quasi radi\cata in mari stare videtur, nec moveri potest, non retinen\do hoc facit sed tantum modo adherendo. Hunc Latini moram ap\pellant, eo quod cogat stare navigia. Anguille similitudo\ anguis nomen dedit. Origo eius ex limo, unde et quando capitur\ adeo lenis est ut quanto fortius presseris, tanto cicius elabitur.\ Ferunt autem orientis fluvium Gangen anguillas trigenis\

in turn, the larger fish is seized by an even stronger one, and thus the predator becomes the prey. Thus it is the way among fish that when one devours another, it is devoured by a third, and they each end up in the same belly, since each has been consumed by its appropriate consumer, and together in the same entrails is a twosome, one of them preyed upon, the other avenged. Among fish this aggression grew deliberately, just as it did in us, for it did not start in nature but in greed. Or because fish are given for man's use, but are also given as a guide, that we might see in them the vices inherent in our own ways, and heed their example; lest the stronger should swallow up the weaker, he should be shown what harm he might suffer at the hand of one even stronger. So, he who harms another, ties a noose for himself. And you, you are the fish that attacks the entrails of the other, you overpower the weak, you pursue the believer down to the depths. Take care lest, while you are in pursuit, you meet one who is stronger than you, that he who can defeat your snare does not lead you into another and that your prey is preoccupied with his own danger, before he witnesses yours. The escarius is so called because, they claim, it alone ruminates its food, esca; other fish do not. They say it is a clever fish. For, caught in a pot, it does not try to break out with its forehead or try to stick its head through the wicker sides, but with rapid blows of its tail loosens the rear entrance of the pot and thus swims out through the back. If by chance another escarius sees it struggling, it seizes the captive's tail between its teeth and helps it to break out. The echenais is a very small fish, six inches long, which gets its name from the fact that it holds a ship fast by sticking to it; although the winds roar and the storms rage, the ship stays still, rooted, it seems, in the sea, immobile. The fish does this, not by holding the ship back, but simply by sticking on to it. Latinspeakers call this fish mora, because it forces vessels to stay in one place, thereby causing a delay, mora. Eels, anguille, get their name from their similarity to serpents, angues. They are born from mud; for this reason, if you catch an eel, it is so smooth that the harder you grip it, the quicker it slithers away. They say that in the River Ganges, in the east, there are eels thirty

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pedibus gignere. Anguille vino necate qui ex eo biberint, tedi\um vini habent. Murenam Greci mirinnam vocant, eo quod\ complicet se in circulos. Hanc feminini tantum sexus esse tra\dunt et

feet long. If dead eels are soaked in wine, anyone drinking the liquor develops a loathing of wine.

sensorgr

The lamprey, murena, is called by the Greeks

concipere a serpente, ob id a piscatoribus tanquam a serpen\te sibilo evocatur et capitur. Ictu autem fustis difficulter interi\mitur, ferula protinus. Animam habere in cauda certum est nam\ capite percusso, vix eam interimi cauda statim exanimari. Poi\lippus, id est multipes plurimos enim nexus habet. Iste ingeniosus\ hamum appetens, brachiis complectitur in morsu, nec prius\ dimittit, quam escam circumroserit. Torpedo vocata eo quod\ corpus torpescere faciat, si eam quisque viventem tangat. Nar\rat Plinius secundus ex Indico mari torpedo etiam procul et e\ longinquo vel si hasta virgaque attingatur, quamvis preva\lidos lacertos torpescere, quamlibet ad cursum veloces alligate\ pedes. Tanta enim vis eius est, ut etiam aura corporis sui\ afficiat membra. Cancer quoque quas cibi gratia prestigias\ struit. Namque et ipse ostreo delectatur, et carnis eius epulum\ sibi querit. Sed quia ut appetens cibi ita prospiciens est peri\culi, quam cum [quantum] difficilis est venatio, tunc [tantum] periculosa. Difficilis\ quia testis validioribus esca interior includitur, nam velut\ muris quibusdam molliciem carnis precepti imperialis inter\pres natura munivit, quam medio testarum quodam\ sinu concavo nutrit ac fovet, et quasi in quadam valle\ diffundit, et ideo cassa omnia temptamenta sunt cancri\ quia aperire clausum ostreum nulla vi potest, et periculo\sum est si chelam eius includat. Ad argumenta confugit,\ et insidias nova fraude molitur. Itaque quia omnia genera\ delectatione mulcentur, explorat si quando ostreum remo\tis in locis ab omni vento contra solis radios dipticum il\lud suum aperiat, et referet claustra testarum, ut libero\

mirinna, because it twists itself into circles. Lampreys, it is said, are of the female sex only and conceive from intercourse with snakes; as a result, fishermen catch it by calling it with a snake's hiss. It is difficult to kill a lamprey with a single blow from a cudgel; you need to beat it repeatedly with a stick. It is a fact that the life-spirit of the lamprey is its tail, for when it is beaten on the head, it is difficult to kill; but when it is beaten on the tail, it dies at once. The name of the poilippus means 'many-footed', because it has a large number of coiling legs. It is a clever fish; it makes for the fisherman's baited hook, catches hold of it by entwining it in its limbs, and does not let go until it has nibbled round the bait. The torpedo is so called because it numbs the body of anyone who touches it when it is alive. According to Pliny the second, if a torpedo from the Indian sea is touched by a spear or rod, even from a considerable distance, the muscles of the fisherman's arms, even if they are very strong, grow numb, and his feet, however fast they run, cannot move. So great is the power of the torpedo, that even its breath has this effect on the limbs of the body. The crab also plans a series of tricks to acquire food. For it has a taste for oysters and sets out to feast on their flesh. But because seeking food means looking out for danger, the more difficult the chase, the greater the danger. The crab's quest is difficult because the food is enclosed within two very strong shells, for nature, acting in accordance with the will of the Creator, has furnished the softness of the flesh with walls, so to speak, nourishing and warming it within the shells in a bosom-like cleft, and the oyster spreads its flesh out as if in a valley. As a result, all the efforts of the crab come to nothing, because it has not the strength to open the closed oyster. The crab's quest becomes dangerous if the oyster shuts its shell on one of the the crab's claws. The crab resorts to strategy and works on the idea of setting a trap, using a new kind of trick. Because all kinds of animals yield to pleasure, the crab watches out for the time when the oyster, safely out of the wind and lying in the rays of the sun, opens its double-shelled prison in order to

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aere visceris sui voluptatem quandam capiat, et tunc clan\culo calculum immittens impedit conclusionem ostrei, ac\ sic aperta claustra reperiens tuto inserit chelas, visceraque interna\ depascitur. Sic igitur homines viciosi sunt qui cancri usu in\ aliene usum circumscriptionis irrepunt, et infirmitatem\ proprie virtutis, astu quodam suffulciunt, fratri dolum\

satisfy its inner longing for some fresh air. Then the crab, stealthily inserting a pebble, stops the oyster from closing its shell and, finding what was shut now open, it inserts its claws in safety and feeds on the flesh inside.

sensorgr

In the same way, therefore, there are evil men who,

nectunt, et alterius pascuntur erumpna. Tu autem propriis\ esto contentus, et aliena te dampna non pascant. Bonus\ cibus est simplicitas innocentie. Sua bona habens insidiari\ nescit alienis, nec avaricie facibus inardescit, cui lucrum\ omne ad virtutem dispendium est, ad cupiditatem incen\dium. Et ideo beata est si bona sua noverit cum veritate pau\pertas, et omnibus preferenda thesauris, quia melius est exigu\um cum dei timore, quam thesauri magni sine timore. Melior\ est enim hospitalitas in oleribus cum gratia, quam vitulorum\ pinguium preparatio cum discordia. Utamur ergo ingenio ad\ querendam gratiam et salutem tuendam, non ad alienam\ circumscribendam innocentiam, licet nobis uti exemplis\ maritimis ad profectum nostre salutis non ad aliene periculum.\ Echinus animal exiguum, vile ac despectabile maritimum\ loquor, plerumque index future tempestatis aut tranquillita\tis aut nuncius solet esse navigantibus. Denique cum procellam\ ventorum presenserit, calculum validum arripit, eumque\ velut saburram vehit, et tanquam anchoram trahit ne excu\ciatur fluctibus. Itaque non suis se liberat viribus sed alieno sta\bilit et regit pondere. Quo indicio naute velud signum fu\ture perturbationibus capessunt et sibi precavent ne eos impa\ratos turbo improvisus inveniat. Qui mathematicus qui astro\logus qui ve Caldeus potest siderum cursus, sic et celi mo\tus et signa comprehendere? Quo ingenio ista colligit,\

in the manner of the crab, deceive others by stealth, and bolster their own incapacity by a degree of cunning; they enmesh their brothers in deceit and feed off another's troubles. Be content with what is yours, and do not grow fat on the misfortunes of others. The right food is the sincerity of innocence. The man who has his own sense of worthiness cannot waylay others; he does not burn with the flames of avarice; profit he regards as loss of virtue and an incentive to greed. Therefore, blessed is poverty if it teaches a man to know truly the worth of his possessions; it is preferable to any treasure, for 'Better is little with the fear of the Lord than great treasure and trouble therewith. Better a dinner of herbs where there is love, than a dinner of fatted calf where there is hatred' (see Proverbs, 15:16-17). Let us use our intelligence, therefore, to seek grace and attain salvation, not to deceive another in his innocence; and let us use the examples of seacreatures to the advancement of our salvation, not to endanger others. The urchin is small, worthless and contemptible - I am talking about the maritime kind - and is customarily taken by seafarers as a sign of a storm ahead or as a herald of calm weather. When it senses that a stormy blast is on the way, it seizes a goodsized pebble and carries it as a kind of ballast, and drags it like an anchor lest it is thrown up by the swell. Thus it saves itself not by its own strength but by using weight from another source to steer a stable course. Sailors seize on this behaviour as a sign of bad weather to come and take precautions lest an unexpected hurricane should catch them unprepared. What mathematician, what astrologer, what Chaldean can make sense in this way of the course of the stars, or of the motions and signs of the heavens. By what instinct has the urchin acquired this skill?

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quo doctore percipit? Quis ei fuit tanti interpres augurii?\ Sepe homines confusionem aeris vident et sepe falluntur,\ quod plerumque eam sine tempestate discuciant. Echinus\ non fallitur, echinum sua nequaquam signa pretereunt. Unde\ exiguo animali tanta scientia ut futura prenuntiet, quod ma\gis in eo nichil est quam tantam habere prudentiam. Crede quod\ per indulgentiam domini reorum omnium, hic quoque presci\entie huius munus acceperit. Etenim si fenum deus sic vestit\ ut miremur, si pascit volatilia, si parat corvis escam, pulli\ enim eorum clamant ad dominum, et si mulieribus dedit\ texture sapientiam, si araneam que tam subtiliter ac docte\ laxos casses suspendit in foribus sapientie non relinquat\

From what teacher has it learned this art? Who interpreted such omens for it? Men often observe turbulence in the air and are often deceived, because frequently it disperses without a storm. The urchin is not mistaken; the significance of the signs it sees does not escape it. From where did this tiny creature get such knowledge that it can foretell the future, because it has no innate capacity to display such foresight.

sensorgr

You must believe that it is through the kindness of the Lord of all things that the echinus. too, has received the gift of foresight. For if 'God so clothe the grass of the field' that we marvel, if he feeds 'the fowls of the

immunem, si ipse virtutem equo dedit, et solvit de cervice\ eius formidinem eut [ut] exultet in campis, et occurrens regi\bus arrideat, odoretur bellum eminus, excitetur sono\ tube, si hec irrationabilia pleraque et alia insensibilia, ut fe\num ut lilia repleta sue dispositione sapientie, quid du\bitamus, et quod etiam in echinum contulerit huius gra\ciam prescientie? Nichil enim inexploratum, nichil dissi\mulatum relinquit. Omnia videt qui pascit omnia, om\nia replet sapientia qui omnia in sapientia fecit ut scrip\tum est. Et ideo si echinum visitationis sue exortem non\ pretermisit, si eum considerat, et futurorum informat indi\ciis, tua non considerat? Immo vero considerat si [sic] contestatur\ eius divina sapientia dicens: Si respicit volatilia si pascit\ illa, nonne vos pluris estis illis? Si fenum agri quod hodie\ est, et cras in ignem mittitur deus sic vestit, quantomagis vos\ minime fidei? Conce conclee ex hac causa vocate, quia de\ ficiente luna cavantur, id est evacuantur. Omnium enim clau\sorum animalium maris atque concarum incremento lune\

air' (see Matthew, 6:26, 30); if 'he provideth for the raven his food, when his young ones cry unto God' (Job, 38:41); if he gives women the skill of weaving; if he has not left the spider, which hangs its open network on doorways, without the gift of knowledge; if he has given strength to the horse and loosed terror from its mane, so that it exults on the battlefield and laughs in the face of kings and 'smelleth the battle afar off' and says Ha! at the sound of the trumpets (see Job, 39: 19-25) ... if these many creatures, who lack the capacity of reason, together with the grass and the lilies of the field, are filled with the wisdom which the Lord has dispensed, why should we doubt that he has also conferred upon the echinus the grace of foresight? For there is nothing that the Lord has not examined, nothing that has not been revealed to him. He sees all things, who nourishes all things; he fills all things with wisdom, who has made all things in wisdom, as it is written (see Psalms, 104:24). For this reason, if he has not neglected the echinus, if he has not left him out of his visitation; if he attends to it and instructs it in signs of things to come, does he not take care of you? Indeed he does, as he proves in his divine wisdom, saying: 'If your heavenly father sees the fowls of the air and feeds them, are ye not much better than they? If God so clothe the grasses of the field, which today is, and tomorrow is cast into the oven, shall he not much more clothe you, O ye of little faith? ' (Matthew, 6: 26, 30). The conca and concle are so called because they are hollow, that is to say, they empty themselves, at the waning of the moon. For the limbs of all the enclosed sea-creatures and shellfish grow at the waxing of the moon

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membratim crescunt, defectu evacuantur. Luna enim cum\ in augmento fuerit, auget humorem, cum vero in defectum\ fuerit humores minuuntur. Hoc phisici dicunt. Conce autem\ prime posicionis nomen, conclee vero per diminutionem quasi concu\le. Concarum genera multa sunt, inter quas et margaritifere\ que occeloe dicuntur in quarum carne preciosus calculus solidatur.\ De quibus tradunt hi qui de animantium scripserunt naturis,\ eo quod nocturno tempore littora appetant et ex celesti rore\ margaritam concipiunt, unde et occeole nominantur. Murica\ coclea est maris dicta ab acumine et asperitate, que alio nomine\ concilium nominatur, propter quod circumcisa ferro lacrimas\ purpurei coloris emittat, ex quibus purpura tingitur, et inde\ ostrum appellatum quod hec tinctura ex teste humore elicitur.\ Cancros vocari quia conce sunt crura habentes inimica ostreis\ animalia. Eorum enim

and empty when the moon is waning. For when the moon waxes, it increases a humour; when it wanes, it diminishes them. This is what physicians say. Conce is the name for those in the first state, that is, growing; but conclee are what they are called after they have shrunk - conculee, little conce, so to speak. There are many species of the conca, among them the pearlbearing oysters called occeloe, in whose flesh a precious stone is formed.

sensorgr

The authors of the book of the natures of living things relate that at night these creatures go ashore and are fertilised by the dew from heaven, for which reason they are called occeole, ob celestem. The murica is a sea snail, so called from its sharp point and rough surface; it is known by another name, concilium, because when you cut around it with

carnibus vivunt miro ingenio. Nam quia\ validam testam eius aperire non potest, explorat quando ostrea\ claustra testarum aperiat. Tunc cancer latenter lapillum inicit,\ atque impedita conclusione ostree carnes erodit. Tradunt enim\ quidam decem cancris concimi manipulo alligatis, omnes qui\ ibi sunt scorpiones ad eum locum coituros. Duo sunt autem\ genera cancrorum fluviales et maritimi. Ostrea dicta est a testa\ qua mollicies interior carnis munitur. Greci enim testam ostream\ dicunt. Musculi sunt conclee, a quorum lacte concipiunt ostree.\ Et dicti musculi quasi masculi. Testudo dictus eo quod tegmi\ne teste adopertus in camere modum. Sunt autem quatuor genera.\ Terrestres, maritime, lutarie, id est in ceno et palude viventes, quar\tum genus fluviales que in dulci aqua vivunt. Tradunt aliqui\ quod incredibile est, tardius ire navigia, testudinis pedem dex\trum vehentia. Rane a garrulitate eo quod circa genitales stre\punt paludes, et sonos vocis importunis clamoribus reddunt.\

an iron blade, it produces tears which are purple in colour, from which purple dye is made; from this comes the other name for purple, ostrum, because the dye is made from the fluid enclosed in the shell (in Greek, ostreon). The crab, cancros or cancer, is so called because they are shellfish, conce, with legs, crura; they are the enemies of oysters. They live on the flesh of oysters by extraordinary cleverness. For because they cannot open the oyster's strong shell, they watch out for a time when the oyster itself opens the closed leaves. Then the crab secretly inserts a small stone and, preventing the oyster from closing up again, gnaws away its flesh. They say that if ten crabs are bound together with a handful of basil, all the scorpions in the neighbourhood assemble at that point. There are two kinds of crab, river and sea. The oyster gets its name from the shell which protects the softness of the flesh within. For the Greek word for 'shell' is ostreon. Musculi are small shellfish; oysters conceive from their milk. They are called musculi, meaning, so to speak, masculi, 'males'. The tortoise, testudo, is so called because it is covered by the vault of its shell, in the manner of an arched roof. There are four species: land, sea, mud that is, living in swamps or marshland; the fourth species belongs to rivers and lives in fresh water. Some relate the incredible fact that ships sail more slowly when they carry the right foot of a tortoise. Frogs, rane, get their name from their constant chatter, because they make a croaking noise all around the marshes where they breed, calling out in an uncouth manner with their peculiar sound.

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Ex quibus quedam aquatice dicuntur quedam palustres, quidam\ rubete ob id quod in vepribus vivunt, grandiores ceteris. Alie cala\mites vocantur quoniam inter arundines fruticesque vivunt, mini\me omnium et viridissime mute et sine voce sunt. Egredule\ rane parvule in sicco vel agris morantes unde et nuncupate.\ Negant quidam canes latrare, quibus offa rana viva fuerit\ data. Animalium omnium in aquis viventium nomina\ centum quadraginta quatuor. Plinius ait divisa cum generibus beluarum\ serpentium communium terre et aque. Cancrorum, conca\rum locustarum, peloridum philopporum, solearum, la\certorum, ut luligo, et huic similia. \ De arboribus \ Arborum nomen sive herbarum ab ar\vis inflexum creditur,\ eo quod terris fixis\ radicibus adhereant. Utraque autem ideo\ sibi pene similia sunt, quia ex uno al\terum gignitur. Nam dum sementem\ in terram ieceris, herba prius oritur.

Of these, some are called water frogs, others marsh; some are called toads, rubete, because they live in brambles, rubus; they are larger than the others. Others are called calamites, since they live among reeds, calamus, and bushes; they are the smallest of all, they are green, they are dumb, and they have no croak. Egredula are very small frogs living on dry ground or in fields, ager, from which they get their name. Some say that dogs will not bark if you give them a live frog to eat.

sensorgr

According to Pliny, the names of the creatures living in water total one hundred and forty-four, divided, into the following species: monsters, amphibious serpents, crabs, shellfish, lobsters, mussels, polyps, flatfish, lizards, rockfish and those like it. Of trees

Dehinc\ confota surgit in arborem, et infra\ parvum tempus, quam herbam vi\deras arbustam suspicis. Arbusta quasi arboris hasta. Alii\ arbustum locum in quo arbores sunt volunt accipere, sicut\ salictum et salicta, et turecta [PL, virecta], ubi salices et virgule novelle\ et virentes. Frutex brevis est appellatus, quod terram frondet\ et tegat, cuius plurale nomen frutecta. Nemus a numinibus\ nuncupatum, quia pagani ibi idola consecrabant, sunt enim\ nemora arbores maiores umbrose frondibus. Lucus [PL, Saltus] est\ densitas arborum alta vocata hoc nomine eo quod exi\liat in altum et in sublime consurgat. Inficio [PL, insitio] dicitur cum\ inciso trunco surculus secunde [PL, fecunde] arboris sterili inseritur. Plante\ sunt de arboribus. Plantaria vero que ex semine nata sunt\

The word for trees, arbores, and grasses, herbe, is believed to come from arva, a field, because they adhere to the earth with their roots which lie fast within it. The two words are almost the same, because one springs from the other. For when you throw a seed into the earth, first a grass shoot rises. Thereafter, with nourishment, it grows into a tree and within a short time, from looking down at shoot of grass you are looking up at a sapling. The word arbusta is, as it were, arboris hasta, 'the shaft of the tree'; the word arbustum is taken by others take it to mean 'plantation', a place where there are trees; as salictum and salicta, and turecta mean places where there are willows and small trees, young and turning green. A shrub, frutex, is small and is so called because puts forth leaves and covers, tegere, the ground; the plural form is frutecta. A wood, nemus, gets its name from numina, deities, because the heathen consecrated their idols there; for woods contain large trees, whose boughs give deep shade. A tall thicket of trees, lucus, is so called because it springs to a great height, rising to the sky. Grafting, insitio, is said to take place when a shoot from a fertile tree is implanted, inserere, into a cut made in the trunk of a barren tree. Cuttings, plante, are taken from trees. But sets, plantaria, are those which are grown from seed

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cum radicibus et a terra propria transferuntur. Radix appellatur quod\ quasi radiis quibusdam fixa terris in profunda mergitur. Nam\ phisici dicunt parem esse altitudinem radicum et arborum.\ Truncus est statura arboris insistens radici. Corticem veteres\ corucem vocabant, dictus autem cortex quod corio lignum\ tegat. Liber est corticis pars interior, dictus a liberato cortice, id est ab\lato. Est enim medium quiddam inter lignum et corticem.\ Rami sunt qui de trunco manant, sicut a ramis surculi. Sur\culi sunt a precisione serre nuncupati. Virgultum est quod de radice\ pullulat. Ramus de ipso robore arboris. Virga que de ramis,\ proprie autem virgultum appellatur, quod ad radicem arboris\ nascitur, et quasi inutile ab agricolis amputatur, et hinc dictum\ virgultum quod ex virga tollitur. Virga vel a virtute dicitur, quia\ vim in se habeat multam vel a viriditate vel quia pacis indicium\ est quod vireat. Unde hac utuntur magi ad placandos inter se\ serpentes, et iccirco in ea hos sustinent illigatos, hac etiam phi\losophi, hac reges et magistri, et nuntii et legati utuntur.\ Flagella dicuntur summe arborum partes, ab eo quod crebros\

with roots and are subsequently transplanted from the soil in which they were grown.

sensorgr

The root, radix, is so called because it is fixed deep in the ground as if by stakes, radius. Indeed, scholars of natural philosophy say that the depth of the root is equal to the height of the tree. The trunk is the vertical part of the tree, based on the root. The ancients called cortex, bark, corux; the word cortex itself comes from the fact that bark covers the tree like a hide, corium. The inner part of the bark, liber, so called because the bark is freed, liberatus, from it, that is, stripped away. For it is a buffer between the wood and the bark. Branches are what spread forth from the trunk, as twigs from the branches.

ventorum sustinent flatus. Cimas vocatas quasi comas, fo\lia Grece sylia dicuntur. Unde est ad nos hoc nomen per dirivatio\nem translatum. Flores nominati, quod cito solvuntur de arbo\ribus quasi fluores, quod cito solvantur. In his duplex gratia, coloris\ et odoris. Austro enim flores solvuntur, zephiro fiunt. Gramen\ dicimus surculum pregnantem a generando unde et gene\ratio. Fructus accepit nomen a frumine, id est eminente gut\turis parte qua vescimur, unde et fruges, fructus autem\ proprie dicuntur agrorum et arborum quibus utique utimur.\ In animalibus vero abusive et translative vocari fructum. Po\ma dicta ab opimo, id est a copie ubertate. Matura dicuntur\ quia apta sunt ad manducandum. Ligna dicta quia accensa\

Twigs, surculi, are so called because they are pruned with a saw, serra. The word virgultum refers to the thin twigs which sprout from the root. The branch springs from the trunk. The twig, virga, from the branch. The word virgultum is used correctly, however, because it means the twigs which grow at the root and are cut off by farmers as if they were useless; they are so called because they are removed from the other twigs. The word virga comes from strength, virtus, because a branch is very strong, or from its green colour, viriditas, or because it is a sign of peace, because it turns green with leaves, a symbol of growth. Magicians use them to calm snakes fighting amongst themselves, supporting them coiled around the branch; philosophers, kings, magistrates, heralds and ambassadors use them for this purpose. The highest parts of the tree are called flagella, whiplashes, because they catch repeated gusts of wind. Foliage, cime, is so to say, come, hair. Leaves, folia, in Latin, are sylia in Greek; the Latin word has come down to us by derivation from the Greek. Blossom, flores, is so called because it is dispersed quickly from the trees, like currents in a stream, fluor, which quickly dissipate. Blossom has a twofold charm - its colour and its scent. For it is stripped off by the south wind and is brought to flower by the wind of the west. A shoot ready to flower, we call gramen; the word comes from generare, to beget, which also gives us generatio. Fruit, fructus, get its name from frumen, the larynx, that is, the projecting part of the throat, with which we eat; fruges comes from the same source. Properly speaking, 'fruit' means in particular the produce of fields and trees which we use. But it is also applied, improperly and by transference, to animals. Apple, pomum, comes from opimus, rich, referring to its abundance. Things are said to be ripe, maturus, because they are then suitable for eating. Wood in its various forms, ligna, is so called because when it is kindled

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convertuntur in lumen, unde et lignus dicitur quod lumen det.\ Torris lignum adustum, quem vulgus titionem vocat, foco\ semiustum et extinctum. Quisquilie sunt stipule inmixte\ surculis ac foliis aridis. Sunt purgamenta terrarum. \ De pro\ priis

they are turned into light, lumen; wood is also called lignus because it gives light. The word for a burning brand of wood is torris; it is commonly called titio, when it lies partly burned and cold on the hearth.

sensorgr

nominibus arborum. \ Palma dicta quia manus victricis\ ornata est, vel quod oppansis est ramis in modum palme\ hominis. Est enim arbor insignis [PL, insigne] victorie proceroque ac decoro\ virgulto diuturnisque vestita frondibus et folia sua sine suc\sensione [PL, successione] conservans. Hanc Greci phenicem dicunt, quod diu\ durat, ex nomine avis illius Arabie, que multis annis vi\vere perhibetur, fructus eius dactilia digitorum similitudine\ nuncupati sunt. Laurus a verbo laudis dicta, hac enim victo\rum capita coronabantur. Apud antiquos autem laudea no\minabatur. Postea quinta littera sublata, et subrogata r dicta est\ laurus, ut in auriculis que in inicio audicule dicte sunt, et\ medidies qui nunc meridies dicitur. Hanc arborem Greci daphi\nem vocant, eo quod nunquam deponat viriditatem. Inde il\la pocius victores coronantur. Solaque hec arbor vulgo fulmina\ri et minime creditur. Malus a Grecis dicta quod sit fructus eius\ pomorum omnium rotundissimus. Unde et hec sunt vera\ mala que vehementer rotunda sunt. Malomellus a dulcedi\ ne appellata quod fructus eius mellis saporem habeat, vel\ quod in melle serventur. Malum punicum dicitur, quod ex Punica\ regione sit genus eius translatum. Idem et malum granatum eo quod\ inter rotunditatem corticis granorum contineat multitudinem.\ De ficu \ Ficus Latine a fecunditate vocatur,\ feracior est enim arboribus ceteris, nam ter quaterque per singulos\ annos generat fructum, atque altero maturescente alter oboritur.\ Hinc et carice a copia nominate. Ficus Egiptia fecundior fertur,\ cuius lignum in aquam missum continuo mergitur et cum in limo\

Quisquilie is the word for the mixture of stalks, withered shoots and dead leaves; they are the sweepings of the trees. Of the particular names of trees The palm, palma, is so called because it adorns the victorious hand, or because its branches are spread out in the manner of the palm of man's hand. For the tree is the symbol of victory; it bears long and beautiful branches, and is clad in long-lasting foliage, which it keeps without any replacement. The Greeks call this tree 'phoenix', because it lasts a long time, taking the name of the bird of Arabia, which is said to live for many years; the fruits of the palm are called dactilia, from their resemblance to fingers. The laurel, laurus, comes from the word laus, praise, for the heads of the victorious were crowned with laurel. In fact, among the ancients, laurels were called laudea. Later the letter D was removed and replaced by R, so that it was called laurus, as in the words auricule, which was originally audicule, and medidies, now called meridies. The Greeks call the laurel daphne, because it never loses its greenery; that is why it was preferred as a crown for the victorious. It is commonly believed to the only tree which is never struck by lightning. The apple-tree, malus, was so called by the Greeks because its fruit was rounder than any other. From this comes the belief that real apples are those which are exceedingly well-rounded. The tree known as malomellus is so called from its sweetness, either because its fruit has the taste of honey, mel, or because it is preserved in honey. The Punic apple, malum punicum, is so called because its species was imported from the area of Carthage, Punicus. It is also called the seeded apple, malum granatum, because it contains, within the sphere formed by its skin, a large quantity of seeds, granum. Of the fig tree The fig tree is so called from its fruitfulness, fecunditas, for it is more fruitful than other trees, bearing fruit three or four times in a single year, one crop ripening as the other appears. For this reason the figs known as carice are so called because of their abundance. The Egyptian fig tree is said to be more fruitful. If you throw its wood into water, it sinks right down; when it has lain on the mud

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aliquandiu iacuerit, deinde in superficiem sustollitur versa vice nature\ quoniam madefactum debuit humoris pondere residere. A senibus\ in cibo sepius sumpte ficus rugas eorum fertur distendere. Tau\ros

for some time, then it is born up to the surface, contrary to nature, since like any waterlogged object, it should have remained at the bottom, held down by the weight of the water. It is said that when old

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quoque ferocissimos ad fici arborem colligatos, repente\ mansuescere dicunt. \ Item de arboribus \ Morus a Grecis vocata quam Latini rubum appellant\ eo quod fructus eius vel virgultum eius rubet. Est\ enim morus silvestris fructum afferens, quibus in deserto pa\storum fames ac penuria confovetur. Huius folia superiactata\ serpenti fertur interimi. \ Item \ Sicomorus sicut morus\ Greca nomina sunt, dicta autem sicomorus eo quod folium eius sit\ simile moro. Hanc Latini celsam appellant ab altitudine, quia\ non est brevis ut morus. \ Item \ [N]ux appellata quod\ umbra vel stillicidium foliorum eius proximis arboribus noceat,\ hanc alio nomine Latini iuglandem vocant, quasi Jovis glandem,\ fuit enim hec arbor nomine arbor consecrata Jovi. Cuius pomum tantam\ vim habet ut missum inter suspectos herbarum vel fungorum ci\bos, quicquid eis virulentium est exsudet, rapiat et extinguat.\ Item \ Nuces autem generaliter dicuntur omnia poma corio,\ duriori tecta, ut pinee nuces, avellane glandes, castanee, ami\gdale. Hinc et nuclei dicti quod sint duro corio tecti. At contra\ poma omnia mollia mala dicta sunt, sed cum adiectione terra\rum in quibus antea nata sunt ut Persica, Punica, Mattiniana.\ Amigdala Grecum nomen est, que Latine nux longa vocatur.\ Cunctis enim arboribus prior flore se vestit, et ad inferenda poma\ arbusta sequentia prevenit. Castaneam Latini a Greco appellant\ vocabulo. Hanc enim castaneam vocant, eo quod fructus eius\ gemini in modum testiculorum intra folliculum sunt reconditi.\ Qui dum eiciuntur, quasi castrantur. Hec arbor simul ut exci\sa fuerit, tanquam silva expullulare consuevit.\ Iterum

people eat figs frequently, their wrinkled skin fills out. They say, too, that if you gather the fiercest bulls at the foot of a fig tree, they suddenly become docile. Again of trees The mulberry tree is called morus by Greeks; in Latin it is called rubus, because its fruit or its branches are red in colour. There is a wild species which bears fruit, which shepherds in the wilderness use to assuage their hunger and need. It is said that if you throw its leaves on a snake, you will kill it. Again of trees The sycamore, sicomorus, like morus, has a Greek name. It is so called because its leaf is like that of a mulberry tree. In Latin it is called celsa, from its height, because it is not short like the mulberry. The nut tree, nux, is so called because its shadow or the moisture that drips from its leaves does harm, nocere, to neighbouring trees; it has another Latin name, juglans, 'Jove's nut tree', so to speak, for this tree was consecrated by name to Jupiter. Its fruit is so strong that, set amid dishes of vegetables or mushrooms thought to be poisonous, it expels their poison in liquid form, draws it off and renders it harmless. Again of nut trees The word 'nuts', nuces, is generally applied to all fruit with a fairly hard shell like pine nuts, filberts, chestnuts and almonds. For this reason they are also called nuclei, because they are covered with a hard shell. In contrast, however, all fruit with soft skins are called mala, adding the place where they originated, like Persica, from Persia, a peach; Punica, from Carthage, a pomegranate; Mattiniana, Matian, a crabapple. The word for almond, amigdala, is Greek; in Latin it is nux longa, 'long nut'. For of all trees, the almond is the first to blossom and produces its fruit before other trees. In Latin the chestnut, castanea, is called by its Greek name. It is so called because its twin fruits are concealed within a pod like testicles. When they are expelled from the pod, it is as if they were castrated. As soon as this tree is felled, it grows again, just like woodland trees. Again

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Ilex ab electo vocata. Huius enim arboris fructum, homi\nes primum ad victum sibi elegerunt. Unde et

The word for oak, ilex, comes from electus, chosen. For the fruit of this tree was the first to be chosen by

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poeta: Morta\les primi ructabant gutture glandem, prius enim quam frumen\ti usus essent, antiqui glande vixerunt. \ Iterum \ Fagus et esculus arbores et glandifere ideo vocate dicuntur,\ vel creduntur quod earum fructibus olim homines vixerunt,\ cibumque sumpserunt, escamque habuerunt. Nam esculus ab\ esca dicta, fagus vero a Greco vocata, fage enim Grece comedere\ dicitur. Cilicicon quam Latini corrupte siliquam vocant. Et ideo\ a Grecis tale nomen accepit, eo quod ligni eius fructus sit dulcis.\ Xilon quippe Greci dicunt lignum ilicon dulcem. Huius ar\boris pomo succus expressus, accatia a Grecis dicitur. \ Iterum \ Pistatia arbor quod cortex pomi eius nardi pistici odorem\ referat. Primus ardor [PL, Pinus arbor] picea, ab acumine foliorum vocata, pin\num autem antiqui acutum nominabant, pinnum autem\ aliam possin aliam Greci peucen vocant, quam nos piceam dici\mus, eo quod desudet picem. In Germannie autem insulis huius\ arboris lacrima electrum gignit. Gutta enim defluens rigore\ vel tempore in soliditatem durescit, et gemmam facit, de qua\litate sua et nomen accipiens, id est sucinum, eo quod succus arbo\ris. Pinus creditur prodesse cunctis que sub ea servantur, sicut ficus\ nocere omnibus. \ Iterum \ Abies dicta est quod pre ceteris ar\boribus eat longe, et in excelsum promineat. Cuius natura expers\ est terreni humoris, ac proinde habilis atque levis habetur. Hanc\ quidam [PL, Gallicam] vocant propter candorem est autem sine nodo. \ Iterum \ Cedrus est quam Greci cedros vocant, cuius folia ci\pressi similitudinem habent. Lignum vero iocundi odo\ris est, et diu durans, nec a tinea unquam exterminatur. Unde et\ in templis propter diuturnitatem ex hoc ligno lacunaria fi\unt. Huius ligni resina cedria dicitur, que in conservandis libris\

men for food. In this context, the poet says: 'The first mortals belched the nut from their throats'; for before the ancients used corn for food, they lived on nuts. Again The beech tree, fagus, and the Italian oak, esculus, both nut-bearing trees, get their names, it is said or at any rate believed, because men formerly existed on their fruit, using them for their own food and for fodder. For esculus comes from esca, food; while fagus is a Greek word, for fagein in Greek means 'to eat'. The carob tree, cilicicon, is corrupted in Latin to siliqua. It got its Greek name because the fruit of its wood was sweet. For xilon is 'wood' in Greek and ilicon, 'sweet'. The juice pressed from its fruit is called in Greek acacia. Again The pistachio tree is so called because the shell of its fruit gives forth the scent of pure nard. The pitch-pine gets its name from its pointed leaves, for the ancients used the word pinnus to mean 'pointed'. The Greeks called one kind of pine possis, another peuce; we call it picea, because it oozes resin, pix. In the islands of Germany the 'tears' of this tree produce amber. For the sap, flowing down, solidifies, either in the cold or by the passage of time, and creates a precious stone, which gets its name, sucinum, amber, from its nature, because it is the juice, sucus, of the tree. The pine is thought to be beneficial to everything that grows beneath it, just as the fig tree does harm to everything. Again The fir tree, abies, is so called because it grows higher than other trees and stands high above them. It is characterised by the fact that it contains no earthly fluid and is accordingly considered easy and light to work. Some call it 'Gallic' because of its white colour. It has no knots in it. Again The cedar, cedrus, is the tree which the Greeks call cedros. Its leaves resemble those of the cypress. Its wood, however, has a pleasant scent which lingers for a long time and can never be destroyed by worms. For this reason - its durability - temple ceilings are made of cedar wood. The resin of this wood is called cedria and is so good for preserving books

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adeo est utilis ut perliniti ex ea nec tineas paciantur, nec per tem\pora consenescant.\ Iterum \ Cipressus Grece dicitur quod caput eius\ a rotunditate in canumen [A, cacumen] erigitur. Unde et conus vocatur, id est\ alta rotunditas. Hinc et fructus eius conum, quia rotunditas\ eius talis est ut conum imitetur. Unde et conifere cypressi\ dicuntur. Huius lignum cedro pene proximam habet virtutem, tem\ plorumque trabibus aptum inpenetrabili soliditate perseverat.\ Antiqui cipressi ramos prope rogum constituere solebant, ut odo\ rem cadaverum dum urerent oppriment iocunditate sui odoris.\ Item \ Juniperus Grece dicta sive quod ab amplo in angu\stum finit ut ignis sive conceptum diu teneat ignem, adeo\ ut si prune ex eius cinere fuerint cooperte, usque ad annum perve\niant, piro enim apud Grecos ignis est. \ Iterum \ Platanus a latitudine foliorum dicta vel quod arbor\ ipsa patula sit et ampla. Nam platos Greci latinum [PL, latum] vocant.\ Expressit huius arboris scriptura nomen et formam dicens:\ Quasi platanus dilata sum in plateis. Est autem tenerri\mus [A, tenerrimis] foliis ac mollibus vitium similibus. \ Iterum \ Quercus sive querimus quod ea soliti erant dii\ gentium responsum precanere, arbor multum an\nosa, sicut legitur de quercu Mambre sub qua habitavit\ Abraham, que fertur usque ad Constantini regis imperium per\ multa secula perdurasse, fructus huius galla appellatur. \ Item \ Fraxinus vocari fertur quod magis inter aspera loca\ montanaque fraga nascatur, hinc per dirivationem\ fractinus, sicut a monte montanus, de qua Ovidius: Et frax\inus utilis hastis. Alnus quod alatur amne, proxima enim\ aque nascitur, nec facile extra undas vivit, hinc et tenera

that when their binding is smeared with it they do not suffer damage from worms and they do not decay with the passage of time. Again The cypress is so called in Greek because its head rises from a round base to a point. For this reason it is also called conus, a cone, that is, 'a tall round shape'. On this account, its fruit, too, is called conus, because its round shape is such that it looks like a cone. As a result, the cypress is also called conifer, 'bearing fruit of a conical form'. The wood of the cypress has a quality close to that of the cedar and is suitable for the roof-beams of temples, because it remains firm and unyielding. The ancients used to place cypress branches near a funeral pyre, so that the stench of burning corpses would be smothered by their fragrance. Again The juniper is so called in Greek, either because its shape tapers from wide to narrow, like fire, or it continues to burn long after it has been kindled, so that if you cover live brands from its ashes, they will last for a year; piro [pur] is the Greek word for fire. Again The plane tree gets its name from the width of its leaves or because the tree itself has a wide spread. For the Greek word for 'broad' is platos. The Scripture portrays the name and shape of this tree, saying: 'As a plane tree I spread over the streets' (see Ecclesiasticus, 24:19). Its leaves are very tender and soft like those of the vine. Again The oak is called quercus or querimus because it was by means of this tree that heathen gods used to answer queries about the future. It lives to a great age, as we read in the case of the oak of Mamre, under which Abraham lived, which is said to have lasted for many centuries until the reign of the Emperor Constantine. The fruit of the oak is called gall. Again The ash tree, fraxinus, is said to get its name because its berry tends to grow in harsh and mountainous places; in this way fractinus is derived from fraga, as montanus, mountainous, comes from mons, mountain. Ovid says of it: 'the ash, good for making spears'.

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The alder, alnus, is so called because it is nourished by water; for it grows near water and survives with difficulty away from water. For this reason it is a delicate

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et mollis quia in humecti loco nutritur.\ Iterum \ Ulmus nomen accepit, quod uliginosis locis et humi\dis melius proficit. Nam in montanis et asperis minus leta\ est. Populus dicta quod ex eius calce multitudo nascatur. Cuius genus\ duplex est, nam altera est alba, altera nigra, alba autem populus dicta\ quia folia eius una parte sunt alba altera viridia. Hec ergo bicolor\ habens quasi noctis et diei notas quo tempore occasuque constat.\ Generat etiam resinam circa Heridanum fluvium vel ut\ alii memorant, in finibus Syrie.\ Iterum \ Salix dicta quod\ celeriter saliat, hoc est velociter crescat. Arbor lenta, vitibus\ habilis vinciendis. Cuius seminis hanc dicunt esse naturam\ ut siquis illud in poculo hauserit, liberis careat, sed et femi\nas infecundas efficit. Populus et salix et tilia, mollis ma\terie sunt, et ad sculpturam apte.\ Item \ Vimen vocari, eo quod vim habeant multam viro\ris, natura enim eius talis est, ut etiam et si arefacta\ abluatur virescit, deinde excisa atque in humo fixa, radicibus\ sese ipsa demergit.\ Item \ Buxus Grecum nomen est, ex\ parte a Latinis corruptum, pixos enim appellatur a Grecis,\ semper virens, et lenitate materie elementorum api\cibus apta, unde et scriptura: Scribe in buxo.\ Ysidorus de natura hominis \ Natura dicta eo quod nasci aliquid\ faciat, gignendi enim et faciendi\ potens est. Hanc quidam deum esse\ dixerunt, a quo omnia creata sunt\ et existunt. Genus a gignendo dic\tum cui dirivatum nomen e terra

and soft because it is nourished in a wet environment. Again The elm, ulmus, gets its name because it flourishes in a damp, uliginosus, environment. It does less well in mountainous and harsh places. The poplar, populus, is so called because from a single cutting many can be grown. There are two kinds of species: for one is white, the other black. The silver poplar, alba populus, is so called because its leaves are white on one side, green on the other. It is therefore bi-coloured, as if it carried the signs of night and day, which it displays in accordance with the time and position of the sun. The poplar which grows in the region of the River Po, Eridanus, or as others relate, in Syria, also produces a resin. Again The willow, salix, is so called because it springs, salire, swiftly, that is, grows rapidly. It is a pliant tree, suitable as a support on which to bind vines. They say it is the nature of its seed that if a man drinks it in a potion, he will be sterile; but it also makes women barren. The poplar, the willow and the lime tree, are of soft wood and suitable for carving. Again The osier, vimen, is so called because they have great strength in their greenery. Its nature is such that even if it is dried, it grows green again when you moisten it; if you then cut it and plant it in the ground, it takes root. Again The word for the box tree, buxus, is Greek, partly corrupted in Latin; for it is called pixos in Greek. It is always green and of a smooth wood, suitable for the letters of the alphabet. For this reason, the Scripture says: 'Write it on box wood' (see Isaiah, 30:8).

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Isidorus on the nature of man Nature, natura, is so called because it brings a thing to birth, nasci, for it has the power to beget and to form. Some have said that nature is God, by whom all things are created and exist. Race, genus, comes from gignere, to generate; this derives from the word for 'earth',

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ex qua\ omnia\ gignuntur.\ Ge enim Grece terra dicitur.\ Vita dicta\ propter vigo\ rem vel\ quod vim\ teneat nas\cendi atque\ crescendi.\ Unde et ar\bores vi\tam habere\ dicuntur\ quia gignunt\ et crescunt.\ Homo dic\tus quia ex\ humo est\ factus, sicut et in Genesi dicitur: Et creavit deus hominem de humo terre. Abusi\ ve enim pronunciatur, ex utraque substantia totus homo, id est ex\ societate anime et corporis. Nam proprie homo ab humo. Gre\ci enim antropum appellaverunt eo quod sursum aspectet\ sublevatis [PL, sublevatus] ab humo ad contemplationem artificis sui. Quod\ Ovidius poeta designat cum dicit: Pronaque cum spectant animalia\

from which all things spring. For the Greek word for 'earth' is ge. Life, vita, is so called from vigor, 'active power', or because it has within it the force of birth and growth. As a result, trees are said to have life, because they spring from the earth and grow. Man, homo, is so called because he is made from the soil, humus, as it says in the book of Genesis: 'And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground' (2:7). It is said incorrectly that man in his entirety is formed from two substances, that is, from the union of a soul and a body. Strictly speaking, man, homo, comes from soil, humus. The Greek word for man is antropos [anthropos], because he looks upwards, raised up from the ground to contemplate his creator. This is what the poet Ovid means, when he says: 'And though other animals are prone and fix

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cetera terram. Os homini sublime dedit celumque videre.\ Iussit et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus. Qui ideo erec\tus celum aspicit ut deum querat, non ut terram in\tendat, veluti pecora que natura prona et ventris obe\dientia finxit. Duplex est autem homo interior et exteri\or. Interior homo anima; exterio homo corpus. Anima\ autem a gentilibus nomen accepit, eo quod ventus sit.\ Unde et Grece ventus animos dicitur, quod ore trahen\tes aerem vivere videamus [PL, videamur]. Sed apertissime falsum est,\ quia multo prius gignitur anima quam concipi aer ore pos\sit, qui iam in genitricis utero vivit. Non est igitur aer\ anima quod putaverunt quidam qui non potuerunt\ incorpoream eius cogitare naturam. Spiritum idem esse quod\ animam evangelista pronuntiat dicens: Potestatem ha\beo ponendi animam meam, et potestatem habeo iterum\ sumendi eam. De hac quoque anima in ipso domini passio\nis tempore memoratus evangelista ita protulit dicens: Et\ inclinato capite emisit spiritum. Quid est emittere

their gaze upon the earth, he gave to man an uplifted face and bade him look at heaven and raise his countenance to the stars.' (Metamorphoses, 1, 84-6). Standing erect, he looks at the heavens in search of God; he does not turn towards the ground, like the beasts who have been fashioned by nature and obedience to their appetite to bend their heads.

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But man is twofold: inner and outer. The inner man is the soul; the outer, the body. The soul gets its name, anima, from the pagans, because they conceived of it as the wind; for this reason it is also called wind in Greek, animos, because we seem to live by taking air in through our mouths. This is clearly wrong, because the soul is created long before it can take air into its mouth and it is already alive in its mother's womb. The soul, therefore, is not the same as air, as some believe, who cannot conceive of its nature as being without

spiritum, nisi\ quod animam ponere? Sed anima dicta propter quod vivit.\ Spiritus autem vel spirituali natura vel pro eo quod inspiret in\ corpore. Item animum idem esse quod animam, sed anima\ vite est, animus consilii. Unde et dicunt philosophi, etiam\ sine animo vitam manere, et sine mente animam durare.\ Unde et amentes. Nam mentem vocari ut sciat, animam ut\ velit. Mens enim vocata quod emineat, vel quod meminit.\ Unde et immemores amentes. Quapropter non animas [PL, anima], sed quod ex\cellit in anima mens vocatur tanquam caput eius vel oculus.\ Unde et ipse homo secundum mentem ymago dei dicitur. Ita enim\

substance. The spirit, spiritus, is the same as the soul, anima, of which the evangelist speaks, saying: 'I have the power to lay down my life, anima, and I have the power to take it again' (see John, 10:18). It is to this same thing that the evangelist, recalling the time of our Lord's passion, refers, in this way: 'He bowed his head and gave up the ghost, spiritus' (John, 19:30). What does 'to give up the ghost, spiritus,' mean if not that he laid down his life, anima? But the soul, anima, is so called because it lives. The spirit, spiritus, is so called either because of its spiritual nature, or because it gives breath, inspirare, to the body. Again, the mind, animus, is the same as the soul, anima; but the soul is to do with life, the mind with thought. For this reason, philosphers say that life can continue even without the mind, animus, and the soul can endure without the intellect; this is demonstrated by those who are 'mindless', amentes. They call the intellect, mens, the faculty of knowing; the soul, anima, the faculty of willing. The intellect, mens, is so called because it stands out, eminere, in the soul, or because it has the capacity to remember, meminisse. Thus, those who are forgetful are also called 'mindless', amentes. For this reason, it is not the soul itself, but the most eminent part of it, the equivalent of its head or eye, that we call the intellect, mens. Thus man himself, because of his intellect, is called 'the image of God' (see Genesis, 1:26, 27). For in this way

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hec nomina adiuncta sunt anime ut una res sit. Pro effi\cientiis enim causarum diversa nomina sortita est anima.\ Nam et memoria mens est. Unde et immemores amen\tes. Dum ergo vivificat corpus anima est. Dum vult\ animus est. Dum scit mens est. Dum recolit memoria est.\ Dum rectum iudicat, ratio est. Dum spirat spiritus est. Dum\ aliquid sentit sensus est. Nam inde animus sensus dicitur,\ pro his que sentit. Unde et sententia nomen accepit. Cor\pus dictum eo quod corruptum perit. Solubile enim atque\ mortale est, et aliquando solvendum. Caro enim a crean\do est appellata. Crementum enim semen est masculi,\ unde animalium et hominum corpora concipiuntur.\ Hinc et parentes creatores vocantur. Caro enim ex quatuor\ elementis compacta est. Nam terra in carne est, aer in alitu,\ humor in sanguine, ignis in calore vitali. Habent enim\ in nobis elementa queque suam partem, cuius quid debetur\ compage resoluta. Caro enim et corpus diversa significant.\ In carne semper corpus, non semper in corpore caro. Nam caro\ est quod vivit, idem et corpus. Corpus quod non vivit\ idem nec caro. Nam corpus dicitur aut

these terms and the faculties they represent are united in the soul, so that it is a single thing.

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For different names are allocated to the soul in respect of its faculties. The memory, memoria, is also the intellect, mens; for this reason the forgetful are called 'mindless', amentes. When it gives life to the body, it is the soul, anima. When it wills something, it is the mind, animus. When it knows something, it is the intellect, mens. When it remembers, it is memory, memoria. When it judges what is right, it is reason, ratio. When it breathes, it is the life-giving spirit, spiritus. When it perceives or feels anything, it is sense, sensus. For the mind, animus, is called sense, sensus, on account of the things which it senses, sentire. For this reason, it is also known as the opinion, sententia. The body, corpus, is so called because it perishes in a state of corruption, corruptum. For it can be reduced and die and at some time will decompose.

quod post vitam est\ mortuum, aut sine vita est conditum. Interdum et eum [etiam]\ vita et corpus et non caro, ut herba et lignum. Sensus cor\poris quinque sunt, visus, auditus, gustus, odoratus et tac\tus. Ex quibus duo aperiuntur et clauduntur, duo semper\ patentes sunt. Sensus dicti, quia per eos anima subtilissime\ totum corpus agitatur, vigore sentiendi. Unde et presentia nun\cupantur quod sint pre sensibus sicut pre oculis. Visus est qui\ a philosophis humor vitreus appellatur. Visum enim\

But flesh, caro, gets its name from creare, to create. For the semen of the male has the power of growth; the bodies of men and animals are conceived from it. For this reason parents are also referred to as 'creators'. Flesh is composed of four elements. There is earth in the flesh itself, air in the breath, water in the blood, and fire in the living heat. For the elements each have their own part in us; if any part is withheld, the whole dissolves. Flesh, caro, and the body, corpus, mean different things. There is always a body where there is flesh, but where there is a body there is not always flesh. For flesh is that which lives, the same as the body. But a body which is not alive is not the same as flesh. For we use the word 'body', corpus, to mean either something which, after life, is dead, or something which was created without life. Sometimes also a thing can have life yet be called a body, corpus, not flesh, caro, like grass or wood. The body has five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Of these, two are opened and closed to sensations, two are always open. The senses, sensus, are so called because through them the soul very delicately activates the whole body with the force of sensation, sentire. As a result we say things are 'present', presentia, because they are before, pre, the senses, as, for example, they are before the eyes. Sight, visus, is what philosophers call humor vitreus. For

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quidam fieri asserunt aut terra, aut extrema etherea\ luce aut interno spiritu lucido per tenues vias a cerebro veni\entes, atque penetratis tunicis in aere exeuntis [PL, exeuntes] et tunc\ commixtione materie similis visum dantes. Visus\ dictus quod vivatior sit ceteris sensibus ac prestantior sive\ velocior, ampliusque vigeat, quantum memoria inter\ cetera mentis officia. Vicinior est enim cerebro unde om\nia manant. Ex quo fit ut ea que alios [e]pertinent sensus,\ Vide dicamus. Veluti condicimus [PL, cum dicimus]. Vide quomodo sa\pit, sic et cetera. Auditus appellatus quod voces hauriat,\ hoc est aere verberato suscipiat sonos. Odoratus quasi\ aeris odorat tactus. Tacto enim aere sentitur, sicut et ol\factus quod odoribus efficiatur. Gustus a gutture dictus.\ Tactus eo quod pertractet et tangat, et per omnia membra\ vigorem sensus aspergat. Nam tactu probamus, quicquid\ ceteris sensibus iudicare non possumus. Duo enim genera\ tactus sunt. Nam aut extrinsecus et usu venit quod fe\riat, aut intus in ipso corpore oritur. Unicuique enim sen\ sui propriam

some claim that sight comes either from the earth, or from an external air-born light or an internal lightbearing spirit, which travel from the brain through narrow passages, and, after penetrating the coating of the eye, emerge into the air and, mixed with similar matter, give vision.

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Vision, visus, is so called because, compared to the other senses, it is more lively, vivatior, more important, or swifter, velocior, and more powerful, vigere, as memory is, compared to the other faculties of the mind. For it is located closer to the brain, the source of all the senses. For this reason we use the word 'see' when we refer to things which pertain to the other senses. As when we say 'see how it tastes' and so on. Hearing, auditus, is so called because it receives, haurire, voices, that is, it takes up sounds from the air which has been struck by them.

naturam datam. Nam quod videndum\ et oculis capitur, quod audiendum auribus. Mollia ac\ dura tactu estimantur, sapor gustu, odor naribus ducitur.\ Prima pars corporis tantum, datumque illi hoc no\men eo quod sensus omnes et nervi inde inicium capiant,\ atque ex eo omnis vigendi causa oriatur. Ibi enim om\nes sensus apparent. Unde ipsius anime que consulit\ corpori quodammodo personam gerit. Vertex est ea pars qua\ capilli capitis colliguntur, et in qua cesaries vertitur,\ unde et nuncupatur. Calvaria ab ossibus calvis dicta\

The sense of smell, odoratus, comes, so to speak, from the phrase, aeris odorat tactus, 'the touch of the air carrying a scent'. For smell is experienced through the touch of the air, just as the other word for 'smelling', olfactus, comes from odoribus efficiatur, 'sensation acquired from odours'. Taste, gustus, gets its name from guttur, the throat. Touch, tactus, is so called because it takes hold of and handles things, and diffuses the force of the sensation through every limb. For we explore by touch whatever we cannot judge with the other senses. There are two kinds of touch. For the sensation of touching comes either from outside the body by experience, or it arises within the body itself. Each sense has been given its own peculiar nature. For what is visible is captured by the eyes; what is audible, by the ears. Softness and hardness are assessed by touch; flavour by taste; odour is brought by the nostrils. The head, caput, is the principal part of the body and gets its name because all the senses and nerves take, capere, their beginning from there, and the entire source of energy springs from it. It is the seat of all the senses. In a certain way it takes the role of the soul itself, which takes thought for the body. The crown, vertex, is the part of the head where the hair is gathered and on which the hair parts, vertere, which is how it gets its name. The word for skull, calvaria, comes from ossa calva, bare bones,

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delectionem [PL, per defectionem] et neutraliter pronuntiatur. Occipicium\ capitis pars posterior quas [PL, quasi] contra captium [PL, capitium] vel quod sit\ capitis retrorsum. Capilli vocati quasi capitis pili, facti\ ut decorem prestent, et cerebrum adversum frigus muniant,\ atque a sole defendant. Pilos enim dictos [PL, pili autem dicti] a pelle qua prode\unt, sicut et pilum dicitur a pila ubi pigmentum tunditur. Ce\saries a cedendo vocata, ideoque tantum virorum est. Virum\ enim tonsum esse decet, mulierem non decet. Come sunt\ proprie non cesi capilli, et est Grecus sermo. Nam comas Greci\ kaimoc [kaimos], a secando nominant. Unde et kirin tondere.\ Inde et cirri vocantur quod idem Grec maaonem\ vocant. Crines proprie mulierum sunt. Dicti enim crines\ eo quod vittis discernantur. Unde et discriminalia dicun\tur a quibus divisi religantur. Timpora sunt que calva\rie dextra levaque subiacent, que ideo sic nuncupantur\ quia moventur, ipsaque mobilitate quasi tempora a quibus\dam intervallis mutantur. Facies dicta ab effigie. Ibi enim\ est tota figura hominis et uniuscuiusque persone cognitio.\ Vultus vero dictus,

by ellipsis; it is used in the neuter form.

sensorgr

The occiput, occipicium, is the rear part of the head, as if the word came from contra capitium, 'opposite the covering of the head' or because it is behind the head, capitis retrorsum. The word for hair, capilli, comes as if from capitis pili, 'hairs of the head'. Hair was created to embellish the head and to protect the brain from cold and to keep the sun off it. The word for hair, pilos, comes from pellis, the skin, from which the hair emerges, as pilum, the pestle, comes from pila, the mortar, in which it pounds colours. A hairstyle is called cesaries, from cedere, to cut; for this reason it only applies to men. For cutting the hair is appropriate for men; it is unfitting for women. The word coma is strictly speaking, 'uncut hair', and comes from the Greek. For the Greeks call uncut hair kaimos from their word for 'cutting off'; they have also the word kirin [keirein] 'to clip or crop'.

eo quod per eum animi voluntas osten\ditur. Secundum voluntatem enim in varios motus mutatur.\ Unde et differunt sibi utroque. Nam facies simpliciter ac\cipitur, de uniuscuiusque naturali aspectu, vultus enim\ animorum qualitatem significat. Frons ab oculorum fo\raminibus nominata est. Hec ymago quedam animi men\tis motum specie sua exprimit, dum vel leta vel tristis est.\ Oculi vocati sive quia eos ciliorum tegminia occultant, ne qua\ incidentis iniurie offensione ledantur, sive quia occultum\ lumen habent id est secretum vel intus positum. Hic\

From this comes the word for curls, cirri, which the Greeks call maaonem [mallos], a lock of hair. The word crinis properly speaking refers to women's hair. The locks are so called because they are parted, discernere, by the bands of a filet. From this source also comes the word discriminalia, the hairpins by which the parted locks are fastened in place. The temples, timpora [tempora], lie below the skull, on the left and right. They are so called because they are mobile; with that mobility, they are changed at certain intervals like the seasons, tempora. The word for face, facies, comes from effigies, likeness. For it portrays the whole nature of a man and reveals each person's character. The countenance, vultus, is so called because it displays the desires, voluntas, of the soul. For it is changed, as the soul wills, into different movements of the features. For this reason the face, facies, and the countenance, vultus, differ from each other. For we understand by the face, facies, simply a person's natural appearance; the countenance, vultus, signifies their inner disposition. The forehead, frons, gets its name from the openings, foramen, in which the eyes are set. It provides a certain representation of the mind and expresses in its own appearance the motion of the intellect, showing when it is either happy or sad. The eyes, oculus, are so called either because the coverings of the eyelids hide them, occultare, lest they should be harmed by the impact of an injury, or because they have a hidden, occultus, light, that is, one which is secret or is located within. Here

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inter omnes sensus viciniores anime existunt. In oculis\ enim omne mentis indicium est. Unde et anime perturbatio\ vel hilaritas in oculis apparet. Oculi enim idem et lumi\na, et dicta lumina quod ex eis lumen manat, vel quod\ inicio sui clausam teneant lucem, aut extrinsecus acceptam\ visui proponendo refundant. Pupilla est medius punc\tus oculi in quo vis videndi est. Ubi quia parve ymagines\ vobis videntur propterea pupille appellantur. Nam par\vuli pupilli dicuntur, hanc plerique pupullam vocant. Vo\catur enim pupilla, quod sit pura atque impolluta, ut sunt\ puelle. Phisici dicunt easdem pupillas quas videmus in\ oculis morituros ante triduum non habere, quibus non visis\ certa est desperatio. Circulus vero quo a

the eyes are, of all the senses, the most closely allied to the soul. For they reflect every aspect of the intellect. As a result, confusion or joy within the soul is visible in the eyes.

sensorgr

The eyes are the same as lights and are called 'lights', lumen, because light pours forth from them, or because from the beginning they hold light enclosed within them, or because they take in light from outside and reflect it to create vision. The pupil, pupilla, is the middle point of the eyes, in which the power of seeing resides. Because you see small images at this point, it is called pupilla, a word

pupilla albe partes oculi\ separantur discreta nigredine corona dicitur, quod rotunditate\ sua ornet ambitum pupille. Volvos enim quidam appel\lant vertices ipsos oculorum a similitudine valvarum.\ Palpebre sunt sinus oculorum a palpitatione dicte, quia\ semper moventur. Concurrunt enim invicem, ut assiduo\ motu reficiant obtutum. Munite sunt enim vallo capillorum\ ut et apertis oculis siquid inciderit repellatur, ut et sompno\ cohibentibus tanquam involuti quiescant latentes. In summi\tate enim palpebrarum locis quibus se ultraque clausa [PL, utreque clause] contin\gunt, extant annotati ordine servato capilli tutelam oculis\ ministrantes, ne irruentes facile iniurias excipiant et ex eo\ noceantur, ut pulveris vel cuiusquam crassioris materie\ arceant contactum, aut ipsum quoque aerem concidendo\ mitificent, quo tenuem atque serenum faciunt visum. La\crimas a laceratione mentis quidam putant dictas, alii\

for 'little children'. For little boys are called pupilli. Many people call the pupil pupilla, 'the little girl', because it is pure and undefiled, as girls are. Physicians say that those who are dying lack for three days before death those pupils which we see in the eyes; if they are not visible, it is a clear sign that the patient's condition is hopeless. The circle by which the white of the eye is separated from the pupil, defined by its black colour, is called the corona, because its roundness enhances the circumference of the pupil like a garland, corona. Some call the upper lid, vertex, of the eye, volvus, from its similarity to the leaf of a door, valva. The eyelids, palpebre, fold over the eyes. The word comes from palpitatio, 'frequent, rapid movement', because the lids are always in motion. For they move quickly to meet each other, so that by their constant motion they refresh the vision. The eyelids are fortified by a rampart of hairs, so that if anything should fall into the eyes when they are open, it is repelled; also that, with the lids closing in sleep, the eyes should rest hidden as if wrapped up. At the extreme edges of the eyelids, in the places where they touch each other when closed, lashes stand in line, providing protection for the eyes, lest they should be easily hurt by things blundering into them and be damaged as a result. These lashes are also designed to prevent contact with dust or any heavier matter, or, in addition, soften the air itself by filtering it, making vision clear and bright. Some think that the word for tears, lacrime, comes from the phrase, laceratio mentis, 'rending of the mind'; others

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existimant quod Greci lassiria vocant. Cilia sunt tegmina\ quibus cooperiuntur oculi. Et dicta scilia quod celent oculos,\ tegantque, tuta custodia. Supercilia dicta, quia superposita sunt\ ciliis. Que iccirco pilis vestita sunt, ut oculis munimenta\ pretendant, et sudorem a capite defluentem depellant. Inter\cilium vero est medium illud inter supercilia quod sine pilis\ est. Gene sunt inferiores oculorum partes, unde barbe\ inchoant. Nam Grece gene barbe. Hinc et gene quod inde\ incipiant barbe gigni. Male sunt eminentes sub oculis\ partes ad protectionem eorum subposite. Vocate autem\ male sive quod infra oculos in rotunditatem prominent,\ que Greci melam appellant sive quod sunt supra maxillas.\ Maxille per diminutionem a malis sicut paxillus a palo\ taxillus a talo. Mandibule sunt maxillarum partes, ex\ qua et nomen factum. Barbam veteres vocaverunt quod\ virorum sit non mulierum.

think that it is because the Greeks call them lassiria [dakrua].

sensorgr

Cilia is the word for the lids with which the eyes are covered. They are called cilium or scilium because they conceal, celare, the eyes and cover them to keep them safe. Eyebrows, supercilia, are so called because they are placed above the eyelids. They are clad with hairs so as to offer protection to the eyes and turn aside the sweat which flows down from the head. Intercilium, however, is space between the eyebrows which is without hairs. The cheeks, gena, are the part of the face under the eyes, where the beard begins to grow. For the Greek

Aurium inde dictum nomen\ a vocibus hauriendis. Unde et Virgilius: Vocemque his au\ribus hausi. Aut quia vocem ipsam Greci audien[lidien] vocant\ ab auditu. Per immutationem enim littere aures quasi\ audes nuncupate sunt. Vox enim repercussa per anfractus\ quo sensum excipiant audiendi earum sompnum facit.\ Pinnola summa pars auris ab acumine dicta. Pinnion\ enim antiqui acutum dicebant. Unde et bipennis et pin\na. Nares iccirco nominantur, quia per eas odor vel spiritus\ manare non desinit, sive quia nos odore admonent, ut o\dorem aliquid acuamus. Unde econtra inscii ac rudes\ ignari dicuntur. Olfecisse enim veteres scisse dicebant. Terentius:\ Ac non toti sex mensibus prius olfecissent, quam ille quicquam ceperit.\

word for beard is gene [geneias]. They are also called gena because it is here that the beard begins to grow, gigni. The cheek bones, mala, are the protruding parts under the eyes, placed under them as protection. They are called mala either because they project under the eyes in their roundness, which the Greeks call mela [melon], or because they are placed above the jawbone, maxilla. The jawbone, maxilla, is a diminutive of mala, as paxillus, peg, comes from palus, stake, taxillus, a small die, from talus, a full-sized die. The mandibles, mandibule, are parts of the jaws, which is how they get their name. The ancients called barba, beard, that which is peculiar to men, not women. The word for ear, auris, comes from the phrase voces haurire, 'to hear voices'. In this context Virgil says: 'I have heard the voice with my ears' (see Aeneid, 4, 359). Alternatively, it is so called because the Greek word for voice itself is audien [aude] from the same root as auditus, hearing. For by the substitution of a letter, ears are called aures for audes. For the voice, rebounding along the twisting passage by which the ears take in their sense of hearing, produces a sound. The tip of the ear, pinnola, 'little point', gets its name from its sharpness. For the ancients called anything sharp pinnion. From this we get bipennis, two-edged, and pinna, a fin. The nostrils, nares, are so called because odour or breath continually flows, manare, through them, or because through odour they warn us, admonere, that we should learn something from an odour. For this reason, in contrast, the unlearned and uncouth are called ignari, ignorant. The ancients said that to smell something was to know something. Terence: 'And would they not have smelled it six whole months before he started anything?' (Adelphi, 397).

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Narium recta pars eo quod equaliter sit in longitudine et\ rotunditate porrecta, columpna vocatur. Extremitas eius\ pirula ac formula pomi peri. Que vero dextra levaque sunt pen\nule ab alarum similitudine. Medium autem interfini\um. Os dictum quod per ipsum quasi per ostium et cibos intus\ mittimus, et sputum foras proicimus, vel quia illuc ingredi\untur cibi et inde egrediuntur sermones. Labia a laben\do [PL, lambendo] sunt nominata. Quod autem superius est labium dici\mus, quod inferius eo quod grossius

The straight part of the nose, of equal extent in roundness and length, is called 'the column', columna.

sensorgr

The end of the nose is called pirula, 'little pear', because it is pear-shaped. But the right and left parts of the nose, from their resemblance to wings, are called pennule, 'little wings'.

sit labrum. Alii virorum\ labra, mulierum labia dicunt. Lingue a ligando cibo\ putat Varro nomen impositum. Alii quod per articulos\ sonos ligat verba. Sicut enim plectrum cordis, ita lin\gua illiditur dentibus, et vocalem sonum efficit. Dentes\ Greci odontes dicunt, et inde in Latinum videntur tra\here nomen. Horum primi precisores dicuntur, quia omne\ quod accipitur ipsi prius incidunt. Sequentes canini vo\cantur, quorum duo in dextera maxilla, et duo in sinistra\ sunt. Et dicti canini quia ad similitudinem caninorum\ existunt, et canis ex ipsis ossa confringit, sicut et homo\ ut quod non possunt priores precidere, illis tradunt ut\ confringant. Hos vulgus pro longitudine et latitudine et\ rotunditate, colomellos vocant. Ultimi sunt molares, qui\ concisa a prioribus atque confracta subigunt et molunt, atque\ immassant. Unde et molares vocati sunt. Dentium autem\ numerum discernit qualitas sexus. Nam in viris plures,\ in feminis pauciores existunt. Gingive a gignendis dentibus\ nominate. Facte sunt ad decorem dentium, ne torti hor\rori pocius quam ornamenta [PL, ornamento] existerent. Palatum nostrum sicut\

The part between nostrils is called the septum, interfinium. The mouth, os, is so called because, as if through a door, ostium, we send food inside and eject sputum outside; or because food goes in there and speech comes out. Lips, labia, get their name from lambere, to lick. The upper lip we call labium; the lower, and thicker, labrum. Others say that men's lips are labra; women's, labia. Varro thinks that the tongue, lingua, got its name from the phrase, ligare cibum, to bind food. Others say that it is because it binds words together from distinct sounds. For the tongue hits the teeth, like a plectrum hitting strings, producing the sound of the voice. The Greeks call teeth odontes, from which they seem to have taken their Latin name, dentes. The first of the teeth are called incisors, precisores, because they first cut up, praecidere, everything that we take into our mouth. The Next are called canines, canini; two of them are in the right jaw, two in the left. They are so called because they look like the teeth of dogs, canis. Dogs use these teeth to break up bones, just as men do; such food as the incisors cannot cut up, they pass on to the canines to break up. They are commonly called colomelli, 'little columns', because of their length, breadth and roundness. The last of the teeth are called molars, molares; they work, grind and chew the food which the incisors have cut up and the canines have broken up; they get their name from molere, to grind. The number of teeth is determined by sex. For there are more in a man's mouth; fewer in a woman's. The gums, gingive, are so called because they produce, gignere, the teeth. They were created to adorn the teeth, lest a row of crooked teeth might seem more of a horror than an ornament. Our palate, palatum,

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celum positum est, et inde palatum a palo [PL, polo] per dirivationem.\ Sed et Greci similiter palatum uranum appellant eo quod\ pro sui concavitate celi similitudinem habeat. Fauces a\ fundendis vocibus nominate vel quod per eas famur. Arthe\rie vocate sive quod per eas a pulmone aer hoc est spiritus fertur,\ seu quod artis et angustis meatibus spiritum vitalem retineant.\ Unde vocis sonos emittunt. Qui

is placed like a vault over the mouth; the word comes from polus, a pole, or figuratively, the sky. The Greeks call the palate uranus [ouranos], since in its curved shape it resembles the sky.

sensorgr

The throat, fauces, gets its name from the phrase fundere voces, 'to produce sounds', or because we speak, fari, through it.

soni uno modo sonarent, nisi\ lingue motus distantias vocis efficerent. Toles Gallica\ lingua dicuntur, quas vulgo per diminutionem toxillos\ vocant, que in faucibus turgescere solent. Mentum dictum\ quod mandibule inde oriantur, vel quod ibi iungantur.\ Gurgulio a gutture nomen trahit, cuius meatus ad os\ et nares protendit, habens viam qua vox ad linguam trans\mittitur ut possit verba collidere. Unde et garrire di\cimus. Rumen proximum gurgulioni, quo cibus et pocio\ devoratur. Hinc bestie que cibum revocant ac reman\dunt, ruminare dicuntur. Sublinguium vel operculum\ gurgulionis quasi parva lingua que foramen lingue\ recludit a pituita. Collum dictum quod sit rigidum\ et teres ut columpna baiulans caput et sustentans\ quasi capitolium. Cuius anterior pars gula vocatur,\ posterior cervix. Cervix autem vocata, quod per eam par\tem cerebrum ad medullam spine dirigitur quasi cerebri\via. Veteres autem plurali tantum numero cervices di\cebant. Prius Ortensius cervicem singulariter. Cer\ vix autem numero singulari membrum ipsum significat,\ nam pluraliter contumaciam sepe demonstrat. Cicero in\ Verrinis: Pretorem tu accuses frange cervices. Humeri dicti\

The windpipes, artherie, are so called because air, that is the breath, aer, is conveyed through them from the lung, or because they keep the vital breath in narrow, artus, confined passages. From these they produce the sounds of the voice. The sounds would be all of one kind if the movements of the tongue did not make them different. Toles, a word in the Gallic tongue meaning goitre, becomes in common speech, by diminution, toxilli, tonsils, which often swell up in the throat. The chin is called mentum, or 'coping stone', because the two mandibles begin or are joined together there. The soft palate, gurgulio, gets its name from guttur, the gullet. Its passage extends to the mouth and nostrils, having within it a channel by which the sounds of the voice are sent to the tongue, so that it can bring them together as words. From this we get the word garrire, to babble. Next to the windpipe is the oesophagus, rumen, by which we swallow food and drink. Hence animals which regurgitate food and chew it again, are said to ruminate, ruminare. The epiglottis, sublinguium, is otherwise known as 'the lid' of the windpipe. It is like a little tongue which shuts off the opening at the rear of the tongue from secretions such as phlegm. The neck, collum, is so called because it is rigid and rounded like a column, columpna, carrying the head and supporting it like a capitol. The front part is called the throat, gula; the rear, the nape, cervix. The nape, cervix, is so called because the brain, cerebrum, is linked in a straight line through that section to the spinal chord; it is, so to speak, cerebri via, 'the route of the brain'. The ancients spoke of napes, or necks, in the plural. Hortensius was the first to speak of it in the singular. In fact, cervix in the singular means that specific part of the body. In the plural, it often signifies 'obstinate resistance'. Cicero in his orations against Verres: 'You accuse the praetor. Curb your boldness, cervices' (6,110). The shoulders humeri,

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quasi armi ad distinctionem hominis a pecudibus mu\tis, ut hi humeros ille armos habere dicantur. Nam proprie armi\ quadrupedum sunt. Olam summi humeri pars poste\ rior. Bracchia a fortitudine nominata. Bari enim Grece,\ forte et grave

are like armi, forequarters. They are so called to distinguish men from dumb animals, so that we say men have shoulders, humeri; animals, forequarters, armi. For, strictly speaking, 'forequarters' applies to four-legged animals.

sensorgr

significatur. In bracchis enim thori lacer\torum sunt et insigne musculorum robur existit. In\ his sunt tori idem musculum, et dicti tori, quod illic vis\cera torta videantur. Cubitum dictum quod ad cibos su\mendos in ipso cumbamus. Ulna secundum quosdam utriusque\ manus extensio est, secundum alios cubitus, quod magis verum\ est quia Grece ulenos cubitus dicitur. Ale sub brachia sunt appel\late, eo quod ex eis in modum alarum motus bracchorum\ inchoat, quas quidam ascellas vocant, quod ex eis bra\chia cilluntur id est moventur. Unde et oscilla dicta ab eo quod oscillantur hoc est moveantur ora. Nam cillere est movere.\ Has quidam subhircos vocant propter quod in plerisque\ hominibus hircorum fetorem reddunt. Manus dicta quod\ sit tocius corporis munus. Ipsa enim cibum ori ministrat\ ipsa operatur omnia atque dispensat, per eam accipimus et da\mus. Abusive autem manus etiam ars vel artifex. Unde\ et manus precipium [PL, pretium] dicimus. Dextra vocatur a dando, ipsa\ enim pignus pacis datur. Ipsa testis fidei atque salutis\ adhibetur, et hoc est illud apud Tullium: Fidem publicam\ iussu senatus dedi id est dextram. Unde et apostolus dicit: Dext\ras mihi dederunt et Barnabe societatis. Leva quod aptior \ sit ad levandum. Sinistra autem vocata quasi sine dextera\ sive quod rem fieri sinat. A sinendo enim sinistra voca\ta est. Palma est manus expansis digitis sicut et tractus\

The part at the rear of the highest point of the shoulder we call the shoulder-blade, ola. The word for arms, brachia, is associated with that for strength. For in Greek barus means 'strong' and 'heavy'. Muscles swell between the shoulder and elbow and in muscles there is remarkable strength. In the arms there are bulges, tori, which are muscles; they are so called because the inner parts seems to be twisted, tortus. The elbow, cubitus, is so called because we lean on it, cumbere, to eat. The ulna, according to some, is an extension of either hand; according to others, of the elbow; the latter seems more likely to be true because the elbow in Greek is ulenos [olene]. The pits under the arms, ale, are so called because the movement of the arms begins there, like that of wings, ale. Some call the armpits ascelle, because from that point the arms are set in motion, cillere. For this reason they are also called oscilla, because the arms are swung, oscillare, that is they are moved, movere, from the extremity of the body, ora; since movere and cillere mean the same, to move from the extremity becomes ora cillere. Some call the armpits subhirci, 'undergoats',because in many people they give off the rank smell of goats. The hand, manus, is so called because it performs a service, munus, for the whole body. For it serves food to the mouth, does everything and disposes of everything; with it, we take and we give. The word is used incorrectly for labour or workmen, 'hands'. For this reason, we talk about manupretium, 'workman's wage'. The right hand, dextra, gets its name from dare, to give, for it is given as a pledge of peace. It is used as a proof of faith and in greeting, and is used in this context in Tully: 'By order of the Senate, I have pledged the public faith', that is, the right hand (Cicero, Catiline, 3, 8). And the apostle says: 'They gave to me and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship' (Galatians, 2:9). The left hand, leva, is so called because it is more suited to raising, levare. It is also called sinistra, sine dextera, 'without the right hand', so to speak, or because it permits, sinere, something to be done. For sinistra comes from sinere. The palm, palma, is the hand with the fingers spread; when they are contracted

sensorgr

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pugnus. Pugnus autem a pugillo dictus, sicut palma ab\ spansis palme ramis. Digiti nuncupati vel quod decem sunt,\ vel quia decenter iuncti existunt. Nam habent in se nume\rum perfectum et ordinem decentissimum. Primus pollex\ vocatus quod inter ceteros polleat virtute et potestate. Secundus\ index et salutaris sive demonstratorius, quia fere eo salu\tamus, vel ostendimus vel indicamus. Tercius impudi\ cus, quod plerumque per eum obprobrii insectatio exprimitur.\ Quartus anularis eo quod in ipso anulus geritur. Idem et\ medicinalis, quod eo trita colluria a medicis colliguntur [PL, collinuntur].\ Quintus auricularis pro eo quod eo aurem scalpimus. Un\gulas ex Greco vocamus, illi enim has onices dicunt. Trun\cus media pars corporis a collo ad inguinem. De quo Ni\gidius: Caput collo vehitur, truncus sustinetur coxis et genibus\ cruribusque. Torax a Grecis dicitur anterior pars trunci a collo usque\ ad stomachum, quam nos dicimus archam eo quod ibi\ archanum sit, id est secretum quo ceteri arcentur. Unde et area [PL, arca] \ et ara dicta quasi res secrete. Cuius eminentes pulpe ma\mille. Inter quas pars illa osse aspectus [PL, ossea pectus] dicitur, dextra levaque\ coste. Pectus vocatum quod sit pexum, inter eminentes ma\millarum partes. Unde et pectinem dici, quod pexos ca\pillos faciat. Mamille vocate quia rotunde quasi male per\ diminutionem sunt. Papille capita mammarum quas su\gentes comprehendunt. Et dicte papille quod eas infantes\ quasi palpant dum lac sugunt. Proinde mamille om\nis eminentia uberis. Papilla vero breve illud lac trahit.\ Ubera vero dicta vel quia lacte uberta, vel quia humida [PL, uvida] humore scilicet lactis in modum uvarum plena. Lac vim nominis a colore\

it is called the fist, pugnus. The word comes from pugillus, a handful, just as the word for the palm, palma, comes from the outspread branches of the the palm tree. Fingers are called digiti, either because there are ten, decem, of them, or because they are joined together in a proper fashion, decenter. For they amount in themselves to a perfect number and are ranged in a most regular order, The first, the thumb, pollex, is so called because it surpasses, pollere, the others in strength and power. The second finger, index, is also known as salutaris or demonstratorius, the greeting or indicating finger, because we generally use it in greeting, showing or pointing. The third finger is called impudicus, lewd; it is frequently used to express the pursuit of something shameful. The fourth is the ring finger, anularis, because it is the on which a ring is worn. It is also called medicinalis, the medical finger, because it used by physicians to smear on ground-up salves. The fifth finger is called auricularis, because we scrape our ear, auris, with it. Our word for nails, ungule, comes from the Greek, for they call them onices. The trunk, truncus, is the middle part of the body, from the neck to the groin. Nigidius says of it: 'The head is carried by the neck, the trunk is supported by the hips, knees and legs' (Opera, 108). Thorax is the Greek word for the front part of the trunk from the neck to the stomach; we call it the ark, archa, because what is there is arcanus, hidden, that is, secret; others are kept out by it. For this reason both arca, a chest, and ara, an altar, have names implying secrecy. The soft mounds on this part of the body are called breasts, mamille. Between them is a bony part called the breast bone, pectus. To the right and left are the ribs, coste. The breast bone, pectus, is so called because there is a nap, pexus, between the protruding parts of the breasts. In the same way, a comb is called pecten, because it makes hairs smooth. The breasts, mamille, are so called because they are round, as if the word were a diminutive of mala,

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apple. The nipples, papille, are the tips of the breast; suckling infants take hold of them. They are called papille because babies seem to stroke them, palpare, while they suck milk from them. Accordingly, the word mamilla refers to the whole mound of the breast; uber, the part from which the baby is suckled. But the nipple is the short bit that conveys the milk. Uber is so called either because it is filled, uberta, with milk, or because it is moist, uvida, with fluid, namely, full of milk, as a grape, uva, moist with juice. Milk, lac, gets the force of its name from its colour

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trahit quod albus liquor. Leucos enim Greci album dicunt,\ cuius natura ex sanguine commutatur. Nam post partum siquid\ sanguinis non dum fuerit uteri nutrimento consumptum,\ naturali meatu fluit in mammas, et earum virtute albes\cens, lactis accipit qualitatem. Cutis est que in corpore pri\ma est appellata quod ipsa corpori superposita incisionem\ paciatur prima. Cutis enim Grece incisio dicitur. Idem et pellis, quod\ externas iniurias corporis tegendo pellat, pluviasque et ven\ tos solisque ardores perferat. Pellis autem mox detracta sub\ acta iam corium dicitur. Corium autem per dirivationem caro\ appellatum quod eo tegatur, sed hoc in brutis animalibus propri\um. Pori corporis Greco nomine appellantur, qui Latine proprie\ spiramenta dicuntur, eo quod per eos vivificus spiritus exterius mi\nistretur. Arvina est pinguedo cuti adherens. Pulpa est caro\ sine pinguedine, dicta quod palpitet, resilit enim sepe.\ Hanc plerique et viscum vocant, propter quod glutinosa sit. Mem\bra sunt partes corporis. Artus quibus colligantur membra,\ ab artando dicti. Nervi Greca dirivatione appellati, quos\ illi neutra vocant. Alii Latine vocatos nervos putant, eo quod\ artuum coniunctiones invicem his inhereant. Maximam\ autem virium substantiam nervos facere certissimum est.\ Nam quanto fuerint densiores tanto propensius augescere\ firmitatem. Artus dicti quod colligati invicem nervis\ coarcentur, id est stringantur, quorum diminutiva sunt articuli.\ Nam artus dicimus membra maiora ut brachia, articula [i]\ minora membra ut digiti. Compago capita sunt ossuum\ dicta, eo quod sibi compacta sunt nervis, velut glutino quo\ dam adhereant. Ossa sunt corporis solidamenta, in his\

because it is a white fluid. For the Greek word for white is leucos [leukos]. The nature of milk comes by a process of change from blood. For after birth, any blood not consumed as nourishment for the womb, flows by its natural passage into the breasts and, becoming white from their particular quality, acquires the properties of milk. Skin, cutis, is what you meet first on the body. It is so called because, placed over the body, it is the first part to suffer any cut. For the Greek word for 'cut' is cutis. Skin or hide, pellis, is the same thing. It is so called because it keeps off, pellere, external injuries by covering the body, and takes the force of rain, wind and the heat of the sun. When the skin has been removed, what is now revealed underneath is called 'hide', corium. The word is derived from caro, flesh, because flesh is covered by it, but this applies to brute animals. The pores, pori, of the body have a Greek name; in Latin they are properly called spiramenta, 'breathingholes', because the vitalising spirit is supplied through them from outside. Arvina is the fat which adheres to the skin. Pulpa is flesh without fat, so called because it pulsates, palpitare, for it often recoils. Many also call it viscus, because it has a gluey quality. Limbs, membra, are the parts of the body. The joints, artus, by which the members are fastened together, get their name from artare, to compress. Sinews, nervi, get their name from the Greek; the

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Greeks call them neutra [neura]. Others think that they are called nervi, strings, in Latin, because the connections of the joints are in turn attached to them. It is definitely the case that the sinews are the greatest source of our strength. For the thicker they are, the more likely they are to increase our strength. Limbs or joints, artus, are so called because, bound together in turn by the sinews, they are compressed, coartare, that is, drawn together; the diminutive of artus is articulus, joints. For we call the larger limbs, like the arms, artus; the smaller limbs, like the fingers, are articuli. Compago is the word we use for the heads of the bones, because they are pressed to each other by the sinews, as if by glue. Bones, ossa, are the foundations of the body; in them

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enim posicio omnis roburque subsistit. Omnia autem a\ busto [ab usto] dicta propter quod cremarentur ab antiquis sive ut\ alii putant ab eo quod ibi pateant, namque ubique cute vis\ceribusque obtecta celantur. Medulle appellate quod madefa\ ciant ossa, irrigant enim et confortant. Vertibule[a] sunt\ summe ossuum [PL, ossium] partes crassioribus nodis conglobate, dicte\ ita eo quod ad inflexionem membrorum illa vertantur. Car\tilagines ossa mollia et sine medulla. Quod genus auri\cule et narium discrimen et costarum extremitates habent\ sive operacula ossuum [PL, ossium] que moventur. Et dicti cartilagines\ quod levi attritu carent dolore dum plectuntur. Costas ap\pellari quidam putant quod ab ipsis interiora custodiantur,\ et tota mollicies ventris vallata salvetur. Latus quia ia\centibus nobis, latet enim leva pars corporis. Dextro au\tem lateri habilior motus est, levo fortior et oneri ferendo\ accommodatior. Unde et leva nuncupata quod aptior\ sit ad levandum aliquid et portandum. Ipsa enim gestat\ clipeum, ensem, pharetram et reliqua onera, ut expedita\ sit dextera ad agendum. Dorsum est a cervice usque ad\ renes. Dictum autem dorsum quod superficies durior cor\poris, in modum saxi fortis, et ad portandum et ad perpe\tiendum. Terga quia in ea supini iacemus in terra quod\ solus homo potest. Nam muta animalia tantum aut\ in ventre aut in latere iacent. Unde in animalibus abusi\ve terga dicuntur. Scapula a scandendo dicitur. Intersca\ pilium est spacium quod inter scapulas est, unde et nomi\natum. Pale sunt dorsi dextra levaque eminentia mem\bra dicta quod in luctando eas primimus, quod Greci\

is the basis of its posture and all its strength. The word comes from ustus, burnt, either because the ancients burned bones or, as others think, because bones are visible when flesh is burnt, for indeed everywhere else they are hidden under a covering of skin and organs.

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Marrow, medulla, is so called because it moistens the bones, refreshing and strengthening them. The vertebrae, vertibula, are the extremities of the bones, pressed together by thick knots; they are so called because they swivel, vertere, to allow the members to bend in different directions. Cartilages, cartilagines, are soft bones without marrow. The external part of the ear, the partition between the nostrils and the ends of the ribs are of this kind, or the coverings of those bones which are articulated. They are so called because, if they rub together lightly when they are bent, there is no pain, carere dolore. Ribs, costa, are so called, some think, because the interior of the body is guarded, custodire, by them; surrounded by them, as by a palisade, the entire soft part of the belly is kept safe. The side, latus, is so called because when we lie down it is hidden, latere, for it is the left part of the body. On the right side, movement is easier; the left is stronger and better fitted for carrying a load. For this reason, the left, leva, is so called because it is more suitable to lifting, levare, and carrying anything. It is the left side which carries the shield, sword, quiver and other burdens, leaving the right hand free for

action. The back, dorsum, runs from the neck to the loins. It is so called because it is a very hard, durior, surface of the body, strong like stone, able to carry loads and to bear things steadfastly. The hinder parts,terga, get their name because we lie flat on them on the ground, terra, something that only man can do. For dumb animals can only lie either on their belly or side. For this reason it is incorrect to use the word in connexion with animals. The shoulder, scapula, comes from scandere, to mount. The interscapilium is the space between the shoulders, from which it gets its name. The protruding parts on the right and left of the back are called pale, because we press on them in wrestling, which the Greeks

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palin dicunt. Spina est iunctura dorsi dicta quod habeat\ radiolos acutos cuius iuncture spondilie appellantur propter\ partem cerebri que fertur per [h]os longo tractu ad ceteras cor\poris partes. Sacra spina est ima perpetue spine quam Greci\ hyronoston vocant quoniam primum infante concepto nascitur,\ ideoque et bestia ad primum a gentibus diis suis dabatur, unde\ et sacra spina dicitur. Renes ait vario [PL, Varro] dictos quod rivi\ ab his obsceni humoris nascuntur. Nam vene et medulle te\nuem liquorem desudant in renibus. Qui liquor rursus\ a renibus calore venerio resolutus decurrit. Lumbi ob libi\dinis lasciviam dicti, quia in viris causa corporee volup\tatis in ipsis est, sicut in umbilico feminis. Unde et ad Job\ in exordio sermonis dictum est: Accingere sicut vir lum\bos tuos, ut in his esset resistendi preparatio, in quibus libidi\nis est usitata dominandi occasio. Umbilicus est medius\ locus corporis, dictus quod sit umbus illorum [PL, iliorum]. Unde et um\bo appellatur locus in medio clipei a quo pendet. Ilium\ Greco sermone appellatur, quod ibi nos obvolvamus,\ Grece enim ileos obvolvere dicitur. Clunes vocate quod sunt\ iuxta collum quod est longum. Nates quod in ipsis innitimur\ dum sedemus. Unde et conglobata est in eis caro ne pre\mentis corporis mole ossa dolerent. Genitalia corporis\ partes ut nomen ipsum docet gignende sobolis acceperunt\ vocabulum, quod his procreatur et gignitur. Hec et pudenda\ pro verecundia sive a pube unde et indumento operiuntur.\ Dicuntur autem ista et inhonesta quia non habent eam speciem\ decoris, sicut membra que in promptu locata sunt. Idem et\ veretrum quia viri est tantum, sive quod ex eo virus emittitur.\

call palin [pale].

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The spine, spina, is what we call the series of joints of the back, because it has sharp little spokes; its joints are called spondilie, from the part of the brain which is carried by them on a long course to other parts of the body. The sacral spine, sacra spina, is the end of the continuous spine, which the Greeks call hyronoston [hieron ostoun], since it is the first part of an infant to be created after conception; and also because it was the first part of the beast offered by pagans in sacrifice to their gods; for this reason also it is called sacra spina. Varro says that the kidneys, renes, are so called because streams, rivus, of the obscene fluid [semen] rise there. For the veins and spinal cord, medulla, exude a thin liquid into the kidneys. Freed by the heat of sexual desire, it runs down from the kidneys. The loins, lumbi, get their name from the wantonness of lust, libido, because the seat of fleshly pleasure in men is there, just as in women it is in the navel. For this reason the Lord says to Job at the beginning of his speech: 'Gird up now thy loins like a man' (Job, 38:2), in order that he should make ready his resistance there, where the dominance of lust normally begins. The navel, umbilicus, is the centre of the body, so called because it is like a knob, umbo, in the middle of the groin. For this reason the boss in the middle of a shield, from which it hangs, is called umbo.

The word for groin, ilium, comes from the Greek, because we cover ourselves there, for the Greek word ileos [eileo]means 'to wind round'. The buttocks, clunes, are so called because they are beside the straight gut, colum quod est longum. The rump, nates, is so called because we bear down upon it, inniti, when we sit. For this reason the flesh on the rump is compressed into a round shape, lest the bones should ache under the weight of the body pressing down on them. The sexual organs, genitalia, as their name itself shows, are parts of the body named from the begetting of offspring, which are created and produced by them. They are also called pudenda, 'shameful parts', either on account of our modesty, or from the hair, pubis, with which they are covered at puberty. They are called 'shameful' because they lack the same decent appearance of the other parts of the body which are visible. The same part is called the penis, veretrum, because it is found in men only, viri est tantum, or because semen, virus, is emitted from it.

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Nam virus proprie humor dicitur, fluens a natura viri. Testicula\ per diminutionem a testibus dicti, quorum numerus incipit\ a duobus. Hii semen calamo ministrant quod ab spine me\dulla et renes et lumbi suscipiunt, ad germen procreandi.\ Viscus est pellis in qua testiculi sunt. Posteriora vocata quod\ retro sunt, et a vultu aversa, ne dum alvum purgamus\ inquinaremus aspectum. Meatus inde appellatus quod\ per eum meant, id est egeruntur stercora. Femora dicta quod ea\ parte a femina sexus viri discrepet, sunt autem ab inguini\bus usque ad genua. Femina autem per dirivationem femorum\ partes sunt, quibus in equitando tergis equorum inheremus.\ Unde olim preliatores sub feminibus equos amisisse dicebantur.\ Coxe quasi coniuncte axes in ipsis enim femora moventur\ quorum concava vertebra vocantur, quod in eis capita femorum\ vertunt. Suffragines quia subtus fra[n]guntur, id est flectuntur, non\ supra sicut in brachiis. Genua sunt commixtiones femorum\ et crurium, et dicta genua eo quod in utero sint genis opposita,\ coherent enim sibi et cognita [PL, cognata] sunt oculis lacrimarum indicibus\ et misercordie. Nam a genis genua dicuntur. Denique complica\tum gigni formarique hominem, ita ut genua sursum sint\ quibus oculi formantur, ut cavi ac reconditi fiant. Hennius:\ Atque genua comprimit arta gena. Inde est quod homines dum\ ad genua se prosternunt, statim lacrimantur. Voluit enim eos\ natura uterum maternum rememorare ubi quasi in tenebris\ considebant, antequam venirent ad lucem.

For virus strictly means the fluid which comes from a man's organs of generation.

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The word for testicles, testiculi, is a diminutive of testis, witness; there is a minumum of two. They supply to the penis, calamus, semen which the kidneys and loins take from the spinal cord, in order to create a fetus. The skin which contains the testicles is called viscus. The posterior parts of the body are so called because they are at the rear, turned away from the face, lest when we empty our bowels, we should defile our gaze. The anus or passage, meatus, is so called because excrement passes, meare, through it, that is, it is discharged from it. The thighs, femur, are so called because the male sex is distinguished from the female, a femina, by that part; they extend from the groin to the knee. The word femen comes from femur; the femina are the parts of the thighs with which we grip the horse's back when we ride. For this reason, it used formerly to be said that warriors lost their horses 'from under their thighs'. The word for hips, coxe, comes, so to speak, from coniuncte axes, 'axles joined together', for the thighs

Crura dicta\ quia in his currimus et gressum facimus, sunt autem sub genibus\ usque ad suras. Tibie vocate quasi tube sunt autem et longi\tudine et specie similes. Talus dictus a tolo, nam tolus est\

are moved on them. Their joints are called hollows, concava, because the heads of the thigh bones turn in them. The hollows of the knee, suffragines, are so called because they are broken underneath, subtus franguntur, that is, they bend downwards and not upwards like the arm. The knees are the junction between the thighs and the legs. They are called genua because in the womb they are opposite the upper part of the face, gena; knees and cheeks press closely together and, in the same way as the eyes signify grief, the knees signify the desire for mercy. For genua comes from gena. Finally, they say that a man is born in a folded shape, so that his knees are on top, as a result of which his eyes are formed so that they are hollow and hidden. Ennius: 'And the cheek presses against bent knees' (Incerta, 14). For this reason, when men fall on their knees, they start to cry. For nature wills them to remember their mother's womb, where they stayed, before they came into the light. The legs, crura, are so called because we run, currere, and take steps on them; they extend from under the knee to the lower calf. The word for shins, tibia, comes, so to speak, from tuba, trumpets, which they resemble. The ankle, talus, comes from from the word for a dome, tholus; for a dome is

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eminens rotunditas. Unde et fastigium templi rotundi\ tolus vocatur. Talus autem sub crure est sub talo calcanei.\ Pedes ex Greca ethimologia nomen sortiti sunt. Hos enim\ Greci podas dicunt, qui alternis motibus solo fixi incedunt.\ Plante a planicie nuncupate, quia non sunt rotunde ut\ in quadrupedis ne stare non possit bipes homo, sed plane\ atque longiores formate sunt, ut stabile corpus efficerent. Sunt\ autem plante anteriores partes que etiam de multis ossibus\ constant. Calcis prima pars plante a callo illi nomen impo\situm quo terram calcamus. Hinc et calcaneus. Solum inferi\ or pars pedis dictum quia eo vestigia terre imprimimus. Sed et\ solum dicitur omne quod aliquid sustinet quasi solidum, unde\ et solum terra quod cuncta sustineat, et solum pedis, quod\ totam molem corporis portat. Viscera non tantum intestina\ dicimus, sed quicquid sub corio est a visco quod est inter cutem\ et carnem. Item viscera capita nervorum ex sanguine et ner\vis copulata. Item lacerti sive mures quia sic in singulis mem\bris corporis loca sunt ut cor in media tocius corporis parte\ appellanturque a nomine similium animalium sub terra\ delitescentium. Nam inde musculi a murium similitudine.\ Idem etiam tori quod illic

is of a prominent, round shape. For this reason the roof of a circular temple is called tolus.

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The ankle is under the leg; under the ankle is the heel, calcaneum. The feet, pedes, have been assigned a name from the Greek. For the Greeks call them podas [poas], meaning that they proceed with alternating footsteps, firmly on the ground. The sole, planta, gets its name from planities, a flat surface, because they are not rounded, as they are in quadrupeds, lest a two-legged person might not be able to stand on them, but are flat and long in shape, so that they keep the body stable. The sole has a front part which also is made up of many bones. The heel, calx, at the end of the foot, gets its name from callus, thick skin, with which we tread the earth. Calcaneus, heel, comes from the same root. The sole is the under part of the foot, so called because with it we imprint our footsteps. Everything

viscera torta videantur. Cor a Greca\ appellatione dirivatum, quod illi cardinan dicunt, sive\ a cura, in eo enim omnis sollicitudo et scientie causa manet.\ Quod ideo pulmoni vicinius est, ut cum ira accenditur, pul\monis humore temperatur. Huius due arterie sunt, e quibus\ sinistra plus sanguinem habet, dextera plus spiritum. Unde et in\ dextro brachio pulsum inspicimus. Precordia sunt loca cor\dis vicina quibus sensus perspicitur. Et dicta precordia eo quod\

which supports something is called solum, as if it were solid, solidus; for this reason the earth is called solum, because it supports everything, and the sole of the foot, solum, because it bears the whole weight of the body. We use the word viscera not only for intestines, but for anything under the skin, from viscus, the layer between the skin and the flesh. Likewise the word is used of the tips of sinews, which are made from blood combined with nerves. Again, muscles, lacerti, or mures, exist because there are places in every member of the body like the heart, cor, in the middle part of the whole body; and they are called by names of animals -lacerti, lizards, mures, mice - which like them lie hidden under the ground. Thus the muscle, musculus, is name from its likeness to a mussel, or 'sea-mouse'. It is also called torus because in areas where there is muscle, the inner parts seem to be twisted, tortus. The heart, cor, comes either from the Greek word, because they call it cardinan [kardia], or from cura, care, for the heart is the seat of concern and the source of knowledge. For this reason it is near the lung, so that when it is aflame with anger, it can be cooled by the fluid of the lung. The heart has two arteries, arterie: the left one has more blood; the right, more life-giving spirit. For this reason we see the pulse beating in the left arm. Precordia are places near the heart in which we perceive feeling. They are so called because

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ibi sit principium cordis et cogitationis. Pulsus vocatus\ quod palpitet cuius indicio aut infirmitatem intelligi\mus aut sanitatem. Huius duplex est motus aut simplex\ aut compositus. Simplex est qui uno saltu constat. Com\positus est qui ex pluribus motibus inordinatus et inequalis\ existit qui motus certa habent spacia. Dactilium percussum quam\diu sine vicio sunt, siquando [a]ut scitatiores sunt ut dorcacizon\tes, aut leniores ut mirmizones, mortis signa sunt. Vene dic\te eo quod vie sunt natantis sanguinis atque rivi per corpus omne\ divisi, quibus universa membra irrigantur. Sanguis ex Greca\ ethimologia nomen duxit, quod vegetetur, et sustentetur et vivat.\ Sanguis autem est dum in corpore est, effusus vero cruor dicitur.\ Nam et cruor vocatus ab eo quod effusus decurrit, vel ab eo\ quod currendo corruat. Alii cruorem interpretantur sanguinem\ corruptum qui emittitur. Alii aiunt vocatum sanguinem quia\ suavis sit. Sanguis autem non est integer nisi in iuvenibus.\ Nam dicunt phisici minui sanguinem per etatem, unde in se\nibus tremorem. Proprie autem sanguis anime possessio est.\ Inde genas lacerare mulieres in luctu solent, inde et purpuree ve\ stes et flores purpurei mortuis prebentur. \ Ysidorus de membris hominis \ Pulmo ex Greco trahit vocabulum,\ pulmonem enim Greci pleumon vocant, eo\ quod cordis flebellum sit in quo pneuma\ id est spiritus inest, per quod et agitantur et moventur,\ unde et pulmones vocati sunt. Nam Grece pneuma a spiritu dicitur,\ qui flando et agitando aerem amittit et recipit, a quo mo\ventur pulmones et palpitant, et aperiendo se ut flatum capi\ant stringendo ut eiciant, est enim organum corporis. Iecur\

there is the origin of emotion and of thought. The pulse, pulsus, is so called because it throbs, palpitare. From its sign we learn whether the body is in in sickness or health. The motion is twofold, single or complex. The single motion consists of a single movement. The complex is uneven and irregular because it makes many movements, with fixed intervals between them. It strikes a dactyl as long as there is nothing wrong; if the beats are more rapid, like dorcacizontes [dorkadazontes] or fainter, like mirmizontes [murmizontes], they are a sign of death. The veins, vena, are so called because they are the channels, vie, of flowing blood and streams which are spread throughout the whole body, by which the members are supplied with blood. Blood, sanguis, gets its name from Greek etymology, because it is active, it survives and it has life. When it is in the body, it is called sanguis; when it pours forth, it is called gore, cruor. It is called cruor because when it is spilled, it runs down, decurrere; or because when it runs, it sinks into the ground, corruere. Others take cruor to mean corrupt blood which is discharged from the body. Others say blood is called sanguis because it is sweet, suavis. Except in young people, the blood supply does not remain constant. For physicians say that it diminishes with age, which is why old people have tremors. Strictly speaking, however, blood is a property of the soul. For this reason women tear their cheeks in grief, and we furnish the dead with purple clothing and purple flowers. Isidore on the parts of man's body The lung, pulmo, gets its name from the Greek. The Greeks call the lung, pleumon, because it acts as a fan for the heart, in which the pneuma, that is, the spirit resides, by which they are both activated and set in motion; for this reason lungs too are called pulmones. In Greek the spirit is called pneuma; by inflating and activating, it sends out and takes in air, causing the lungs to move and throb, opening in order to catch a breath, contracting to expel it, for it is the organ of the body. The liver, iecur

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nomen habet eo quod ibi ignis habeat sedem qui in cerebro sub\volat. Inde ad oculos ceterosque sensus et membra diffunditur,\ et calore suo ad se succum ex cibo tractum vertit in sanguinem\ quem ad usum pascendi nutriendique singulis membris pre\bet. In iecore autem persistit voluptas et concupiscentia, iux\ta eos qui de phisicis disputant. Fibre iecoris sunt extremi\tates sicut et extreme partes foliorum in vitibus, sive quasi\ lingue eminentes, dictas autem fibras quod apud gentiles\ in sacras [sacris] ad Phebi aras ferebantur ab ariolis, quibus oblatis\ atque succensis responsa acciperent. Splen dictum a supplemento\ ex contraria parte iecoris ne vacua existeret, quem quidam\ etiam risus causa fictum existimant. Nam splene ridemus,\ felle irascimur, corde sapimus, iecore amamus, quibus quatuor\ elementis constantibus integrum est animal. Fel appellatum\ quod sit folliculus gestans humorem qui vocatur bilis.\ Stomachus Grece os vocatur, eo quod hostium ventris ipse\ cibum excipiat, atque in intestina transmittat. Intestina di\cuntur eo quod corporis interiori parte cohibentur. Que iccirco\ longis nexibus in circulorum modum ordinata sunt, ut sus\ceptis cibis non impediantur. Omentum membranum quod\ continet intestinorum maiorem partem quod eippaon\ Greci vocant. Disceptum intestinum quod discernit ventrem\ et cetera intestina a pulmonibus ad cor. Cetum intestinum\ quod sit sine foramine et exitu, quod Greci tiaonentipon di\cunt. Ieiuna tenue intestinum, unde et ieiunium dicitur.\ Venter autem et alvus, et uterus inter se differunt. Venter\ est qui acceptos cibos digerit et apparet extrinsecus, pertinetque\ a pectore ad inguinem. Et dictus venter quod per totum corpus\

gets its name because it is the seat of a fire which flies up to the brain. From there the fire is spread to the eyes and other senses and members of the body, and by its own heat, draws the moisture from food to itself and turns it into blood which supplies each part of the body with food and nourishment. Pleasure and lust reside in the liver, according to those who debate scientific matters. The extremities of the liver are filaments, fibre, like the outer parts of leaves on the vine or like projecting tongues. They are said to be so called because among pagans they were borne by soothsayers in religious rites to altars of Phoebus, so that when they had been offered up and burned, the soothsayers would receive answers. The spleen, splen, gets its name from supplementum, because it fills up the part opposite the liver lest there should be an empty space; some reckon that it was created as a seat of laughter. For we laugh with the spleen, grow angry with the bile, discern with the heart and love with the liver; the whole animal is formed from these four elements in harmony. The gall bladder, fel, is so called because it is a little bag holding the humour called bile, bilis. The gullet, stomachus, is called in Greek os because, as the door, ostium, of the belly it takes in food and sends it on to the intestines. The intestines, intestina, are so called because they are contained in the inner, interior, part of the body. They are arranged in long coils, so that they are not obstructed by food that has been swallowed. The caul, omentum, is a skin containing the greater part of the intestines; the Greeks call it epiploon. The diaphragm, disceptum intestinum, is so called because it separates the belly and other intestines from the lungs and heart. The blind intestine, cecum, is so called because it lacks an opening or exit; the Greeks call it tiaonentipon [tuphlon enteron]. The thin intestine is calledieiuna; from it comes ieiunium, fast day. The belly, venter, the bowel, alvus, and the womb, uterus, differ from each other. The belly digests food that has been swallowed and is visible from outside; it extends from the breast to the groin. It is called venter because it conveys throughout the body

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vite alimenta transmittat. Alvus est que cibum re\cipit et purgari solet. Sallustius: Simulans sibi alvum\ purgari. Et vocata alvus quod abluatur, id est, purgetur.\ Ex ipsa enim sordes stercorum defluunt. Uterum\ sole mulieres habent, in quo concipiunt ad similitudinem\ caliculi, tamen, auctores uterum pro utroquelibet sexu ventrem\ plerumque ponunt, nec poete tantummodo sed et ceteri. Vocatus\ autem uterus quod duplex sit, et ab utraque in duas se di\vidat partes que in diversis diffuse ac reflexe circumpli\cantur in modum cornu arietis vel quod impleatur fetu\ interius. Hinc est uter quod aliquid intrinsecus habuerit ut mem\bra et viscera. Aqualiculus autem proprie porci est. Hinc ad\ ventrem translatio. Matrix dicitur, quod in eo generetur. Semen\ enim receptum confovet, confovendo corporat, corporatum\ in membra distinguit. Vulva vocata quasi valva, id est, ianua\ ventris, quod vel semen recipiat, vel quod ex ea\ fetus procedat.\ Vesica dicta, quia sicut vas aque ita de renibus urina collecta\ completur, et humore distenditur. Cuius usus in volucri\bus non habetur. Urina autem dicta sive quod urat,\ sive quia ex renibus egreditur. Cuius indicio et salus et egritudo futura monstratur. Qui humor vulgo locium [lotium]\ dicitur, quod eo lota, id est munda vestimenta afficiantur.\ Semen est quod iactum sumitur, aut a terra aut ab utero,\ ad gignendum vel fructus vel fetus. Est enim liquor ex\ cibi et corporis decoctione factus, ac diffusus per venas atque\ medullas. Qui inde desudatur in modum sentine, concres\cit in renibus eiectusque per coitus, et in utero mulieris suscep[tus]\ calore quodammodo viscerum et menstrualis irrigatione\

the food of life. The bowel is the part that receives the food and is regularly purged. Sallust: 'Pretending that he purged his bowels' (History, 1, 52). It is also called the bowel, alvus, because it is washed out, abluere, that is, purged. For from it flows out excremental filth. Only women have a womb; in it they conceive as in a small cup; but there are writers who assign a womb to either sex, often calling it venter, belly - and not just poets, but others also. The womb is called uterus because it is double and divides itself into two parts which bend in different and opposing directions like a ram's horn; or because it is filled inside with a fetus. For this reason it is called uter, a bag, because it has something inside it, such as limbs and intestines. Paunch, aqualiculus, is properly the word for a pig's belly. For this reason it is translated as venter, belly. It is called the matrix because the baby is generated in it. It fosters the semen it has received, and by cherishing it, turns it into flesh; and what it has turned into flesh, it separates into parts of the body. The vulva is so called as if it were a folding-door, that is, the door of the belly; either because it receives the semen or because the fetus goes forth from it. The bladder, vesica, is so called as if it were a watercontainer; thus it is filled with urine collected from the kidneys, and is distended by the fluid. There is no need for this in birds. Urine is so called either because it burns, urere, or because it comes from the kidneys. Its appearance reveals future health or sickness. The fluid is commonly called lotium, because you use it to wash clothes clean, lotus. Semen, seed, is so called because once scattered it is consumed either by the earth or by the womb, to produce either fruits or a fetus. For it is a liquor concocted from food and the body, which is spread through the veins and spinal cord. From there it is sweated out like bilgewater; it thickens in the kidneys and is ejaculated during intercourse, and taken up into the woman's womb, by a sort of intestinal heat and the flow of menstrual

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sanguinis formatur in corpore. Menstrua super\ vacuus mulierum sanguis. Dicta autem men\strua a circuitu lunaris luminis, quo solet hoc\ evenire profluvium. Luna enim Grece mene dicitur,\ hec et muliebria nuncupantur. Nam mulier solum a\nimal menstruale est, cuius cruoris tactu fruges non\ germinant, acescunt musta, moriuntur herbe,

blood, it is shaped in the body.

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The menstrual flow is the superfluous blood of a woman. It is called menstrua from the cycle of the light of the moon which regularly brings about this flow. For the Greek word for 'moon' is mene; menstruation is also called muliebria, 'womanly

amit\tunt arbores fetus, ferrum rubigo corrumpit, nigres\cunt aera, siqui canes inde ederint, in rabiem efferuntur.\ Glutinum asfalti quod nec ferro nec aquis dissolvitur,\ cruore ipso pollutum sponte dispergitur. Post plurimos\ autem dies menstruos ideo non esse semen generabile,\ quia non est iam menstrualis sanguis a quo perfusus irri\getur. Tenue semen muliebribus locis non adheret, labi\tur enim nec habet vim adherendi, similiter et crasum vim\ non habet gignendi, quia muliebri sanguini se miscere non\ potest, propter nimiam sui spissitudinem. Hinc et steriles\ mares vel feminas fieri, vel per nimiam seminis crassitu\dinis, vel sanguinis, vel propter nimiam raritatem. Pri\mum enim aiunt cor hominis fingi, quod in eo sit et vita\ omnis et sapientia deinde quadragesimo die totum corpus\ expleri, quod ex abortionibus collectum est. Alii fetus a ca\pite exordium sumere dicunt. Unde et in avium fetu pri\mum oculos in ovis fingi videmus. Fetus autem dictus\ quod adhuc in utero foveatur. Cuius secunde dicuntur folli\culus qui simul cum infante nascitur continetque eum\. Dictus quia et cum editur, sequitur. Nasci autem patribus\ similes aiunt, si paternum semen validius sit. Ma[t]ribus\

business'. For the woman is the only creature which menstruates. When they come into contact with menstrual blood, crops do not put forth shoots, wine turns sour, grasses die, trees lose their fruit, iron is corrupted by rust, copper blackens, if dogs eat it they become rabid. Asphalt glue, which cannot be melted by fire or dissolved by water, when it is tainted by this blood, disintegrates by itself. After many days of menstruation, the semen cannot generate, because there is no further flow of menstrual blood by which it can be moistened. Semen of thin consistency does not stick to the womanly parts and is unstable, for it has not the strength to adhere; likewise thick semen has not the power to generate, because it cannot mix with the woman's blood, so dense is it. For this reason men and women become sterile, either through excessive density of the semen, or the blood, or excessive thinness. For they say that a man's heart is the first part to come into existence, because in it is all life and wisdom; then on the fortieth day, the whole body is complete, a fact gathered from abortions. Others say that the fetus takes its beginning from the head. For this reason we see in eggs that in the fetus of birds the eyes are the first things to grow. The fetus is so called because it is still being fostered, fovere, in the womb. The afterbirth, secunda, of the fetus is called folliculus, 'little sack'; it is produced simultaneously with the baby and contains it. It is called secunda because when the baby comes forth, it follows, sequi. They say that children are born resembling their fathers, if the father's semen is stronger. They resemble the mother

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si ma[t]ris hac ratione[s] similes exprimi vultus. Qui autem\ utriusque parentis figuram reddunt, equaliter mixto pa\terno maternoque semine concipiuntur. Avorum proavorumque\ similes fieri, quia sicut in terra multa semina occulta\ sic in hominibus semina celantur, nobis figuram parentum\ redditura. Ex paterno autem semine puellas nasci, et\ ex materno pueros, quia omnis partus constat duplici se\mine, cuius pars maior cum involvit, occupat similitudi\nem sexus. In corpore nostro quedam et utilitatis causa facta\ sunt ut viscera, quedam et utilitatis et decoris ut sensus in\ facie, et in corpore manus et pedes. Quorum membrorum et uti\litas magna est, et species decentissima. Quedam tantum\ decoris, ut mamille in viris, et in utroque sexu umbilicus. Que\dam discretionis ut in viris genitalia, barba prolixa, pectus\ amplum. In mulieribus leves gene et angustum pectus, ad\ concipiendos autem et portandos fetus renes et latera dilatata.\ Quod ad hominem et partes attinet corporis ex parte dictum\ est, nunc etatis [PL, etates] eius subiungamus. \ De etate hominis \

if her seed is stronger; for this reason countenances have a similar appearance.

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Infants who have the face of both parents were conceived in an equal mix of their their paternal and maternal seed. They resemble grandparents and great-grandparents because, just as there are many seeds hidden in the earth, so there are seeds hidden in mankind, which give us the features of our ancestors. From the paternal seed girls are born; from the maternal, boys; because each birth consists of a double seed, and when the greater of the two parts overcomes the other, it produces a similarity in sex. In our body certain things are created for a functional purpose, such as the intestines; some for utility and ornament, like the sensory organs on the face and the hands and feet on the body. The usefulness of these

Gradus etatis vi sunt. Infancia, puericia,\ adolescentia, iuventus, gravitas, atque se\nectus. Prima etas infantia est, pueri nas\centis ad lucem, que porrigit in vii annis.\ Secunda puericia est, id est pura et nec dum ad\ generandum apta, tendens usque ad quartum decimum an\num. Tercia adolescentia ad gignendum adulta, que porri\gitur usque viginti octo annos. Quarta iuventus firmissima\ omnium etatum finiens in quinquagesimo anno. Quinta\ etas senioris, id est gravitas que est declinatio a iuventute in\

parts is great and their appearance most seemly. Some are there for ornament only, like men's nipples and the navel in both sexes. Some are there to distinguish one sex from the other, like the genitals, the long beard and the broad chest in men; the soft cheeks and narrow breast in women; but for conceiving and carrying babies their loins and hips are widened. What pertains to man and the parts of his body has already been said; now we will go on to the ages of his life. Of the age of man There are six stages of life. Infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity and old age. The first age is infancy, which lasts from the time the child enters the light till it is seven. The second is childhood, that is, when the child is pure and not yet old enough to generate young; it extends to the fourteenth year. The third is adolescence, when the child is old enough to generate children; it lasts until the twenty-eighth year. The fourth is youth, the the most robust of all the ages; it ends in the fiftieth year. The fifth age is that of riper years, that is, of maturity, and represents the movement away from youth to

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senectutem, non dum senectus set iam non iuventus, quia\ senioris etas est quam Greci presbiterum vocant, nam senex\ apud Grecos non presbiter sed geron dicitur. Que etas a quinquagesimo\ anno incipiens, septuagesimo terminatur. Sexta etas senec\tus que nullo annorum tempore finitur, sed post quinque illas\ etates quantumcumque vite est senectuti deputatur. Senium\ autem pars est ultima senectutis, dicta quod sit terminus\ sexte etatis. In his igitur sex spaciis philosophi descripserunt vi\tam humanam, in quibus mutatur et currit et ad mortis\ terminum pervenit. Pergamus ergo breviter predictos gradus eta\tum, ethimologias earum in homine demonstrantes. In\fans dicitur homo prime etatis. Dictus autem infans quod\ adhuc fari, id est loqui non potest. Non dum enim bene ordina\tis dentibus minus est sermonis expressio. Puer a puritate\ vocatus, quia purus est et nec dum lanuginem floremque\ genarum habens. Hi sunt ethebi a Phebo dicti, nec dum\ pro nativitate viri adolescentuli lenes. Puer autem tribus\

old age; you are not yet ancient, but you are no longer young; the Greeks call someone at this age of maturity presbiteros, an elder; an old man they call geron. This age, beginning in the fiftieth year, ends in the seventieth.

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The sixth age is that of old age, which has no enddate; whatever of life is left after the five Previous ages is classed as 'old age'. The final part of old age is senility, senium, so called because it marks the end of the sixth age, sexta etas. Philosophers, therefore, have categorised human life in these six periods, during which it is changed and runs its race and comes to an end, which is death. So, let us proceed briefly through the abovementioned categories of the ages, pointing out their etymology in the context of man.

modis dicitur. Pro nativitate ut Ysaias: Puer natus est nobis.\ Pro etate ut octennis decennis. Unde est illud: Iam pueri\le iugum tenera cervice gerebat. Pro obsequio et fidei puri\tate ut dominus ad prophetam: Puer meus es tu, noli timere, dum\ iam Jeremias longe puericie excessisset annos. Puella par\vula quasi pulla, unde et pupillos non pro conditione sed\ pro etate puerili vocamus. Pupilli autem dicti quasi sine ocu\lis, hoc est a parentibus orbi. Hi autem vere pupilli dicuntur\ quorum patres vel parentes ante decesserunt, quam ab his no\men acciperent, ceteri orbi vocantur. Orphani idem qui et\ pupilli. Illud enim Grecum nomen est, hoc Latinum. Nam\

Man at the first stage is called infans; this is because he is incapable of speaking, fari. As his teeth are not yet arranged correctly, his capacity to produce words is restricted. Boy, puer, is so called from purity, puritas, because he is pure, with no down or bloom yet on his cheeks. These are ethebi [ephebi], named after Phoebus; not yet grown men but gentle little boys. The word 'boy' is used in three ways. In the context of birth, as in Isaiah: 'Unto us a child is born' (9:6). In the context of age, as 'a boy of eight' or 'a ten year-old boy'. In this context: 'Now he bore the yoke on his tender neck'. And in the context of compliance and purity of faith, as the Lord said to the prophet: 'You are my son, do not fear' (see Jeremiah, 1:7-8), although Jeremiah had long since outlived the years of his childhood. Girl, puella, comes from parvula, very small female, or 'chicken', pulla, so to speak. For this reason we refer to 'orphans', pupillus, not from their status but because of their childish age. They are called pupillus as if they were without eyes, that is, bereft, orbus, of their parents. They are properly called 'orphans' if their parents died before they were named; others call them 'parentless', orbi. 'Orphan', orphanus, means the same as pupillus. The one is the Greek word; the other, the Latin;

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et in psalmo ubi legitur: Pupillo tu eras adiutor. Grecus habet\ orphano. Puberes a pube vocati, id est a pudentia corporis nun\cupati, quod hec loca primo lanuginem dicunt. Quidam\ autem pubertatem existimant, id est c[e]um puberem esse qui xiiii\ annos expleverit, quamvis tardissime pubescat. Certissime\ autem c[e]um puberem esse qui et ex habitu corporis pubertatem\ ostendit, et generare iam possit. Puerpere sunt que annis pu\erilibus pariunt. Unde et Oracius: Laudatur primo iam prole\ puerpera nato. Et dicte puerpere vel quod primo partu gravantur\ vel quod primum pueros pariunt. Adolescens dictus eo quod\ sit ad gignendum adultus, sive accrescere et augere. Iuvenis\ vocatus quod iuvare possei [posse] incipit ut in bobus iuvenci cum\ a vitulis discesserint. Est enim iuvenis in ipso etatis incremen\to positus, et ad auxilium preparatus. Nam iuvare hominis\ est opus aliquod conferentis. Sicut autem tricesimus perfecte\ etatis est annus in hominibus, ita in pecudibus ac iumentis ter\cius robustissimus. Vir nuncupatus quia maior in eo virtus\ est quam in feminis. Unde et virtutis nomen accepit sive quod\ vi agat femina. Mulier vero a mollicia tanquam mollior r [l] de\tracta littera vel mutata, est mulier. Utrique enim fortitudine\ et imbecillitate corporum separantur. Sed ideo viri maxima\ virtus, mulieris minor ut paciens viro esset, scilicet ne femi\nis repugnantibus libido cogeret viros aliud appetere, aut\ in alium sexum proruere. Dicitur mulier igitur secundum femineum sex\um, non secundum corruptionem integritatis, et hec est lingua\ sacre scripture. Nam Eva statim facta de latere viri sui, non\ dum contacta a viro mulier appellata est, dicente scriptura:\ Et formavit eam in mulierem. Virgo a viridiori etate dicta\

as also in the psalm where it says: 'Thou art the helper of the fatherless' (Psalms, 10: 14). The Greek text has orphano. The pubescent are so called from pubis, that is, they get their name from the private parts of the body because these first show the down of puberty. Some think of puberty as a specific age, that is, they call 'pubescent' someone who has reached the end of his fourteenth year, even though the signs of puberty may appear much later. It is certain, however, that a child has reached puberty when it shows the physical signs and can generate children. The word puerpure refers to women who give birth during the years of puberty. In this context Horace says: 'The young mother is praised for her firstborn male' (Odes, 4, 5, 23). The word is also used of those who are pregnant with their first child, or those who bear sons for the first time. The adolescent, adolescens, is so called because he is old enough to beget children, or because he grows in maturity and size. A young man, iuvenis, is so called because he begins to be able to help, as among oxen bullocks, iuvencus, are so named when they have withdrawn from the calves. For a young man is at that particular growth period and is ready to be of help. For it is incumbent on a man to devote himself to helping others. Just as the thirtieth year is that of perfect age in men, so the third is that of greatest strength among cattle and beasts of burden. Man, vir, is so called because there is greater virtue, virtus, in him than in women. It is for that reason that he takes the name, or because he acts with force in his relationship with woman. Woman, mulier, however, gets her name from her softness, mollicia, as if mollior, softer, with the letter l removed or changed, giving mulier. There are differences between men and women in physical strength and weakness. But because the man's strength is greater, the woman's is less and she is subject to him, lest rejected by women, lust should drive men to seek something else, or to fall on their own sex. Woman gets her name, therefore, from her female sex, not as a result of her corruption of man's integrity, as the words of the holy scripture show. For Eve was made directly from her husband's side, and was called 'woman' before she had been touched by a man, as the scripture says: 'He made the rib a woman' (see Genesis, 2: 22).

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A virgin, virgo, is so called because she is in the green, viridus, or blooming age of her life

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est, sicut et virga, sicut et vitula. Alias ab incorruptione quasi\ virago, quod ignoret femineam passionem. Virago vocata\ quia virum agit, hoc est opera virilia facit, et masculini vigo\ris est. Antiqui enim fortes feminas ita vocabant. Virgo autem\ non recte virago dicitur, si non viri officio fungitur, mulier vero\ si virilia opera agit, recte virago dicitur ut Amazona. Que vero nunc\ femina antiquitus vira vocabatur, sicut a servo serva, sicut\ a famulo famula, ita a viro vira. Hinc et virginis nomen qui\dam putant. Femina vero a partibus femorum dicta ubi sexus\ species a viro distinguitur. Alii Greca ethimologia femi\nam ab ignea vi dictam putant, quia vehementer concupis\cit, libidinosiores enim viris feminas esse, tam in mulieribus\ quam in animalibus. Unde nimius amor apud antiquos fe\mineus vocabatur. Senior est adhuc viridior. In sexto libro Ovidius: Senior inter iuvenemque [PL, senemque]. Terentius: Quo iure sumus\ adolescentiores. Non utique magis adolescens, sed minus ut\ senior minus sene ubi comparativus gradus minus signifi\cata [PL, significat] positivo. Ergo senior non satis sicut iuvenior intra\ iuvenem, sicut pauperior intra pauperem. Senes autem qui\dam dictos putant a sensus diminutione, et quod iam\ pro vetustate desipiant. Nam phisici dicunt stultos homi\nes esse frigidioris sanguinis, prudentes calidi. Unde et se\nes in quibus iam friget, et pueri in quibus nec dum calet\ minus sapiunt, inde est quod convenit sibi infantium etas\ et senum. Senes enim per nimiam etatem delirant, pueri\ per lasciviam et infantiam ignorant quid agant. Senex autem\ masculini tamen est generis sicut anus feminini. Nam anus dicitur\ sola mulier. Anus autem appellata a multis annis quasi\

like a slender green branch, virga and a calf, vitula. Otherwise the word may come from her uncorrupted state, as virago, because she does not know womanly passion. A virago is so called because she acts like a man, vir agere, that is, she does manly things and has the strength of a man. For this is the name the ancients gave to strong women. But it is not correct to call a virgin a virago if she does not perform the office of a man; nevertheless, a woman who does masculine things, like an Amazon, is rightly called a virago. What we now call a woman, femina, was, in former times, called vira; as serva, maid-servant, from servus, famula, handmaid from famulus, so vira from vir. Some think that the word virgo has the same derivation. We get the word femina, however, from those parts of the thighs by which this sex is distinguished from the man. Others think that femina derives by Greek etymology, from the phrase 'fiery force', because a woman lusts fiercely; for females are more lustful than males, among women as as among animals. For this reason excessive love was called 'womanly love' among the ancients. To be 'elder', senior, is to be still more vigorous. Ovid writes in his sixth book: 'The elder, between youth and old age' (Metamorphoses, 12, 464]. Terence: 'By this law we are younger' (Hecyra II, Prologue, 3). Undoubtedly adolescentior here does not mean 'more adolescent' but 'less', as an elder is less of an old man, where the comparative form signifies less that the positive. Senior, therefore, is not as old as senex, just as a 'younger' man stands between youth and seniority and a 'poorer' man stands between rich and poor. Some think that the aged, senes, are so called from the reduction of their senses and the fact that they act foolishly because of their old age. For physicians say that foolish men are of cold blood, the wise of hot. For this reason, the aged, whose blood has now grown cold, and children, whose blood has not yet warmed up, are less wise. As a result, infancy and old age are alike. The old lose their wits from their excessive age, and the very young, through frivolity and immaturity, do not know what they are doing. The word senex, old man, however, is used of the masculine gender, as anus, old woman, is of the feminine. For anus is used only of a woman. It comes from the word for 'many years old',

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annosa. Nam si commune esset nomen cur non diceret Teren\tius senem mulierem? Hinc et vetula quasi vetusta. Sicut\ autem a sene senectus, ita ab anu anilitas nominata est.\ Canicies autem vocata a candore quasi candicies. Unde\ est illud florida iuventus, lactea canicies, prout diceret candida.\ Senectus autem multa secum et bona et mala affert. Bona\ quia nos a potentissimis dominis liberat, voluptatibus imponit\ modum, libidinis frangit impetus, auget sapientiam, dat\ maturiora consilia. Mala autem quia senium miserrimum\ est debilitate et odio. Subeunt enim morbi tristisque senectus.\ Nam duo sunt quibus imminuuntur corporis vires, senectus\ et morbus. Mors dicta quod sit amara, vel a Marte qui est\ effector mortuorum, sive a morsu primi hominis quod vetite\ arboris primum [PL, pomum] mordens mortem incurrit. Tria sunt autem\ genera mortis, acerba, immatura, naturalis. Acerba infan\tum, immatura iuvenum, merita, id est naturalis senum. Mor\tuus autem ex qua parte orationis declinetur incertum est.\ Nam sicut ait Cesar. Ab eo quod est morior in participio pre\teriti temporis in tus exire debuit, per unum scilicet u non per duo. Nam ubi geminata est littera u nomen est non participium,\ ut fatuus arduus. Convenienter itaque factum ut quem\admodum id quod significat non potest agendo, ita\ ipsum nomen posset loquendo declinari. Omnis\ autem mortuus aut funus est aut cadaver. Funus est\ si sepeliatur, et dictum funus a funibus accensis, quos\ ante feretrum papiris circumdatis cera ferebatur [PL, ferebant].\ Cadaver autem est si insepultum iacet. Nam cadaver\ nominatum a cadendo, quia iam stare non potest.\

annosa, so to speak. For if the word were common to both genders, why does Terence not use the words senem mulierem? In the same way vetula, a little old woman, comes from vetustus, aged. Just as senility, senectus, comes from senex, so 'old womanhood', anilitas, comes from anus. Hoariness, canities, comes from candor, 'shining whiteness', as if it were candities. This gives the phrase 'blooming youth, milky age', as if to say 'white'. Senility brings with it the good and the bad in quantity. The good, because it frees us from our post powerful masters, imposes moderation on our pleasures, bridles the onset of our lust, increases our wisdom, gives more mature counsel. Bad, because the most wretched thing about being old is the frailty you feel and the resentment you meet. For diseases and miserable old age approach together. For there are two things by which the body's powers are lessened: senility and sickness. Death, mors, is so called because it is amarus, bitter, or from Mars, the deliverer of death, or from the bite, morsus, of the first man, because by biting into the apple of the forbidden tree, he incurred death. There are three kinds of death: premature, untimely and natural. Premature is the death of a child; untimely, the death of a young man; fitting, that is, natural, the death of the old. There is some doubt, however, according to which part of speech, mortuus, dead, is to be declined. For as Caesar said, on the basis that it is from morior, in the past participle, it should end in -tus, namely, with one u not two. For where the letter u is doubled, it is an adjective not a participle, as in fatuus, arduus. Thus, it is not inapt that in so far as what death means cannot be shown physically, so the word itself cannot be declined orally. Every dead man is a corpse, either funus or cadaver. His body is called funus if it is buried, the word coming from the burning ropes of reeds in wax, which they used to carry before the bier. It is called cadaver, if it lies unburied. The word comes from cadere, to fall, because it cannot stand up.

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Quod dum portatur exequias dicimus. Crematas

When the body is carried, we speak of a funeral

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re\liquias conditum iam sepultum. Corpus autem a con\suetudine dicitur ut illud: Tum corpora luce carentum. De\functus vocatus, quia officia complevit vite officium. Nam dicimus\ functos officio, quia officia debita compleverunt. Unde est\ et hominibus [PL, honoribus] functus. Hinc ergo defunctus quod ab officio vite\ sit depositus, sive quod sit die functus. Sepultus autem\ dictus eo quod iam sine pulsu et palpitatione est, id est sine\ motu. Sepelire autem est condere corpora, nam humare ob\ruere dicimus, hoc est humum inicere. \ De lapidibus igniferis

procession, exequie. When the remains are burned, we call them reliquie. When the body is interred, we say it is now buried, sepultus. The common word is corpus as in the quotation: 'The bodies of those lacking light' (Vergil, Georgics, 4, 255). We call someone dead, 'defunct', defunctus, because he has completed the office of life. For we talk of someone having discharged an office, functus officio, because they have completed the duties required of them. In the same way we also talk of someone discharging public business. For this reason, therefore, we use the word defunctus, because the deceased has been set aside from the office of life, or because he has completed the duties of life's day. The word for 'buried', sepultus, is so called because the body is that point without a pulse, sine pulsu, or palpitation, that is, motionless. The word sepelire means to bury bodies; we use the words humare and obruere, that is, to cast earth on the body. Of fire-bearing stones

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Sunt lapides igniferi in quodam monte orientis qui\ Grece terrobolem dicuntur masculus et femina.\ Isti quando longe sunt ab invicem ignis in eis non accen\ditur. Cum autem casu appropinquaverit femina masculo,\ statim ignis accenditur, ita ut ardeant omnia que sunt cir\ca illum montem. Unde et vos homines dei qui istam vitam\ geritis, separate vos longe a feminis, ne cum appropinquave\ritis adinvicem, accendatur in vobis ille ignis geminus, et con\sumat bona que Christus contulit in vobis. Sunt enim angeli\ Sathane qui semper impugnant iustos, non solum sanctos viros,\ sed etiam feminas castas. Denique Samson et Joseph ambo\ per mulieres temptati sunt. Unus vicit, alter victus est. Eva\ et Susanna temptate sunt, hec vicit, illa victa est. Custodi\endum est igitur cor et divinis preceptis omnimodis monendum.\ Nam amor feminarum quarum peccatum ab inicio cepit,\ id est ab Adam usque nunc, in filios inobedientie debachatur.\ De lapide adamas \ Phisiologus dicit:\ Est lapis qui dicitur ada\ mas et in quodam monte orien\tis invenitur. Ita tamen ut noc\te queratur, non die, quoniam noc\te lucet ubi fuerit, per diem autem\ non lucet, quoniam sol obtundit\ lumen eius, hunc lapidem non\ ferrum non ignis nec alius lapis contra eum potest\ prevalere. De hoc lapide adamante dicit propheta:\ Vidi virum stantem super murum adamantium

On a certain mountain in the east, there are firebearing stones which are called in Greek terrobolem; they are male and female. When they are far from each other, the fire within them does not ignite. But when by chance the female draws near to the male, the fire is at once kindled, with the result that everything around the mountain burns. For this reason, men of God, you who follow this way of life, stay well clear of women, lest when you and they approach each other, the twin flame be kindled in you both and consume the good that Christ has bestowed upon you. For there are angels of Satan, always on the offensive against the righteous; not only holy men but chaste women too. Finally, Samson and Joseph were both were tempted by women. One triumphed; the other succumbed. Eve and Susanna were tempted; the latter held out; the former gave in. The heart, therefore, should be guarded and guided by all forms of divine teaching. For the love of women, which has been the cause of sin from the beginning, that is from Adam to the present day, rages uncontrolled in the sons of disobedience. Of the adamas stone Physiologus says: There is a stone called adamas found on a certain mountain in the east. Such is its

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nature, that you should search for it by night, not day, since it shines at night where it lies, but it does not shine by day, since the sun dulls its light. Against this stone, neither iron, fire or other stones can prevail. The prophet says of it: 'I saw a man standing on a wall of adamant

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et in manu eius lapidem adamantem in medio\ populi Israel. Creatori autem creatura prevalere non potest\ et ideo adamas Christus est. Stat autem super murum ada\ mantium super sanctos et vivos lapides, de quibus edifica\tur celestis Jerusalem. Hii sunt apostoli prophete et martires quibus neque\ ignis, neque gladius neque bestiarum dentes prevalere\ potuerunt. Ex illo vero adamante omnes sancti adamanti\ni lapides a propheta dicti sunt, sicut de nomine Christi Christiani\ nominantur. Nam quia propheta dicit: Vidi virum stantem\ super murum adamantium, ecce inquid in manu eius\ adamas, id est filius dei et filius hominis qui in utero\ Marie carnem assumere dignatus est ipsum tenet in\ manu in gloria divinitatis sue, sicut testatur de ipso\ Daniel dicens: Vidi, et ecce inquid vir indutus\ baldin. Vir autem qui dicitur deitatis significat maies\tatem, baldin vero carnalem hominem, quem in\duere dignatus est. Baldin enim lineum interpretatur in\dumentum quod de terra nascitur. De viri appella\cione beatus Petrus apostolus dicit: Jesum inquid Nazarenum\ dominum n[v]obis manifestum. Nec non et beatus Paulus di\cit: Desponsavi enim vos uni viro virg[i]nem castam\ exhibere Christo, et ut manifestius agnoscamus quia [quod] ipse\ Christus de quo dixerit testatur ipse Paulus dicens: An\ experimentum eius queritis qui in me loquitur Christus?\ Ergo mons quem dicit Phisiologus orientalis in\ quo lapis adamas invenitur, dominum patrem ingenitum\ significat, ex quo omnia oriuntur. Montem vero al\tum et inaccessibilem gloriam dicit sicut ait apostolus

and in his hand was an adamant stone in the midst of the people of Israel' (compare Amos, 7:7). But a creature cannot prevail against its creator, and for this reason Christ is the adamas stone. He stands on a wall of such stone, on the holy and living stones of which heavenly Jerusalem is built. These are the Apostles, the prophets and the martyrs, over whom neither fire, nor the sword nor the teeth of beasts could prevail. All the saints are called adamantine by the prophet, after that one true stone, just as Christians are named after Christ. The prophet says: 'I saw a man standing on a wall of adamant, and behold in his hand was an adamant stone', that is, the son of God and the son of man who deigned to take flesh in Mary's womb. The man held the stone in his hand, signifying the glory of his divinity, as Daniel testifies, saying: 'I looked, and behold, a certain man clothed in baldachin' (see Daniel, 10:5). The man in the text signifies the majesty of the divine nature; the baldachin represents carnal man, whose form Christ saw fit to assume. For 'baldachin' is taken to mean linen, clothing which has its origin in the earth. Of Christ being called a man, blessed Peter, the Apostle, says: 'Jesus of Nazareth, the Lord made manifest to you' (see Acts, 2:22). And the blessed Paul says: 'I have espoused you to one husband, that I may present you as a chaste virgin to Christ' (2 Corinthians, 11:2). In order that we should know more clearly that it is Christ of whom he speaks, Paul says: 'Do you seek proof of Christ speaking in me?' (see 2 Corinthians, 13:3). The mountain in the east, therefore, on which, according to Physiologus, the adamant stone is found, signifies the Lord our father unbegotten, from whom all things spring. He says that mountain is high and that his glory is inaccessible, just as the Apostle

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Paulus de se ipso, qui solus habet inmortalitatem\ et lucem habitat inaccessibilem, [gloriam dicit sicut\ ait apostolus Paulus de se ipso, qui solus habet

Paul says of him, who alone has immortality and inhabits the inaccessible light in which the stone is found: 'Christ is in the Father and the Father in me'

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inmorta\litatem et lucem habitat inaccessibilem.] I[i]n quo ipse\ lapis invenitur, id est: Christus in patre et pater in me est. Et iterum:\ Qui me videt videt et patrem. Quod lapis per hominem [luminem]\ non invenitur significat Christum celasse descensionem\ suam celestibus virtutibus et dominacionibus et potestati\bus qui tanquam luminaria dei assistunt. Non ergo scie\runt iustum celeste portantem ministerium descensionis\ eius et incarnacionis quod facturus erat in terris. Denique\ iam transactis omnibus mirabilibus eius que fecit pro huma\ni generis redempcione cum ascendisset in celos integrum\ atque perfectum hominem indutus videntes eum superne civi\tatis agmina dixerunt: Quis est iste rex glorie? Qui as\ cendit ex Edom, rubrum vestimentum eius ex Bosra? Quis\ est iste qui ascendit ex sanguinea [sanguine] et rubor vestimenti\ eius ex carne? Et quia [quod] nocte invenitur ille lapis, qui\ in istius seculi tenebris descendit et illuminavit omnem\ hoc genus quod sedebat in tenebris et in regione umbre\ mortis, sicut dicit David propheta ex persona tocius humani\ generis: Quoniam tu illuminas lucernam meam domine. Deus\ meus illumina tenebras meas. Venit ergo dominus noster et\ lucernam quam extinxerat diabolus, id est animam et corpus in se sus\cipiens illuminavit splendore glorie vivificans et repor\tans, manifestius dicente apostolo de tam admirabilis mis\terii sacramento. Etenim evidenter inquid magnum misterium\

(see John, 14:10). Again: 'He that hath seen me hath seen the Father' (John, 14:9). The fact that the adamant stone is not found in the light signifies that Christ hid his descent from the heavenly virtues and dominions and powers which, like luminaries, stand beside God. They did not know, therefore, of the righteous one, who bore the heavenly-assigned office of his descent and incarnation, to be fulfilled on earth. In the end, when he had performed all his wonders for the redemption of the human race and ascended into heaven, clad as a whole and perfect man, the ranks of the heavenly city seeing him said: 'Who is this that cometh from Edom, with red garments from Bozrah?' (see Isaiah, 63:1). Who is he who rises from blood and the red of his clothing from flesh? The stone is found at night because Christ descended into the darkness of this world and gave light to the race that stayed in darkness and in the place of the shadow of death, just as David the prophet says, personifying the whole human race: ' For thou wilt light my candle, Lord; my God will enlighten my darkness' (Psalms, 18:28). Our Lord came therefore and, taking up the light which the devil had extinguished, that is, the soul and the body, he lit it with the splendour of his glory, giving it new life and taking it back with him. The Apostle puts this more clearly, saying of this sacrament of such marvellous mystery: 'Without controversy, great is the mystery

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pietatis quod manifestum est in carne iustificatum est in\ spiritu, quod apparuit angelus predicatum est gentibus, credi\tum est in hoc mundo, assumptum est in gloria. Quod\ autem de eo lapide dicit Phisiologus, quod neque ferrum illi\ prevalet, id est mors illi non dominabitur. Delevit mortem enim\ et conculcavit sicut per apostolum testatur dicens: Devicta est\ mors in victoria. Ubi est mors contricio tua, ubi est mors\ aculeus tuus? Sed neque ignis illi potest quicque facere\ id est diabolus qui ignitis iaculis suis succendit omnem\ terram et civitates, luxuriosos, ebriosos, et iracundos,\ de quibus Ysaias dicit: Terra autem deserta civitates vestre\ igni cremate. Dominus autem Jesus Christus interficiet eum spiri\tu oris sui. Sed neque alter lapis nocuit, id est nullus homo\ penitus neque ulla creatura poterit adversus eum. Omnia\ enim per ipsum facta sunt, et sine ipso factum est nichil. \ Adamas lapis parvus et indecorus ferrugineum\ habens colorem et splendorem crista\llinum et in\ modum nuclei avellani. Hic nulli cedit ma\terie nec ferro quidem nec igni nec unquam incalescit, un\de et nomen interpretacione Greca indomita vis ac\cepit. Sed dum sit invictus ferro ignisque contemptor,\ hyrcino sanguine rumpitur

godliness; God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on in the world, received up into glory' (1 Timothy, 3:16).

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Moreover, Physiologus says of the adamant stone that iron does has no effect on it, just as, death will not rule Christ. For he destroyed death and trampled on it, as the apostle bore witness, saying: 'Death is swallowed up in victory. O death, where is thy sting?' (1 Corinthians, 16:54-55). Nor is this stone affected by fire, meaning the devil who with his blazing darts burns the whole earth, its cities and its wanton, drunken and raging inhabitants; of these Isaiah says: 'Your country is desolate, your cities are burned with fire' (Isaiah, 1:7). 'The Lord Jesus Christ shall consume him with the breath from his mouth' (see 2 Thessalonians, 2:8). No other stone can damage adamant, that is, no man at all, nor any creature, can oppose Christ. 'All things were made by him, and without him was not any thing made' (John, 1:3).

recenti, et calido maceratus,\ sicque multis ictibus ferri perfrangitur. Cuius fragmenta\ sculptores pro gemmis insignendis perforandis utuntur.\ Hic autem dissidet cum magnete lapide in tantum ut\ iuxta positus ferrum non paciatur abstrahi in magne\tem, sed si ammotus fuerit adamas magnetem [magnes] rapit\

Adamant is a small and unsightly stone, with a dusky colour and the brightness of crystal, and is about the size of an Abelline nut. It yields to no other matter, not iron, nor indeed fire, and it never grows hot; for this reason its name, translated from Greek, means 'invincible force'. While adamant remains unconquered by iron, however, and scorns fire, it can broken by the fresh blood of a goat, softened by heat and thus crushed with repeated blows of iron. Engravers use fragments of it for engraving and cutting gemstones. Adamant is at odds with the magnet stone in so much as, placed near iron, it will not suffer the metal to be drawn to the magnet; if the adamant is removed, however, the magnet seizes

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comprehendit et aufert. Fertur quoque in electri simili\tudine ven[en]a depellere metus vanos expellere malefi\cis resistere artibus, genera eius sex.\ De lapide qui dicitur mermecoleon \ Item lapis est in mari qui Latine dicitur mer\ mecoleon Grece concasabea, quia concava est et rotunda.\ Est autem in duas partes\ divisa, ita ut cum vo\luerit claudat. Hic ergo de fun\do maris et matutinis\ horis habet intra se car\nem. Ergo cum ascen\derit a loco suo supra mare, aperit os suum et susci\pit intra se de rore celi et circumfulget eum radius\ solis, et sic fit intra eum margarita preciosa et splen\dida valde, quippe que rore celi concepta est, et radio solis\ clarificata. Lapis ergo iste qui dicitur conchus, figuram ge\rit sancte Marie, de qua prophetavit Isaias dicens: Exiet\ virga de radice Jesse. Et iterum ipse. Ecce virgo con\ cipiet in utero et pariet. De qua virga et virgo [virgine] sancta Maria\ est dicta: Flos vero qui de sancta Maria natus est, dominus noster\ Jesus Christus est. Sicut enim de mari ascendit ille lapis, sic sancta Maria ascendit de domo patris sui ad templum dei,\ et ibi accepit rorem celestem. Hec sunt verba que dicta\ sunt ad eam ab archangelo Gabriele: Spiritus sanctus superveni\et in te, et virtus altissimi obumbrabit tibi, ideoque et\ quod nascetur ex te sanctum vocabitur filius dei. Ecce hii sermo\

holds and bears away the metal.

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They say also that it resembles amber, repelling poisons, banishing vain fears, resisting evil spells. There are six kinds of adamant. Of the stone called mermecoleon There is a stone in the sea which is called in Latin mermecoleon and in Greek concasabea, because it is both hollow and round. It is, moreover, divided into two parts, so that if it wants to, it can close up. The stone lies at the bottom of the sea and comes to life early in the morning. When it rises from its resting-place to the surface of the sea, it opens its mouth and takes in some heavenly dew, and the rays of the sun shine around it; thus there grows within the stone a most precious, shining pearl indeed, conceived from the heavenly dew and given lustre by the rays of the sun. The stone, therefore, is called conchus; it symbolizes Saint Mary, of whom Isaiah foretold, saying: 'There shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse' (Isaiah, 11:1). And again: 'Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son' (Isaiah, 7:14). Of the rod and the virgin, Saint Mary, it is said: 'A flower was born of Saint Mary, our Lord Jesus Christ'. For just as the stone rises from the sea, so Saint Mary went up from the house of her father to the temple of God and there received the dew from heaven. These are the words which were said to her by the archangel Gabriel: 'The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee; therefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of God' (Luke, 1:35). Behold these words

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nes sunt ros celestis, sicut ante iam [eam] patriarcha Ysaac be\nedicens filium su[u]m significans quia [quod] Christus ex semi\ne eius nasceretur, ait ad eum dicens: Det tibi deus de\ rore celi et de ubertate terre castam atque intactam vir\ginem Mariam significans. Matutinis autem horis\ quod dicitur tempus orationis describit. Quod autem aperit os su\um conchus significat ubi dicit Maria ad ange\lum: Ecce ancilla domini fiat michi secundum verbum\ tuum.\ Fundamenta muri civitatis omni\ lapide precioso ornata, id est prophete et apostoli super\ quorum fidem et doctrinam tota civitas ecclesie fun\data est, de quibus dicitur in [psalmis] fundata est in montibus\ sanctis, omni lapide precioso ornatus. Erant suple[ta], id est omni ge\nere virtutum et bonorum operum nec non solum pro\phete et apostoli fundamenta dicuntur, sed etiam alii minores\ qui fidem et vitam ipsorum habuerunt, vel habent qui non\ racione personarum sed operacione virtutum, fundamen\ta dicuntur, quia per [eas] ecclesiam fundaverunt, [propter] quod Johannis, hic osten\dit quibus virtutibus ipsi in ecclesia [lux erant], reponens\ eos sub duo denario [duodecimo] numero, ut sic ostendat eos splen\duisse omnibus virtutibus. Hic enim numerus universita\tem significat, quia ex partibus septenarii conficitur,\ id est ternario et quaternario, et quia [quod] fides inter virtutes pri\ma est, iuxta illud Prudentii.\ Versus \ Prima petit cam\pum dubia sub sorte duelli, pugnatura fides. Et\ quia sine fide [non] placet deo, ut dicitur Hebreos xi, primo, in primo fun\damento, ponitur fides, nec moveat te quod lapides

are the heavenly dew, just as before her, the patriarch Isaac, blessing his son, signifying that Christ would be born from his seed, said to him: 'God give thee of the dew of heaven and the fatness of the earth' (Genesis, 27: 28), signifying the chaste, untouched virgin Mary. 'Early in the morning' refers to the time of prayer. The mussel opening its mouth signifies the occasion when Mary says to the angel: 'Behold the handmaiden of the Lord; be it unto me according to thy word' (Luke, 1:35). 'The foundations of the wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious stones' (Revelation, 21:19), that is, the prophets and Apostles on whose faith and doctrine the whole city of the church is founded. Of these it is said in the Psalms: it is founded on holy hills (see, eg, Psalms, 15:1); the wall was adorned with every precious stone (see Revelation, 21:18-19). They were furnished, that is, with every kind of virtue and good work. It is not only the prophets and apostles who are called 'foundations', but lesser men also, who had or have a life and faith like theirs. They are called 'foundations' not by virtue of their personalities, but the way in which they exercised their virtue; because it was through their virtue that they founded the church. On account of this, John shows here in which virtues they were as a light in the church, reckoning their number as twelve, demonstrating that they shone in every virtue. For this number signifies the universe, because it is made from parts containing seven, that is by threes and by fours; and that faith is first among the virtues according to the statement of Prudentius.

Verse Faith, the first of the virtues, ready to fight, takes to the field in battle with doubt. And because without faith it is impossible to please God (Hebrews, 11:6), faith is set in the first foundation. It should not trouble you that stones

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fundamenta dicuntur, quia per virtutes fundamenta.\ Unde cum dicitur lapis esse fundamentum, sensus est

are called foundations, because by foundations are meant virtues. For this reason when the stone is said

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, id est in fundamenti ornatum. \ Primus lapis in funda\mento muri est Jaspis \ Fundamentum primum, id est\ primi fundamenti ornamentum, Jaspis\ id est fides semper virens, et visum confortans, sed nu[m]quid\ fides erit in patria, sive in triumphante ecclesia de qua\ hic agitur non sed venientibus ad ecclesiam prima occurit,\ per quam in predictam civitatem intratur quam\ qui non habuit in eam intrare non poterit. \ Versus \ Jaspidis esse decem species septemque feruntur. Hic et mul\torum cognoscitur esse collorum. Et multis nasci peribetur\ partibus orbis. Optimus in viridi perlucentique colo\re. Et qui plus soleat virtutes habere probatur.\ Secundus Saphirus \ Secundum, id est secundum fundamentum, id est\ secundum fundamenti ornamentum, est Saphirus.\ Cuius color cereno [sereno] celo simile est, qui percussus\ radiis solis, ardenter emittit fulgorem et per hoc\ significat spem qua rapimur ad celestia et per hoc in\ amorem celestium inflammamur contempto seculi\ amore, ut possimus vere dicere cum apostolo: Nostra con\ versacio in celis est, Philippenses, iii, Ysaia, liiii: Fundabo te\ in saphiris.\ Versus \ Saphiri species digitis aptissi\ ma regum. Egregium fulgens puroque similima\ celo. Quem natura potens tanto ditavit hono\re. Ut sacer et merito gemmarum gemma vocetur. \ Tercius Calcedonius

to be a foundation, it should be interpreted as a decoration of the foundation. John says, therefore: The first stone in the foundation of the wall is jasper. The first foundation, that is, the adornment of the first foundation, is jasper, that is, faith ever green, strengthening the sight, but whether it be faith in one's country or in the Church triumphant, which is in question here, does not primarily occur except to those coming to the Church; through it there will be entry to the aforesaid city, while he who does not have it will not be able to enter. Verse Jasper is said to have seventeen species. It is also known to be of many colours. It is said to come from many regions of the world. The best is a translucent green in colour. It is shown to have more virtues than any other. The second, sapphire The second, that is, the second foundation, that is, the second decoration of the foundation, is sapphire. Its colour is similar to that of a clear sky; struck by the rays of the sun, it sends forth, burning, a flash of lightning, signifying the hope by which we are carried off to heaven; through it we are fired with a love of heavenly things, disdaining love of the present world, so that we can truly say with the apostle: 'Our conversation is in heaven' (Philippians, 3:20); 'I will lay thy foundations with sapphires' (Isaiah, 54:11). Verse The image of the sapphire is most fitting for the fingers of kings. It shines in an outstanding way and resembles most a clear sky. The power of nature has endowed it with such honour that it is called sacred and deservedly the gemstone of gemstones. The third, chalcedony

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Tercium, id est fundamenti ornamentum est cal\cedonius, qui lapis pallenti lucerne similis\ est, et fulget magis sub divo quam in domo, cale\factus a sole vel digitorum attritu, paleas ad se trahit scul\penti non argumentis resistit, et significat caritatem que\ intus in corde celata, pallet quasi lux in lucerna, sed cum ad\ aliorum utilitatem exire cogitur, tunc qualis intus erat,\ exterius ostenditur, et tacta a sole Christo vel spiritu, scilicet digito, pec\catores ad se trahit et omnino secari nequit quia

The third, that is, the third decoration of the foundation is chalcedony; it is pale yellow, similar to lamp-light, and shines more under the open sky than indoors; warmed by the sun or by a rub of the fingers, it attracts particles to itself; it does not resist the subjects of the engraver, and it signifies the charity which is within us, hidden in the heart.

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It is pale yellow like lamplight, but when it is forced into the open for the benefit of others, then what its

nulla ad\versitate deficit, sed magis proficit. Unde Canticum Canticorum viii: Fortis\ est ut mors dilectio et dura sicut infernus emulacio, lam\pades eius lampades ignis atque flammarum. Aque mul\te non poterunt extinguere caritatem. Sculpi ergo\ non potest, quia adversitate non frangitur nec etiam adulatoria\ laude emollitur. Unde Psalmis: oleum peccatoris non inpinguet\ caput meum;\ i Corinthios, xiii: Caritas paciens est benigna est,\ omnia suffert, omnia sustinet, non inflatur, non est ambiciosa et cetera. \ Versus \ Calcedon lapis est hebeti pallo\re refulgens. Inter iacinctum medioctinus atque beril\lum. Hiis qui portat eum perhibetur vincere causis.\ Quartus Smaragdus \ Quartum, smaragadus\ qui omnes herbas et arborum frondes viriditate\ superat et gerentes eam, reddit intuentibus graciosos,\ aerem vicinum virescere facit ymaginem sicut\ speculum reddit, et significat virginitatem, que virorem\ carnis integre servat, et omnes alias virtutes quodam\ modo superat, quia virginitatem servare, magis est

virtue was inside is demonstrated outside. Touched by the sun, that is Christ, or the spirit, namely the finger, it attracts sinners to itself; that it cannot in any way be cut signifies that it is not wanting in times of adversity but is rather of advantage. In this context, it is said in the Song of Solomon: 'Love is strong as death; jealousy is cruel as the grave: the coals thereof are coals of fire, which hath a most vehement flame. Many waters cannot quench love' (8:6-7). It cannot, therefore, be carved, because it is not shattered by adversity or even softened by fulsome praise. In this context, the psalms: 'My head shall not be annointed with the oil of wicked men' (NEB, Psalms 141: 5); 1 Corinthians, 13: 'Charity is patient; it is kind; charity it suffers everything; it endures everything; it is not puffed up; it is not ambitious etc.' (see 13:4-5). Verse Chalcedony is a stone which shines with a faint paleness. It comes between the hyacinth and the beryl. Anyone who carries it will, it is said, be successful in lawsuits. The fourth, smaragdus The fourth foundation, smaragdus, outdoes in its greenness every kind of grass and the boughs of trees; it makes those who wear it appear attractive; it makes the air around grow green; it yields an image just as a mirror does; it signifies virginity, which wholly preserves the freshness of the flesh; and it surpasses all other virtues in a way. Because it preserves virginity

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angelicum quam humanum, graciosa autem est an\gi[e]lis et deo et hominibus et in se portat ymaginem\ Christi quia sequitur agnum quocumque ierit, et unde hic\ lapis quartus dicitur, quia virginitas in quatuor evangeliis\ commendatur. \ Versus \ Omne virens superat forma viridan\te smaragdus. \ Quintus Sardonix \ Quintum sardonix ex duorum nominum societa\te vocatus, ut dicit Ysodorus, habet enim cando\rem ut onix et ruborem ut sardius et est tricolor ut dicit\ Glossator niger in imo, candidus in medio, rubeus in sum\mo, et insignando nichil cere avellit, unde signat sanctorum\ pacientiam per quam in imo, id est in mundo sunt viles et despera\ti, unde Job, [x]ii, deridetur iusti simplicitas, lampas contemp\ ta apud cogitaciones divitum, sed in medio, id est iustus in corde sive in consciencia sunt candidi, per innocenciam\ superius rubei, per ardorem martyrii propter Christum, et hec nichil\ de cera avellit quia suis persecutoribus plene et ex corde re\mittit, nullum rancorem retinentes, iuxta [...] Ecclesiastici xxviii:\ Relinque proximo tuo nocenti te tunc deprecanti tibi peccata\ solventur, quia [quod] virtus quinta dicitur

it is more angelic than human; moreover, it is pleasing to angels and God and man and carries within itself the image of Christ because it follows the lamb wherever it goes; and for this reason this stone is called the fourth, because virginity is recommended in the four Gospels.

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Verse The smaragdus surpasses every green thing in its greenness. The fifth, sardonyx The fifth foundation, sardonyx, gets its name from the association of two names, as Isidorus says; for it has the white of onyx and the red of sard; and it is threecoloured, as the Glossator says, black at the bottom, white in the middle and red at the top; and when used for sealing, it does not pull any of the wax away. From this, it signifies the suffering of the saints. At

quia in infirmitate cor\poris descendit quod quinque sensibus regitur. \ Versus \ Sardonicem faciunt duo nomina sardus et onix. Tres capit ex bi\ nis unus lapis iste colores.Hic solus lapidum ceram\ convellere nescit. \ Sextus Sardius \ Sextum sardius, sic dicit, quia a primo a Sardis\ est repertus sanguinei coloris tantum. Unde signat per\fectam constanciam martyrum qui pro Christo sanguinem

the bottom, that is in the world, they are considered worthless and despised; in this context, Job, 12: 'The just upright man is laughed to scorn ... a lamp despised in the thought of him that is at ease' (12:4). In the middle, that is the righteous man in his heart or conscience, they are white, as a result of their innocence. At the top they are red, by reason of the zeal of their martyrdom for Christ. The stone does not pull any of the wax away, because the righteous man forgives his persecutors fully, from the heart, retaining no bitterness, according to Ecclesiasticus, 28: 'Forgive thy neighbour the hurt that he hath done unto thee, so shall thy sins also be forgiven when thou prayest (28:2). This virtue is said to be the fifth because it diminishes infirmity of the body, because it is ruled by the five senses. Verse Two names, sard and onyx, make the sardonix. This single stone has taken from the two stones three colours. Alone of precious stones, it cannot pull away wax. The sixth, sard The sixth foundation, sard is so called because it was first found in Sardis; it is of the colour of blood only. For this reason it signifies the perfect constancy of the martyrs, who poured forth their blood for Christ.

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suum fuderunt, et ideo sexto loco ponitur, quia Christus\ sexta etate et sexto die sanguine suo martyrium con\ secravit. \ Versus \ Sardius a Sardis est a quibus ante repertus.\ Sortitus nomen rubei solet esse coloris. \ Septimus crisolitus \ Septimus crisolitus auro simile in colore,\ unde dicitur a crisis quod est aurum, et sintillas ardentes\ videtur a[e]mittere ut dicit Glossator, et significat sapienciam, que omnia\ dona superat, sicut aurum omnia in metalla, que pre\dicando scintillas ardentes emittit, id est exhortaciones\ et iustificaciones [instruciones], corda audientium inflamantes.\ Unde Ezekieli primo dicitur de sanctis animalibus: Scintille quasi aspectu eris\ ca[n]dentis; Sapiencie iii: Fulgebunt iusti et tanquam scintille in\ arundineto discurrent. Hic septimo loco ponitur, quia inter\ dona sancti spiritus locum tenet septimum ascendendo. \ Versus \ Auro crisolitus micat et scintillat ut ignis. Iste mari\ simile quiddamque viroris adumbrans. Ethiopes le\gimus nobis hanc mittere gemmam. \ Octavus Berillus \ Octavum berillus. Hic lapis in sexangulam for\mam politus, lucet quasi aqua sole percussa, qui etiam\ tante caliditas [caliditatis] dicitur esse, ut calefaciat manum tenen\tis et significat virtutem misericordie

and for that reason it is placed in the sixth position, because Christ in the sixth age and on the sixth day consecrated his martyrdom with his blood.

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Verse The sard gets its name from Sardis where it was first found. It gets its name from its reddish colour. The seventh, chrysolite The seventh foundation, chrysolite, is similar in colour to gold. For this reason its name comes from crisis [chrysos], which means 'gold'; it seems to give out glittering sparks, as the Glossator says; and it signifies wisdom, which exceeds all other gifts, just as gold exceeds all other metals. Wisdom, through the medium of preaching, gives out glittering sparks, that is, encouragement and doctrine, setting alight the hearts of those who hear them. In this context, Ezekiel 1, on the sacred animals: 'They sparkled like the colour of burnished brass' (1:7); The Wisdom of Solomon, 3: 'The

que sex operibus se exercet\ corda frigida hominum infirmorum calefaciens in amo\rem dei et proximi iuxta id Proverbiorum, xxv: Si esurierit inimicus tu\ us ciba illum. Si sitit, potum da ei, sic enim faciens con\geres carbonum super caput eius. Mattheus, v: Sic luceat lux vestra\ coram hominibus, ut videant opera vestra bona, et glorificent patrem vestrum qui in celis est.\ Hic virtus octavo loco ponitur, quia non hic sed in octava eta\

righteous shall shine and run to and fro like sparks among the stubble' (see 3:1,7). This stone is placed in the seventh position, because it holds the seventh place in order of ascendancy among the gifts of the holy spirit. Verse Chrysolite shines like gold and flashes like fire. It is similar to the sea, displaying something of its green colour. We read that the Ethiopians send us this stone. The eighth, beryl The eighth foundation is beryl. This stone is polished into a hexagonal shape; it shines like water struck by the sun; it is also said to be of such heat that it warms the hand of the holder; and it signifies the virtue of mercy. Mercy operates in six ways, warming the cold hearts of the infirm to a love of God and one's neighbour, according to Proverbs, 25: 'If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; and if he thirsty give him water to drink: For thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head' (25:21-23). Matthew, 5: 'Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and glorify your Father which is in heaven' (5:16). This virtue is placed in the eighth position, because not here but in the eighth age

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te, mercedem expectat. Unde Psalmis: Labores manuum\ tuarum quia manducabis, in futuro, scilicet, beatus es et bene\ tibi erit, Gregorius: Illis erit male qui hic manducant la\bores, scilicet sicut ypocrite. \ Versus \ Conspicuos reddit sex\angula forma berillos. Qui nisi fiat hebes hiis pal\lorum esse videtur. \ Nonum topazius \ Nonum topacius, hic lapis quamvis omnium sit\ colorum, maxime tamen duos habet colores, aureum et\ ethereum ut dicit Glossator super Exodus xxxiiii, et cum splendo\re solis tangitur, omnium gemmarum claritates excedit, in\ aspectum suum provocat singulariter aspicientes, qui\ si poliatur obscuratur, si nature sue relinquatur, clari\or est, et est gemmarum amplissima , et regibus cara, et\ significat contemplacionem, que ex caritate qua fervet, et\ est aurea, et ex cognicione qua lucet, ethera, ubi dominus\ limpidius videtur, ad cuius amorem homines aperti\ singularius trahuntur, et qui tales sunt, si honoribus\ seculi poliantur, obscurantur, quia turbantur circa plurima sicut\ Martha, quod hic lapis omni colore resplendet, hic est quia\ contemplacio omnium virtutum splendore refulget,\ et est gemmarum latissima, quia contemplacio maxime\ cor dilatat et qui vere reges sunt, nichil carnis

it expects its reward. In this context, the psalm: 'Thou shall eat the labour of thine hands: happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee' (Psalms, 128:2). Gregory: 'It will be bad for those who eat their labours here, like hypocrites.'

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Verse Its hexagonal form causes beryl to shine brightly; otherwise it seems to have a faint pallor. The ninth, topaz The ninth foundation is topaz; this stone, although it is multi-coloured, has two colours especially, gold and a clear colour, as the Glossator of Exodus, 34, says: And it is touched by the splendour of the sun. It exceeds all other gemstones in clearness; its appearance is singularly pleasing to those who look at it; if it were polished, it would be dulled; left to its own nature, it is clearer; it is the largest of stones; and it is cherished by kings. Topaz signifies contemplation. The love with which

con\templacione habent, et unde nono loco ponitur quia homines\ contemplativos novem ordinibus angelorum contem\placio associat. \ Versus \ Nominis eiusdem topazion\ insula gignit. Qui quanto rarus tanto magis est\ preciosus. Gignit et hunc Arabum gemmis ditissima\ tellus.

contemplation burns, colours it gold; the understanding which illuminates contemplation, gives it its clear colour. In contemplation the Lord is seen more clearly; and men are more especially drawn to his love when they are open to it. Their nature is such that, if they are embellished by the honours of this world, they see less clearly, because, like Martha, they have many distractions. This stone shines with every colour, because contemplation shines with the splendour of every virtue. It is the biggest of stones, because contemplation expands the heart greatly, and those who are truly kings think nothing of the flesh. It is placed in the ninth position, because contemplation aligns contemplative men with the nine orders of angels. Verse Topaz comes from the island of the same name. It is all the more precious as it is rare. The land of the Arabs, rich in stones, produces it.

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Decimum crisopassus \ Decimum crisopassus.\ Hic lapis secundum Isydorum, Indicus est, et coloris pur\purei, guttulis distinctis aureis, unde et nomen recipit\ crisopassus, quasi passim habens aurum, et significat desiderium\ celestis patrie, quod quanto plus tribulacionibus excu\titur, tanto amplius accenditur, quia ut dicit Gregorius: Quod\ flatus carboni, hic facit tribulacio caritati et unde de\cimo loco ponitur quia sancti per desiderium, ad decimum or\dinem angelorum per observanciam decalogi venire\ festinant, decimus ordo dicitur, qui ex hominibus restau\rabitur, unde et homo dicitur Luce, xv: Decima dragma quam mu\lier querens invenit. \ Versus \ Et crissopassum lapi\dem domus India mittit. Hic priori [porri] suctum [succum] refe\rens mixtusque colore, Aureolis guctis [guttis] retinet quasi pur\pura tincta. \ Undecimum Iacinctus \ Undecimum iacinctus. His lapis cum aere mutatur\ in sereno prospicuus [perspicuus] est in nubilo obscurus est, unde\ significat discrecionem sanctorum, per quam secundum dominum omnibus se con\formant, ut omnes lucrifaciant, sicut dicit apostolus, i Corinthios, ix: Omnibus omnia factus sum ut omnes faceret [facarem] salvos; Romanos, xii\ gaudete [gaudere] cum gaudentibus flere cum flentibus; per hanc\ etiam virtutem sciunt sancti doctores quid, quibus, quando, et qualiter\ predicandum. Hic undecimo loco ponitur, quia per hanc\ maxime transgressio omnis vitatur. \ Versus \ Iacincti species\ docti tres esse loquuntur. Optimus huic tenor est quem\ non aut densior equo, Obscurat suctus [succus] aut rarus perspi\cium dat, Set flos purpureus murtum componit utroque\

The tenth, chrysoprase

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The tenth foundation is chrysoprase. This stone, according to Isidorus, comes from India, and is purple in colour with separate, small gold marks; for this reason it gets its name crisopassus, 'scattered everywhere with gold'. It signifies desire of the the heavenly land, which burns the more brightly, the more it is affected by tribulation, because, as Gregory says: 'What a bellows does to coal, tribulation does to love.' Chrisoprase is placed in the tenth position, because holy men, in their desire for heaven, hasten to reach the tenth order of angels by observing the ten commandments. The tenth order is the one which will be renewed from men. In this context, man is called, in Luke, 15, the tenth piece of silver which the woman searched for and found (see 15:8-10). Verse India, its home, sends us the stone called chrysoprase. It shines with the sap of the leek and is of mixed colour, tinted with purple and marked with gold. The eleventh, hyacinth The eleventh foundation is hyacinth. This stone changes in accordance with the weather: on clear days, it is transparent; when the sky is overcast, it is opaque. For this reason it signifies the judgement of holy men, who use it, as the Lord did, to adapt to all conditions of life, in order to win the hearts of all men; as the apostle says, 1 Corinthians, 9: 'I am

made all things to all men, that I might by all means save all' (see 9:22); Romans, 12: ' Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep' (12:15). This virtue enables holy teachers to know what, to whom, when and how to preach. This stone is placed in the eleventh position, because through it, especially, all manner of sin is avoided. Verse The learned say that there are three kinds of hyacinth. The best is the kind whose colour is not so dense as to be obscure or so light as to be transparent but has a purple, myrtle-like bloom drawn from both parts of the spectrum.

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Hic et in os missus plus frigidus esse probatur, Duricie\ solida cedi sculpi quia [que] recusat, Fragmentis tamen superabilis est adamantis.\

This stone, placed in the mouth, proves to be colder than others. It is very hard and resists cutting or engraving. But it can be marked by a fragment of diamond.

Duodecimum Amatistus\ The twelfth, amethyst Duodecimum amatistus. De quo dicit Ysidorus:\ Inter gemmas purpureas principatum amatistus\ inclitus [Indicus] tenet, purpureus quidem est permixto colore vio\le et rose quasdam flammulas de se effundens, et est scul\turis facilis, unde per ipsum, significatur humilitas sanctorum cuius\ comes est obediencia ut dicit Ambrosius: Humilitas bre\vis est ut viola, pulchra, ut rosa, facilis ad omnia quecumque facere;\ aut dicit: Et sunt que flamme incendentes ad amo\rem videntes, omnibus enim placet humilitas etiam inimi\cis, sicut econtrario superbia est omnibus odiosa, ut dicit Ecclesiasticus,\ xv: Odibilis coram deo et hominibus est superbia. Hic unde ultimo lo\co ponitur quasi custos omnium, et quasi ultimam reputat se\ semper et ultimum locum semper tenet. Unde Gregorius qui ceteras\ virtutes sine humilitate congregat quasi pulverem in vento\ portat. Unde et Paulus: Qui modicus, id est humilis interpretatur,\ locum decimum meruit possidere. \ De effectu lapidum \ Diamas, lapis est inter omnes lapides durissimus domans\ omnes lapides preciosos et vult poni in calibe et\ dari non desideratus nec permittit descindere bona illius\ qui eum habet. 2 Rubi habet virtutem omnium lapidum\ preciosorum qui si in aqua lavetur et illa aqua detur ad po\tandum arietibus [arentibus] infirmis, convalescent si sit secundum\ suam naturam virtuosus. 3 Smaragdus, oculos vivi\ficat, corpus exhillarat illius, qui eum intuetur et a\

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The twelfth foundation is amethyst. Isidorus says of it: Among purple stones, the Indian amethyst holds first position; it is, indeed, purple but of mixed coloration, giving forth violet and rose-coloured lights; it is easy to engrave. For this reason the humility of the saints is signified by it; associated with humility is obedience, as Ambrose says: 'Humility is small, like the violet, beautiful like the rose, easy to apply to all things'; or: 'They are like burning flames, looking at love'. For humility is acceptable to everyone, even to our enemies; as pride, in contrast, is viewed by everyone with detestation, as it says in Ecclesiasticus, 15: 'Pride is hateful before God and men' (see 10: 7). For this reason the amethyst is placed in the final position, as if watching over all, and as if humility always reckons itself the least and always takes the last place. In this context, Gregory: 'He who assembles in himself the other virtues without humility is like one who carries dust in the wind. Also Paul: 'He who is modest, that is to be understood as humble, deserves to possess the tenth place.' Of stones and what they can do The diamond is amongst all stones the hardest, cutting all other precious stones; it likes to be set in steel; it does not wish to be given away; and it will not allow the goods of him who possesses it to be divided. 2 The ruby has the virtue of all precious stones, that if it is washed in water and that water is then given to the sick who are thirsty, they grow well if each one is according to his nature virtuous.

3 The smaragdus refreshes the eyes; it cheers the body of him who looks upon it; and

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morem servat.

preserves love.

4 Saphirus inhibet sanguinem, et\ occidit le felun.

4 The sapphire restrains the flow of and blood and kills le felun.

5 Topacius, est croceus, sicut lambrum\ sed magis iocundus, et prohibet ebullicionem olle et po\situs ad os scicientis, aufert sitim. 6 Turgesius, por\tat iram et audaciam. 7 Mardonicus [Sardonicus], est tricolor dat au\daciam, et portat victoriam.

5 Topaz is saffron coloured, like amber, but more pleasing and it prevents a pot from boiling over; placed in the mouth of a thirsting man it removes his thirst. 6 Turquoise brings anger and boldness.

8 Crapodinus por\tat victoriam in placito et bello.

7 Sardonyx is tri-coloured; it gives you boldness and brings victory.

9 Amatistus portat\ omen bosci et fluvii, et vult dari, non desideratus.\

8 The toadstone brings you victory in achieving your ends and in war.

[10] Jaspis est viridis sicut smaragdus, sed non ita iocundus\ et inhibet sanguinem et conservat amorem, dantis\ et accipientis.

9 The amethyst brings an omen of wood and water; it is better given than desired.

11 Cornelius est rubicundus et inhibet\ sanguinem. Parlus, est albus et rotundus et\ dat affectum dormiendi.

10 Jasper is green like the the smaragdus but not so pleasing; it restrains the flow of blood and preserves the love of the person who gives or receives it. 11 Carnelian is red and restrains the flow of blood.

12 Lapis decapun, est\ eiusdem coloris, et videtur guttatus sanguine, et portat victo\riam in omni area. 13 Cristallus molitus et bibi\tus aqua reddit lac mulieri, que illud amisit. Nota\ quod sanguis hirsinus calidus destruit dyamantem.\ 14 Margarita lapis parvus est, sed preciosus, candi\ dus, solidus, in conchis marinis natus, de rore celes\ to conceptus ut dicit Ysidorus. 16 Et nota qui de\ rore matutino concipitur, candidior est, et melior quam\ qui de rore vespertino. Aliquando tamen margarita nomen est\ generale lapis preciosi. Sed quocumque modo margari\ta accipiatur, certum est quod duodecim margarite secundum\ sensum moralem sunt duodecim virtutes, per duode\cim lapides designate sicut planius invenietis.\ Adamas sive dyamas clarus lapis ut cristallus, set\

12 The pearl, parlus, is white and round and disposes you to sleep. 12 The stone decapun is of the same colour; it seems to be marked with blood and brings victory in every field. 13 Crystal when ground and drunk in water restores milk to a woman who has lost it. Note that hot goat's blood dissolves a diamond. 14 The pearl, margarita, is a small stone but a precious one; it is white, compact, found in shellfish and conceived by heavenly dew, as Isidore says. 16 Note that the pearl conceived from the morning dew is whiter and of better quality than that from the evening dew. Sometimes, however, margarita is a general word for a precious stone. However the word is to be understood, it is certain that the twelve 'pearls', interpreted in the moral sense, are the twelve virtues, symbolised by twelve stones as you will more plainly see. The diamond, adamas or dyamas, is a transparent stone, like crystal, but

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colorem habens ut ferrum politum, set ferro vel igne vel alio modo\ frangi non potest nisi sanguine hyrcino calido apposito, et ex frag\mentis acutis sculpantur et poliuntur gemme alie. Hic maior nuce\ parva non est, sed adamantis sex sunt species, ferrum attrahit, vene\num expellit, parit electum [electrum], metus varios [vanos] et maleficiis resistentibus.\ Hic in India invenitur, quedam in Grecia, quedam in Cypra, et hac utuntur\ incantatores. Item virtutem prebet, prohibet fantasmata, tollit\ iram et rixam, sanat freneticos, defendit ab inimicis includi\ debet auro vel argento, et brachio sinistro deferri. Invenitur similiter in Arabia.\

having the colour of polished iron, but it cannot be destroyed by iron, fire or any other means, unless it is placed in the hot blood of a goat; with sharp pieces of diamond other stones are engraved and polished. It is no greater than a small nut. There are six kinds, however Adamant attracts metal; it expels venom; it produces amber [and is efficacious against empty fears and for those resisting spells]. It is found in India, in Greece and in Cyprus, where magicians make use of it. It gives you courage; it averts apparitions; it removes anger and quarrels; it heals the mad; it defends you from your enemies. It should be set in gold or silver and worn on the left arm. It is likewise found in Arabia.

Acates lapis sic dictus a nomine aque per mediam Ciciliam curren\tis, lapis niger, radios habens albos, pluras [plures] habens figuras, aliquando re\gis, aliquando bestiarum quas natura apposuit. Alterius modi invenitur\ in Creta similis corallo, venas habens similes auro. Hic utilis contra\ venenum, alius invenitur in India in quo sunt rami ut arboris et for\ma hominis. Hic aufert sitim, et confortat visum. Alius est qui odorem\ habet mirre quando ponitur in igne. Alius sanguineas habens maculas. Alius\ cere colorem, sed quia tot sunt, minoris precii sunt, defendit tamen hominem\ et prebet vim, confert colorem, et bonum consilium et quod credi de\beat.\ Electorius crescit in ventre altilis postquam est trium annorum,\ et crescit usque sit septem, nec maior est quam nux, vel faba, cla\rus ut cristallus et aqua, confert homini qui portat eum victoriam, au\fert sitim, si ponatur in ore sicientis, revocat dispersos, adquerit\ amicos, efficit eloquentem et amatum. Confert dilectionem inter\ virum et mulierem, et has habet virtutes si in ore feratur. Sernatites est lapis niger talis nature quod si in ore loco sub lingua\ teneatur statim percipiet quid cogitat de ipso, nec femina\ valet eius voluntati resistere, et eius virtus sit probatur, si unguatur\ quis melle et lacte inter quotquot muscas positus sit si habeat lapidem\

Acates is a stone so called from the name of a river flowing through the middle of Sicily. It is a black stone with white lines, having several images, sometimes of a king, sometimes of beasts, placed there by nature. Another kind is found in Crete, similar to coral, having veins like gold. This stone is used against poison. Another kind is found in India; it is marked with veins like the branches of a tree, and in the form of men. This stone removes thirst and strengthens the sight. There is another kind which has the scent of myrrh when it is placed in fire. Another kind has marks the colour of blood. Another has the colour of wax. But because there are so many kinds, it is of less value. It defends a man, however; it gives him strength; puts colour in his face; it endows him with good counsel; and it makes him persuasive. Electorius grows in the stomach of a fowl after it is three years old and grows until the bird is seven. It is no bigger than a nut or a bean; it is clear like crystal or water; it gives victory to the man who wears it; it takes away thirst if it is placed in the mouth of the thirsty; it summons back those who are scattered; it acquires friends for him; it makes him eloquent and loved. It bestows love between a man and a woman. It has all these virtues if it is carried in the mouth. Sernatites is a black stone of such a nature that if it is placed in the mouth and held under the tongue, a man can perceive what people think of him, and no woman can withstand his will. You can test its nature by smearing someone with honey and milk and placing him in the midst of a swarm of flies; if he has the stone

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in ore non pungitur, amoto lapide, pungere non desistunt.\ [J]aspidis sunt septemdecim maneries et multos habet colores et cres\cit in partes Cecilie, et ille melior et maioris virtutis qui viri\dis et translucens, illum castum portantem defendit a febre et ydro\pisy, a fantasmate, confert amiciciam, et defensionem, et dat forti\tudinem, et eius virtus maior in argento quam in auro.\ Saphirus tante virtutis est quod gemma gemmarum vocatur, colorem\ habet firmamenti, quando sine nube est, et dicitur sercites quia in harena\ Libie pre sirtes invenitur, hic clarus, sed ille melior qui invenitur apud Turcos,\ licet non adeo clarus, eius virtus confortat ferentem, membra conservat\ integra, invidiam et fraudem vincit, aufert timorem, et educit de carcere,\ solvit vincula. Interficit antracem, infrigidat hominem supra modum cale\factum interius, tritus cum lacte servat malagmata, utilis oculis, malo lingue\ dolorem aufert capitis, et qui fert caste ferri debet.\ Smaragdo viriditate vincit omnia, sex habet species, quidam de Sci\cia, de Britannia [Bactriana], quidam de Nilo qui currit de Paradyso, quidam iuvenis [in venis]\ matalli [metalli] invenitur, et quidam vocatur Calcidonia, qui de Scicia, et adeo clarus\ ut possit visu penetrandi, et qui retinet aerem sibi proximum melior est,\ nec mutat colorem propter solem vel lunam vel umbram et lapis talis planus\ bonus est ad visum, sicut consuevit et Nero, per hanc adquiruntur res in aquis\ per hanc accrescunt divicie si caste feratur, confert eloquenciam acceptabi\lem si collo feratur, sanat febrem emitriciam, guttam caducam aufert, tem\pestatem et luxuriam et eciam colorem accipit, si discoloretur et lavetur\ vino et unguatur oleo viridi privat colorem. \ Crisapacion nascitur\ in Ethiopia, cuius color est ut aurum et nocte lucet ut ignis et cetera.\ Sardonius ex duobus lapidibus nomen habet, et ex hiis tres colores. Pri\mum colorem habet nigrum, supra nigrum album, supra album ru\beum, et lapis hic quinque species habet, sed ille qui tres colores habet non mixtos ma\gis valet, nec cere adheret, virtutem alteram non habet, sed castus et humilis\ ad hanc virtutem habendam, ex India et Arabia veniunt, et si collo vel di\gito ferantur, gravia sompnia demonstrant, et efficit contenciones et\ etiam infantes aliquantulum perspicaces, cuius species sunt quinque.\

he is not bitten; remove the stone and the flies bite him ceaselessly. There are seventeen kinds of jasper; it has many colours; and it grows in parts of Sicily. The green and translucent kind is better and of more virtue than the rest. Jasper defends any chaste person wearing it from fever and the dropsy, and from apparitions; it strengthens friendship, keeps you safe and gives you courage. It is of greater virtue if set in silver rather than gold. Sapphire is of such virtue that it is called the gemstone of gemstones. In colour, it is like the sky when it is cloudless. It is called serc[t]ites because it is found on the shore of Libya in front of sandbanks. This kind is clear; but a better kind is that found in the land of the Turks, although it is not so clear. Its virtue strengthens him who wears it, preserves his limbs intact, overcomes envy and deception, takes away fear, brings him out of prison, and loosens his bonds. It gets rid of an ulcer and cools you if you are overheated internally. Ground up with milk, it serves as an emollient; it is good for the eyes and for an injury to the tongue, and it takes away a headache. If you wear it, you should behave in a chaste fashion. Smaragdus surpasses everything in its greenness. There are six kinds: from Scythia, from Britannia [Bactria], from the Nile, which flows from Paradise; one is found in the veins of mines; one is called Chalcedonian. The one from Scythia is so clear that you can see through it; it colours the air around. It is the better kind. Smaragdus does not change its colour on account of the sun or moon or shade; it is so even that you can look through it, as Nero used to do; you can use it to find things under water. It brings wealth if it is worn chastely; it endows you with persuasive eloquence if it is worn on the neck. It cures fever; it gets rid of the hemitertian fever and epilepsy; and it banishes storms and wantonness. It also takes on colour: if it is discoloured and washed in wine and anointed with green oil, the discoloration is dissolved. Crisapacion comes from Ethiopia; its colour is like gold and at night it shines like fire etc. Sardonyx gets its name from two stones, and from these it gets three colours. Its first colour is black; above the black is white; above the white is red. This stone has five types, but the one which has the three colours not mixed together is worth more. It does not stick to wax; it has no other virtue, but you must be chaste and humble for it to have this virtue. The stone comes from Arabia and India. If worn on the neck or finger, it brings deep sleep, cures strife and also makes infants somewhat sharp-sighted. There are five kinds.

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Sardinus nomen habet ab insula ubi prius inventa est,

Sard gets its name from the island where it was first

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rubei coloris est\ vilissima gemmarum, nec aliud virtutis habet nisi pulcritudinem\ et quod aufert lapidi onide suum nocumentum, et hic quinque species habet.\

found; it is red in colour; the least valuable of gemstones, it has no virtue other than its beauty and the fact that it removes the harmful effect of the onyx stone. There are five kinds.

Crisolitus similitudinem habet aque maris, et interius granum auri,\ et scintille ut ignis, virtus eius est contra nocturnos timores, si perforetur et\ ponatur seta asine in medio et portetur in sinistro brachio, fugat de\mones et invenitur in Ethiopia. \

Chrysolite resembles the water of the sea and has a grain of gold within it, and sparks like fire. Its virtue is to counter night-time fears; if it is pierced, with the hair of an ass placed in the middle, and worn on the left arm, it puts demons to flight. It is found in Ethiopia.

Berillus formam habet sex angularem\ ut maiorem reddat claritatem, qui melior est, colorem habet olei vel aque maris,\ in India invenitur amorem confert inter virum et mulierem, honorem\ ferenti, calefacit manum stringentis ipsum, aqua ubi iacuit valet oculis\ aufert suspiria, dolores et febrium et eius sunt novem species.\ Topazius nomen habet ex insula, et ubi invenitur, et carior est quia radiorum\ duas habet species, color unius sicut auri, alterius clarior aliquantu\lum valet ad ficum, et dicitur quod sentit lunam aquam bullientem fa\cit quiescere, venit de Arabia. \ Crisopassus venit de India, color\ eius ut ius porete guttas habet aureas, sed eius virtus non scribitur.\ Iacunctus tres habet species et omnis confortat, et tollit tristiciam et suspicio\nem vanam, quidam aquatici coloris infrigidit qui hunc portat collo\ vel digito tutus ire potest in alienam provinciam, et tutus ingurgita\cione, et honorabitur ab hostibus et quod iuste petit recipiat, et scul\pi non potest facere.\ Amatistus colorem habet viole vel [in] gut\te vini rubei vel aliquantulum [coloris] albidum, ex India ve\nit, facilis ad frangendum, carior esset si esset rarior, et quinque species habet\ quas require.\ Celidonius lapis est. Invenitur in ventre hyrun\dinis duos habet colores nigrum et rubeum, niger valet lu\naticis sanat diamonicos [demonicos] et alios langores, facit hominem\ eloquentem et dilectum, sinistro brachio debet ferri in panno lineo.\ Lapis rubeus [valet] adiuvat ad perficiendum quod incho\atur, valet contra minas et iras regum et principum, si tingatur\ in croco et feratur in lineo panno sanat febricitantem et restrin\git humores noxios.\ Gagates nascitur in Licia qui meli\or est, invenitur in Anglia, cum calescit attrait [attrahit] paleam ardet

Beryl has a hexagonal shape to give it greater clarity; the better kind has the colour of oil or sea water. It is found in India. It bestows love between a man and a woman; it brings honour to him who wears it; it warms the hand of anyone who holds it; water in which it has lain is good for the eyes; and it takes away asthma and the pains of fevers. There are nine kinds. Topaz gets its name from the island, Topazos, where it is found. It is valued more because it has two kinds of radiance: one the colour of gold; the other, clearer. It is quite good for piles; it is said to feel the pull of the moon; and it causes water to stop boiling. It comes from Arabia. The chrysoprase comes from India. Its colour is like the sap of a leek, with golden marks; but there is nothing on record about its virtue. There are three kinds of hyacinth. Each one gives strength, and removes sadness and false suspicion. The kind with a watery colour chills you; anyone who wears it on his neck or finger can go in safety in foreign parts and is safe from overeating; he will be honoured by his enemies and anything he seeks in a righteous fashion, he will receive. The stone cannot be engraved. The amethyst is the colour of a violet or a drop of red wine or whiteish. It comes from India. It is easy to shatter. If it were rarer, it would be more valuable. There are five kinds to look for. Chelidony is a stone. It is found in the stomach of the swallow; it has two colours, black and red; the black kind is helpful to the insane, heals demonic possession and other kinds of weakness; it makes a man eloquent and loved; it should be worn on the left arm wrapped in a linen cloth. The red kind helps to bring things to completion; it offers protection against the threats and rages of kings and princes; if it is moistened in saffron and worn in a linen cloth, it heals anyone with a fever and restrains noxious humours. Jet comes from Lycia. The better kind is found in England. When it is made warm it attracts straw; it burns

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Translation Transcription in aqua, extinguitur in oleo, utilis est ferenti qui habet inflacionem inter\ cutem et carnem infundura, si pulvis misceatur cum aqua confirmat\ dentes qui firmi non sunt, per estuvias supra reddit feminibus naturas\ suas, si odor eius sentitur cum ardet aufert caducam guttam, et odor eius\ fugat serpentes et demones, valet habentibus ventrem reversum, va\let auribus tinientibus defendit incantaciones, probat virginitatem\ ut dicitur, femina que patitur fluxum si uteri aqua per tres dies in qua lavatur\ sanabitur.\ Magnates invenitur inter Draconitidos et India,\ colorem habet ferreum et ferrum attrahit, eius virtus est si quis voluerit\ scire si uxor eius sit casta vel non, ponat lapidem sub capite eius cum\ dormierit, si casta est deosculabitur eum, si alia cadet a lecto acsi ma\nu pulsaretur, et hoc contingit ex odore lapidis, si latro intret in do\mum furandi et in diversas partes domus ponat vivum carbonem\ et desuper pulverem magnatis ita quod inde fumus exeat per quatuor angu\los domus videbitur hiis qui sunt in domo quod cadat, et sic fugient, et latro\ locum furandi habere potest, fert concordiam inter hominem et feminam, con\fert graciam, eloquenciam, sensum disputandi, si datur ad bibendum\ purgat ydropsim, pulvis valet si supra ponatur arsure.\ Corallus crescit ut arbor in mari et tunc viridis est, sed postea\ indurescit et accipit colorem rubeum, similitudinem habet\ rami, virtus euis est fugat fulgura et tempestatem ab omni loco ubi est\ et si prociatur [proiciatur] inter vinetum vel olivetum vel in campo vel in semine de\fendit a grandine et tempestate, multiplicat fructus, aufert fantas\mata bonum finem et licium confert in operando.\ Alemandina venit de parte Asie que vocatur Alablanda, sim\ilitudinem habet sardine et non defacile discernitur ab illa.\

in water; it is quenched in oil, Anyone wearing it who suffers from a swelling between the skin and the flesh (ie dropsy), will benefit, if it is poured in. Ground and mixed with water, it fixes loose teeth in place. By means of inhalation in hot baths it restores menstrual flow. The odour given out by jet when it burns will, in inhaled, get rid of epilepsy, and it puts snakes and demons to flight. It helps those who have an upset stomach; it is good for ringing in the ears; and it offers protection against spells; it is said to be a test for virginity. A woman who suffers from the flux, if it is of the womb, will be healed by water in which jet has been soaked for three days. Lodestone is found in the land of the cave-dwellers and in India. It has a metallic colour and attracts iron. Its virtue is that if a man wants to know if his wife is chaste or not, he should place the stone under her head when she is asleep; if she is chaste, she will embrace him warmly; otherwise, she will fall from the bed as if struck by a hand; this happens because of the odour of the stone. If a thief should enter a house to rob it, and should place in different parts of the house a live coal and on top of it powdered lodestone, so that it gives off smoke to the four corners of the house, it will seem to those who are in the house that the house is collapsing; as a result, they will flee and the thief can rob the place. Lodestone produces harmony between man and woman; it bestows grace, eloquence, skill in argument. If it is given in the form of a drink, it purges dropsy. Its powder, put on a fire, quenches it. Coral grows like a tree in the sea, at which time it is green; afterwards, however, it hardens and takes on a reddish colour. It resembles the branch of a tree. Its virtue is that it drives away lightning and storms, wherever it is; and if it is scattered around a vineyard or olive-grove, or on a field or on seeded ground, it protects it from hail and storms and it increases its yield. It banishes apparitions and brings a good outcome to legal business.

Cornelius obscurum habet colorem, virtus eius est hec, aufert iram dis\putancium, sistit sanguinem de fluxu sanguinis de quolibet\ membro et maxime menstruum. \

Almandine comes from the part of Asia called Alablanda. It resembles sard and is not easily distinguished from it.

Carbunculus invenitur in Libia ubi ma\nent traconitidide mittit radios ut carbo vivus, et hoc de noc\te non de die. \

Carnelian has a pale colour. Its virtue is this: it quenches the anger of people in dispute, and it staunches blood flowing from any part of the body, especially menstrual flow.

Ligurium nascitur de urina lincis que videt per medium\ lapidis sicut per medium vitrioli bestia cooperit urinam suam harena\ ne inveniatur eius[......] aufert dolorem ventris et sistit\

The carbuncle is found in Libya where cave-dwellers live; it sends out rays like a live coal, by night but not by day. Ligurium comes from the urine of the lynx. You can see through the middle of the stone as through glass.

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The beast hides its urine in the sand lest it should be found. The virtue of ligurium is that it takes away stomach-ache and staunches

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fluxum et aufert janiz.\ Ethites est lapis quem aquila ex ultimis finibus terre fert ad nidum\ suum, nec ponit antequam in nidum portetur et ibi remanet quo\adusque pulli maturi sint. Hic lapis lapidem habet intra se, et propterea\ utilis est mulieri pregnanti, et similiter ad partum debet deferri in sinistra parte\ perhibet ebrietatem, accrescit divicias, confert dilectionem et victoriam,\ conservat infantes sanos, aufert guttam caducam, et siquis suspectus\ fuerit de veneno dando ponatur lapis iste sub disco eius et quamdiu moratur\ ibi non manducabit qui suspectus est, si verum est amoto lapide potest.\

flux and takes away jaundice. Eaglestone is a stone which the eagle carries from the ends of the earth to its nest. It does not put the stone down until it is inside the nest; there the stone remains until the eagle's young have grown up. This stone has another stone within it: for this reason it is of benefit to pregant women; likewise at childbirth. It should be worn on the left side. It prevents drunkenness; it increases wealth; it bestows love and victory; it keeps young children healthy; and it takes away epilepsy. If anyone should be suspected of giving poison, the stone should be placed under his plate; as long as it stays there, the suspect will not be able to eat; if the suspicion is true, he can eat only when the stone has been removed.

Celnites est lapis colorem habet iaspidis, vocatur silenites quia crescit et\ decrescit cum luna, confert dilectionem, valet corpori, nascitur in\ Persia\ Sagatromen [Gagatronem] lapis maculatus est ut pellis ca\preoli, confert principi victoriam, et fugat hostes.\ Ceraunius lapis est cadens cum fulgure, qui cum caste fertur ubi est\ nec cadit fulgur nec tempestas, valet in bello et in pla\cito, confert sensum [somnium] et pulcra fantasmata. Dupplicem habet colorem.\ Eliotropia lapis huius nature, si ponatur in vasa contra solem facit\ colorem eius rubeum, et eclipsim novam et cito ebullire vas\ in quo ponitur et aqua eicere hac si plenum esset, qui fert plura potest dicere de\ futuris, confert homini laudem, sanitatem, sistit sanguinem, est contra\ venenum et fraudem, collatus cum herba que eiusdem nominis esse, pergit\ quo voluerit non videbitur, et hoc cum incantatione que ad hoc spectat.\ Venit de Ethiopia et Affrica, coloris est smaragdinis et guttas habet\ sanguineas.\ Epistites lapis rubeus et splendens, et eius\ natura est quod caldaria ebulliencia sistit, et post pauca infri\gidat aufert de terris seminatis aves nocentes, et tempestates,\ aufert rixas, et facit hominem securum, si contra solem ponatur\ claritatem reddat ut ignis, vult ferri ex parte sinistra.\ Ematites nomen habet ex sanguine, pulvis eius cum albu\ bine [albumine] ovis valet ad asperitatem palpebrarum. Item per cotim\ factus et aque mixtus valet equo [eo] qui iactat sanguinem, restringit\ mensium, aufert carnem que super excrescit in plaga, restrin\git fluxum ventris, si bibatur cum vino valet contra vene\

Moonstone has the colour of jasper. It is called silenites because it waxes and wanes with the moon. It bestows love; it is good for the health. It comes from Persia. Gagatromen is a stone which is marked like the skin of a a wild goat. It gives a leader victory and puts his enemies to flight. The thunderstone falls to earth with a bolt of lightning. If you wear it and behave chastely, lightning will not strike the spot on which you stand, and no storms will arise. It helps you in war and to achieve your purpose. It bestows sleep and sweet dreams. It has two colours. The bloodstone is of this nature: if you place it in a vessel facing the sun, it makes the sun turn red and causes a new eclipse; it also makes the vessel boil and spill water if it is full. Anyone wearing it can foretell much of the future. It bestows praise on a man, and good health. It staunches a flow of blood and works against poison and trickery. If you wear it together with the herb of the same name, you can go where you want, invisible, using the appropriate spell. The bloodstone comes from Ethiopia and Africa. It is of the colour of the emerald with blood-coloured marks. Epistites is a brilliant red stone. Its nature is that it quenches a boiling cauldron, and after a short while cools it. It scares harmful birds away from seeded ground; it repels storms; it banishes quarrels; and it keeps you safe safe. Placed in the sun, it gives out light like fire; It is better worn on the left. Hematite gets its name from blood. Powdered and mixed with the white of egg, it is good for roughness

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of the eyelids. Ground and mixed with water, it helps anyone who spits blood. It restrains menstruation; it takes away the scar tissue that grows in wounds; and it restrains a flux of the stomach. Drunk in wine, it works against poison

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Transcription num, contra morsum serpentis, cum melle valet oculis dolentibus\ frangit petram interius venit de Affrica et Ethiopia et Arabia.\ Abestos est de Archadia, color ferri, cuius natura si semel accenditur\ semper ardet.\ Penantes concipit lapidem et parit et\ propterea valet mulieribus habentibus in ventrem et parturientibus.\ Sadda gravis ad inveniendum sic invenitur, adheret navibus\ nec aufertur nec cecetur [secetur], in terra Caldeorum invenitur.\ Modus [Medus] intra Turcorum invenitur confert vitam et mortem\ si confricatur ad cotim viridem et misceatur cum lacte mulieri\ et ponatur ad oculos cecos dat visum, si cum lacte ovis que nusquam\ nisi unum agnum habuerit, aufert podagram et sanat renes, de\bet includi argento et quando sic bibitur debet vespere, et ante pran\dium, sed si daretur pulvis cum aqua, evomaret pulmonem\ et hic moreretur, et sic lavans oculos excecaretur, color eius niger est.\

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and against snakebite; taken with honey it is good for eye trouble; and it softens the stone in the bladder. It comes from Africa, Ethiopia and Arabia. Asbestos comes from Arcadia. It has a metallic colour. Its nature is that if you once ignite it, it burns forever. Penantes conceives and gives birth to another stone; for this reason it is good for women who are pregnant or in labour. Sagda is hard to find. This is how you find it: it sticks to ships and cannot be taken or cut off. It is found in the country of the Chaldeans.

Selaor [Gelatia] lapis adeo durus quod frangi non potest et adeo frigidos quod\ non calefieri potest.

Medus is found among the Turks. It bestows life and death if it is ground on a green grindstone and mixed with a woman's milk. Placed on sightless eyes, it restores their vision. Dissolved in the milk of a ewe that has had no more than one lamb, and that one a male, it takes away gout and cures the kidneys. It should be kept in silver and drunk in the evening and before lunch. If the powder is administered in water, whoever drinks it will vomit up his lungs and die; and if he bathes his eyes with it, he will go blind. Its colour is black.

Exacontalitos sexaginta habet colo\res in proprio loco invenitur in terra draconitidarum. \

Gelatia is a stone so hard that it cannot be shattered and so cold that it cannot be warmed.

Dionisia colo\rem habet nigrum, guttas rubeas, cum aqua trita saporem habet vini et\ tamen aufert ebrietatem.\

Exacontalitus has sixty colours within it. It is found in the land of the cave-dwellers.

Eriselectrus [Criselectrus] colorem habet auri et electri,\ si detur mane fert gaudium, sed iram et tristiciam nisi sepius videatur.\

Dionysia is black in colour, with red marks. Ground in water, it has the flavour of wine; nevertheless, it banishes drunkenness.

Diadocos valet incantatoribus per aquam, sed si tangat mor\tuum amittit virtutem.

Chryselectrum has the colour of gold and amber. If it is given in the morning it brings joy; but it brings anger and sadness if it is not looked at often.

Pirites non permittit quod stringatur\ quia si constringitur ardet manum.\

Diadocos is of value to those who cast spells in water, but if it touches a dead man it loses its virtue.

Chelonite lapis quem fert testudo quidam in India, purpurei et\ varii coloris est, si feratur in ore bene lavato sub lingua, lu\na crescente, potest futura videre, a prima diei usque ad sextam, et cum\ nova est luna est xva per totum diem, hic lapis non tenet ignem.

Pyrite does not allow you to grasp it, because if you do so, it burns your hand.

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Chelonite is a stone, carried by a certain kind of tortoise in India. It is a mixture of purple and other colours. If you put it in your mouth, well washed, under your tongue, at the waxing of the moon, it gives you the power to see the future; on the first day you can do this up to the sixth hour; when the moon is new, you have the power for the full twenty-four hours, up to the fifteenth day. This stone is unaffected by fire.

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