Historical Studies 1911

Ml

1

p*

T

BRITISH

SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY STUDIES.

VOL.

IN

EGYPT

II

HISTORICAL STUDIES BY

E.

B.

KNOBEL

W. W. MIDGLEY J.

G.

MILNE

M.

A.

MURRAY AND

W. M.

F.

PETRIE

0s LONDON

SCHOOL OF ARCHAEOLOGY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GOWER

IN EGYPT STREET, W.C.

AND

ii,

BERNARD QUARITCH GRAFTON STREET, NEW BOND STREET, 191

W.

bT Si

THE STUDIES This

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Vol.

I.

SERIES work connected with

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NAMES AND TITLES OF THE OLD KINGDOM. By M. A. Murray.

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ADDRESS THE HON. SECRETARY BRITISH SCHOOL IN EGYPT, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GOWER STREET, LONDON, W.C.

.

CONTENTS EGYPTIAN FESTIVALS AND NILE SHRINES. By W. M.

PAGE

SECT.

23.

The

24.

The diagrams

seasonal dates

9 10

PETRIE.

F.

PAGE

SECT. 1.

The composition

2.

The Temple

3.

The

4.

The populace

2

5.

The August

2

6.

The

of the numbers

provisions

1

1

.

priesthood and nobles

By W. M.

2

feast

priesthood and nobles

a reign

30.

Remains of xiiith-xviith dynasties

13

31.

The Hyksos

14

32.

The Turin Papyrus

10.

The

Nile stages

4

11.

The

Nile shrines

4

12.

The

?iusa

13.

The

stages in

5

5

SIRIUS.

By E. B. KNOBEL.

1 5.

The

material of the tables

16.

Table of Sothis and

17.

The

....

Thoth

seasonal dates

10

The

4

...

dynasty

29.

3

Nile offerings

length of the Sothis period

iiird

of

The

The

date of the

The frequency

9.

14.

The

10

28.

Other sections

THE HELIACAL RISING OF

26.

of the history

3

8.

Upper Egypt

The importance

27. Comparison with Manetho

The populace

weight

25.

PETRIE.

F.

3

7.

1st

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

6

datings

in

11

.

monuments

....

kings

33. Contrast of xiith

and

By W. M.

F.

18.

The continuous kalendar

19.

The

20.

The movements

21.

The Egyptian

22.

The

PETRIE.

Sothis period and the seasons

first

of Sirius

observations

month

.

of the kalendar

13

14 xviiith dynasties

34.

The

35.

The Semitic conquests

36.

The

periods compared

37.

The

value of Manetho

38.

Manetho and external

39.

Comparison of

40.

The attempt

41.

The month

IS

16

descent of style of

Egypt

.

17

.

18

.

18

history

totals

18

20

to shorten history

20

Exodus

22

of the

42. Dates of dynasties

APPLICATION OF THE KALENDAR TO HISTORY.

12

THE NOMES OF EGYPT.

22

CONTENTS PAGE

SECT.

48.

Roman

49.

The Upper Egypt nomes

50.

The

later divisions

51.

The

relics of Osiris

52.

The maps

28

53.

The age

28

54.

The

predynastic standards

29

55.

The

early cities

29

divisions

.

of subdivisions

SECT.

66.

The

firing

35

27

67.

The

colouring

35

27

68. Description of plates

36

28

69. Sources of style

37

LINEN OF THE THIRD DYNASTY. By W. 70.

THE ISLAND OF

BESA.

The

57.

Bes among the Phoenicians

figure

and name of Bes

30

.

30

58.

The

J.

G.

MILNE.

nature of the currency

.

.

.

.30

59 The hoards

31

6b. Variations in minting

31

61.

Wastage of currency

63.

The

billon

64.

The

tables

.

.

and bronze

.

By W. 65.

The

Index

kilns

At.

F.

.

39

A.

MURRAY.

39

FIGURE-VASES IN EGYPT. By M. 75.

Human

34

76.

Quadrupeds

A.

MURRAY.

figures

and

40 40 reptiles

41

Sources of vases

41

79. Description of plates

42

78.

34

.

39

33

PETRIE.

.

.37 .37

74. Parallels to the figure

-33

KILNS.

.

73. Description of coffin

77. Birds, fish,

ROMAN GLAZING

.

xxi

By M.

32

62. Irregularities of hoarding

.

AN EGYPTIAN HIPPOCAMPUS.

THE ROMAN COINAGE OF ALEXANDRIA. By

MIDGLEY.

examples

72. Description of pi.

.

IV.

Treatment of the material

71. Description of

By W. M. F. PETR1E. 56.

PAGE

25

80.

Examples not

figured

.

.

.

.

.45 47

LIST OF PLATES WITH PAGE REFERENCES TO THE DESCRIPTIONS i.

Glazed lamps and

jars

Glazed jars Glazed jars with animals Purple and blue glazes

Glazed small designs Saggars, handles,

Moulds,

etc.

etc.

Hippocampus.

Linen

Predynastic figure-vases »

xviiith dynasty

Late figure-vases

» „

HISTORICAL STUDIES EGYPTIAN FESTIVALS AND NILE SHRINES. By W. M. I.

all

THE

FLINDERS PETRIE.

great Harris papyrus, which recapitulates

the offerings of

Rameses

been appreciated.

At

III,

has only gradually

the

first

historical

portions

were the only pages regarded. Then the statistical value of its records of endowments, in men and land and metals, were studied but the hundreds of entries, with very various numbers, of all kinds of material, have scarcely been touched. Here we purpose to shew some of the results which can be drawn from the lists, bearing on the festivals and the organiza;

tion.

The Composition of the Numbers.

has long been

It

noticed that in sections which refer to offerings extend-

number That is to say the total is made up of a fixed number of offerings made each year. In another part where offerings during 23 years are summed up (pi. 34^) the numbers are ing over the whole reign, of 31 years, the 31 and

all

its

multiples often recur.

multiples of 23.

much 21)

it

This analysis can be carried

further; in one of the fullest sections (17 to stated that the offerings were

is

festival of

20 days during

years,

1 1

of 27 days during 31 years. festal

The

made on a

and on a total

days was thus 220 and 837.

festival

number of

Now

the

first

220 + 837, or each feast day. The one loaf on next entry is 1277, which is the same with 220 added, 837 + twice 220. These suffice to shew that the numbers should be analysed into multiples of 11, 31, 220, and 837 that is to say certain amounts offered on the great day of the feasts, and on each day of the feasts. To illustrate how these high numbers were piled up, take the following examples entry

is

of 1057 loaves

;

and

;

:

this is

EGYPTIAN FESTIVALS AND NILE SHRINES and 2 sad, 2 belt, and There were 20 jars of 2 zednut loaves each day. incense provided for the festival and 20 bundles of papyrus "of the house of incense," probably used There were 4 to light the incense in the censer. pottery jars provided on the first day, and 6 more The frequent mention of rahusu cakes each day. with bread and meat, suggested that they were dough cakes boiled with the meat rakhash (Heb.), boiling might possibly refer to light puff bread, but that would be less likely to be eaten with meat. The priesthood The Priesthood and Nobles. 3. seems to have been 120 in number. This is shewn by the number of papyrus sandals provided, 360 in the March feast, 360 in the August feast, and 120 These numbers would leather sandals in August. pair one of leather sandals each priest for imply two months. sandals every papyrus and yearly, priests, and were only 60 the sandals Perhaps there but from leather sandals only lasted half the time being given at one feast, it is more probable that These numbers they were only one pair a year. serve to indicate that offerings which were multiples of 3 were probably for the use of the priests. There are 12 special dresses, 4 coloured tunics and 8 of

of loaves there were

large loaf

I

;

)

;

probably for the chief priests. Dishes of bread, meat, and rahusu cakes were provided, 30 on Also the great day, and 20 daily in the feast. thick

stuff,

was

special bread of divine offerings

offered in 30

gold dishes, 600 baat loaves on the great day and 150 daily, 15 petsen loaves and 300 daily, 20 white loaves and 30 daily, 360 loaves daily of kunek bread,

"of the fire," with 75 such daily. 5 and of strong beer, 18 jars on the jars daily, seem to have completed and 6 great day

and

15 loaves

hins of

oil daily,

the priestly provision.

The nobles and great people attending the to have numbered 100, probably divided

seem

We

20 groups.

feast

into

see zlrt-plants for the hand, 100 on

the great day and

1

50 daily

;

dishes of bread, meat,

and rahusu, 20 on the great day and 50 daily of grain double of these quantities,

40 and

;

100.

loaves

;

;

;

20 portions

;

grapes,

5

measures.

The populace attending the The Populace. This feast seems to have been reckoned at 10,000. is a very moderate number, as the great fair of There were Tantah is twenty times as large. the great day, and flowers for of 10,000 bouquets bouquets number of equal 4000 daily also, with an 4.

offering, the

bouquets, one

worshipper apparently taking two

for

himself and the

other to offer.

Similarly 20,000 white loaves were provided for the Of other kinds great day, and 1600 such daily.

bread there were 1000 kolusta and 1000 pat on the great day, and also daily 200 measures of cakes on the great day, and 10 daily. Other kinds only provided daily were 250 great loaves, 100 udenunl, 100 apt of rahusu, and 10 jars of meal. Of beer there were 125 jars on the great day and 900 The reason for the short amount extra on daily. the great day, is that 60 jars of the strongest drink were then provided, sliedeh wine, kept until it had

of

;

developed a large amount of alcohol.

500 hins of were supplied daily. Of fruit there were 1000 measures on the great day, and 250 measures daily of dried figs for the great day, 100 weights and 5 measures, probably a large amount, with 4 Jteqt of southern fruit and 500 measures of an fruit every 500 measures of day, with 25 of southern fruit. oil

;

;

dates on the great day and 50 daily completed the supply.

fruit

(If,

however, the reading 78,550 be

would transfer the fruit to the August festival, instead of 1000 measures here.) Meat was provided in small quantities: 20 oxen, 100 live birds, 100 turpu 25 cows, and 1 gazelle hatching fowl, 20 waterfowl, and 8 cranes, geese, 200 while 50 pigeons were killed for the whole festival daily. Of fish there were 6000 on the great day With and 1000 daily, with also 200 white fish. these were 25 large measures of salt on the great day and 100 cakes, with 70 cakes of salt daily; similarly 100 and 70 cakes of natron. 1400 bundles of vegetables on the great day, and also 500 a day, completed the food supply. The people were provided on the great day with 2000 lotus flowers for the hand and 2000 stems of papyrus, and each day with 400 lotus and 500 papyrus stems, and 500 lotus bouquets. Of papyrus bouquets there were 200 at the opening and 300

correct, that

;

;

daily as well.

Jars

rahusu cakes, 20 fish, 40 for the whole feast cinnamon, measures wine, 20 jars and 25 daily

of

for

5.

T/te

August

August

feast

of

We

Feast.

27

days.

next turn

The numbers

to

the

attend-

ing the feast seem to have been about half of those at

the

March

feast.

There were 4800 instead of

10,000 bouquets of flowers for the great day, 1000 instead

of

of 4000 daily.

There were 10,000 instead

20,000 great loaves, and

daily.

The

750 instead of 1000

decoration of the hall was like that in

March, only with

more

flowers.

70

bundles

tamarisk and 100 bundles of reed-grass

made

of the

THE AUGUST FEAST background.

4 screens of flowers, 100 bouquets, 500 nosegays, 400 chains of blue flowers, and 20 strings of flowers, were the decoration of the great day

of

the

Beside these there

feast.

garlands on the great day and

were 600

50 daily, 60 great

bouquets on the great day and 20 daily, and 125 apt measures of z>z-plant on the great day, and 48

Flowers were August than in March.

measures in

The

daily.

far

more abundant

one of each of the three kinds of loaves, and of the great loaves 100 on the great day and 40 each day. 20 jars of incense were provided, 18 ordinary and 2 of white incense, and with this were 15 bundles of papyrus for burning the incense. There was also a large quantity of inferior incense, the numbers of which cannot be

Of

were

bread, meat, and rahusu cakes there

hotep tables.

5

The Priesthood and Nobles. The priesthood probably numbered 1 20 as we have noticed receiving in this feast 120 leather sandals, and 360 papyrus sandals. They fed upon 30 hotep tables of bread, meat, and rahusu cakes, 1200 kunek loaves, 30 jars of meal, 200 great loaves, 800 sweet loaves, and 100 mehint cakes, on the great day. Of other bread there were 200 baat loaves and 20 persen loaves on the great day, and 20 and 48 of these daily. 12 jars of strong beer on the great day and 3 daily. Also there were provided 3 hins of sweet oil, 3 of 6.

;

plain

oil,

of red

1

oil,

10 jars of honey, 3 jars of measures of figs,

olives,

2 jars of white fat, 10 apt

and

measures of cinnamon.

5

plies

Of

course these sup-

provided not only for the priests, but for their

numerous

The

families.

nobles had 12 tables of meat, bread, and

and 4 a day as well. were 2 loaves of grain, 24 and Also four measures of rahusu cakes each 8 daily. day. 10 jars of strong shedeh wine were provided. Of fruit there were 10 weights of figs, 50 baskets Of of semu, 2 measures of grapes, 10 jars of olives. Of khitS. fruit 3 large measures, and 4 daily. hana 10 large measures, and of cabbage 20 large measures. 50 pottery jars were used in the feast, rahusu,

for

With each

and

the great day,

table

8 daily as well.

The 40

lotus flowers for the

hand, with 40 on each day, were also for the nobles. The meat supply for the feast was rather more than for the

March

4 gazelles; 4

14 turpu geese, 2 fowl,

700

50 oxen, and daily 1 cow; and 8 each day; 10 large birds, cranes, 60 hatching-fowl, 800 water160 pigeons and 50 each day, 40

festival:

geese,

quail,

there were 500 dressed

Of

fish

and 500 split fish. The populace was well provided, 7. The Populace. apparently about 50x30 being present on the great day, and a few hundreds all through the feast. Of bread there were 10,000 great loaves on the main day, and 750 daily loaves 1400 1 500 pyramidal kolusta and 200 daily 700 udenunt and 100 daily of rahusu cakes 200 measures, and 1 000 pat loaves of other cakes 50 measures on the great day and 50 daily. The drinks were 50 jars of the strong shedeh wine 10 of ordinary wine and 40 daily 100 jars Of fruit we find 240 measures of beer and 20 daily. and 30 each day (or, if the reading be 78,550, then 90 on the great day and 80 each day) also of other fruit 20 sacks and 20 measures. An fruit 1000 measures and 500 each day. Figs 500 measures. Grapes 70 measures of different kinds. Dum palm nuts were then in season and 1000 apt were provided, with 500 on each day. Of pomegranates 500 apt and 40 crates. 30 apt of a fruit called nebdu. 500 measures of dates on the great day and 40 each day with 100 whole bunches of dates. Of vegetables 10,000 bundles on the great day, and 400 each day, beside 70 measures, were provided. Of khithana, which is unknown, there were 200 bunches. The worshippers had 4800 bouquets of flowers at first, and 1000 each day, beside the same numbers to offer. 1500 flowers for the hand and 1000 ears of corn for the hand. There were also on the great day 1000 papyrus stems and 350 z«-plants for the hand, with 200 and 100 respectively on each day of Of coarse salt there were 40 large the feast. measures, and of fine salt 80 cakes on the great day and 60 daily while of natron there were 280 cakes and 60 daily. The use of 100 deben, or 20 lbs., of wax is not clear possibly it was for candles before fish,

;

;

;

;

offerings were daily

separated.

sesha birds, and 48 doves with 6 each day.

;

;

;

;

;

;

the shrine.

We

have now reached the basis of a picture

of a great

festival,

—the

decoration of the hall with

branches and flowers, the flowers carried by every

worshipper and offered by each, the feasts provided the priesthood, the nobles, and

for

10,000 of the people.

There was a

some 5000 or

far larger attend-

ance on the great day of the feast than subsequently. Another section of the papyrus 8. Other Sections. recounts the offerings to Amen during 31 years (13a to 16b).

so

that

Here the multiples are of 31 in most cases, the following amounts for each

we have

10, amulet cords 5, carnelian uza uza eyes 7, jasper scarabs 2, lazuli

year: silver rings eyes

6, lazuli

EGYPTIAN FESTIVALS AND NILE SHRINES scarabs

2,

pendent seals

beads 500, crystal

many

the

things

wooden

5,

offerings

are

seal

1.

Of

irregular,

slightly

working out as even numbers if between 30 and 31 years. Thus there were annually 70 jars of white incense, 35 jars of honey, 90 of Egyptian oil, 60 of Syrian oil, 30 of white fat, 12^ of goose fat, 8 measures of cinnamon, 4 measures of nukapatha, 60 crates and measures of grapes, 12 crates of pomegranates. Other things were provided more frequently, as 8 geese and 14 turpu geese each month, and two jars of shedeh or wine every day. The section on the new feasts founded in the 9th year, and lasting 23 years to the king's death, has numbers which are divisible by 23. One exception is the measures of beer, which are 24 daily during the time. 9.

The Nile

that

is,

"

in. This small uncertainty thus includes number 106 which is so prominent in these Nile

105 and the

offerings.

Herodotos gives the same number, in stating that The distance from the the schoinos was 60 stadia. sea by river to Syene is 725 miles, or 6330 Greek This divided by 60 is 105! schoinoi. His stadia. statement of the number of schoinoi is apparently corrupt, as he gives from the sea to Heliopolis as

and from Heliopolis to Thebes as

25,

106 from the sea to Thebes.

Thebes to Elephantine.

It is

81,

making

He

then adds 30 from possible, however, that

i. 24 for later which here deal with we variations), and that the 106 were the Nile stages only from Thebes down to the

the schoinos varied (see Strabo, XVII.

The

Offerings.

"

Books of Hapi," the

Nile god, are the next division (37^ to 41^). The heading states that the offerings were founded by

Rameses,

distance from Aswan to Memphis would be 84 schoinoi, and from Memphis to the sea 21 on Thus the the plain or 27 by the river windings. number of these stages on the Nile was between

the

crystal seals 50, crystal

2,

vases

the increase of 8 years

the greater

amount of

making

3

1

years

sea.

"

offerings during years

to 8, making with the subsequent 23 years the whole 31 years of the reign. Prof. Breasted prefers to read 48 years making 31 years, and considers the

The Nile Shrines.

1 1.

;

the 106 offerings were

The conclusion then is that made for, or at, each stage

and as they are mainly of statuettes

1

on the Nile

sentence quite insoluble; but Birch read

probable that each stage had a shrine of Hapi on the shore, and these shrines were redecorated each There is also another important number, the year.

crease), not "

"aa"

(in-

40 " and the sign aa appears in almost this form in page 17^, line 11. It is quite likely that the first draft may have been aa, and owing to a number following it the scribe thought it was 40 and ;

wrote accordingly. factor in telligible

We

that eight years

find

is

a

the numbers, which points to the in-

all

We

reading above.

see

ten multiples of

about 2920 (from 2909 to 2945 in different subjects). Now 2920 is the number of days in eight years.

Another very frequent base

is

848, of which there

Taking 53 examples, with various multipliers. eight years, as stated, and shewn by the number of are

days, this yields 106 per year. be, as a basis of offerings to

of statuettes of Hapi 10.

What

The Nile Stages. The Nile was divided into a towing stages, called schoinoi, though longer

than the land schoinos. best fixed

The

length of these stages

by those beyond Egypt Aswan to Takompso.

schoinos from

in the

dodeka

This

district

was about 81 miles along the river, giving 674 miles per schoinos, or 592 miles if measured direct upon the plain. This river schoinos is stated by Herodotos Probably it was 20,000 to be 60 stadia, or 69 miles. cubits, or 6*55

miles.

"

:

—

have been a register of the offerings

on the

in

each

nome

Nile.

The numbers then shew

the amounts provided

daily in the great shrine of Hapi.

There were 16b

boat loaves for divine offerings, 300 persen loaves, 16

?

series of

is

it

Books of Hapi " recording the offerings. These divided by the 8 years shewn by the offerings gives 34 a year and 34 has no relation to the 106, which we have seen to be the stages on the Nile. But the Nile flows through 22 nomes in Upper Egypt, and in Lower Egypt its main stream touched 12 more nomes Memphis, Letopolis, Heliopolis, Athribis, Prosopis, Bubastis, Busiris, Sebennytus, Xois, Mendes, Hermopolis, and Pakhnamunis. Thus there were 34 nomes on the course of the Nile, and there may 272

then can 106

Hapi, and particularly

;

is

On

this scale of the schoinos

kunek

loaves, 17 jars of beer, 21 large

grain,

1

of

measures of

cow or

incense,

ox, 2| jars of shedeh or wine, 30 jars 15 measures of palm fibre, 15 flower

These were used at the great temple of Hapi, and perhaps garlands, and 25 bunches of grapes or raisins.

partly at the lesser shrines.

12

The

river shrines at

kilts

of linen for the keeper or the priest, 300

each stage had each year

measures of fruit, 125 apt of raisins and of carob-pods, 15 measures of onions, 15 jars of salt and of natron,

STAGES ON THE NILE 14 measures of dried dates, berries, senb berries, raisins, 5 jars of white fruit, 1 basket of apples,

and

14 bundles of herbs, and

jar of best

1

oil.

For the

decoration of the shrine there were 135 bouquets of flowers, and a like number for personal use, 125

bunches of measure of the same. The sacred figures were renewed yearly, 6 sycomore figures of Hapi, and 6 of the female bouquets

of

"

garden

fragrance,"

84

cyperus, 10 z.»-plants for the hand, and

Hapi

Hapi

8 figures of

;

lead,

green

skesmet,

felspar,

alabaster, red jasper, carnelian, kenmat, mesdemt, seller, tur,

and bronze

;

and 16

figures

in

turquoise

malachite, lazuli, and various precious stones.

were also 12 crystal

seals,

12

bracelets,

or

There and 12

armlets.

The Nusa Weight. The statement about all is "nusa 6784," or other number. This is explained in more detail in 55a, where there is an entry of each material, "statues 656, nusa 656," shewing that the figures weighed a nusa each. There is a mention of a weight of lead in the annals of Thothmes being 1200 nusa; but we have no proof of the origin or amount of this weight. There is one suggestion to be made. On a trilingual weight (S. B. A. x, 464) there is a statement in Susian that it was 2 nosham 1 u as it weighs 2573 grains, that shews the nosham to be 1225 grains. This is an eighth of 9800 grains, the mina of the gold standard of 196 grains and in Syria this standard is 1985. Thus the nusa used for precious metals might be produced by successive halvings of the mina of the old gold standard. Yet it seems 12.

these figures

;

;

unlikely that

140

of

lbs.

materials was dedicated to

each of

these precious

Hapi every

year.

The

metals might only be plated, but the double amounts of lazuli and turquoise could hardly be as much. 13.

The Stages

about Hapi

is

of the Books of years.

The

in

Upper Egypt.

Hapi from year 29

notable fact

are multiples

Another section

$4a-$6a, which contains the offerings

of 41.

is

One

to year 31, 3 that nearly all the entries possibility

is

that these

were monthly

offerings, and that the whole period months, 3 years and 5 months. But as these offerings began in the 29th year, and Rameses died on the 40th day of the 31st year, it is impossible

was 41

to get 41

months

in

to the allotted dates.

Again,

would be unlikely that fresh statuettes of Hapi would be dedicated every month. The only other possibility is that this common basis is 82, and that this was the number of Nile stages in Upper Egypt it

number by the

already reached 84 as the

schoinos measure, and Herodotos states 81 stages from Heliopolis to Thebes, so it might easily be this number, 82. If so we must regard these endowments as additional for the Nile stages of Upper

Egypt.

The

1

in gold, silver, iron, copper,

minu,

menituz,

tin,

we have

5

are

all,

censers

offerings for each of the 82 stages, once for cattle 5

:

2,

7 sticks

;

;

birds 50

measures

1

;

oil 2

wine 10 jars incense, and 7 jars cinnamon

;

;

jars

;

gold statuettes of Hapi

8,

silver 8

;

white

2\ hins, 14 jars fine fruit 280 jars fruit 550 jars raisins 256 apt carobs 256 apt cyperus for the hand fat

;

;

;

175 apt

;

;

;

;

pomegranates 256 apt wz'-plants for the

;

"

" 256 blossoms bouquets

garden fragrance

hand 20

;

256 and offerings 256. The offerings which were renewed every year were bread, 300 baat loaves, 60 cakes, 25 pyramidal loaves (these probably provided a loaf a

day

at every stage

wine 96 jars onions 96 figures of Hapi, of measures salt 96 measures stone 64, of sycomore wood 4, and 4 of the female shrine

the priest)

for

;

;

;

;

and seals 12 each; kilts of honey 14 jars flower garlands 12. The two sets of numbers, divided by 8 x 106 for 8 years of all the stages, and by 3 x 82 for 3 years of the Upper Egypt stages, yield in each case 12 kilts for the priest, and the figures of Hapi are 8 of each material, while the crystal ornaments are 12 of each. This similarity of the numbers is evidence that we have rightly divided them by these years and by the number of stages.

Hapi;

linen 12

crystal bracelets ;

;

We

get then the idea that at every 6 or 7 miles along the Nile stood a little shrine, with a priest,

endowed with a small provision, to provide for the honouring of Hapi by passing travellers. The little shrine was decked with flowers, and had statuettes Probably the of Hapi in all kinds of materials. images were

all

thrown into the

river as sacrifices,

when the new figures were distributed each year. The next section is that of the tribute of Rameses This is evidently made to the gods during 31 years. one covering a little over 31 years, the basis of the numbers varying from 30^95 to 3 1*39 the other covering 2%\ years, the basis varying from We have no historical explanation for 28 to 2875.

up of two

lists:

these latter figures.

We

have now traced some of the results given offerings more may, no doubt, yet be done, but the present analysis has enabled us to restore a view of the great festivals, with the priesthood, nobles, and populace attending

by the numbers of these

;

THE HELIACAL RISING OF them, and has indicated the division of the Nile course into stages, with wayside shrines of Hapi at

SIRIUS

The

each stage.

THE HELIACAL RISING OF By 14.

E. B.

and

its

the

it

Starting with the well-determined observa-

basis.

tion of A.D.

+

by Censorinus, Oppolzer

139, reported

calculates the length of the Sirius year

the Sirius period, which

is

the interval

and thence between two

1 5.

commencing years

Interval.

Zero period

A.D.— 4235

1

n

-2775

2

»

-1317

1460

1461

1458

1459

1457

I4S2

1453

1448

1449

+139

3

4

»

+IS9I

5

»

+3039

Recent

discoveries

necessitate

computed by the formulae given on p. 577 of his memoir. These are the years A.D. — 5705 and — 7 171. As Oppolzer designated the period commencing A.D. — 4235 by zero, the two more remote epochs are called — 1 and — 2 periods.

Column

—

I

Zero

period

A.D.

— 7171

Julian Years. Egyptian Years.

—

period, A.D.

Columns 4 and

commencement of

4712, being indicated by

give the approximate

5

right

ascension and declination of Sirius for the above years.

These positions are derived from the tables given by Dr. Danckwortt in the Vierteljahrschrift of the AstroDanckwortt nomische Gesellschaft, vol. 16 (1881). computed the places of certain stars, with the most recent

determination of their proper motions, for

back as the year A.D.— 2000. From and declination of Sirius reduced to longitude and latitude, constants were obtained for determining the longitude and latitude at the remote epochs under consideration, and with the values of the obliquity of the ecliptic computed from the formula far

his right ascension

/ 23" 27' 3i' '83-o"-47593 ('-1850) o'A oooooi43 (t—

—

iSsoy

+o" oooooooo204 (t— 1850)' -

the approximate in

right ascensions

and declinations

The

earliest year, A.D.

the table were obtained.

— 7 17

1, is

somewhat

close to the epoch of

maximum

obliquity of the ecliptic for which the above formula

would have to be modified, but any error from that source would be insensible for the

Column 6

purposes of the

gives the sun's longitude on the

of the heliacal rising of Sirius.

1466

1467

1470

1471

-5705

-4235

the corresponding years of the

3 gives

Julian period, the years before the

present discussion.

Interval.

—2

in-

period adopted by Oppolzer.

the calculations

being carried further back, particularly for the purpose of determining the seasonal changes in the commencement of the Sothis period. Two periods beyond Oppolzer's zero period have therefore been

periods,

:

epochs as

1456

Sothis

The table may be thus explained Column 1 gives the series of years from A.D. -7171 to + 139. Column 2 shews the ordinal number of the Sothis

the negative sign.

Julian Years. Egyptian Years.

heliacal rising of Sirius for

of six

four other years.

He shews that the Sirius period is of irregular length, and gives the following series of Julian years as those commencing Sothis periods Julian Years.

The following table

cluding, at the request of Professor Flinders Petrie,

the Julian

Sothis Period.

their

ii.

The Material of the Table.

successive Sothic risings coincident with the 1st Thoth.

:

i,

KNOBEL. gives particulars of the

Sirius,

pis.

SIRIUS.

connexion with the heliacal rising of

was not until the publication by the late Professor Oppolzer of his memoir " Ueber die Lange des Siriusjahrs und der Sothisperiode," in the 90th volume of the Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Academy, that the question was put upon a sound but

on

The Length 0/ t/ie Sothis Period. Much research made into the origin of Egyptian chronology

has been

numbers and

details of the

division will be found

The

day

depression of

the sun below the horizon at the Sothic rising is taken from Oppolzer as 10° 48', and the calculations are

made

for the latitude of

Memphis taken

as 30

N.

THE HELIACAL RISING OF following formula was employed

The

Column

7 gives the day of the Julian period of the Sothic rising calculated with the assistance of Schram's

:

= Right ascension of Sirius. S = Declination of Sirius. e = Obliquity of the ecliptic. T — Sidereal time of the star rising. © = Sun's longitude at Sothic rising. a

Hilfstafeln

-

before

"

in

vol.

45 of

Vienna Academy, the

commencement

of

the

Julian

A.D.— 4712, being indicated by the negative

Column

T)

=

Tan

8

Tan

30°,

T.

1st

Then (90+10°

sin

O

the

days period,

sign.

gives the corresponding date in the

8

Column 9 gives the day of the Thoth calculated by multiples

Julian period of the

of 365 from the day

of the observation of Censorinus, July 20 A.D.

cos

16.

the

Chronologie

of the

Julian calendar.

whence the value of

whence

fur

Denkschriften

Then cos (a

SIRIUS

T cos e

48')

sin

=

sin 30° sin e sin

O +

cos 30" cos

the sun's longitude

Table of Sothis

and

is

T cos 0,

obtained.

\st TJwth.

+cos

30°

+

139,

by Oppolzer.

as determined

Column 10 Julian calendar.

gives the corresponding date in the

THE APPLICATION OF THE KALENDAR TO HISTORY

THE APPLICATION OF THE KALENDAR TO HISTORY. By W. M.

FLINDERS PETRIE.

THE

extended recalculations of the elements of the Egyptian kalendar by Mr. E. B. Knobel, which he has favoured us with in this volume, call for some general account of their sources and applications which may be suited to archaeological readers. 8.

1

The basis of all kalendar changes in Egypt is the broad main fact of ignoring leap year, and having a year of 365 days, continuously reckoned onward through long ages. That the year of 360 days had disappeared very early

days

—

epagomenae

or

shewn by the

is

— being

named

five additional

As the Egyptian kalendar ignored the fractional day beyond 365, it follows that in relation to the stars it retrograded '25636 of a day (or the fraction over 365 in the sidereal year) in each year, so that it agreed with the position of sun and stars after 1425

element named above. It retrograded in relation to the seasons '24224 of a day (or the fraction over 365 in the tropical year) in each year, so years, the

that the kalendar agreed with the seasons after years, the second element

the birthdays

20.

and Nephthys, the Osiride This shews that the year of 365 days is as family. old as the introduction of the Osiride religion. Also it is most probable that the festival of the Osirification of the king, and installing a crown prince, took place

in

at intervals connected with the leap-year shift of the

(i.e.

of Osiris, Horus, Set,

Isis,

and as this festival appears at the beginning of the 1st dynasty, and is obviously of older origin, it shews that the quarter of a day was recognised, and the extra five days already added, long before that For all historic periods we have only to conkalendar

;

sider a continuous year of 365 days,

down

to

Roman

times.

This

19.

reckoning came into relation

astronomical elements

:

to

two

(1) the position of the sun

always viewed by the Egyptians as denned by the day in the year of the first

in relation to the stars,

visibility of Sirius (Sothis) before the rising of the

commonly

sun,

called the heliacal rising of Sirius

;

which are best viewed as midsummer and midwinter. That these two relations do not keep step together is due to the wobbling round of (2) the seasons,

the earth's pole (like a spinning top wobbling) during

a period of about 25,800 years (slightly variable in length),

Thus

if

commonly we imagine

zontal orbit, with

each time that

it

its

called

the precessional period.

the earth passing round a horipole tilted 23 from the upright, to the same spot between

comes

the sun and a star, the pole will have turned to a point nearly

1'

different

pole will point about 14 will

be two weeks earlier

;

or in a thousand years the different,

in the orbit

and midsummer than before.

first

So

far

the earth alone.

deal also involves

with

Sirius

as well as the earth.

two other considerations.

summer.

1

508

above.

we have dealt with the kalendar and But we have in the Sothic period to

ent path in winter

was

named

The

is

much

The

This

sun's appar-

nearer to Sirius than

it is

distance on the Egyptian horizon

distance in azimuth) between the sun and Sirius

THE SOTHIS PERIOD AND THE MONTHS proper motion of Sirius, or to

the

its

motion

its

a whole.

as

stars

gradual shift in relation

By

the observations of

would roughly amount

this

to 3

9000

in

years.

and of the seasons. If the kalendar names were kept to the Sothis period, as they seem to have been fixed in Roman times, and as the uniform 365day year would bring them and if the numbering of Sirius

;

Now

21.

we

facts

we have dealt with the astronomical to see how they appeared to the

that

turn

Egyptians.

man

are the cardinal fact of

and

;

their rotation

of the

the length

apparent

is

astronomy to readily fixed and

year

— established — by

number of days between appearing on the same point of the horizon

observing

the

This

or setting.

formed

doubtless

and

observations,

of

other

the

sun

the

at rising

first

basis

would

questions

be

ulterior.

The Egyptian adopting a year

of 365 days, divided

months of 30 days, and 5 days over, would that in a few years his months of the kalendar find were slipping back in the seasons and falling earlier, as fixed by sunrise direction. When he had extended his observations further, and included the rising of Sirius, he would find that his kalendar months agreed with the rising of Sirius after 1425 years, and that into 12

they agreed with the seasons after 1508 years. The Sirius period is affected by another element, the proper motion of Sirius, and the change of the earth's pole in regard to

was lengthened

it.

in

Hence

the period of 1425 years

appearance as follows

Dates.

From

— 7171

:

Intervals.

to

—5705 -4235 -2775 -1317

to

+

139

1458 I456

to

+1591 +3039

1452 I448

to

-5705 -4235 -2775 -1317

to

+ 139 + 1591

to

to

I466

I47O 1460

So that during the times of Egyptian history the allowance of 1460 years comes very near the truth. But

its

shift is

coincidence

with exactly a day in 4-years

only a coincidence, and

it

must be perceptibly

different in other ages.

22.

of the

question now is, of the two adjustments names of the kalendar months, and of their

The

numbers,

—that

to Sirius, or that to the seasons,

which did the Egyptians adopt as a standard ? The result is indicated by Mesore being reckoned the first

month

and Thoth

Roman

months was adjusted

at each

epoch

move on

The seasons early

the

of the year in the xiith-xixth dynasties,

reckoned as the first month in This shews that the kalendar was

being

times.

being adjusted to the two incongruous reckonings, of

;

then the

to agree with the seasons

first

month seasonally would

to 1508 years while the Sothis period

and

kalendar names were renewed at 1452 to 1470 years that is to say the month numbers by the seasons

;

would

at

each

Sothis

period

advance along the

kalendar names by 38 years in early times or 56 years in mediaeval times, that is by 10 to 14 days.

As

Thoth is said to coincide with Sirius A.D., and as the epagomenal days were doubtless kept to the end of the xiith month in all ages, the kalendar dates of the first month fixed seasonally would be the 1st of

rising in

+139

+

139

10

THE APPLICATION OF THE KALENDAR TO HISTORY Seasonal Dates.

Epoch.

DATE OF THE quarry marks upon them. These quarry marks were of the year xvii, shewing that the whole pyramid

was

built to its final single slope of casing in seven-

teen years, out of the thirty years stated reign of Sifouris.

The

for

the

marks and Memphis,

facsimiles of the quarry

are given on pis. v, vi

of

Meydum

with translations in the text.

Beside the year there are also stated the month,

and sometimes the day, and the follow

months

are as

:

In Thoth Year.

3 stones of

2nd Pert

In Mesore Year.

IIIRD

DVNASTY

II

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

12

therefore that either of the readings of

It is clear

Manetho

within the

are

if

men

need not have taken place

till

April,

which

is

the

likely course.

The

proposal of

Meyer

to cut this interval

to 30x3-400 years (Nachtrdge z. Aeg. Chron.

1

908,

down p.

20)

would throw the quarrying across the agricultural season, and cease it before the inundation rose and This would entirely transport was most easy. reverse the natural order of Egyptian work, and leave the stones for six months waiting for the next inundation

such a shortening of the history

;

there-

is

fore impossible. It

now

is

evident that

if

we accept

the Mesore

year or the Thoth year for either event, or for both, or for neither, the only choice affected by that question that between the higher and lower readings of Manetho. It seems that the only logical course (after Meyer's paper on the Mesore year named above) is to accept Mesore as the first month in both the xiith and the iiird dynasties and following

is

;

Manetho we should accept

the shorter readings of

the date for the xiith dynasty 3579 to 3366 (or 21 19 to 1906)

and

end of the

for the

dynasty 4777

iiird

(or 3317)-

The quarrying then began on or,

if

the 15th of

March

;

then some of the longer readings of

later,

Manetho can be accepted.

of Monuments.

Tlie Frequency

28.

As

the

number

of

monuments

in

a given period

has been often taken as an indication of the time involved,

it

monuments

is

well to see

in

what

the frequency of

is

various periods,

in

relation

to

the

conditions of the civilisation.

We

will

take the best ascertained periods,

first

about the length of which there

The number

question.

tained

of

by counting them

is

no considerable

monuments in

is

fairly ascer-

the Student's History

would be impossible to include every ring and scarab with a king's name, the count is best restricted to buildings, statues, and stones with

only as

it

cartouches.

number

of

statement.

To

express the relative frequency the

monuments per century It is

is

the clearest

not to be expected that a remote

and a recent period should be comparable, as many conditions

are

periods within

adverse the

to

the

earlier

age

same thousand years

;

may

fairly contrasted,

so as to see the extent of variation

in different conditions of the country.

the longer reading be accepted the levy of

But

more

of quarry dating.

limit

but

be

As

no considerable question about the the xviiith dynasty onward, we state here the number of monuments per century in each dynasty from that point. there

is

lengths of the dynasties from

xviii

THE FREQUENCY OF MONUMENTS

We

saw

above

that

monumental

the

shortly before and after the

frequency

Semitic invasion was

fiftieth of what it had been in a flourishing age before that. So here it is quite natural that it should drop in the Hyksos period (as stated by

about a

Manetho) to a

fortieth of

what

it

had been

in

the

in

all

xiith dynasty.

we must remember

In any case

that

monumental frequency may vary without any great catastrophe and a

countries and ages

as

5

or 10 to

I,

;

difference of 50 to

1

may

be expected at an overthrow

of the civilisation. 29.

We

now

turn to another kind of

frequency, which questions.

is

often appealed to

The dated monuments

monumental in

historical

of a king are so

generally taken as indicating the extent of his reign, that there

is

a great tendency to reject any historical

statement of the length of reign

if it

be not supported

by some dated monument. Let us test how far the dated monuments fill up those lengths of reigns which are absolutely certain historically.

13

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

14

than there are of the xi-xii dynasties, or of the

xxvi-xxx dynasties xxi-xxv there are altogether about a hundred, with the names of 28 different kings. Maspero calls these " a handful of scarabs" as of small consequence, and Meyer dynasties, or of the

even says that there is

only

is

"

;

a pair of scarabs."

impossible to reach a true view of history

The

known extends are

stated

numbers which whole of the xvth and xvith

They are remains known of each

as

dynasties.

Ant-her.

follow,

with

the actual

Sem-qen. 2 scarabs. Khyan. Statue, sphinx (Baghdad), 7 scarabs.

and Gebeleyn), mathematical papyrus, 10 scarabs.

Inscriptions (Bubastis

I.

palettes,

Scarab.

Nofer-ka-ra.

Nub-ka-ra.

Scarab.

Kheper-ra.

2 scarabs.

Uazed.

4

Scarab.

Maa-ab-ra.

Shesha.

15 scarabs.

it

each period

it

:

It

must

(or

im-

apparently ends then, and the

When

complete

it

the kings from Menes, with the

all

was thus a

sum

of the years of

distinctively chronological

Even from the fragments

it can be seen and xivth dynasties originally comprised between 150 and 190 entries of names, and

record.

that the xiiith

length

reign

of

These

preserved.

total

to

92 years, giving an average of 51 years to each reign. And 150 to 190 names therefore would imply about 770 to 970 years. This total is of the xiiith

and

xivth dynasties, and into the

Hyksos

named, but we cannot say how columns extended. According these far in that age to Manetho the xiiith and xivth dynasties covered 637 years, so that is quite accordant with the time period, as

Apepa

is

is

47

years,

which

5*1 years,

of reign

the papyrus.

both

we take

Manetho, the

is

as close as

the

we

the average of the lengths

could expect to left in

if

in

Manetho

authorities

The accord between is

thus very close, and

fully

agree

as

to

the

general lengths of reigns and extent of the period.

15 scarabs.

Thus we have seen

that the actual

monuments

age of confusion and destruction,

Kha-user-ra.

7 scarabs.

remaining from

Sekha-ne-ra.

7 scarabs.

and the almost contemporary record of its history, agree completely with the recorded history preserved by Manetho, and shew that any large departure from

Yaqeb-al.

Aa.

8 scarabs.

8 scarabs.

Aa-hotep-ra.

Qar.

Ya.

2 scarabs.

that

Scarab. Scarab.

Nuby-ra.

Scarab.

Er-du-ra.

Scarab.

Apepa

statues

The order

history

altar,

inscriptions

on

and sphinxes. of these

be seen in

pi. vi.

kings

is

indicated

by the

Cities,

The

full

discussion of the

Hyksos and Israelite double volume, pp. 67-71. Here we are only

reasons for their position

in

the

same

the vth

scale of

cent.

B.C.

is

true order of his history

is

replaced (the transferred

124-137, coming in between sects. 99 and the point from which he here counts is 100), Asychis (Aserkaf) at the end of the ivth dynasty. Manetho states 345 kings from that time to the date of Herodotos. Evidently there is the same numeration roll, sects.

gradual degradation of the designs upon the scarabs,

may

B.C.,

Herodotos states (ii, 100) that there were 330 kings When the from a certain point down to his day.

Granite

II.

impossible.

Manetho in the iiird cent. was that accepted

5 scarabs.

Maa-ra.

is

this

Beside this agreement of the Turin papyrus (of about the xviith dynasty) with the record by

Scarab.

Ykha.

as

of

list

certainly

Scarab.

Aa-qer.

gave a

the papyrus and

Scarab.

Noferui-uah-ra.

after), as

writing accords with that age.

average reign

scarabs.

Sam-ka-ra.

mediately

in

indicated

2 scarabs.

2 scarabs.

Sekt.

have been written

the Hyksos period

Or by the papyrus. number of kings and the time as

Scarab.

Ka-ra.

Aa-neb-ra.

that has remained

the historical papyrus the

fragments of which are preserved at Turin.

the jar-lid (Crete),

11 scarabs.

Apepa

is

114 names or fragments of such still remain. Eighteen of these names, scattered throughout, have

:

Scarab.

Yaqeb-her.

period

us of this

length of reign of each, and the

kings monumentally

to two-thirds of the

the

for

Hyksos

of

list

the

known.

facts are so imperfectly

31.

if

It

The most important work

32.

to

in

reviewing the amount of material of this age.

beneath the 341 high priests of Ptah (ii, 142) who Thus the general lived from Menes to Sennacherib.

THE CONTRAST OF THE XIITH AND XVIIITH DYNASTIES was uniformly reckoned by the vth cent., and the

scale of their history

Egyptians

in the xviith cent., the

iiird cent. B.C.,

and by Africanus

in the iiird cent. A.D.

dynasty to anything known peculiarly

flat

15

in the xiith

broad and

:

backs, with deep curved girdle lines,

and hieroglyphs coarse and clumsy, but bold and Nothing like these appear in the xiith, nor in the long and abundant series of the intermediate firm.

The Contrast of

Xllth and

the

X VIIIth

Dynasties.

dynasties.

The most

33.

arise

where one

rapid

changes of culture always

civilisation

is

acting on another,

Egypt under Tahutmes III, on the xxvith dynasty, yet considerable changes may be seen in Egypt between the xiith and xviiith dynasties, though no fresh culture intervened. That a long period may pass without any new features arising is seen in the slow decay of the style of the ivth dynasty, down to its last stage in the early xith at Dendereh. Here new style intervened for a thousand years no in sculpture. The pottery, however, had entirely changed in that time. On comparing any group of pottery of the xiith dynasty with that of the early xviiith dynasty there is not a single form in common to be seen. The only clearly descended form is the tubular pot, and that went through a long series of changes which have been traced in the Hyksos period. It would be impossible to suppose that the xviiith-dynasty pottery had arisen soon after the xiith dynasty if this had been so, most of the forms would have been as the Syrian culture on

or the Greek

—

culture

:

obviously connected.

The

vases are

alabaster

common

in

the xiith

dynasty, and are mostly closely descended from the

The forms

of bronze weapons, axes and daggers, through a series of changes, so that the xviiithwent dynasty forms are quite unlike those of the xiith. The same is true of the tools, such as the cutting-out knife, the

But on reaching the

xviiith

dynasty

an entirely new set of forms has arisen, and only the kohl pot shews descent from the old type. The change from the xiith to the xviiith is far greater than that in the thousand years before the xiith

The

The glazed and are never before

vases are rare in the xiith dynasty, In the xviiith dynasty, even

large.

Tahutmes

III,

they are

unusually large, bowls,

are

statuettes

common; and

tall

vases,

they

and cups, and

also are different

;

those of the

dynasty being rather clumsy and thick, while those of the xviiith are slender and with faces of a thin and graceful type. The clay dolls abound in the xiith dynasty, but are unknown in the xviiith. The beads of the xiith dynasty are usually globular, of amethyst, garnet, carnelian, or green glaze. Barrel-shaped haematite beads are also frequent. In the xviiith there is very little, if any, amethyst, garnet, or haematite. a different colour, and jasper

is

The carnelian is of common. Glazed

beads are brilliant blue, different in colour and forms from the earlier. There is nothing in common between the series of the two periods. Rectangular ink-trays of serpentine or basalt, sloping to a narrow base, are characteristic of the xiith dynasty, and descend from a similar form used in the vth dynasty.

They

are

unknown

the xviiith

in

dynasty.

Now

turn from the objects for the living, to those

for the dead.

In the xiith dynasty the coffin or stone, in the xviiith dynasty pottery.

The

is

always of wood

it

is

frequently of

design in the xiith dynasty

of a series of doorways details of doors

dynasty.

the adze, the chisel, and the

xiith

forms of the vth and vith dynasties, across eight or ten centuries.

hair-curler,

axe.

and

along the

is

side,

regularly

with the

bolts carefully painted, directly

from the ivth dynasty. In the early dynasty the coffins wrapped in wings appear and the box coffins have panels with figures of gods. continued xviiith

The

;

types are quite different.

Here again there

continuity between the ivth and xiith dynasties,

beside great ankhs, papyrus plants, uas sceptres,

is

other forms.

but an entire break after that to the xviiith dynasty.

The

colour

dynasties face, face.

blue,

is

of

the

glaze

in

the

xiith-xiiith

green or blue-green, with a dry smooth

and sometimes minute cracks running over the In the xviiith dynasty the glaze is a brilliant free and wet, and so flushed with glaze that no

cracks are possible.

The

scarabs are entirely different in the xviiith

In

the xiith dynasty ushabti

figures

are very

and the few known are of dark brown serpentine, and uninscribed. In the xviiith dynasty ushabtis are very common, of wood, of limestone, of pottery, and with full inscriptions. In the xiith dynasty the wooden models of servants and of boats are usual, and descended from rare,

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

i6

In the xviiith dynasty

the vth and vith dynasties.

In the xiith dynasty there are few traces of the the Dead, and

not organized as a type.

it is

dynasty

In the xviiith

it

is

common and

has a

In every usual product, for the living or for the

and

;

in

many

cases,

such as the

stone vases, the glaze, the ink-trays, the coffins, and the funeral figures of servants, the vth and the xiith across a thousand years, are

dynasties,

more

alike

than the xiith and the xviiith dynasties. It is therefore impossible to claim that any resemblances

between the xiith and xviiith dynasties shew a close relation in time.

34.

The artistic

and there

is

decoration took fresh root again

its

the

at

Renascence. In other cases there has been an entire break, the

older style has disappeared from

and

living work,

all

may

This

be a conscious revival, such as the work of the xxvith dynasty copying that of the vth dynasty. The copy may, as in this case, be so good that only an intimate sense has then been revived again.

work enables us to see the poverty of Another instance is the Nikopol vase, the motive of which is followed twelve centuries later in

of the older

the copy.

is

justly considered

a Byzantine ivory vase (Dalton, Ivory Carvings, x). A later instance of this conscious copying is in the recent English revival of earlier architecture, such as the Early English style of the Law Courts, and count-

It is

the flower of the

less copies in

TJu Descent of Style. style of a period

as of the highest importance.

;

the work of the

and the xvith centuries in Italy than between that of the xiith and xviiith dynasties in Egypt. The Greek work survived likewise in Magna Graecia,

a wide gap between the xiith and

is

xviiith dynasties

revived in the Renascence

iind

until

regular structure.

dead, there

it

much more resemblance between

they are unknown.

Book of

state until

church building.

may be

and it brings us into closer connexion with the time and people than anything else. There are but few ages in which

an unconscious revival, the sources of which are so obscure that we are tempted to attribute it to inherent national taste,

can render us so intimate with the feeling of

by foreign Such is the reappearance of Late Celtic ornament under Louis XV, or of Etruscan figure work

and the

abilities

literature

The

the past. all

taste of the period,

sculpture, the painting, the ornament,

touch innumerable springs of sympathy in

The descent of

us.

other

In

reasserting itself after having been overlaid styles.

under the

one of the main facts It shews connexions between different of history. countries, and links the ages together. It carries on

time has

the national taste of a country across

thousand years

style

is

invasions,

all its

and mixtures of people, and changes of faith. all

countries together in each age.

country and the like the

of

warp and

spirit

The

It

blends

spirit of

each

of each age cross each other

weft, to

produce the

brilliant design

The rate of changes of style has scarcely any relation

time.

to

rapidly or

slowly.

The alterations may take place The determining cause is the

amount of external

and whether that be of an equivalent culture, or of one higher or lower. When equivalent cultures meet they blend and influence each other, as did those of Syria and Egypt in the xviiith dynasty, or as those of Japan and England do now. In high and low cultures crossing, the lower

is

influence,

driven out, either mainly, as in the case

Rome and Gaul, or and Mexico. of

The continuance country

The

may

classical

In

all

entirely, as in the case of

Spain

later

emperors.

these cases little

a generation,

or

;

it

when a

or revival of a style in the

same

work of Rome was continued

in

a feeble

is

A

effect.

evident that the length of style

may

may

continue for a

be greatly changed

rival force acts

on

time between two periods by changes large

or

A

small.

especially

large

in

meanwhile.

difference

many

in

indicate a long time

if

But a

It is

it.

in

quite

intervened.

It

being between two

in style

different

lines,

may

no new influences have come close

is

may

resemblance

equally seen whether a few decades or

have

be

many centuries

therefore impossible to set

aside written history on the ground of questions of style.

Lately a defence of shortening the history has been adduced from the styles seen at Knossos, and But the evidence of the collocation of ruins there. continued style in an island civilisation less

value than elsewhere.

as meaningless as a

take place across any period of time.

it

hopeless to deduce conclusions as to the intervals of

periods,

all history.

there

cases

upon the Roman

The

new

in

London

And

is

built

Knossos have ground any evidence from Greece

wall, for the ruins at

structures.

of even

collocation of ruins

modern house

been swept away more than once to for

is

level the

THE SEMITIC CONQUESTS OF EGYPT its contemporaneousness with Egypt, in which there is considerable uncertainty The Greek evidence, so at each point of contact. far, has no weight as against the precise record and long continued agreement of the Egyptian reckoning.

has the loose joints of

reached supreme power, there must then have been a large

number of

age when

Arab troops were employed

for

known

and con-

can trace a close resemblance

particulars,

we

are able to use our

knowledge about one age to the clearer understanding of the other age, and whatever is in common

by

fifth

century.

period of confusion and rebellions, while the govern-

in their life

further

in the

some centuries before the great Saxon

our conceptions, than the comparison of

When we

existing in

to garrison

After the Arab conquest in 641 A.D. there was a

is

two periods which are similar ditions.

the

no view of history which gives more

There

reality to

is

Roman

Egypt, the forerunners of the conquest by Islam. Similarly in Britain the Batavians and Saxons were migration of the

35.

This

foreign immigrants.

usual course of a great migration, as in the

moving over

The Semitic Conquests of Egypt.

17

accounts of both periods

is

strongly corroborated

their agreement.

from this point of view that we now compare the two Semitic conquests of Egypt, that by the Hyksos and that by Islam. That the Hyksos were in the main a Semitic people, is indicated by their It is

names, and perhaps most clearly by their

title.

The

ment was gradually becoming systematized. This lasted 109 years, until the firmer and more decisive rule of the Abbaside khalifahs began in 750. Similarly we read that there was a century of confusion at the Hyksos invasion, until there began the line of great kings.

The period of the great khalifahs was practically ended by the madman Hakim, 1021. After him Egypt had scarcely any authority in Syria, and, broken up internally, it was by 107 1 in the hands of the Seljuk Turkmans. Thus the great rulers of Egypt and Mesopotamia reigned from 750 to 102 1, Hyksos

scarabs of the earlier Hyksos, Ant-her, Semqen, and

271 years.

Similarly the great kings of the

Khyan, call the chief Heq Setu, " prince of the deserts," and the same title is given to Absha the Bedawy chief, figured in the tomb at Beni Hasan. They were in the state of culture of the Bedawy, trusting to the bow as the main weapon, and ignorant of any constructions of stone, brick, or timber. These conditions were similar to those of the Arab tribes of the deserts who flowed into Egypt, animated by Islam. Here we shall follow the statements of Manetho about the Hyksos, and his dates as confirmed by the

ruled from

Mesopotamia

Sothic cycle.

for

The Arab conquest had been preceded by a long period of gradual decay in Egypt. The land had

closed at the foreign conquest by a fresh race, the

been steadily declining throughout the Roman period, looked on by Rome as simply a source of food and

The Hyksos

The currency had

revenue. until

it

steadily

diminished

disappeared under Constantine, and Egypt it was too impoverished to This period of decay may be looked

resorted to barter because

own

a coinage.

on as beginning with the conquest by Augustus, and

down

to the

Similarly the

Arab invasion it lasted for 670 years. Hyksos conquest was preceded by the

long decay of the xiiith and xivth dynasties, stated to have lasted for 637 years. This decay was therefore the same length as the period of decay under the Romans. In the xiiith-xivth dynasties we meet with Syro-Babylonian kings of Egypt, Khenzer and Khandy and if the foreigner thus

of about

;

to

Egypt

—

—as

seen by the

monuments of Khyan during 284 years. The next period is that of further tribal movements from Asia, and

government, which to the Turkish con-

a less stable

continued 496 years from 102 1 quest in 1517. After the time of Saladin and his immediate successors, the latter half of this age was a period of continual degradation under the Mamluks, until the

conquest by a fresh race.

This was parallel

when they

retained possession

to the later

Hyksos

rule,

518 years, as the xvith dynasty.

Berbers of Nubia,

who formed

scarabs

clearly

That age was

the xviith dynasty.

shew

the

continued

degradation which took place. After the Turkish conquest in 15 17 there was an interval of 254 years before Egypt was powerful

enough to attack Syria, and to conquer it in 1771 under Aly Bey. So also after the Berber conquest in 1738 B.C. Egypt was at last, after about 208 years, In capable of attacking Syria under Tahutmes I. modern times the main conquest was by Ibrahim Pasha 1831-39, 60 to 68 years after the first attack and similarly the main conquest under Tahutmes III was about 50 to 71 years after the first attack of But for European intervention Egypt Tahutmes I. would have retained Syria at present, just as it did ;

under the xviiith dynasty.

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

18

We can

Egypt has been under

the various stages of the and compare the Egypt, of conquests Semitic two is stated as conquest first the periods their length of being since conquest second the Manetho, recorded by 36.

now review ;

his

therefore

cannot

time

rendered

comparison

influence

We

probable

historically

B.C.

Years.

Years. xiii

dynasty-*

2640

xiv

„

/ Decay during

.

100 years confusion

637

670

Decay under Roman

100

no

Omayyad

284

271

Great khalifahs.

497

Lesser

254

Turkish conquest until Conquest of Syria by Aly Bey

rule

518

xvii dynasty, Berber conquest until

1530 Conquest of Syria by Tahutmes I. 1480- Main conquest of Syria by TaIII

...

208 r

50

64O

3280

750

329O

I02I

3277

1517

32SS

1771

3301

to

68/

37.

of a highly

which maintained a continuous this record was drawn up by a native and chronology, writer, and who was likely to know skilled who was a of all available sources of information, we need very civilised

country,

strong evidence to warrant us in setting it aside. cannot be treated as if it had no weight, and as if

It

we

any part of it on vague suppositions. Some stronger and more decisive evidence is needed, before we can venture to adopt a different view to that might

reject

I-1839

3300 3285

total,

but

will

not change

and happily there has not been an editor who has tried to reconcile the items and totals. Then it is obvious that no very large addition could be made to a reign, or it would be abnormal. Thus, although many casual errors might be made, they would probably tend to balance each other, and not being of very large amounts the total would probably remain much

both possess a history

33

'

.(

interval

years will affect an item or a

The Value of Manetho.

3I

by Ibrahim Main conquest *

\

\to 71

Average

When we

3263

rulers.

1738

hutmes

Interval.

rulers.

2256 xvi dynasty lesser kings

its

A.D.

2540

xv dynasty great kings

this

in

30

3293

1461

by

is

general features.

parallel the history of

B.C.

conquest

historic outlines, so the earlier

have had any possible

on his record. see below how closely

the two great Semitic invasions.

There has never been a difference in the main events of more than a generation along the two scales. And as the later Semitic conquest is unquestionable in its

;

No

the same.

corruption that

is

not

made

for a pur-

of the general belief of the native scholars during long

any great extent. We should expect to find then that, though every single item might be proved to have suffered some corruption, yet the totals would not be very far from

ages.

the truth.

Unfortunately the history of Manetho, written early in the Ptolemaic period, has perished in its original form, and we only possess brief lists of kings

of Manetho are

extracted

by

later

writers.

Julius Africanus, 221 A.D.,

326

A.D.,

version.

The and

best of these

is

inferior is Eusebius,

known in Greek and in an Armenian The material is therefore only second-

and the continual discrepancies between the extracts, and between the items and totals in each author, shew how much the text has suffered in its

hand

;

pose will alter the scale of a history to

38.

We

will

should be the appreciation of a work which has been thus injured ? Errors of miscopying of

see

how

far the general periods

agreement with other informafrom the latest period as have, starting we tion that being the best known. From Alexander's conquest of Egypt back to that in

of Cambyses, the interval

xxxi dynasty

xxx

is

given by Manetho as

9 years

xxviii

38 20 6

xxvii

121

xxix

details.

What

now

194 years

THE VALUE OF MANETHO The

item

last

is

slightly

corrected

by taking

Eusebius' version of 3 years for Cambyses in Egypt, in place of 6 years of Africanus, which is an evident error,

as

the whole reign of

Cambyses

is

given as

5 years.

Now

this total is checked by the dates exterknown, 332 B.C. for Alexander, 525 B.C. for Cambyses, making 193 years interval. The next period is from the Persian conquest back to the beginning of Psamtek I. This duration of the xxvith dynasty is in Manetho 54 + 6 + 6 + 19

nally

+ 44 + i = 129I years. The earlier point is fixed by Assyrian history, the reign of Tanutamen lasting three years after the death of Taharqa in 667, thus giving 664 B.C. for Psamtek. And 525 B.C. of Cambyses' conquest, from 664, leaves 139 years the is

The

interval.

error of

10 years in

by 10 years having dropped

6

the

off

for

Manetho years

attributed to Necho, which should be 16 years.

The

other reigns are quite correct in detail.

There has been great confusion in the xxiind dynasty and other parts but, bad as the corruption has been, it very nearly balances on the whole. The ;

totals in

Manetho

are

xxv dynasty

40 6

xxiv xxiii

44

xxii

120

xxi

130

XX

I3S

xix

209 263

xviii

947 years

The beginning

of the xviiith dynasty

the rising of Sothis to agreed.

Now

1587

—

1587

B.C.,

as

fixed

is is

by

generally

664 leaves 923 years

for this

interval.

For stepping back to the xiith dynasty across the

Hyksos times the statements of Manetho xvii

dynasty

are

19

THE LENGTH OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

20

These numbers show a steady change and, as they decrease, they must be the depth below a mark from which measurements were taken down to the high Nile. On plotting all the results in a diagram it appears that there was a total change of 24 ± 4 cubits, or P25 ± 2 metres in level down to the 13th year of ;

Sneferu.

time from

The interval Menes to

either £ or the whole of the

is

the

13th

year of

absurd by choosing out readings which are obviously discordant with facts otherwise known.

Thus we see that the condition of the abstracts of Manetho agrees with what we should expect, were The different they copied from a true history. readings of the abstracts shew them to have many small corruptions average,

the

Sneferu,

but such errors nearly balance on

;

and the net

according as the fragment was to the left-hand or

agreement with the dating

right-hand side of the whole table.

sources.

That

gives then

between 155 and 125 metres ± 20 as the rise of the Nile from Menes to the 13th year of Sneferu. The rate of rise has been variously estimated as being from metres in a thousand years. This gives then 125 to about 1200 years, ± about 400 years, as the length of the

The Attempt 40.

in

is

very close

derived from external

shorten t/u History.

In recent years an assumption has grown up

n

that

first

Turin papyrus and Manetho is to be arbitrarily Various shortenings of the history have retrenched. been proposed, one of which, I confess, may be seen

three dynasties.

It is but a very rough shews that Manetho's 769 years is to be shortened, and it is of interest as a

datum, but not likely

it

purely physical dating.

The more

general appeal

The whole

as our information

at

present goes. all

are

now

Of

the

identified

39. Now we can review the statements of Manetho, and compare them with the periods of time as

from

By Manetho. xxvii dynasty begins

xxvi

526

656

664

„

xviii

„

„

1603

xiii

„

„

»v

„

„

3293 4651-4822

i

„

„

5420-5591

B.C.

shew

writers, in spite of the insuper-

which accords

with the Egyptian histories.

The

1587 3246 or 3366 4717 or earlier 5500 to 6300

;

to

Unfortunately the habit of arbitrary shortening of

able historical difficulties, and without even looking

Now these are by no means the exact figures to be accepted as the most probable truth, as many small corrections can be made from monumental sources but such would not make altogether more than a century or two of shift The point in question here

the date of the flax harvest in Egypt.

at the probability of the earlier date,

332 525

„

position

was adopted by many

Externally.

(starting at 332 B.C.)

of the

the history had become so strong, that the later date

purely external sources, without any dead-reckonings from monuments.

Alexander

lists

discovery of a Sothic rising in

with those of Manetho. This accuracy in the most remote period should make us have confidence in the statements about the nearer ages.

ascertained

shewn by the Egyptian

was rendered acute by the two papyri from xiith dynasty ended Kahun, which proved that the either at 1786, or a Sothis cycle earlier at 3246 B.C. That there was no large error in the statement was confirmed by the months of quarrying in Sinai during the xiith dynasty, which at either of these two dates just extended over the suitable season, and also by

lies

and 2nd dynasties, which agree as closely with Manetho's

eight kings of the 1st dynasty,

the time

in the Student's History.

to the actual remains of the kings of the 1st

list

to

result p.I

historic difficulties in the published

view of

compressing the xiiith-xviith dynasties into 17861580, or 206 years, oblige those who adopt this

throw over the Turin papyrus and Manetho and to assume that the reigns recorded were overlapping eight deep, since 1666 years of The reigns have to be compressed into 206 years. position

to

;

prospect of eight contemporary rulers during time, is

and of

their being all recorded

by one

all this

historian,

quite improbable.

Moreover to as

late as

Sebekhotep

up

III,

who

held

Nubia, we have

from sources entirely outside of Manetho, the long periods can be checked

all

and that the discrepancies are immaterial as regards

The 23 reigns, thus vouched for, amount to over a century on the average length of reign in the dynasty. Hence for the remaining century we must suppose

is

that,

;

the general length of the periods.

No doubt it would be possible to choose in some cases the worst readings rather than the better readings of Manetho any ancient author can be made ;

Egypt from

certainly

the sea to far

no right

to

in

imagine a division of the country.

sixteen contemporary rulers at once in the country in

order to account for the names.

A SEASONAL DATE OF THE HYKSOS PERIOD is It obvious that if a seasonal date could be found between the xiith and xviiith dynasties it would be of the greatest value in determining whether two centuries or sixteen centuries elapsed between those epochs. If there were only two centuries, the seasons could not

have shifted more than a couple of months; if there were sixteen centuries, the seasons must have shifted round the whole year between the xiith and xviiith dynasties. Such a datum does exist, though it has not yet been brought into the field. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is dated in "the 33rd year, 12th month, day under the king Aa-user-ra," that is, Apepa I of the xvth dynasty. And it has some jottings of common daily notes added at about the same age. .

"Year II, 1st month, day 3, birth of The majesty of this god caused his Birth of

we may

Isis,

the heaven rained."

.

.

Set.

voice (to be heard).

(Griffith in

S.B.A. 1894,

246.)

minor question out of the way. These birthdays of the Osiride cycle on the epagomenal days at the end of the year Set on the 3rd, and Isis on the 4th. But the scribe here forgot the five days epagomenal, and went on direct to the next month. Hence these dates are really on the 2nd and 3rd day before the end of the year. The meaning of the " 1st month" at that period must have been Mesore, according to all our facts (see pp. 9, 22), and it will be so reckoned here; but as some readers may still believe Thoth to have been always the first month, the results on that view will be added after in parenthesis. In no case would this notably affect the question. The essential fact is that there was thunder three days before the new year, and rain on the following day. Referring to the diagram (pis. iv, v), it is easy to see what this means seasonally. According to the arbitrary short chronology, the date of this entry can hardly be before 1750 B.C., even on the Mesore year, nor is it likely to be later than 1600 b.c. on the Thoth year. At those dates this day of rain would have come on Sept. 17 or Sept. 9. We must reverse the seasons and accept severe bad weather thunder one day, and rain the next in the tranquil time of summer about the first half of September, when such weather is unknown in Egypt. This seasonal result is as impossible as the quarrying in the agricultural season required by the arbitrary shortening of the iii xii dynasty interval (p. 12). Now we turn to see how this seasonal date agrees with the chronology of the Egyptians. We have noted that the xvth dynasty the Hyksos began about 2540 b.c. (p. 22). The recorded reigns are: Salatis, 19 years; Beon, 44 years; Apakhnas, 36 years; Apophis, 61 years; Ianias, 50 years. Adding these to 2540 b.c, we reach 2409 b.c. for the date of the papyrus in the 33rd year of Apepa I (Apophis); and the nth year, in which the entry of rain is dated, cannot be First

of gods properly

clear a

—

fell

—

—

—

—

—

earlier than that year of Ianias his successor, 2370 b.c.

It

may

easily be of

some

later reign, but

not likely to be more than a century or so later, as the frail papyrus was still in common use. At this date of the note, at the earliest 2370 b.c, the day of rain would fall on Feb. 14 (or March 16). Or if the note was a century later, then on Jan. 20 (or Feb. 24 on Thoth year). Hence the chronology of Manetho and the Egyptians requires this rainy day to have been just in the wettest season, at the end of January ; and as rain is rare in Egypt during December, we may say that it is very unlikely that the date can be brought a couple of centuries later. Hence the much-needed seasonal date of the Hyksos proves to be in close accord with the long chronology, used by the Egyptians, and entirely contradicts the modern arbitrary shortening is

of the history.

W. Bk U,

Wuton *

P

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=3Isay5

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2.

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Jba

5"0 3-0

90 60

31

61

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I

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us

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2.

30-60 30-86

6

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31

,

FtAST or FEAST FEAST F"* 31 Fo(^ FOR* YEAKS YEAFkS YEAR.5.

30-4-3

2T43

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5

70 x 30-84. ||

I377\

/I

,

X7 J>Af

YEARLY ZO DAYS '065-

THE HARRIS PAPYRUS.

OFFEf.ltJiS T0THETHE8AN 6»JS T)i;B.I^G

Fo

ira

IN

1

II

39,

no/

BAYS

STUD.

II

J3o "9)

11/2.

COMPOSITE NUMBERS

II.

BAYS

2.1

o» AYS

IN

THE HARRIS PAPYRUS.

II.

STUD, JAN.

THE EGYPTIAN KALENDAR, 6000-4000,

II.

FEB.

MAR.

APRIL.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUG.

B.C.

SEPT.

III.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

STUD. JAN.

THE EGYPTIAN KALENDAR, 4000-2000,

II.

FEB.

MAR.

APRIL.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUG.

IV.

B.C.

SEPT.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

STUD. JAN.

THE EGYPTIAN KALENDAR, 2000

II.

FEB

MAR.

APRIL.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

B.C.

AUG.

200

A.D.

SEPT.

V.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC.

STUD.

II.

TYPES OF SCARABS OF HYKSOS KINGS.

tr

VI.

STUD. Map IV

THE NOMES AT VARIOUS PERIODS.

II.

Map

1

A

VII.

STUD.

I.

PREHISTORIC. (DUM. QEOG.

III.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOMES OF THE DELTA.

II.

INS.

II,

CITIES

l-lll;

OLD KINGDOM. IN

OF THE CORN-OSIRIS.

2" A- 8', 1881, 79; REC.

Ill,

44).

EARLIEST KINGDOM. GREATER

II.

(DUM. QEOQ.

REGULAR ORDER OF NOMES

IV.

INS.

II,

IV, XVII,

XVIII;

Z-A-8-,

(DENDEREH

;

DUM. QEOQ.

NEW KINGDOM.

NAMES OF ADDITIONAL NOME

(MARIETTE ABYDOS

I,

14).

DIVISIONS.

VI.

ROMAN EGYPT.

?4 \

RELICS OF OSIRIS.

188), 84, 96, 97;

MIDDLE KINGDOM. STANDARD

FIVE RADII.

I

V.

VIM.

INS.

Ill,

REC.

II,

49; V. 85, 87).

LIST OF NOMES.

lll-XXV).

5MEMPHIS

NOMES IN STRABO, PTOLEMY AND COINS.

PLINY.

STUD.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOMES OF UPPER EGYPT.

II.

I.

CITIES

PREHISTORIC. OF THE CORN-OSIRIS.

II.

EARLIEST KINGDOM.

GREATER RELICS OF

OSIRIS.

III.

IX.

OLD KINGDOM.

ALU RELICS OF

OSIRIS.

STUD.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOMES OF UPPER EGYPT.

II

C ARSINOE

1

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