This is the notes for the SQA Care Higher. Unit 2, sociology for care. This and other notes can be found on: http://www....
National Qualifications: Sociology for Care Higher
Support Material August 2007
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Acknowledgements SFEU is grateful to the subject specialists in Scotland’s Colleges and other agencies and industry bodies who have been involved in the writing of this and other support materials for the national qualifications in Care. SFEU is also grateful for the contribution of the Scottish Qualifications Authority in the compilation of these materials, specifically for its permission to reproduce extracts from Course and Unit Specifications. Some material has been adapted from SFEU packs for other National Qualification units including Studying Human Society (Intermediate 2 & Higher), Understanding Human Society 1 & 2 (Higher), Human Development & Behaviour (Higher) and the HSDU Support Notes for Human Development & Behaviour D053 12 (Higher). © Scottish Further Education Unit 2007
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher F17Y 12 Introduction These notes are provided to support teachers and lecturers presenting the Scottish Qualifications Authority F17Y 12, Sociology for Care. Copyright for this pack is held by the Scottish Further Education Unit (SFEU). However, teachers and lecturers have permission to use the pack and reproduce items from the pack provided that this is to support teaching and learning processes and that no profit is made from such use. If reproduced in part, the source should be acknowledged. Enquiries relating to this Support Pack or issues relating to copyright should be addressed to: Marketing Officer - Communications The Scottish Further Education Unit Argyll Court Castle Business Park Stirling FK9 4TY Website: www.sfeu.ac.uk Further information regarding this Unit including Unit Specification, National Assessment Bank materials, Centre Approval and certification can be obtained from: The Scottish Qualifications Authority Optima Building 58 Robertson Street Glasgow G2 8DQ Website: www.sqa.org.uk Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of this Support Pack, teachers and lecturers should satisfy themselves that the information passed to candidates is accurate and in accordance with the current SQA arrangements documents. SFEU will accept no responsibility for any consequences deriving either directly or indirectly from the use of this Pack.
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Contents Reference Section
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What is the Care Course all about?
7
Unit Outcomes, PCs and Evidence Requirements
13
Tutor Support Section
16
How to Use This Pack
17
Guidance on Unit Delivery
22
Resources
24
Student Support Section
25
Key to Activity Symbols
26
Glossary of Terms
27
Outcome 1: Introduction and Overview
31
What is Sociology About?
33
Sociological Thinking v Common Sense
34
Exploring Research
37
Private Problems and Public Issues
42
Understanding Society
44
Introduction to Sociological Theory
50
Structural and Action Theories
55
Making Theory Interesting
59
Introduction to Functionalist Theory
66
Introduction to Conflict Theory
71
Introduction to Feminist Theory
75
Introduction to Symbolic Interactionist Theory
79
Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise
84
The Relevance of Sociology to Care
86
The Relevance of Sociology to Care: Case Studies
88
The Three Case Studies
89
Case Study: Akram
90
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Case Study: Ethel
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Case Study: Rab
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Outcome 2: Introduction and Overview
96
Sociological Concepts: Socialisation, Culture and Life Chances
98
Sociological Perspectives on the Family
102
Functionalist Theory and the Family
104
Conflict Theory and the Family
108
Feminist Theory and the Family
113
Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family
118
Revision and Check-up Opportunity
122
Sociological Perspectives on Deviance
123
Functionalist Theory and Deviance
125
Conflict Theory and Deviance
129
Feminist Theory and Deviance
134
Symbolic Interactionist Theory and Deviance
139
Revision and Check-up Opportunity
144
Outcome 3: Introduction and Overview
145
Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards
147
Review Exercise: Care Settings
148
Guiding Values in Care
153
Social Inequality and Values and Principles in Care
154
Investigation: Social Inequality/Contemporary Social Issues
155
The Role of Legislation
156
Concluding Comments
157
References
158
Tutor Notes
159
Suggested Responses for Key Worksheets and Activities
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Reference Section
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What is the Care Course all about? Summary of Course The Course aims to provide the knowledge, understanding, and skills to enable a candidate to recognise the role of sociology in fashioning care priorities and practice. This is entwined with the role of psychology in providing evidence of human behaviour and development. This will have an effect on how the person in need of care responds to change in their life. The application of theories to these clients enables us to account for specific behaviour. The Unit Values and Principles in Care (Higher) examines the care relationship as well as how legislation, values and principles underpin professional care practice and how we plan to meet the care needs of individuals. Sociology for Care (Higher) This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some of the wider social influences that can impact on individuals receiving a care service. It will enable candidates to learn about the main sociological theories that provide insight into the influences that shape individuals’ lives. By focusing on key aspects of society, candidates will be able to develop their knowledge and understanding of sociological theories. The concept of social inequality will be explored and through an examination of social issues candidates will learn why certain individuals or groups in society require care services. The influence of sociology in shaping the values and principles that underpin care practice will also be studied. In the Unit candidates study: •
the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care
•
aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories
•
the insights which sociology gives to care practice
The mandatory content for this Unit is detailed in the Appendix to the Unit Specification. This mandatory content is sampled in both Unit and Course assessment.
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Assessment To achieve the Course award the candidate must pass the Units as well as pass the Course assessment. The candidate’s grade is based on the Course assessment. Assessment objectives At Higher, the key elements of knowledge and understanding, analysis, application and evaluation are assessed in the following ways. •
Knowledge and understanding
Candidates should be able to demonstrate wide-ranging and detailed knowledge and understanding of aspects of care practice and the relevant concepts, theories and methods employed by care professionals in their roles. The range of knowledge should extend to an understanding of key theoretical and practical issues in sociology, psychology and values and principles for care and their application in care practice. •
Analysis
Candidates should be able to select from, interpret and analyse different sociological and psychological theories and models of care planning in the context of care practice. In so doing, candidates should be able to present information in a balanced, logical and coherent manner, which focuses clearly on the issues under review. Candidates should be able to use, with confidence, the language and concepts of care and demonstrate a clear and in-depth understanding of the inter-relationship between evidence and theory. Assessment of issues should be critical and comprehensive and should reflect confidence in dealing with complex arguments •
Evaluation
Candidates should demonstrate the ability to make balanced evaluations of care related theories and practical examples and base these upon justified and sustained arguments. Explanations offered and methods used by care professionals should be examined critically and the conclusions drawn should be well developed and reasoned, reflecting clear understanding of the care topic being assessed. •
Application
Candidates should be able to demonstrate the application of theories, concepts and methods covered in the Units and apply them to a care situation. This will centre on case study and simulated situations from key theoretical and practical issues in sociology, and psychology as applied in care practice, and values and principles in care.
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The balance of assessment between knowledge and understanding and analysis application and evaluation in Course and Unit specifications will be approximately: •
Course – 50% knowledge and understanding, 50% analysis, application and evaluation.
•
Units – 60% knowledge and understanding, 40% analysis, application and evaluation.
Unit assessment Satisfactory evidence of the achievement of all Outcomes and Performance Criteria for each Unit is in the form of written and/or oral recorded evidence, produced under closed book, supervised conditions within a time limit of one hour for each Unit. Each assessment samples across the mandatory content for the individual Unit and the nature of sampling is detailed in the Evidence Requirements within the Statement of Standards within each Unit Specification. If re-assessment is required, it should sample across a different range of mandatory content. Further details about Unit assessment for this Course can be found in the National Assessment Bank (NAB) materials and in the Unit Specifications. Course assessment The Course assessment consists of 2 Question Papers. Each Question Paper lasts 1 hour 20 minutes. There is a break of 20 minutes between each paper. Paper 1 • Section 1 set on content of Psychology for Care (Higher) •
Section 2 set on content of Sociology for Care (Higher)
•
The mark allocation for this paper is 50.
Paper 2 • Section 3 set on content of Values and Principles in Care •
Section 4 set on the integrated content of at least two of the three Units in this Course
•
The mark allocation for this paper is 50.
Further details of the Course assessment are given in the Course Assessment Specification and in the Specimen Question Paper.
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Link between Unit and Course assessment/added value The Course consists of three Units and an additional 40 hours study. The Course assessment tests the candidates’ knowledge and understanding of the content covered in all three Units and their ability to demonstrate and apply knowledge and skills acquired throughout the Course. In Units at Higher candidates are required to demonstrate knowledge and understanding and the ability to analyse and evaluate a range of related care theories and their practical application. The Course assessment will require candidates to use their knowledge and understanding of psychology, sociology and values and principles and to apply critical and analytical skills to answer question drawn from the whole Course. Unit and Course assessment complement each other. Unit assessment provides evidence of a specific level of achievement in the psychology, sociology and values and principles sections of the Course. The Course assessment confirms and expands on this, providing sampled evidence of a range of skills exceeding those required for Unit success, such as retention of knowledge.
The Course assessment at Higher requires that candidates demonstrate the ability to: •
retain knowledge and understanding from across all three Units of the Course on a single occasion
•
analyse and evaluate theories and applications to the care context from all three Units on a single occasion
•
apply theories and applications in a care context to a range of topics from across the Units on a single occasion
•
integrate knowledge and understanding of theories and applications in a care context
•
perform more complex analytical and evaluative tasks than required for Unit assessment.
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The Course in Care (Higher) Course Rationale Issues of health and social care are becoming increasingly important due to an increase in the population of care service users. As a result, there is a growing need for qualified health and social care professionals. The Higher Care Course provides a strong foundation of knowledge and skills for candidates who wish to progress to further or higher education or employment in this area. The Higher Course in Care relates to caring for people in society, other than self or family, in an environment or agency whose codes of practice are dictated to and guided by legislation, policy and professional ethics. This includes formalised personal care in the community or home. It is concerned with the holistic study of the client in context. The Course will form an important part of the menu of provision, not only for those who have identified the field of care as their chosen career path, but also for any candidates who wish to extend their educational experience. The knowledge acquired in the areas of the understanding of human behaviour through applying psychological and sociological approaches and theories to care situations is transferable to other academic or career pathways, particularly those which involve working with people, either individually or as part of a team. This Course can therefore have a number of significant advantages for the candidate. For example it: •
helps candidates to understand the inter-relationship between psychology, sociology and care values and principles which form the basis for care practice
•
provides an insight into the wide range of factors which might impact upon an individual’s development and behaviour
•
enables candidates to inform and enhance their understanding of effective service provision
•
increases candidates’ awareness of the dangers of viewing human behaviour and development purely from their own ethnocentric perspective
•
raises candidates’ awareness of the psychological factors influencing their perceptions of normal development and behaviour
•
raises candidates’ awareness of the role of sociology in shaping social policy.
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Aims The Course provides opportunities for candidates to: •
acquire specialist knowledge and understanding required to care for others
•
develop the ability to apply knowledge in a range of contexts
•
develop awareness of their personal value base
•
develop self-awareness and self-reflective practice
•
identify people’s needs and develop skills for care planning
•
develop an understanding of the values and principles that underpin professional care practice.
•
develop the awareness of the role of legislation and care planning in promoting positive outcomes for people requiring care
•
develop an understanding of the main sociological theories that provide insight into the influences that shape individual’s lives
•
develop an understanding of the way in which psychological approaches help to understand aspects of human and behaviour
•
develop an understanding of why certain individuals or groups in society require care services
•
acquire the awareness of the role of sociology in shaping the values and principles that underpin care practice
•
learn about some key approaches that can provide insight into understanding human behaviour and development and apply these approaches to a care context
•
develop an understanding of transition and loss and their relevance to understanding human development and behaviour in a care context.
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Unit Outcomes, PCs and Evidence Requirements Unit Specification: statement of standards SUMMARY This is a mandatory Unit in the Care (Higher) Course. It can also be taken as a free-standing Unit for candidates who wish to gain a basic understanding of sociological theories and how they influence care practice. This Unit is designed to provide candidates with a framework to understand some of the wider social influences that can impact on individuals receiving a care service. It will enable candidates to learn about the main sociological theories that provide insight into the influences that shape individuals’ lives. By focusing on key aspects of society, candidates will be able to develop their knowledge and understanding of sociological theories. The concept of social inequality will be explored and through an examination of social issues, candidates will be able to understand why certain individuals or groups in society require care services. The influence of sociology in shaping the values and principles that underpin care practice will also be studied. The Unit is suitable for candidates who wish to gain employment in the health and social care sectors at support worker level or to progress to further study. OUTCOMES 1. Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in contemporary society. 2. Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories. 3. Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into the principles underpinning care practice. Acceptable performance in this Unit will be the satisfactory achievement of the standards set out in this part of the Unit Specification. All sections of the statement of standards are mandatory and cannot be altered without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
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OUTCOME 1 Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in contemporary society. Performance Criteria (a) Explain the role of sociological thinking in understanding contemporary society. (b) Describe key features of specific sociological theories. (c) Explain the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society. OUTCOME 2 Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories. Performance Criteria (a) Explain specific aspects of society using key sociological concepts. (b) Explain specific aspects of society using sociological theories OUTCOME 3 Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into the principles underpinning care practice. Performance Criteria (a) Describe the principles underpinning care practice. (b) Analyse the concept of social inequality through contemporary social issues relevant to care practice. EVIDENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS UNIT Written and/or oral evidence is required to demonstrate the achievement of all Outcomes and Performance Criteria for the Unit. The evidence must be produced under closed-book, supervised conditions within a time limit of one hour. 60% of the total marks available must be allocated to knowledge and understanding with the remaining 40% of the marks being allocated to analysis, application and evaluation. As candidates will increase their knowledge, understanding and skills throughout their study, assessment should take place towards the end of the Unit. The use of a cut-off score may be appropriate for this assessment. An appropriate instrument of assessment would be a case study or case studies accompanied by a series of structured questions. The questions should sample across the mandatory Unit content and allow candidates to generate evidence for all Outcomes and Performance criteria in an integrated way
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Each assessment must sample across the mandatory content of the unit and will allow candidates to generate evidence which covers: •
the role of sociology in understanding society
•
the key features of two of the following theories: functionalist, conflict, feminist, symbolic interactionist
•
the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society
•
either family or deviance using one of the following key sociological concepts: socialisation, culture or life chances
•
either the family or deviance using one of the following theories: functionalist, conflict, feminist, symbolic interactionist.
•
two principles which underpin the National Care Standards
•
the concept of social inequality through one of the following: disability or homelessness or health status
If reassessment is required, it should sample a different range of mandatory content. NB Centres must refer to the full Unit Specification for detailed information related to this Unit.
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Tutor Support Section
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How to Use This Pack There are a number of ways to bring Sociology to life for learners. One of the key themes throughout the pack is for learners to make effective use of their own life experiences but then to be able to use this as a means of understanding the complex nature of the society in which we live. From this it is intended that learners will be able to move on to be more objective about their own experiences as well as gaining more insight into the life chances and life experiences of others, especially those who find themselves requiring care services. Although the support notes have been designed to be used sequentially, it would not be necessary to use every exercise and activity in the pack in order to understand the topics covered. Indeed there are some activities included where there are a number of alternative discussion points or case studies relating to the issue being covered. Any or all of the materials could be used to illustrate different points in a variety of ways depending on the level of understanding of the class group and the preference of the staff delivering the unit. Some of the materials could be easily adapted to use in different ways. For example there are revision exercises that could be used either as peer assessment activities or as the basis of homework activities in which tutors could provide more detailed feedback. There may also be some benefit in making use, where appropriate, of Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care notes from the F17Y 11 support pack. Within the pack there is a lot of material designed to ‘make theory interesting’ (or if that fails…) ‘relevant’. However, the decision as to whether to include some or all of the support notes in the class teaching may be influenced by whether this unit is being delivered concurrently or consecutively with the other core units that comprise the Intermediate 2 Care course, or indeed whether it is being delivered as a stand alone unit. If some candidates have an academic knowledge of sociology through previous or concurrent studies of, for example an Intermediate 2 or Higher Sociology course or units, then it may be unnecessary to study the support notes relating to sociological theory in quite so much depth. For groups taking the external exam in Higher Care more time will, however, need to be spent on helping students to memorise key features of sociological theories, so more time could be spent on mnemonics and mind mapping. There are also many activities included throughout the pack for candidates to practice applying theory to real life situations as this will always be a feature of both unit and course assessment. Opportunities have also been included to undertake more complex tasks such as evaluating different sociological perspectives or being clear about how theories can be contrasted with each other. For classes who are doing this as a stand-alone unit, tutors may have more time to make effective use of the exercises which enable students to understand and apply the material to their own life, wider society and to care settings. The support notes in this pack have been produced in such a way that candidates will learn the knowledge and skills to tackle questions in a NAB or external exam
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which demand candidates to demonstrate either knowledge and understanding (KU), application to ‘real’ situations or care contexts (APP) or some degree of analysis and evaluation (AE).
Rationale for teaching/learning approaches There are a number of policy initiatives which have been considered when developing this pack. They are summarised below.
1) Assessment is for Learning Programme http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/assess/ This programme is based on the principle that ‘good feedback is essential to inform improvements at all levels in the education system’. In it, everyone – the tutor as well as the students – is regarded as a learner. There are 3 parts to the AifL approach: 1) Assessment for learning: day-to-day classroom interactions and feedback that are focused on the learner and sensitive to their individual needs; 2) Assessment as learning: pupil’s participation in assessment and reflecting on their learning helps them to become better learners; 3) Assessment of learning: concerned with enhancing teachers confidence in their own judgements so that assessment information is reliable, comparable and dependable. This pack can only deal with points 1 and 2, but tutors will get an opportunity to develop their skills in point 3 through SQA and SFEU workshops. A number of the exercises in this pack will encourage the learner to reflect on their own work and to assess other learners’ work, in order to build them into more independent learners. This will include the use of formative assessment in hopefully preparing learners to produce a more confident performance in summative assessments and external exams. Formative Assessment (process): •
clarifying learning intentions at the planning stage
•
sharing these with learners
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involving them in self evaluation
•
focusing oral and written feedback around the learning intention of each lesson or task
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•
appropriate questioning
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organising individual target setting
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raising learner’s self esteem via the language of the classroom
•
(Gardening analogy: feeding and watering the plant).
Summative Assessment (product): •
baseline testing
•
end of topic tests
•
National Assessment Bank
•
(Gardening analogy: measuring the size of the plant).
Formative Assessment Strategies Formative assessment improves learning. Assessment is used to allow learners to develop an awareness of how THEY can improve their learning. With written work, this can be done with: •
‘Comment Only’ Marking i.e. they don’t get a mark, but do get feedback on how to improve their answer. This is intended to encourage the learner to think about what they can do to improve their work rather than just think: ‘Great. I’ve scraped a pass.’ followed by turning round to ask the mark of the person sitting next to them. This type of feedback ties in to promoting the learner’s intrinsic valuing of their work and taking pride and responsibility for achievement and progress, rather than the extrinsic pass/fail mentality.
•
Peer- or Self-Assessment. These skills help the learner to develop an awareness of what makes a good piece work. It asks them to independently judge what is strong or weak in an answer, rather than to rely on the tutor. The tutor needs to support learners to achieve the confidence and ability to do this, but it is a very useful technique once developed.
In order to facilitate this type of delivery and assessment strategy, there are candidate activities and exercises included throughout the support pack. In most instances these activities and exercises follow on quite naturally from the preceding topic. However, the answers and/or suggested responses relating to the activities are located at the end of the support pack in a separate Tutor section. The decision as to when to issue these notes to best support self and/or peer assessment can therefore be made by the tutor.
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2) Curriculum for Excellence (2004) http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp The Curriculum for Excellence Report aims to ensure seamless education for children and young people (CYP) in Scotland, aged 3 – 18. The Care Course can contribute to this by directly or indirectly meeting the aspects in bold below. This subject area and the methods of teaching that are used are ideal for meeting these aims. •
All CYP can be successful learners, effective contributors, confident individuals and responsible citizens
•
Every CYP fulfils their potential; attainment will rise across the board
•
There is a renewed emphasis on equipping CYP with essential skills including literacy, numeracy and creative thinking skills and promoting good health and well being
•
Scotland’s education system continues to meet the challenges of the 21st Century.
Teaching activities A number of the suggested teaching activities suggested in the Curriculum for Excellence framework are already used widely in care courses: •
Activity based
•
Creative/innovative
•
Direction of travel: do students know where they are going. Do they know how to get there?
•
Narrative: what is the story you want to tell? Not how difficult it is, but how relevant/interesting it is.
Education (Scotland) Act 2000 Makes provision for the 5 National Priorities for Education: 1) Achievement and Attainment 2) Framework for Learning 3) Inclusion and Equality 4) Values and Citizenship 5) Learning for Life
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HMIE
3) Changing Lives - Report of the 21st Century Social Work review: Implementation Plan (2006) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2006/02/02094408/0 The report notes the need for ‘Programmes of learning that contribute to the continuous development of the social services workforce’ and which ‘Support the establishment of career pathways and career progression, in line with emerging policy needs’. This course, based at SCQF level 5 enables learners to enter into the social service workforce at care assistant level, or to develop further underpinning knowledge by advancing to Higher and HNC care Courses.
4) Learning Together (1999) http://www.scotland.gov.uk/learningtogether/ The Scottish Executive produced the publication ‘Learning Together’. This outlines a strategy for education, training and lifelong learning for people working in the National Health Service in Scotland. There is an emphasis on the value of education and lifelong learning in contributing to the delivery of quality services within the NHS. Candidates who study and achieve care units and courses can expect to improve their opportunities for employment within a care sector with this learning ethos. Please note that the materials and activities contained in this pack are not intended to be a mandatory set of teaching notes. They provide centres with a flexible set of materials and activities which can be selected, adapted and used in whatever way suits individual centres and their particular situations.
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Guidance on Unit Delivery Although centres will deliver this unit in a number of ways, a timetable for an 18 week course with 2 hour classes is provided below. As the unit is a nominal 40 hours, this implies that there are at least 4 hours for self-study. Apart from revision of notes, students can be expected to carry out some of the activities in their own time and bring their work back to class for discussion/marking.
1
2
Content Intro and overview of unit Outcome 1 - What is sociology? - Distinction between sociological thinking and Common sense Exploring Research - private troubles and public issues
Mode of delivery • •
tutor input student exercises
• •
• •
tutor input individual and group research internet investigation opportunity tutor input student exercises
• • • • •
tutor input student exercises class discussion tutor input student exercises
• •
tutor input student exercises
•
formative assessment opportunity tutor input class discussion case studies formative assessment opportunity tutor input student exercises group discussion
•
3
Understanding Society - Summary and Review - Introduction to Sociological theory
4
Structural & Action Theories Making theory interesting
5
Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory
6
Feminist Theory Symbolic Interactionist Theory
7
Revision Exercise
8
9
Relevance of Sociology to Care - Overview and Case Studies
Outcome 2 – Sociological concepts & aspects - socialisation, culture, life chances - the family; deviance Sociological perspectives on the family
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10
11
12
13
14
15
16
The family - Functionalism: Key features and overview - Conflict: Key features and overview The family - Feminism: Key features and overview - S. I.: Key features and overview Sociological perspectives on deviance - Functionalism: Key features and overview - Conflict: Key features and overview
• •
tutor input student exercises
• • • • • •
tutor input student exercises revision opportunity tutor input student exercises group discussion
Deviance - Feminism: Key features and overview - S. I.: Key features and overview
• • •
tutor input student exercises revision opportunity
Outcome 3 – Sociology and Care Values & Principles - National Care Standards Principles - Care Settings Guiding Values in Care - Social Inequality - Values and Principles - The role of legislation Contemporary Social issue Investigation NAB Revision
• • •
tutor input student exercises group discussion
• •
tutor input group and class discussion
•
individual/group investigation case studies revision
• •
NAB Outcomes (All Outcomes) 17 18
NAB Feedback Remediation/Reassessment as Required
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Resources Recommended Text Miller, J. and Gibb, S. (Eds) (2007) Care In Practice for Higher (2nd Edn) Hodder and Stoughton
Useful web links www.carecommission.com www.cebmh.warne.ox.ac.uk/csr/ www.cehr.org.uk/ www.drc-gb.org www.oneplusone.org.uk/ www.jrf.org.uk www.seemescotland.org.uk/ www.sssc.uk.com www.nelson.com/nelson/sociology/glossary.html#a
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Student Support Section
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Key to Activity Symbols
Reading
Brainstrorming
Writing
Discussion
Case studies
ICT Research
Reflection
Revision
Group Investigation
Study Tips 1) Highlighting Key Words None of the key words have been put into bold in this unit, as it will be more useful for you to be actively involved in highlighting the keywords on each page. If you don’t already have some, go and buy yourself some highlighter pens! The point of highlighting each keyword is so that when you read over your notes, the main point on each page jumps out at you. Therefore, it is crucial that you only highlight one or two words at a time. If you highlight too much, then nothing will jump out at you and you’ll need to wear sunglasses to read your notes! Occasionally, it is useful to highlight a sentence, if it gives a definition of a key term but even then, it is better to try and highlight only the relevant parts of the sentence. It might also be useful to highlight the key term in one colour, and the definition in another colour, so again you are making the separate things stand out differently. Less is more when highlighting.
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Glossary of Terms analogy two things.
Making comparisons or drawing similarities between
autonomy
Independence and control over one’s own affairs.
capitalism
A social and economic system which is driven by private ownership and profit.
cohabitation
A situation where a couple live together as husband and wife but are not legally married.
contemporary
Present day, currently.
corporate crime
Law-breaking by executives in large organizations.
culture
The way of life of a society which can include language, customs, dress, symbols and artifacts (e.g. ornaments, tools.)
demography
The study of populations with particular reference to statistics relating to births, deaths, marriages, migration, disease etc.
determinism
A belief that individuals’ lives are shaped by their situations and environments and that they have very little free will.
discrimination
Treating an individual or a group unfairly usually on account of prejudiced or stereotyped views.
empowerment
Enabling people to take control of their own lives.
ethnic group
A group of people who share a common culture.
ethnocentricity
A view of the world in which other cultures are devalued in comparison to our own culture.
ethnography
The study of the culture and way of life of a group of people by directly observing them.
extended family
A family structure where the basic nuclear family tree has been added to vertically (grandparents, parents, children) or horizontally (siblings with respective spouses and children).
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free will
The ability of individuals to be completely autonomous and exercise choice.
human agency
Human action which has the potential to transform social arrangements.
judiciary
A body of judges (courtroom).
life chances
The opportunities someone has of accessing desirable experiences in life such as a good education, income, housing and health.
macro-sociology
A sociological perspective that focuses on the large scale structural aspects of society.
marginalisation
The process whereby individuals or groups are forced to live on the edges or outside mainstream society.
mass media
Communication which can reach large numbers of people at the same time - can include TV, radio, newspapers, magazines and the internet.
meritocracy
A system whereby social positions are achieved in society on the basis of merit such as educational qualifications or skill rather than class, ethnic group or gender.
micro-sociology
A sociological perspective that focuses on the small scale interactive processes that make up society.
morbidity
That which relates to the nature and extent of illness in a population.
mortality
The number of deaths in a given period of time.
norms
Social rules which define the expected behaviour in a range of social situations.
objectivity
Approaching topics with an open mind.
oppression
Abuse of power towards a less powerful group by those who have more power.
patriarchy
Power and authority held by men; the basis of male dominance over women in society.
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perspective
A way of looking at an issue from a particular viewpoint
polygamy
A pattern of marriage that allows more than one legal partner at a time.
prejudice
A negative attitude, usually based on a stereotype of a social group, that often leads to discrimination.
primary socialisation
The process through which we learn the values and behaviour of the culture to which we belong. Usually this takes place within our family.
roles
The patterns of behaviour that are expected from individuals in a society.
sanctions
A reward or punishment to encourage social conformity.
secondary socialisation The learning of skills and attitudes outwith the main agency of the family. Can include the influence exerted by schools, work, the media, religion and peer group. social exclusion
The situation whereby people become marginalised or prevented from taking an active part in mainstream society.
social inclusion
The process of developing measures to include and value people who have been traditionally excluded from society.
social justice
The idea that a society should give individuals and groups fair treatment and a just share of society’s benefits.
socially constructed
A belief that an aspect of social life is brought about by social processes rather than being a natural occurrence.
white-collar crime
Crime committed by people in the course of carrying out their middle-class jobs.
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social institutions
The organised social arrangements which exist in societies (such as families) as well as the organised beliefs or rules that establish how a society meets its basic social needs (such as the justice system).
stereotyping
A process whereby individuals are viewed in oversimplified ways as part of a group and are assumed to share the same characteristics.
sub-culture
A small scale culture which differs in terms of norms and values from the larger culture of which it is a part.
subjectivity
Approaching subjects from a personal or individual point of view.
values
General beliefs about what is considered to be right, wrong and/or important in society.
Based on definitions from a range of sources Browne, K. (2005) An Introduction to Sociology Polity Press: Cambridge. Lawson, T. and.Garrod, J. (2003) Complete A-Z of Sociology. Hodder and Stoughton: London. Miller, J et al (2000) Care in Practice. Hodder and Stoughton: London. http://www.nelson.com/nelson/sociology/glossary.html#a
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Outcome 1: Introduction and Overview In this outcome you will be finding out how sociology can help us to have a better understanding of the society in which we live. One of the first things you will be asked to think about is the difference between having a subjective view about something and how this differs from an objective point of view. To help with this we will be looking at some topics or issues about which we may have some personal knowledge or understanding and then we will re-examine them from a sociological point of view. For anyone who has completed the Sociology for Care Unit at Intermediate 2 level, then this idea should seem familiar. As part of this discussion we will also look at the relationship between individual experiences and the wider social contexts or structures in which they happen. Sociology provides us with a range of different ways of looking at society. Some of these have become established theories or frameworks that can be helpful in explaining and understanding society. In this outcome we will be examining features of four major sociological theories that will help us to understand some key issues relating to care in contemporary society. OUTCOME 1 Explain the contribution of key sociological theories to an understanding of care in contemporary society. Performance Criteria (a) (b) (c)
Explain the role of sociological thinking in understanding contemporary society Describe key features of specific sociological theories Explain the relevance of sociology to care in contemporary society.
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Overview of Topics The role of sociological thinking: •
the distinction between common sense explanations and sociological knowledge
•
the relationship between private troubles and public issues
•
the importance of understanding society rather than merely describing it
Key features of sociological perspectives: Overview: •
distinction between macro-sociology and micro-sociology (structural and action theories)
•
the similarity and differences between consensus and conflict theories
Key features and evaluation of specific sociological theories: •
functionalist theory
•
conflict theory
•
feminist theory
•
symbolic interactionist theory
The relevance of sociology to care: •
raising awareness of the impact of wider social influences on those who receive care services
•
recognition that individuals and groups can influence the development and provision of care services
Revision exercises and Case Studies
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What is Sociology About? In very simple terms sociology is about trying to explain how society works. It also involves developing the ability to see society not only through our own eyes but also through the eyes of other people and groups. Developing this social awareness enables us to gain insight into current social issues and their impact on our own lives as well as on those who may lead very different lives to ourselves. Sociology can help us to do this. In the Intermediate 2 course we learned that a simple definition of sociology was ‘the study of human society and human behaviour.’ This is because it involves studying people as social beings and examines how behaviour can be shaped by life experiences. The societies we live in also have a great influence on who we are as individuals in terms of our attitudes, our beliefs and the chances that we have in life. These issues are very important in sociology. Sociology is also interested in looking at how society is structured. This means that it examines how society is made up of different social institutions such as the family, the education system or religion and it looks at the influence these institutions have on how we live our lives. Social structures such as these are considered to be the foundations of society by many sociologists. A slightly more complex definition of sociology is “… the study of individuals in groups and social formations in a systematic way, which grew out of the search for understanding associated with the industrial and scientific revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. It is now an established discipline … and has offered generations of students insights into the social world they inhabit.” (Lawson & Garrod,1996: 258) It is this idea of ‘offering insight into the social world we inhabit’ that makes sociology such an important subject to study as part of a care course. Using sociological concepts to examine social issues will help us to understand why certain individuals or groups in society may require care services at some stage in their lives. This is often because it is these people who are the most vulnerable in society. This may be on account of their age, disability, ethnic background, health or life chances. The idea of social issues is wide ranging and could cover topics like marital breakdown, poverty, disability, unemployment, drug misuse, criminal behaviour, homelessness, obesity or binge drinking. Most people have opinions, or even experience of, issues like these. Sociologists are involved in studying such social issues. So isn’t sociology pretty much just common sense then?
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Sociological Thinking v Common Sense Since sociology focuses on many subjects and social issues that most people know something about, it is understandable that sociology could be seen as being basically just ‘common sense’. This, however, is not true. In fact, what sociology tries to do is challenge many taken for granted assumptions that people often accept as common sense. It would also be true to say that sociology isn’t the only social science that is interested in studying human behaviour and social issues. What makes sociology distinctive is not so much the topics it studies, but rather how it studies them. As a lot of sociological thinking is based on challenging taken for granted assumptions, a starting point is often the questioning of what we may believe to be true. Let’s look at three issues and examine some common sense or taken for granted assumptions about them. Write down some commonly held beliefs about each of the topics below. In your statements you should try to focus on what many people generally think about these issues. For example what causes people to live in poverty, get married or to commit suicide Poverty:
________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________
Marriage:
________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________
Suicide:
________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________
Once you have completed this exercise, discuss your answers with the people sitting near you.
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It is likely that you will have generated a lot of ideas. Some of your suggestions might have included: Poverty: •
Some people are too lazy to find work and choose to live on benefits and that means they are more likely to experience poverty
•
Some people find themselves living in poverty because they can’t budget their money
•
There’s no real poverty in Britain today. Poverty is what you see in African countries
Marriage; •
Most people get married because they fall in love … anyway, it’s every girl’s dream to have a big white wedding
•
It’s natural for a man and a woman to fall in love and want to get married
•
Marriage is ‘going out of fashion’ nowadays
Suicide: •
People who commit suicide are mentally ill
•
People commit suicide because life has become unbearable for them
•
People who commit suicide are basically selfish
Do you think any of these statements are true? How do you think sociologists might study some of these ideas to find out whether they are in fact true? Some of the information from the Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care unit could also be helpful in developing your understanding of the distinction between sociological and common sense explanations.
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Sociological knowledge v Common sense assumptions Common sense explanations of social issues are often based on opinion or personal experience and therefore are often very subjective, which means that they are based on an individual’s point of view. Sociological explanations are, by contrast, more objective, which means they are not influenced by personal feelings but are based on knowledge and evidence from research. Common sense explanations are often considered to be: Naturalistic
“It’s only natural that when a man and woman fall in love that they will choose to get married and want to have children.”
Individualistic
“If people are poor it’s their own fault as there are plenty of jobs for those that want them.”
Moralistic
“People who take their own lives are selfish. They should think of the people they leave behind.”
Many common sense explanations are based on naturalistic, individualistic or moralistic assumptions. However, there is no escaping the fact that some of these assumptions do appear to represent what many people believe about the social world we live in. It is important to realise that some common sense explanations or assumptions may not be incorrect or untrue, in fact they probably will be true for some people. The problem arises when they are assumed to be true for all people. Sociological explanations attempt to avoid naturalistic, individualistic and moralistic assumptions. In contrast sociology attempts to explain social behaviour in terms of wider social forces, processes and structures, using evidence from objective research to support these explanations. For example, sociological explanations relating to some of the points noted in relation to marriage, poverty and suicide would have a different, more objective emphasis based on particular research that had been carried out in relation to the subject. Your next task is to try to find out about some research that has been carried out in relation to these subjects.
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Exploring Research As a way of beginning to understand some of the complexities of the topics listed earlier, you will now be given the task of using the internet to find out what kind of research has taken place in relation to poverty, marriage and suicide. Some of the information you find will have been produced by sociologists. Other information you might find could have been produced by the government or even other researchers such as economists or psychologists and then used by sociologists as a basis for their own research. Check with your tutor about how this task should be carried out. You could complete this task as individuals and write up some of the things you find out. Alternatively, this would be an ideal opportunity to carry out some group work. The class could be divided into three groups, with each group focusing on a particular topic. The small groups could then feed back to the whole group. Or you may find it easier to divide into groups of three with each person in the group investigating a different topic or website. Whether you do this task individually or as part of a group you should spend some time exploring the websites provided in the next section of the support notes. Look specifically for the types of research that have taken place in relation to the topic. You should also take some time to briefly explore any other links you think could be relevant to the idea of sociological research. Remember though that this is just an introductory exercise to give you some insight into what kind of research actually takes place in relation to some of the topics we might be discussing as part of this course. Check with your tutor how this information is to be shared with the class. For example you might be asked to do a presentation. Perhaps you could create a poster illustrating some of the key points. Or maybe you’ll simply be asked to read out some of your findings. Whatever way you choose to complete this activity …Good Luck!
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Exploring Research: Poverty The Joseph Rowntree Foundation is a charitable organisation that carries out a great deal of social research in the UK. One of their main aims is to try to more fully understand the causes of poverty and other related social difficulties and then find ways of overcoming them. Visit the site below, looking specifically for information on research and policy. If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘Joseph Rowntree Foundation Research and Policy’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’. www.jrf.org.uk When you have completed your investigation, you might find it helpful to write some notes in response to the following questions in order to help you sort out your findings: What kind of research has this organisation undertaken?
What sort of issues have they looked at?
Which pieces of research seemed most interesting?
Did you find out anything that surprised you?
What useful links to other sites did you find?
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Exploring Research: Suicide The University of Oxford has a Centre for Suicide Research where the work conducted is aimed at increasing knowledge directly relevant to prevention of suicide and deliberate self-harm. Much of the research focuses on the investigation of the causes of suicidal behaviour as well as its treatment and prevention. Visit the site below, looking specifically for information on research and policy. If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘University of Oxford Centre for Suicide Research’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’. www.cebmh.warne.ox.ac.uk/csr/ When you have completed your investigation, you might find it helpful to write some notes in response to the following questions in order to help you sort out your findings: What kind of research has this organisation undertaken?
What sort of issues have they looked at?
Which pieces of research seemed most interesting?
Did you find out anything that surprised you?
What useful links to other sites did you find?
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Exploring Research: Marriage One Plus One is an organisation that seeks to strengthen couple and family relationships by putting research into practice. They conduct research into what makes relationships work, or in some cases break down, and uses the research findings to help develop resources for use by people supporting families. The organisation is also influential in shaping government policy on families. Visit the site below, looking specifically at the information centre and research and innovation. If you have difficulty accessing the site, then type ‘One Plus One marriage and relationship research’ into a search engine such as ‘Google’. http://www.oneplusone.org.uk/ When you have completed your investigation, you might find it helpful to write some notes in response to the following questions in order to help you sort out your findings: What kind of research has this organisation undertaken?
What sort of issues have they looked at?
Which pieces of research seemed most interesting?
Did you find out anything that surprised you?
What useful links to other sites did you find?
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Exploring Research: Summary The previous exercise should have enabled you to understand that it takes a lot more than ‘common sense’ to fully understand the complex nature of many of the issues which are of interest to sociology. For example, if you looked at some of the research into poverty, you may have discovered that some research has shown that there is a strong link between poverty and educational background as well as ethnic background. If you investigated this topic you might also have seen how much research is currently taking place to highlight the problems of child poverty in the UK. For those of you who investigated research on the subject of suicide, you may have noticed that some research focused on suicide rates amongst specific groups of people amongst whom suicide was more common. It is possible that you also found links to organisations that develop strategies focussing on the prevention of suicide and self-harm such as the Scottish ‘Choose Life’ organisation. If you investigated the topic of marriage, you are likely to have found a lot of statistical information on related issues such as changes in marriage patterns and cohabitation, divorce rates, rates of remarriage or even the incidence of domestic abuse. So what’s next? If by carrying out the previous exercise you now have a better understanding of why it can be important to question ‘taken for granted assumptions’, hopefully you will also have become aware of a related idea which is that there is a relationship between private problems and public issues.
What do you think this means? ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Private Problems and Public Issues “When, in a city of 100,000, only one man is unemployed, that is his personal trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the character of the man, his skills, and his immediate opportunities. But when in a nation of 50 million employees, 15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue, and we may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open to any one individual.” (C. Wright-Mills, 1959: 9) The above quote is taken from an influential sociology text that was written approximately 50 years ago. However, its message is still very relevant in contemporary society. The activity in which we investigated research on poverty, marriage and divorce should have highlighted that although each of these issues could have a very personal or private impact on any of us at some point in our lives, they are also of wider public concern in terms of both cause and impact. The sociologist C.Wright-Mills believed that developing a ‘sociological imagination’ helps us to understand that people’s private troubles can become public issues and that some public issues can, in turn, cause private troubles. He also believed that it was important to look at the relationship between these wider issues and individual experiences. This is one of the aspects of sociology that makes it both fascinating and challenging. Frequently there are no ‘right’ answers or clear solutions to the problems that are being studied or the questions that are being asked, in fact, often a piece or research highlights that more or different questions still need to be asked. However, what is clear is that as students studying Sociology for Care it is important to recognise that influences such as family, education, religion, the world of work, the media, the economy or even terrorism and climate change can have an impact on ourselves and those we aim to support. They can have an impact on us both as individuals and as members of society. Our sense of identity may be influenced by our culture, class, religion, sexuality or gender and the extent to which public issues may impact upon us as individuals may also be related to these issues. As part of the Sociology for Care unit it is therefore of the utmost importance that students are able to understand some of the wider social issues that can have an impact on individuals who require care services.
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Private Problems and Public Issues: Care Context As you progress through this unit you will be given the opportunity to think about some of the values and principles that are very important to professionals who work in the area of health and social care. These principles are related to the relationship between private problems and public issues. If you have studied the Values and Principles in Care Unit, you may already have given this idea some thought. In relation to this unit, as part of Outcome 3, you will be focussing on three contemporary social issues that are relevant to care practice. These will be disability, homelessness and health status. Having thought about how poverty, marriage and divorce can be both private troubles and public issues, you should now write a few sentences about how you think the idea of ‘private problems/public issues’ relates to the issues of disability, homelessness and health. Although we will return to examine this idea later in the unit, it would be helpful for you to record your thoughts at this stage in your learning. Write a few lines about how the idea of ‘private problems/public issues’ relates to: Disability:
________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Homelessness:
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Health:
_______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Understanding Society Another concept that it is important to grasp when studying sociology is the idea that we are seeking to understand society rather than merely describe it. To illustrate this point I will focus on what you are often asked to do in exams. For example, in an exam you might be asked to describe something and if you manage to do this accurately you will probably have demonstrated a degree of knowledge. However you are unlikely to have shown much understanding. Imagine you are asked to describe what a family is. You might suggest that a family is usually a mother, father (perhaps married, perhaps not) and children. There may be other relatives connected to the family such as grandparents, aunts and uncles. Some people may also live in lone parent or stepparent families. This is fine as it clearly describes what families are or can be. However, what the above statement doesn’t do is provide much of an understanding of why families are the way they are or what they actually do. For example it doesn’t explain what happens in families or how they have changed over time or whether the experience of families is the same in all cultures. If you were asked to provide this level of understanding in an exam, you wouldn’t be asked to describe what a family is, it is more likely that you would be asked to explain or analyse some aspect or function that the family fulfils in society. By doing this you would be much more likely to demonstrate not just knowledge but also understanding. A key point to remember then is that: •
Describing something tells us what something is
•
Understanding something helps tells us why it is.
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Understanding Society: Activity As an activity to illustrate the difference between describing and understanding something, you should complete the following task. In the space below provide a minimum of four statements that describe the composition of the ‘Sociology for Care’ class group you are part of. •
________________________________________________________________
•
________________________________________________________________
•
________________________________________________________________
•
________________________________________________________________
Now make an attempt at trying to explain any or all of the points you have listed. Remember that this might involve explaining ‘why’ the class has been described in the way it has. If you think it would help, discuss your ideas with a partner first. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Understanding Society: Activity Discussion In describing your class group it is likely that you will have referred to issues such as gender, age, career aspirations, ethnic background or perhaps where people live or what they are wearing. Below are examples of some descriptions that might apply to a Higher Care class. •
There are 20 people in the class
•
The class is predominantly made up of females (18 females; 2 males)
•
There is an age range in the class (5 aged under 20; 7 aged 20 – 30; 6 aged 30 – 40; 2 aged 40+)
•
Everyone is hoping to pursue a career in health or social care in the future
•
Everyone is dressed casually
With this description we can begin to get a kind of mental picture of what the class group may look like. Your own description may be similar to the above or different in some key areas. For example, if you are studying this course as part of a school group, some of the descriptions are likely to be different, although some of them may be similar. In a school group, descriptions might include: •
There are 12 people in the class
•
They are all female
•
Everyone is aged between 16-18
•
Most of the class are interested in becoming either nurses or social workers
•
Everyone is wearing school uniform
In your groups you might have highlighted other key issues such as ethnic background, social class or even what colour of hair people have or whether they are wearing glasses!
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However, for the purposes of this exercise we will be reflecting on how we might go about trying to understand why some of the facts above are as they are? Class size: This might be determined by how popular the subject is, or how much demand there is for jobs in the field that the subject relates to, such as a local or national shortage of nurses or social workers (or even plasterers and plumbers in a different class.) Class size might even be affected by where you are studying. For example if you live in a rural area, class size may be affected if the college you are attending is the only place in the region where you can study your chosen subject. Or you might be attending a school or college in a town/city where there are many choices available and this may have an impact on the composition or size of the class. Gender mix: Irrespective of where you are studying this course, there is a likelihood that your class will be made up of mostly female students. Why is this? Is it likely to be the same in the class of plasterers and plumbers? Trying to understand why the Higher Care class is made up of mostly females is related to the way in which the ‘caring’ role has been perceived by society for many years. Women have traditionally been assigned the ‘caring’ role within families as wives, mothers or daughters and when (or if) employment opportunities arise, it is probably not surprising that women (and men) see women as being more capable in this field. Interestingly, because the domestic or ‘caring’ role has traditionally been under valued or taken for granted in society it is common for jobs in the caring professions to attract lower pay than traditionally ‘male’ jobs that require similar levels of skills or knowledge. (Do plumbers generally earn more than nurses?) It is also interesting to note that gender socialisation doesn’t only happen in families or the workplace. For many years it was also reinforced in schools. If you know anyone in the 40+ age bracket, compare their experiences with someone under 20 in terms of what subjects (and sports) males and females were taught at school. If, however, you do have some males in your class, then this is a very encouraging sign. This is because it is important that the stereotype that women are ‘natural’ carers and therefore better at it than men really needs to be challenged. (Similarly, if there are some females in the plumbing or plastering class then this is also good news.)
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Age range: If you are in a college class rather than a school group, there is a likelihood that there will be some mature students in your class. How can this be explained and understood? In order to fully understand you probably need to ask them. (Sociologists often conduct research by directly asking people for information through structured or unstructured interviews, or even using questionnaires.) If you were to ask the mature students in your class why they are attending college now, it is possible that they would mention that they didn’t work hard or weren’t encouraged to work at school so they want a chance to do it now. They might say that because their children are now at school they want to ‘do something for themselves’. Some may even say that they want a career change and have always wanted to be a nurse or social worker, but didn’t think they could gain the qualifications. Some people may already have experience of working in care but are now being expected to gain formal qualifications and want to do the course to help them towards this. The opportunities for mature students to return to study are also an element of government policy to promote ‘lifelong learning.’ This in turn is influenced by demographic factors (population issues) which mean that the UK, like most industrial societies, now has an ageing population as a result of low birth rates and increasing life expectancy.
Career choices: As mentioned above, there is now an expectation that people who want to train as nurses, or social workers have to gain qualifications before being accepted onto courses or training programmes. In years gone by the qualifications would most likely have been in traditional school subjects such as English, Maths, Chemistry, History etc. However, there are now more opportunities to study a wider range of vocationally based subjects in colleges, some of which have more recently been made available to schools. It is now possible to study subjects at Intermediate 1/2 and Higher levels that are more directly related to vocational areas such as Care, Tourism, Hospitality, Hairdressing or Architectural Design to name only a few. Again this is partly driven by government policies focussed on promoting vocational training and opportunities. For those specifically interested in studying health and social care, there are now also far more opportunities in both schools and colleges to study courses or units in associated academic disciplines such as
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Psychology, Sociology, Human Biology, Early Years Education or Religious, Moral and Philosophical Studies. Mode of Dress: Most people believe that what you wear expresses something about you as a person. We all probably believe that we are free agents to dress as we please. However, this isn’t really the case. There are established norms of behaviour in society that govern how we behave in certain circumstances. For example, there may be established expectations about what clothes to wear at a funeral, which would be different from what you wear at a party. In describing the school class earlier, school uniforms were referred to. These examples of expectations regarding modes of dress illustrate how our behaviour can be controlled in certain situations. This can even happen when we don’t think there are any rules. For example, is there anyone in your class wearing a suit and a tie? Or a bikini? Or a Superman outfit? Probably the answer to these questions is ‘no’… unless it might be the lecturer (… in the suit and tie, not the bikini or superman outfit!) This is because there is generally informal agreement between people about what behaviour is appropriate in certain situations. If people break the formal or informal rules there are likely to be sanctions (or punishments) imposed on them. For example, not wearing school uniform might result in detention or a punishment exercise whereas wearing a superman outfit to the next Higher Care class might result in everyone laughing at you or deciding that you’re not as cool as they thought you were, so they won’t be inviting you to their party at the weekend after all!
Understanding Society: Concluding thoughts •
In studying ‘Sociology for Care’, we will not just be describing society, but will also be working towards understanding society.
•
Our opportunities in life (such as education, job prospects) might be affected by a number of things such as where we live, how old we are, our ethnic background or whether we are male or female.
•
Although we may think we are free to choose how we behave, we are actually strongly influenced by the behavioural norms of the societies we live in.
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Introduction to Sociological Theory In studying sociological theory one of the first concepts to try to understand is that of Freewill and Determinism. Although the phrase might look a bit daunting, it actually relates to the final point on the previous page i.e. “although we may think we are free to choose how we behave, we are actually strongly influenced by the behavioural norms of the societies we live in.” Freewill (sometimes called human agency) is the idea that human beings have the ability to control, change or have choice over all aspects of their lives. This is also sometimes referred to as autonomy. Determinism, on the other hand, is based on the belief that human beings have little free will or choice in how they behave but are influenced by the situations and environments in which they live or even by the course of history. When we begin to look at sociological theory as a way of helping us to understand society, we will find out that different theories have different points of view in relation to free will and determinism. Some theories believe that society can be best explained by looking at how society shapes the individual; they are referred to as structural theories. Other theories believe it is more helpful to explain society in terms of how individuals shape society; they are referred to as action theories. Most structural theories adopt a deterministic view of society, whereas action theories place more emphasis on the idea of free will. Structural theories, as the name suggests, look at how society is structured and adopt a macro-sociological approach by looking at society on a large scale, specifically in relation to how all the social institutions in society are inter-related. Action theories on the other hand adopt a micro-sociological approach because they are more interested in the small-scale interactions that take place between individuals and small groups in society. Within each of these broad sociological perspectives, structure and action, there are a range of theories which each has a slightly different way of looking at society. Some emphasise determinism, others free will. Some view society as a stable, well functioning, harmonious whole (a consensus view) while others adopt a conflict approach by viewing society as being dynamic and constantly changing as a result of tension or conflict. As part of this unit we will be studying four main sociological theories: Functionalism, Conflict, Feminism and Symbolic Interactionism.) These theories
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have been selected as part of this unit because they will be the most useful for us when we use sociological understanding to study care in contemporary society. Although the idea of studying theories may sound quite boring or even quite daunting, theories are not as difficult to understand (or boring) if you manage to grasp the basic concepts first. So what is a theory? A theory is just a framework for understanding things about the world we live in. All theories originate from ideas which have been tested or researched in some way. This is what makes them objective, unlike an idea which is based on personal experience or common sense which would be more subjective. Sociological theory is a particular framework for explaining how society works. Some theories are likely to explain social behaviour in terms of the relationships between individuals, groups and society. Others will emphasise how social behaviours can be linked to social processes and structures. Many theories will be examining the same aspect of society, but will see it from a different point of view or show up different issues more clearly. A useful way of thinking about this is to imagine a type of Hall of Mirrors that you might see at a funfair. The mirrors show up different areas more clearly than others such as a big head/ small head or a long thin body/small round body, even though they are a reflection of the same thing. Sociological theories can be looked at in a similar way – some theories show up different aspects of society more clearly than others. What we will discover as we learn more about sociology is, that some theories are helpful in understanding particular social issues but other theories help us to develop a better understanding of society in relation to different issues. On the following page is a diagram that shows each of the sociological theories we will be studying as part of the Sociology for Care unit. Hopefully this diagram might help you see where the theories ‘fit in’ in terms of structure/action (macrosociology/micro-sociology) and whether they adopt a consensus or conflict point of view in examining and understanding society.
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Sociological Theory
STRUCTURE
ACTION
(Macro-sociology) Society shapes the individual
(Micro-sociology) The individual shapes society Free Will/Human Agency
Determinism
SOCIETY
Consensus
Functionalism
INDIVIDUAL
Conflict
Conflict
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Feminism
Symbolic Interactionism
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Structural and Action Theories Structural and action theories are both interested in explaining and making sense of our social world. However, they approach their explanations in different ways. Structural theories attempt to understand society and explain human behaviour by looking at society first and examining the way in which it is structured. In general terms, structural theories believe that society shapes the individual. The fact that structural theories look at the whole of society, or the ‘big picture’, means that these theories can be effective at examining and explaining how society has changed over time. They do this by looking at social trends. In the internet investigation of research which you did earlier in the unit, an example of this would be looking at statistics that relate to suicide. Looking at statistics is a way of examining quantitative data which means that a large amount of data relating to many people can be examined fairly easily. Trends or patterns can be examined by, for example looking at differences between gender, age groups or even geographical areas. By contrast, action theories tend to take their starting point as the individual. They examine how individuals interact with each other in small social groups. Action theories usually place a lot of emphasis on these interactions and the meanings behind them and in turn believe it is the many interactions between individuals and groups that shape society. Rather than examining social trends, action theorists are more concerned with small-scale interaction and trying to understand and interpret the meanings that people place on these interactions. Action theorists believe this is a much more meaningful way to understand what drives human behaviour. For example, rather than trying to explain suicide through looking at statistics, sociologists who operate from an action perspective would be more likely to conduct research which provided in-depth qualitative data. This could be gained by carrying out unstructured interviews asking people directly about their experiences of contemplating suicide. Another research method often used by sociologists adopting an action perspective is participant
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observation. This involves actually becoming part of the group being studied, such as living alongside people who were ‘sleeping rough’ in order to gain insight into the experience of homelessness. No one way of examining or explaining society is necessarily better. Rather both types of theory, structure and action, can be useful for different purposes and highlight different issues. In fact in many cases it can be extremely helpful to develop an understanding of both perspectives.
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Introduction to Sociological Theory Revision Exercise: Structural and Action theories Below is a list of statements. Use the grid on the following page to correctly list some of the key features of Structural and Action theories. •
Believes that society shapes the individual
•
Starts with the individual and then generalises about society
•
Determinism is implicit in analysis
•
Interested in meanings and interactions
•
Would examine unemployment by asking unemployed people about their experiences of being unemployed by using an unstructured interview technique or by observing them
•
Starts with society as a whole and then analyses the inter-related social structures and institutions
•
Mostly uses qualitative methods of research
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Free will or human agency is implicit in analysis
•
Would examine unemployment by looking at the number and details of people claiming benefit or attending a job centre
•
Interested in trends and social forces
•
Interested in explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
•
Mostly uses quantitative methods of research
•
Believes that individuals and groups shape society
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Revision Exercise: Structural and Action theories Record your statements below. Most of them are part of a contrasting pair, so as well as getting the statements in the correct columns, you should also try to pair them correctly too. One statement can relate to both structural and action theories. You could do this as individuals or in a pair and then swap answers with another person or group. One pair of statements has been added to the grid below to give you an idea of what is involved in the task.
STRUCTURAL
Believes that society shapes the individual
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ACTION
Believes that individuals and groups shape society
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Making Theory Interesting If you managed to complete the previous activity without too much difficulty – well done! If you struggled with it, don’t panic as there will be many opportunities for you to develop your understanding of different theories in this unit, as well as an expectation that you will be able to apply your theoretical understanding to real life situations and to case studies relating to the context of care. It is really important that you try to grasp the idea that theories aren’t just about learning facts (although this is obviously important), what makes theory interesting, is when you begin to see that you can effectively use it to explain or make sense of something that you are familiar with. For anyone who has already studied some psychology theories, this idea will be familiar. Sometimes a theory only becomes interesting or ‘real’ when we can make sense of applying it to ourselves, our families or to real life situations. The next activity will give you a chance to get into the swing of this. As we begin to progress through the unit learning about different sociological theories, we will refer back to the activity you are about to complete as a way of beginning to apply theoretical understanding.
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Making theory interesting: Activity (pages 60 - 63) Work in small groups to discuss the following dilemma. You should record your decision and thoughts on the following page.
The country is about to experience a nuclear attack. In the small town where you live the government has decided that eight people can be selected to be located safely in a purpose built shelter where their survival will be guaranteed. These eight people will form the basis of a future society. Your group is the committee that must decide who should be selected. No one on the committee can be selected. You must choose from a group of 12 people who have been nominated by the residents of the town. You should record which eight people you have selected and provide justification for your selection. You must also provide reasons for excluding the four people not been selected You must agree on a final decision in the next 30 minutes. •
James: a 45 year old environmental scientist
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Violet: a 36 year old journalist who is 7 months pregnant with her first child
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Eva: a 13 year old schoolgirl
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Jake: a 21 year old professional rugby player
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Mary: a 40 year old cook
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Samantha: 29 year old physics teacher
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Leroy: a 24 year old gardener
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Tony: a 45 year old politician
•
Jean: a 50 year old doctor
•
Bobby: a 15 year old computer hacker
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Craig: a 32 year old minister
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Susie: a 28 year old lawyer
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The 8 people being selected for the nuclear protected shelter are: Person Selected
Justification for Selection
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The 4 people being not selected for the nuclear protected shelter are: Person not Selected
Justification for Non-Selection
1 2 3 4 Additional Comments:
___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Share your decisions and discussion with the rest of the class.
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Making theory interesting: Activity (continued) In relation to this exercise it is likely that in your ‘committee groups’ as well as within the wider class discussion, a range of issues were highlighted. It is likely that certain roles, skills, abilities or attributes seemed to be important in the formation of the new society. It is also possible that there was not complete agreement about all the issues being discussed. Some of the issues you are likely to have debated could include: •
The skills people had that would be considered important in the new society
•
The age of the people being selected
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The gender of the people being selected
•
The importance of keeping the human race in existence
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Who would be an asset to society?
•
Who would be a drain on society?
Imagine that the eight selected people have now survived the nuclear attack and are about to leave the shelter to try to establish their new society. Give some consideration to the following points. •
Does the society have requirements that are necessary for survival?
•
Will there be general agreement on priorities?
•
How does organisation affect which tasks will need to be done and who undertakes these tasks?
•
Will there be any shared values in society?
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Who will hold the power in society?
•
Will there be agreement on who holds power?
•
What resources do you have?
•
Who will decide on the allocation of resources?
•
Over what issues will conflict be likely to arise?
•
Will conflict be inevitable or are there ways of resolving conflict?
•
Will the priorities change over time? Is so, which ones?
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Write a short paragraph below summarising some of your thoughts on these issues. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Making theory interesting: Summary In the course of learning about the four specific sociological theories that form part of the unit Sociology for Care, we will return to discuss the activity you have just completed in order to highlight a number of the points that arose in your groups. We will then see how the issues you raised can be interpreted using different sociological theories. Hopefully we will then be able to appreciate how different sociological theories can provide frameworks that can contribute to a fuller understanding of society. The four sociological theories you will be learning about are: •
functionalist theory
•
conflict theory
•
feminist theory
•
symbolic interactionist theory
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Introduction to Functionalist Theory From previous notes (and the theory diagram) you should recall that the functionalist perspective adopts a macro-sociological approach when it looks at society. This means that it looks at how society as a whole operates. Functionalists believe that society is made up of groups that are bound together and share a common understanding of their way of life. It is this common understanding that enables society to remain stable. It also allows for shared beliefs and understanding to be passed on to future generations. Functionalists therefore believe that there is a shared agreement within society about what is important in life and what behaviour is appropriate in certain contexts. Reflecting back on the nuclear attack shelter activity should illustrate some elements of this idea. Think back on what people in the group agreed were important issues to be taken into consideration in the selection process as well as the discussion about the likely issues arising in the new society. Although the information above provides a very brief and somewhat simplified overview of functionalist theory, for the purposes of this unit there will be four key features that you will be expected to learn, understand and apply in relation to each sociological theory studied as part of the unit. For functionalist theory these four features are: •
consensus on norms, values and roles
•
integration and interdependence
•
stability and continuity
•
dysfunctionality
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Functionalist Theory: Key Features Consensus on norms, values and roles In the context of functionalist theory, a ‘consensus’ means that everyone within the society is in agreement about how society should operate. This agreement depends on a shared understanding of norms, values and roles. Norms can apply to the formal rules (or laws) that govern a society, such as laws against theft or violent behaviour, as well as the more informal rules of behaviour that influence us, such as queuing for a bus or not wearing a superman outfit to attend a Higher Care class! From a functionalist perspective there is usually a consensus regarding norms of behaviour. Values refer to the things in society which people view as important such as the sanctity of human life, certain religious beliefs, or the importance of education. Again, functionalists believe that there is a shared agreement within society about the aspects of life and social living that are valued. Roles relate to expected patterns of behaviour that are associated with a particular status or ‘part’ that someone plays in society (such as teacher or a police officer.) A shared understanding of roles allows people to predict how others will act in particular situations and this in turn enables them to respond appropriately. The predictability of this situation contributes towards social order and social stability.
Integration and interdependence Functionalists view the whole of society as being composed of inter-related parts which operating together make society function. This notion of integration and interdependence is often explained using a biological or mechanical analogy whereby society is compared to a human body or a complex machine like a car. Just like a body or a car, society is made up of interconnected parts, which are dependent on each other in order to be a functioning whole. In a body or car this would be the heart, lungs, blood supply etc and in a car
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it could be engine, gearbox, petrol etc. In society, however the integrated and interconnected parts are the social institutions that make up society such as the family, education system, the economy, the law, religion and so forth. This analogy can be taken further. For example, within a human body or a car some component parts are more vital than others. Faults in these component parts can seriously affect the functioning or smooth running of the whole system e.g. if the heart malfunctions or the car engine blows up, then neither the car nor the body will function effectively. It would be expected that these component parts would have to be ‘cured’ or ‘fixed’ in order for the body or car to function effectively again. Similarly, because functionalists view society as being made up of many inter-related components, the smooth running of society depends on all parts functioning well. If any component part of society begins to fail then it will be considered to be dysfunctional and will require attention in order to contribute again to the smooth running of society. The concept of dysfunctionality is discussed more fully below.
Stability and continuity For functionalists, society is generally viewed as being stable and largely unchanging. This is often referred to as a conservative view, which in this context means keeping things the way they are or conserving them. This involves passing on the values and norms that are important to society from one generation to the next. An analogy for this could be a relay race where the baton represents a set of rules, norms and values, with each generation being represented by a different runner who receives the baton from the previous runner and passes it on to the next. Functionalists value this stability and continuity viewing it is as a positive contribution to society.
Dysfunctionality Dysfunctionality is a state which describes when either a whole society, groups within society or individuals who are members of society do not operate as it is believed they should. Not conforming to established norms of behaviour could be perceived as not acting in the best interests of society as a whole. It may even be believed by some people that dysfunctional behaviour threatens the stability of
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society e.g. ’the Neighbours from Hell’. Dysfunctional behaviour is often referred to as deviant behaviour. If the term ‘dysfunctional’ is used, for example, in relation to a family, this would imply that the way in which the family operates is not conforming to the generally accepted norms of behaviour. They may therefore be threatening the stability of society or posing a threat to other individuals or groups within the society. This might take the form of what is considered to be anti-social behaviour where the generally accepted rules and norms of society are not being respected. Within a functionalist perspective, dysfunctional behaviour can threaten the whole of society. As a means of overcoming this potential threat, functionalists would suggest that remediative action should be taken. This might involve re-educating the dysfunctional members of society to enable them to rejoin the mainstream of society, or it might involve removing them from society in order to restore stability.
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Functionalist Theory: Evaluation Once you have read through the four key features of functionalist theory and discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key features of the theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory might be. In order to do this well you might need to read over the four key features again. This time as you are reading through them, think about what some of the weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of the functionalist theory might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting. This exercise will help you to develop your knowledge of the similarities and differences between theories which will be helpful when you are required to demonstrate an understanding of contrasting theories. Record your thoughts below: Some strengths of functionalist theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of functionalist theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
70
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Introduction to Conflict Theory As you may remember from earlier handouts and the sociological theory diagram, conflict theory, like functionalism, adopts a structural approach to examining and explaining society. It therefore takes a macro-sociological view by looking at society a structured whole. Like the functionalist approach, conflict theory believes that different parts of society are interconnected and interdependent, but unlike functionalist theory, conflict theorists do not believe that this interdependence is harmonious and creates stability. Instead, conflict theorists believe that society can be best explained in terms of the tension and conflict that exists between different elements of society that results in constant struggle and change. For conflict theory the four key features that you will be expected to be able to learn, understand and apply, are that society can be best explained in terms of: •
power differentials built into social structures
•
competition over scarce resources
•
control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group
•
social conflict and change
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Conflict Theory: Key Features Power differentials built into social structures Unlike functionalist theory which explains society in terms of a shared understanding of values, norms, stability and continuity, conflict theory by contrast highlights that society can be best explained in terms of the fundamental conflicts that exist in society between different groups in society who have different levels of power. Conflict theorists firmly believe that society is structured in such a way that the interests of some groups are more effectively met than others. Put in simple terms, this means that some groups in society get a ‘better deal’ than others. Within contemporary UK society conflict theorists believe that power is often directly related to wealth and property ownership which in turn is often associated with education and social background; the people who have most power over us are those who have had these benefits. Conflict theory is good at highlighting the extent to which hidden barriers can exist within the social structures of society. These hidden barriers can mean that some people find doors are closed to them. These hidden barriers can be related to gender, class, race, disability, age, sexual orientation, religion or even a person’s accent. Many sociologists who adopt a conflict perspective believe that these inequalities based on power differentials are deeply rooted within society’s institutions. Competition over scarce resources As conflict theory views society as being composed of competing groups, what is it they are competing over? The discussion above highlights the point that they are competing for power, with the most dominant group seeking to have power over the less dominant groups. However, power struggles or conflicts also occur in society when there is competition over scarce resources. Think back to the nuclear attack group activity you took part in earlier in the unit. When you had your discussion about forming a new society, did you anticipate any potential conflicts over scarce resources? Can you recall how you thought you would resolve these? Do you think this would be resolved in the same or a different way in an already established society? Conflict theorists highlight the extent to which those groups with power tend to have control over the distribution of resources in society and that for the most part they are driven by protecting their own positions, which in many cases also involves protecting their wealth by maximising their profits.
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Control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group If, as conflict theorists suggest, society is characterised by power differentials, this in effect means that those with very high levels of power may use that power to influence how society operates and may use (or abuse) their power to constrain the actions and behaviour of less powerful individuals or groups. This perceived abuse of power can, however, lead to a dynamic situation where resistance to this state of affairs brings about change. For example, if individuals or groups believe that they are being taken advantage of or exploited by those with more power, then often, by banding together and acting collectively, they can become more powerful. This can be illustrated by the trade union movement which originated in response to tyrannical factory owners imposing severe working conditions on their employees. A further illustration is that in the UK in the 1960s the Miners Union managed to become very strong (because at that time coal was a scarce resource that was in big demand.) Over time, the Miners Union developed a stronger position in terms of being able to negotiate with the government of the day and as a result they were able to improve working conditions in the mines and bring about wage increases. However, with the discovery of North Sea oil and gas, the development of the nuclear industry and a growing move towards less damaging sources of renewable energy, coal mining is no longer a thriving industry in the UK and the majority of pits in the UK have now been closed. Many modern conflict theorists believe that those holding most power in UK society today are a socially elite group comprising the chief executives of large companies, high ranking politicians and civil servants as well as some key high level military personnel. They believe that this dominant, elite group control the way in which society works and largely operate in a way that best suits their own interests. Social conflict and change Conflict theory can therefore be considered as a theory which emphasises a basic feature of all societies as being the struggle between different groups over scarce resources, which might include natural resources or wealth as well as status and power. This inevitably leads to social conflict and a society which is dynamic and constantly changing. This means that unlike functionalism which emphasises the need for stability and continuity in society, conflict theory highlights conflict, struggle and change as being what drives society.
Scottish Further Education Unit
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Conflict Theory: Evaluation Once you have read through the four key features of conflict theory and discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key features of the theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory might be. In order to do this well you might need to read over the four key features again. This time as you are reading through them, think about what some of the weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of the conflict theory might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting. This exercise will help you to develop your knowledge of the similarities and differences between theories which will be helpful when you are required to demonstrate an understanding of contrasting theories. Record your thoughts below: Some strengths of conflict theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of conflict theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
74
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Introduction to Feminist Theory Feminism as a sociological perspective encompasses a range of theories and ideas which are closely associated with the feminist movement. For the purposes of this unit, we will not be exploring the different branches of feminist theory, but rather will be focussing on the general themes of feminist theory that highlight how women have been subordinated, exploited and oppressed in society. The sociological theory diagram will remind you that feminist theory is usually considered to be a type of conflict theory, primarily on account of the belief that within society it is predominantly men who have significantly more power than women. Feminist theory is a relatively recent addition to the perspectives that have been developed in the field of sociology and as an academic body of knowledge it continues to evolve. To date there are generally considered to have been three waves of feminism. Although there is no requirement to know these as part of the Sociology for Care Unit, information can be found on the historical development of the feminist movement and feminist theory in the recommended text for this course or in most introductory sociology textbooks. For the purposes of this unit, however, there will be four key features that you will be expected to be able to learn, understand and apply in relation to feminist theory which are: •
gender role socialisation
•
equal rights for women
•
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
•
oppression and subordination through patriarchy
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Feminist Theory: Key Features Gender role socialisation Feminists highlight that as part of our socialisation we are socialised into our gender roles and through transmitting ideas of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ boys and girls are encouraged to behave differently. Boys may be accepted or even encouraged to be aggressive, outgoing, strong and demanding, while girls are more likely to be encouraged to be neat, tidy, gentle and obedient. As well as highlighting these gender-based stereotypes, feminist theory is commonly considered to be a type of conflict theory as it clearly highlights the extent to which women generally have less power in society than men. They argue that the differences between men and women are not innate (inborn or naturally occurring) but happen as a result of gender role conditioning. Feminists argue that the different ways in which boys and girls are treated from birth discourages women from developing their full potential. In this way women become oppressed in society and are frequently seen as being subordinate to men. Feminists believe that sexism is embedded in the culture of society and that this leads to inequality of opportunity for many women. This issue is of particular interest to the study of care in contemporary society as we have already noted that it is predominantly women who adopt caring roles not only within households but also within the wide ranging caring professions. Feminists would also highlight that not only do these jobs attract lower pay and lower status, but also that even within the predominantly female caring professions for many years it has been males who have held the positions with most power and authority in these professions. Equal rights for women Most feminists would therefore argue that there is a need for children to be socialised into a culture of equality and that this should permeate the whole of society from within the home, through education and in the workplace. One of the most significant ways of ensuring equal rights for women is through legislation. The Sex Discrimination Acts 1975 and 1986 and the Equal Pay Acts 1970 and 1986 endeavoured to promote equality of opportunity and equal rights for women in a number of key areas. However, despite these measures, the Equal Opportunities Commission published figures in 2007 which showed that women who work full-time earn, on average, 17% less per hour than men working fulltime and for women who work part-time, the gap in pay relative to full-time men is 38% per hour.
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Questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking ‘Malestream’ is a term used by feminist writers to highlight the fact that for many years sociological thinking, as well as most aspects of social welfare (including the development of social policy) was dominated by men. Feminists have also drawn attention to the fact that for many years research and writing has taken place from a male point of view whereas women’s interests or rights were either minimised or overlooked altogether. Feminist sociology developed partly in response to this situation. Oppression and subordination through patriarchy Patriarchy refers to the system of men holding the power, control and authority in a society, or even within a household. (The opposite of this is ‘matriarchy’.) Radical feminists especially argue that there has always been a sexual division of labour underpinning and reinforcing a system of male domination within our society and that the family is a key instrument in maintaining this male power and the persistence of patriarchy. They believe that socialisation processes within the family that reinforce ideas of women’s ‘natural’ roles and behaviour are then mirrored in all spheres of society and not only benefit men but also serve to keep women subordinate and inferior to men. Some radical feminists believe that men can then use aggression and threats of physical force to control women and maintain their dominant position. This originates in the family but spreads throughout wider society. These feminists would argue that to free themselves from male domination, women should seek total independence from men and some radical feminists would endorse complete reproductive independence from men and even an abolition of the family. Although these final points may appear to be rather extreme, the feminist approach has been significant in highlighting what is often referred to as ‘the darker side’ of family life, which was often completely overlooked by other perspectives, especially functionalist theory which has often been criticised for its overly positive portrayal of family life. Reflect back on the nuclear attack shelter activity you took part in earlier in the unit. Can you recall whether there were any assumptions made about the likelihood that it would be women who would carry out certain roles or whether you attempted to ensure that this did not happen? Was there any tension or conflict about this?
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Feminist Theory: Evaluation Once you have read through the four key features of feminist theory and discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key features of the theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory might be. In order to do this well you might need to read over the four key features again. This time as you are reading through them, think about what some of the weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of feminist theory might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting. This exercise will help you to develop your knowledge of the similarities and differences between theories which will be helpful when you are required to demonstrate an understanding of contrasting theories. Record your thoughts below: Some strengths of feminist theory are: __________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of feminist theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
78
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Introduction to Symbolic Interactionist Theory Symbolic interactionist theory looks at society in a different way to functionalist, conflict and feminist theory. This is because it adopts a micro-sociological view. Rather than being a structural theory it is more of an action theory. This approach examines the significance of individual actions and small group interactions on the way in which society operates and develops. Symbolic interactionist theory sees society as being made up of an infinite amount of these social interactions and attempts to explain aspects of wider society from the basis of these small scale interactions. In effect therefore, symbolic interactionism examines society from the inside out, rather than from the outside in like structural theories. For the purposes of this unit there will be four key features that you will be expected to be able to learn, understand and apply in relation to symbolic interactionist theory. These four features are: •
the idea of the self-concept
•
the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction
•
the concept of ‘role-taking’
•
the individual as an influence on society
Scottish Further Education Unit
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Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Symbolic Interactionist Theory: Key Features The idea of the self-concept Central to the ideas of symbolic interactionist theory is the idea of ‘the self’. The concept we have of our self is derived from the perceptions we have of the feedback we receive from other people during our social interactions. This, in turn, helps to form our self-identity or self-concept. Similarly, through the process of being socialised into the culture of the society we live in, we are able to gain a sense of our self as part of the culture to which we belong. For example someone who is a doctor, will have the idea of being a doctor built into their self concept, and are likely to define themselves in terms of this role because others interact with her or him in terms of this role. Furthermore, it is likely in our culture that the doctor will have a positive self concept because doctors have high status within our society. The significance of role taking to the symbolic interactionist way of thinking is explored more fully later in this section. The significance of symbols and labels in social interaction If, as stated above, the person who I perceive myself to be (my ‘self’) is dependent upon my perceptions of the feedback I receive from others during interactions, then it is important that there is some element of shared understanding within these interactions. Symbolic interactionists believe that we live in a symbolic world in which symbols have shared meanings. The ‘symbol’ within symbolic interactionism relates to the communication tools we use during interactions. Language for example is a communication tool made up of a set of symbols of which we share an understanding. In the example about the doctor outlined above, everyone in the class reading that information would have a shared understanding of what the word ‘doctor’ actually means (even if there wasn’t a photo alongside it!). So, with most symbols comes a shared understanding of meaning. An interaction is where two or more people become involved in a social experience during which they both give and receive communication with the others in the interaction. This two-way process takes place in symbolic form in which feedback is transmitted and received not only in the form of words but also gestures or objects which convey meaning to those involved in the interaction.
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80
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
The idea of labelling involves attaching a label (or symbol) which in turn helps us to interpret the communication. I use a label like ‘doctor’ and you know what it means. This may all seem very obvious. However, although labels can be positive or even neutral like child, parent or carer, one of the interesting aspects of this theory is the way in which it is able to focus on the way in which labels can become very powerful in defining an individual’s identity. For example, although ‘doctor’ may be perceived in a positive manner, there are a whole host of negative labels that can be attached to people from which we form an impression that conjures up different types of impressions such as ‘vandal’, ‘pervert’, ‘drug user’ or even ‘geriatric’, ‘anorexic’, or ‘bimbo’. Labelling like this can serve to strip people of their individual identity and in an interaction there is the likelihood that someone interacts with a person on the basis of their ‘label’ which may be a distorted or over-simplified version of their true ‘self’. Labelling theory, which is closely associated with the symbolic interactionist perspective, highlights the extent to which a self-fulfilling prophecy can occur as a result of labelling. This means that people have expectations of someone’s behaviour based on how they have been labelled and interact with them accordingly. Frequently the result if this interaction is that it actually serves to make the realisation of the predicted behaviour more likely i.e. people conform to the expectations of the feedback they receive.
The concept of ‘role-taking’ Often symbolic interactionist theory is explained in terms of society being composed of ‘social actors’ who play certain ’roles’ in society. This is often described as members of society being like actors in a play on a stage with the audience being made up of other social actors. We therefore try to act in such a way that the other actors with whom we interact perceives our ‘acting’ positively. Some symbolic interactionist theorists refer to this idea as ‘impression management’. For example, the ‘doctor’ we have referred to is likely to want to appear as competent and professional to his or her patients, as this is what is expected of someone who fulfils that role. With any role, such as that of doctor, there are likely to be other symbols (or props) that may be associated with this role to help reinforce the credibility of the acting. Can you think of any?
Scottish Further Education Unit
81
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
The individual as an influence on society The final feature of the symbolic interactionist perspective within this unit emphasises the nature of this theory as being micro-sociological in its outlook. This means that because symbolic interactionist theory focuses on the small scale interactions that take place in society, it is able to highlight the way in which these small scale interactions help us ‘make sense’ of society as it is experienced by real people. It is also useful in highlighting the way in which individuals can actually be influential in shaping the societies in which they live.
Scottish Further Education Unit
82
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Symbolic Interactionist Theory: Evaluation Once you have read through the four key features of symbolic interactionist theory and discussed them with your tutor, try to evaluate some of the key features of the theory. This basically involves summarising what you think some of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory might be. In order to do this well you might need to read over the four key features again. This time as you are reading through them, think about what some of the weaknesses or drawbacks of the different features of symbolic interactionist theory might be as well as what the theory is good at highlighting. This exercise will help you to develop your knowledge of the similarities and differences between theories which will be helpful when you are required to demonstrate an understanding of contrasting theories. Record your thoughts below: Some strengths of symbolic interactionist theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Some weaknesses of symbolic interactionist theory are: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
83
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise Check with your tutor how this exercise is to be completed, for example in class, or as homework as well as whether it will be marked by your tutor, by peer assessment or by yourself using the marking guidelines. This revision exercise will be helpful in checking out your knowledge and understanding (KU). Later in the support pack notes you will be given the opportunity to complete a revision exercise to help you check your ability to analyse, evaluate and apply your understanding (AE/APP). Knowledge and Understanding 1. Explain one similarity and two differences between structural and action theories in sociology. 2. Identify and briefly describe two key features of each of the following sociological theories • • • •
functionalism conflict feminism symbolic interactionism
3. Explain one similarity and one difference between functionalist and conflict theory. 4. Explain one strength and one weakness of feminist and symbolic interactionist theory. 5. Explain how the idea of our role in society would be explained by each of the following sociological theories • • • •
functionalism conflict feminism symbolic interactionism
6. Select two sociological theories and identify two ways in which they contrast with each other.
Scottish Further Education Unit
84
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Revising sociological theory A further way of testing your own knowledge and understanding of the theoretical input you have learned so far would be to have a class debate, with teams arguing the case for and against each of the four theories you have studied. At this stage of your learning you might also find it helpful to draw up study notes or posters listing the key features of each of the theories, as you will find this very useful when it comes to revising for your NAB assessment and final exam. As a revision activity (and an introduction to the application of sociological theory), you could also divide into four teams with each team representing functionalist, conflict, feminist or symbolic interactionist theory. Each group should then reflect back on the nuclear attack shelter activity and evaluate how well their allocated theory could be applied to that situation i.e. how could the key features of the theory be applied to that situation, what would the theory be good at highlighting or explaining as well as what the theory would not be good at explaining. These findings could then be presented to the rest of the class. This way of revising the theories would also be useful in demonstrating how theories can be contrasted with each other. Remember the Hall of Mirrors analogy too: some theories will show up some aspects of society more clearly than others!
Scottish Further Education Unit
85
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
The Relevance of Sociology to Care As previously referred to in the notes, sociology is relevant to the care context because it helps us to question taken for granted assumptions and to develop a deeper insight into reasons how and why individuals and groups may require the support of care services at some point in their lives. If you completed the last revision activity on the previous page, you will also have seen that different sociological theories are effective at highlighting different elements of the society in which we live. It therefore follows that different sociological theories can offer different insights into aspects of the caring role and the provision of care services in contemporary society. As a way of convincing yourself that you have already gained some understanding of sociological theory, read the quote below and answer the questions that follow. “Thus women continue to care for the young, the old and the dependent, mainly exempting men and state services from such tasks… The price of such caring work is economic dependence. Looking after people is either done for no pay, within the family, or for low pay in the public sector…The care of most dependants has been the province of women, has belonged to the domestic arena, and has been unpaid. It thus made women dependent.” (G. Pascall (1986), cited in Moore, 2002: 390) Which of the sociological theories you have studied best explains the aspects of care highlighted above? ___________________________________________________________________
Explain, using sociological phrases and concepts associated with the theory, how the theory is illustrated in the quote above. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
86
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Below is a second quote. It comes from a piece of research which was carried out in four care settings for older adults. Read the quote and answer the questions that follow, “This paper is a contribution to the developing understanding of social relationships in institutional care settings… [It] focuses on the ways in which the context of people's lives shapes social interaction. The paper draws on ethnographic observations conducted in four care settings [and] finds that … the personal, cultural and structural contexts frame social interaction and influence the ways that residents use humour, express sexuality, and show hostility… These contexts ‘control’ resident action by establishing frameworks for the interpretation of meaning… [and] by the ways in which residents actively take on the ‘role’ of others, and project ‘self’ and a ‘label’.” (Hubbard et al, 2003: 99) Which of the sociological theories you have studied best explains the aspects of care highlighted above? ___________________________________________________________________
Explain, using sociological phrases and concepts associated with the theory, how the theory is illustrated in the quote above. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Explain what you think the authors mean by the term “…the ways in which residents actively take on the ‘role’ of others, and project ‘self’ and a ‘label’.” ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
87
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
The Relevance of Sociology to Care: Case Studies If you have successfully completed the revision exercises and activities on sociological theory, you should now be fairly confident of your knowledge and understanding (KU) in this area. By evaluating, comparing and contrasting theories you have also been improving your skills of analysis and evaluation (AE) You will now be given the opportunity to test out your ability to apply your sociological knowledge and understanding to some case studies, which relate to the context of care in some way. This will help develop your skills in the application of theory (APP). Throughout the rest of the unit material we will ‘revisit’ three case studies to test your ability to apply different elements of sociological knowledge. For those of you who have completed the Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care Unit, then this process (but not the case studies) will seem familiar. The three people in the case studies are called Akram, Ethel and Rab. On the following page there is a very brief summary of the three case studies and following that there are fuller versions of the case studies which you will be expected to examine in detail. You will then apply sociological theory to the case studies. Check with your tutor whether you should complete all the case studies or whether different people in the class will concentrate on particular case studies and discuss their answers with the rest of the class. Alternatively you might find it helpful to undertake one case study together in class and complete the others as homework or as revision exercises later in the unit.
Scottish Further Education Unit
88
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
The Three Case Studies Akram Akram is 15 years old and moved to Scotland with his family as asylum seekers four years ago. Although he initially settled in fairly well, he has been facing a number of difficulties recently, which have resulted in him appearing at a Children’s Hearing. If you don’t know anything about the Children’s Hearing system you should ask your tutor to give you some information about it or do some research yourself prior to studying Akram’s case study.
Ethel Ethel, who has mobility difficulties, was widowed fairly recently and is struggling to cope because her husband had previously cared for her. As a consequence of her difficulties, she has been admitted to a care home as her daughter, who lives 200 miles away, is not in a position to care for Ethel at present. Ethel has found it difficult to settle into the home, and although she used to take great pride in her appearance, she is no longer concerned about how she dresses or her personal hygiene.
Rab Rab is an adult with a learning disability who has been attending a Day Centre for over 10 years. Throughout this time Rab has been a cheerful young man who has made good relationships with the staff and other service users at the centre. However, Rab’s behaviour has deteriorated following the departure of his key worker with whom he had a very positive relationship. The relationship with his new key worker has become very tense and is causing difficulties at the centre.
Scottish Further Education Unit
89
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Akram Akram is 15 years old and came to Scotland four years ago. His family had sought political asylum after fearing for their lives in their own country. They were given permission to stay in Britain and were housed by the local authority in a multi-storey block in a large city. Living in a large city in a foreign country was very strange for the family and they found the way of life very different from their small village in East Africa. Akram has two younger sisters and, with extra help provided by their school, they have been able to learn English fairly quickly. However, Akram’s parents continued to speak their own language at home. The family are Muslims and as part of their Islamic faith, Akram’s father expected Akram to attend the mosque and recite his daily prayers, as he was keen that Akram continued to learn the ways of his religion and culture. A year ago, two days after Akram’s fourteenth birthday, his father was diagnosed as suffering from a serious illness from which he died six months later. But before he died, Akram’s father told Akram that he would soon be the head of the family. After her husband’s death Akram’s mother tried to keep the family together but, when Akram became very aggressive towards her, she found controlling his temper outbursts impossible to cope with. Akram had also been facing difficulties at school. Recent world events had created a situation whereby a number of Muslim children at the school were being subjected to racial abuse and Akram had retaliated. Akram stopped attending school and started staying out at night. Very quickly Akram gained a reputation as a troublemaker. The police became involved on a number of occasions when Akram was found wandering the streets late at night near the mosque after being involved in a number of violent fights with local youths. The police decided to send a referral about Akram’s situation to the reporter to the Children’s Panel. After asking for reports about Akram and his family, the reporter to the Children’s Panel called a Children’s Hearing. The Children’s Hearing was attended by Akram, his mother, his guidance teacher and a social worker who had met the family on a number of occasions in order to provide a report for the Children’s Panel. At the Children’s Hearing Akram’s mother clearly stated that she could not cope any more with Akram’s violent outbursts and general behaviour. The decision was taken that Akram should be looked after by the local authority for a period of time both for his own protection and support as well as the safety of others. As a consequence, Akram went to live at Redwoods Residential Unit.
Scottish Further Education Unit
90
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Akram Application of theory •
Apply two features of functionalist theory to Akram’s case study.
•
Apply two features of symbolic interactionist theory to Akram’s case study.
•
Explain how these two theories offer a contrasting view of Akram’s situation.
In completing this task you should •
clearly state the two features you have selected in relation to each theory and provide a brief explanation of them.
•
explain how the features of the theories you have selected can be applied to Akram’s case.
•
in relation to the idea of ‘contrasting theories’, briefly explain how functionalism and symbolic interactionism contrast, then illustrate this by highlighting elements from the case study that each of the two theories would explain in a different way.
Scottish Further Education Unit
91
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Ethel Ethel was admitted to Brookside Residential Home for Older People over a year ago. Her admission to Brookside came as a result of the tragic death of her husband, Bert. Ethel has a physical disability, which has made her virtually immobile in recent years and she has depended on Bert for all her day-to-day care needs. Her only daughter, Shirley, lives with her husband and three children 200 miles away, and although Shirley feels it is her duty to look after her mother, she is not in a position to do this at the moment and so the local Social Work Department have made emergency provision for Ethel at Brookside. Initially after arriving at Brookside, Ethel was very withdrawn and was clearly still grieving for Bert. Ethel has been assigned a care worker at Brookside whose name is Charlie. Charlie is a very experienced care worker and it is his responsibility to ensure that Ethel is supported to settle in as well as she can and to work towards assessing her needs. Ethel has now been living at Brookside for three months, and one of Charlie’s major concerns is that Ethel does not want to interact with any of the other residents and appears to lack confidence in everything she does. Charlie knows from chatting to Ethel’s daughter that before moving to Brookside Ethel had always taken a pride in her appearance. She would always be smartly dressed, enjoyed going to the hairdressers and would never think of going out of the house without her make-up on. Ethel’s family photographs certainly confirm that she was a very fashionable and glamorous woman when she was younger. However, since coming to Brookside Ethel appears to have lost all interest in herself, has become very untidy and takes no interest in her appearance at all. This has now resulted in a situation whereby most of the other residents at Brookside avoid Ethel and some even refer to her as ‘Dirty Ethel’ and pull faces at her. The more this happens, the less interest Ethel appears to be taking in her appearance.
Scottish Further Education Unit
92
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Ethel Application of theory •
Apply two features of symbolic interactionist theory to Ethel’s case study.
•
Apply one feature of feminist theory to Ethel’s case study.
•
Apply one feature of functionalist theory to Ethel’s case study.
•
Select one point from the case study and explain how feminism and functionalism would have contrasting views in relation to the issue you have chosen.
In completing this task you should: •
clearly state the features you have selected in relation to each of the theories and provide a brief explanation of them.
•
explain how the features of the theories you have selected can be applied to Ethel’s case.
•
choose one point referred to in the case study which you feel would be useful to highlight the different ways in which feminism and functionalism would have contrasting views.
Scottish Further Education Unit
93
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Rab Rab is 27 years old and lives with his parents. He is presently attending Kirkfield Day Centre every weekday. Rab has had learning disabilities all his life and started at Kirkfield after leaving special school when he was 16 years old. Rab has always been a cheerful young man who interacts well with staff and other clients. He is enthusiastic about all the activities he participates in and has always been a keen member and captain of the Centre football team. Rab’s ‘keyworker’ Brian, who is also 27 years old, managed the football team and Rab has always had a very strong relationship with Brian. Over the years at Kirkfield, Rab always wished to be with Brian and joined in all the activities that Brian organised. However, three months ago Brian left Kirkfield to take up a new post and at this point Rab’s behaviour quickly deteriorated. Rab’s new key worker, Graham is a very ambitious young man who is also the Assistant Manager at Kirkfield. Rab has complained to other service users that Graham does not spend any time with him and that he was thinking about complaining to his social worker about this. Rab decides to talk to Graham directly about the situation. Graham responds by saying that as Assistant Manager, he has many other duties and responsibilities to be concerned with and that Rab needs to learn to look after himself without ‘going moaning to his social worker’. Following this discussion, Rab became very uncommunicative with Graham and over time has become quite defiant and aggressive towards him. Graham did not like his authority being undermined in this way and, in order to try to get Rab to control his behaviour, Graham banned him from the football team until his behaviour improved. Over the past few months, staff have noted how Rab has changed from being a pleasant, confident young man, who has become aggressive, untidy and has even been caught damaging other clients’ belongings on several occasions. Everything came to a head last week when Rab broke a window in the Centre and cut himself intentionally several times with bits of the broken glass. Graham is calling a staff meeting to discuss suspending Rab from the centre on account of his behaviour.
Scottish Further Education Unit
94
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Case Study: Rab Application of theory •
Apply two features of conflict theory to Rab’s case study.
•
Apply two features of functionalist theory to Rab’s case study.
•
Select one point from the case study and explain how conflict and functionalist theory might provide different (contrasting) explanations of the situation.
In completing this task you should •
clearly state the features you have selected in relation to each of the theories and provide a brief explanation of them.
•
explain how the features of the theories you have selected can be applied to Rab’s case.
•
choose one point referred to in the case study which you believe conflict and functionalist theory would explain in different ways.
Scottish Further Education Unit
95
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Outcome 2: Introduction and Overview In this outcome you will be finding out how some key sociological concepts and the theories covered in Outcome 1 can help us analyse aspects of society. The aspects of society which we will focus on are the family and deviance. The key sociological concepts which will be referred to are socialisation, culture and life chances. Although some of these words or concepts may appear familiar to you, it is important to remember that we will be approaching these topics using our ‘sociological imagination’ rather than ‘common-sense.’ In this outcome we will be using the concepts of socialisation, culture and life chances to help analyse how different sociological theories attempt to explain and understand firstly the family and secondly, deviant behaviour. The sociological theories we will be focussing on are functionalist, conflict, feminist and symbolic interactionist theories. By continuing to apply sociological theories to ‘real life’ situations with which you may be familiar, you will hopefully be able to develop a deeper understanding of the theories. OUTCOME 2 Analyse aspects of society using sociological concepts and theories Performance Criteria (a) Explain specific aspects of society using key sociological concepts (b) Explain specific aspects of society using sociological theories
Scottish Further Education Unit
96
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Overview of Topics Key Sociological Concepts •
socialisation
•
culture
•
life chances
Aspects of society/social life •
the family
•
deviance
Aspects of society from different sociological perspectives Family from: •
a functionalist perspective
•
a conflict perspective
•
a feminist perspective
•
a symbolic interactionist perspective
Deviance from: •
a functionalist perspective
•
a conflict perspective
•
a feminist perspective
•
a symbolic interactionist perspective
Revision exercise based on case study material
Scottish Further Education Unit
97
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Sociological Concepts: Socialisation, Culture and Life Chances Socialisation. Socialisation is the lifelong process through which we learn the norms and values of the society and culture to which we belong. Through a gradual process we learn ‘right from wrong’; we learn what is expected of us in different situations; quite simply we learn how to ‘fit in’ to our world. Socialisation begins when we are born and continues throughout our lives. This is because a society needs its new members to be socialised into its patterns of behaviour, its values, norms and rules. Through socialisation we not only learn the values, norms and roles of our culture, we also acquire a sense of who we are and where we belong. We are most responsive to influences when we are young and our early socialisation or primary socialisation has the most impact on influencing who we are. In practically every society it is the family that bears the main responsibility for primary socialisation. As children move into wider society, secondary socialisation begins. During this process children learn from a wider range of people and institutions such as extended family members, playgroup staff, nursery staff, teachers and friends. As children move into adolescence, the family remains an important influence on socialisation but peer groups become of increasing importance. Then during adulthood the workplace often has an important influence on socialisation as do new roles of perhaps, wife/husband or parent. In the later stages of life many older people live independent, active lives but some older people may have to adapt to the norms and changes associated with group living in residential care. Of particular significance to us in this unit is the idea that it is usually through exposure to secondary agents of socialisation that we find out about ways of behaviour which do not conform to what we believe is the accepted norm. This behaviour can be perceived as deviant behaviour or deviance.
Scottish Further Education Unit
98
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Culture Culture is the learned, shared behaviour of the members of a society. Culture includes the values, beliefs, customs, norms, rules and regulations that human beings learn as members of their society. It is essential that culture is not only learned but also shared. For example, without a shared understanding of language, communication would be difficult. However, it is also important to appreciate that different human societies with different cultures show considerable differences in the ways they communicate and behave. Understanding that a diversity of cultures exist in our society is very important to appreciate as is the fact that belonging to a particular culture is likely to strongly influence someone’s sense of identity. Culture can relate to aspects of religion or ethnic background but it is also important to understand that culture could equally relate to belonging to a particular community or lifestyle such as new age travellers, the deaf community or a punk or goth culture. However, in terms of our learning in this part of the unit, it is important that we realise the extent to which the particular norms, values and beliefs of one culture may be perceived as deviant by another. We often use the expression ‘culture shock’ to describe the feelings of stress and disorientation that we feel when we enter an unfamiliar cultural setting. Culture shock occurs because we learn our own cultural patterns early in life and they become second nature to us. Confronted with other ways of doing things we may become amused, annoyed, confused or shocked. Every culture contains its own unique patterns of behaviour that may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. It is important to understand that the problems of functioning in a new culture are compounded by ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other cultures from our own point of view and to conclude that other cultures are inferior or in some way deviant. In relation to care, it is essential that care workers, who may be working with people from a variety of cultures, avoid ethnocentrism. In working with people in care settings it is important to understand our own culture and that of others, and it is not helpful in care work to judge other cultures by comparison with our own. It is equally unhelpful in care work to view our own culture as being superior. It is important therefore for all care workers to realise the importance of culturally sensitive practice.
Scottish Further Education Unit
99
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Life Chances This refers to the chances someone has of accessing the opportunities or experiences that are widely considered to be desirable in society. It can relate to such aspects of life as education, income, housing and health. In the Intermediate 2 Sociology for Care unit, it was highlighted that discrimination can severely limit an individual or group’s life chances. For those of you who studied the Intermediate 2 unit, you would have examined how the impact of discrimination can lead to reduced life chances across a range of areas, as research and investigation has shown that people who experience discrimination are also more likely to: •
experience physical and mental health problems
•
have poor attainment in education
•
have limited opportunities in employment
•
live in poverty
•
face barriers to services.
It is therefore clear to see how in such situations people are likely to come into contact with a range of care services. It is also very important that care workers understand the value of enhancing the lives of individuals and groups who have experienced restricted life chances rather than making the situation worse through prejudiced attitudes or discriminatory behaviour.
Scottish Further Education Unit
100
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Aspects of Society In the next part of the unit we will be using our understanding of the sociological concepts of socialisation, culture and life chances to apply to two particular aspects of society, the family and deviance. We will also be testing our knowledge of the four sociological theories (functionalism, conflict, feminism and symbolic interactionism) by applying these theories to aspects of the family and deviance.
Scottish Further Education Unit
101
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Sociological Perspectives on the Family In the space below, write a few lines about what ‘family’ means to you. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
As previously discussed in this unit, it is unlikely that we will all share the same experience or point of view about the idea of ‘family’ even though we all have an understanding of what the word means. Most people studying this unit will have some experience of family and are likely to have grown up in or currently be part of a family. However it is likely that individual experiences will have varied. Some people may have grown up in or be part of a nuclear family whereas others may have lived as part of a lone parent family. Others may live as part of a reconstituted (step-parent) family, or be part of a large extended family or perhaps have spent time in some form of substitute care such as a foster family or a residential care home. To help stimulate your ‘sociological imagination’ in relation to the family, take some time to complete the following written activity and, once completed, discuss your thoughts as a class group. •
Select two different family types (nuclear, lone parent etc)
•
Describe the two types of family selected
•
Explain why you think the types of family you have selected exist in society
Scottish Further Education Unit
102
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Sociological Perspectives on the Family It will probably come as no surprise to you to find out that different sociological theories have different points of view in relation to the family. Examining these different perspectives is what the next part of the unit materials will focus on. If you think you have a reasonably sound grasp of the key features of the four theories we are studying as part of this unit, them it is likely that you may be able to predict what each of the different theories are likely to have to say about ‘the family’. However, if you are still struggling to get to terms with the four different theories, then this section of the support notes will provide you with an opportunity to remind yourself of some of the key features. We will be examining the family from: •
a functionalist perspective
•
a conflict perspective
•
a feminist perspective
•
a symbolic interactionist perspective
Scottish Further Education Unit
103
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Functionalist Theory and the Family As you may recall, the four key features of functionalist theory you should know are: •
consensus on norms, values and roles
•
integration and interdependence
•
stability and continuity
•
dysfunctionality
So how do you think functionalist theory would approach explaining the family in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain the family in functionalist terms using these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it absolutely right, as you will be given further information!) consensus on norms, values and roles ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
integration and interdependence ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
stability and continuity ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
104
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
dysfunctionality ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Scottish Further Education Unit
105
Care: Sociology for Care, Higher
Functionalist Theory and the Family Key features and sociological concepts Functionalist theory focuses on the functions the family fulfils for members of the family as well as for society as a whole. Talcott Parsons (1959), who wrote from a functionalist perspective, argued that the family has two ‘basic and irreducible functions’ which he believed to be the primary socialisation of children and the stabilisation of adult personalities. We have already examined how the processes of socialisation, especially primary socialisation within the family, leads human beings to learn the norms and values of the culture to which they belong. They also learn the roles that are expected of them as members of their own family as well as their roles within wider society. Fundamental to the functionalist point of view is the idea that there exists a shared agreement or consensus on norms, values and roles within society. The functionalist perspective would see the family as being a positive force in society as it is crucial in establishing and reinforcing this consensus. This shared agreement on norms, values and roles contributes to the integration and interdependence that functionalists believe exists in society. Using the biological analogy referred to earlier in the support notes, the family could be considered to be one of the most vital ‘organs’ that helps to keep the ‘body’ of society working effectively. Families are integrated with other key institutions in society such as education or the justice system and together they reinforce the established norms of society. In this respect they also become interdependent in order to function effectively as part of an integrated whole. In relation to the family, this means that members of a family are not only integrated and interdependent on other members of their family, but are also part of the wider integration and interdependence that exists in wider society. Families depend on schools to educate their children, schools depend on families to reinforce the rules established at school, the economy depends on the family to work productively in employment and buy consumer goods to boost the economy, the police, courts and prison service are interdependent in establishing and maintaining law and order and would expect families to be adhering to and reinforcing similar values. This in turn means that the family is important in contributing towards stability and continuity in society.
Scottish Further Education Unit
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However, as previously noted there may be individuals or groups within society who do not conform to the agreed norms of behaviour of the wider society. Such behaviour may be considered to be deviant or dysfunctional as it is perceived not to be in the best interests of society as a whole. When the term ‘dysfunctional’ is used to refer to a family, it may imply that family members are not conforming to the accepted roles or rules of behaviour expected within families and that this is creating disharmony either within the family or posing a threat to wider society in some way. Functionalists would suggest that there are regulatory mechanisms in place within society that encourage adherence and conformity to the established norms of behaviour. However, it is also important to appreciate that what is perceived to be dysfunctional behaviour by some people may be behaviour that is established as the norm within an individual’s family, culture or sub-culture. It is also significant that an individual’s family experiences and life chances can have a bearing on the extent to which their behaviour or values are considered to be dysfunctional and that this can also be linked to the extent to which they may be socially excluded from wider society. For example, a child who lives in a family with parents of the same sex, a person who has a learning disability, a teenage girl who leaves home and ‘sleeps rough’ after experiencing abuse in her family, or someone who experiences mental health difficulties may have experiences or behave in ways that some people may consider dysfunctional or threatening to the stability of society. In some respects therefore functionalist theory does not fully explain the experience of family for all people. Often functionalists are criticised for presenting an overly optimistic or idealised picture of family life. This is because functionalist theory finds it difficult to explain the experiences of some people whose families may not be well integrated into society, or whose family experiences are not harmonious. This might include families who experience poverty, or families who are part of a minority ethnic group or follow a life style not considered to be part of the ‘norm’ such as new age travellers or a gay partnership or marriage. As we progress on to some of the other sociological theories, we will see that they are better at highlighting and explaining some of these issues.
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Conflict Theory and the Family As you may recall, the four key features of conflict theory you should know are: •
power differentials built into social structures
•
competition over scarce resources
•
control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group
•
social conflict and change
So how do you think conflict theory would approach explaining the family in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try briefly explain the family in conflict terms using these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it absolutely right, as you will be given further information!) power differentials in social structures ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
competition over scarce resources ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
control, coercion and constraint ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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social conflict and change ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Conflict Theory and the Family Key features and sociological concepts In examining society, conflict theory focuses on the power imbalances that exist and the manner in which the struggles that ensue from these power differentials characterise how people live their lives. Whereas the functionalist perspective generally has a very positive view of the family, conflict theory, by contrast, argues that the family serves the needs of some sections of society much better than others. Conflict theorists highlight the way families reproduce inequality from one generation to another. Karl Marx was a very influential sociologist who emphasised that social class was at the root of the inequalities and power differentials that are experienced by families, whereas feminist writers, as we will find out later in the notes, place more emphasis on the power differentials between men and women which are learned within the family and reflected in the social structures of wider society. In emphasising the importance of class in creating an imbalance of power in society, Marxist theorists predominantly focus on the power wielded by those who own the ‘means of production’ which are the factories, tools and materials that are required to produce the goods and services that are required by society. Those who own these resources are in effect able to exert control over those with less power or resources. Many conflict theorists emphasise the extent to which the family is closely linked to, and even exploited by, the forces of capitalism which is an economic and social system that is driven by the maximisation of profit for those who own the ‘means of production’. In terms of the role of the family in this system, conflict theorists would argue that through the process of socialisation families teach their children to accept the ‘rules’ of those with most power who are in control of scarce resources. For example, they would argue that within families children are encouraged to work hard at school to help them get a ‘good education’ or a ‘decent job’ because there will be competition for places at college or university as well as competition for jobs. Some conflict theorists emphasise how this forces
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people onto a treadmill where they accept that they have to ‘work to live’, but in the end find themselves ‘living to work’ as they find themselves having to work harder or longer to earn more money to support their families. However, by becoming consumers (and buying goods that are priced higher than they are worth in order to maximise profits for the capitalists), they are, in effect, perpetuating a system of inequality. For individuals or families who are unable to find security through paid employment, and even those who do find employment but are poorly paid, they can unfortunately find themselves in a cycle of poverty and deprivation from which it is difficult to escape. Research conducted by Wheeler et al (2005) based on information from the 2001 census illustrated that the rich-poor divide in the UK was as wide as it was 60 years previously. Their research found that families with the greatest level of need lived in the poorest neighbourhoods and were least likely to have access to services and support that would help them improve life chances. Conflict theory would suggest that those who hold the power and wealth in society wish to maintain this position and if necessary use control, coercion and constraint to protect their interests. In terms of constraining aspects of family life in the widest sense, conflict theorists would argue that the predominant laws, norms and values in society constrain individuals and in effect prevent or discourage individuality, creativity and anything that poses a threat to the continuity and stability of society. However, conflict theorists would suggest that a key aspect of human nature is to fight against being controlled or constrained and whereas functionalists would emphasise the importance of retaining traditional family values, conflict theorists would argue that change is inevitable in terms of how the family as a social institution evolves. In terms of relating the concept of social change to the family, conflict theorists would highlight increasing divorce rates, an increase in lone parent families, the emergence of gay and lesbian families and a diverse range of multi-cultural families as examples of social change relating to the family. The notions of control, coercion and constraint are well illustrated within the family when the issues of domestic violence and child abuse are considered in terms of the power imbalances that can exist in some families. This issue is, however, covered in more depth in the next section on feminist theory. However, although conflict theory is effective in highlighting the extent to which power imbalances within families and within wider society as a whole can have a major impact on an individual’s life experiences and life chances, there are limitations to some of the arguments. For example, some conflict theorists, especially Marxists, have not acknowledged the increase in power and wealth
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which is experienced by the middle classes, who do not own the ‘means of production’. Furthermore, there are many families who do not perceive themselves as being exploited by the capitalist system, but rather believe they have improved their life chances in comparison to previous generations of their families. However, the conflict theory has been useful in opening up the debate in relation to some of the more negative aspects of family life, which is a key theme of the feminist perspective that we will examine next.
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Feminist Theory and the Family As you may recall, the four key features of feminist theory you should know are: •
gender role socialisation
•
equal rights for women
•
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
•
oppression and subordination through patriarchy
So how do you think feminist theory would approach explaining the family in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try briefly explain the family in feminist terms using these key features. (Again, don’t worry too much about not getting it absolutely right, as you will be given further information!) gender role socialisation ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
equal rights for women ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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oppression, subordination and patriarchy ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Feminist Theory and the Family Key features and sociological concepts Feminist theory is probably one of the most influential sociological theories in terms of providing a contemporary perspective on the family. Central to many of their arguments and research is the idea that through gender role socialisation we learn our roles as part of the culture to which we belong. Children begin to learn their gender roles at a very early stage in their lives. Feminists would argue that much of this learning, which takes place in the family and is reinforced by wider society, is focussed on learning key distinctions between ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ roles and behaviour. For example, in many cultures it is common for girls and boys to be dressed differently from birth onwards and to be given different toys to play with. Feminists argue that it is through this process of socialisation that expectations are created of the roles and behaviour that will be expected for boys and girls as they progress into adulthood. Browne (2005) notes that more than a billion Barbie dolls (or members of her family) have been sold throughout the world since 1959 … apparently if they were all placed head-to-toe they would circle the world more than eleven times! Feminists would question whether these types of toys encourage girls to be overly concerned about their image and bodies. A further example of gender role socialisation within families is research that has shown that within families there is a marked difference in participation levels in household tasks performed around the home by boys and girls, with girls being encouraged to help with indoor work, usually by helping their mothers with domestic tasks, while boys were more likely to be encouraged to help with outdoor tasks such as cleaning the car or sweeping paths. A feminist point of view would highlight the extent to which females learn to expect and accept that they have an inferior role to play within the family and that this situation is then also accepted as being the norm within wider society. Some radical feminists would argue that there has always been a sexual division of labour underpinning and reinforcing a system of male domination within society and would see the family as being a key instrument in maintaining this male power and domination. They would further argue that socialisation processes that reinforce ideas of women’s ‘natural’ caring roles and behaviour persist in all spheres of society and not only benefit men but also serve to keep women subordinate and inferior to men. Many feminists therefore highlight that within
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families, oppression, subordination and patriarchy are evident and that within many families it is not uncommon for men to use their aggression and threats of physical force to control women as a means of maintaining their dominant position. This imbalance of power can, as a consequence, limit women’s’ opportunities and life chances not only within their own families but in wider society too. For example in relation to employment, women are less likely to be in full-time work but are more likely to be lower paid and be in less secure posts than men. Women are also less likely to be found in senior positions even in areas of employment traditionally associated with women such as nursing, social work or primary teaching. It is for this reason that more liberal feminists seek to highlight the importance of securing equal rights for women through legislation (laws) that promote equal opportunity and see this as the most effective way of eradicating sexism from our culture and attitudes. In order to liberate women, a feminist perspective would highlight that it is necessary to educate that men and women are equal in opportunity. This need for socialisation of children into a culture of equality would ideally begin in the family and permeate through the rest of society. Each of these key features highlights the extent to which our society has for many years been dominated by ‘malestream’ thinking. The needs of men and the male perspective have frequently been predominant in families and society at large. (Within your class group, check out the extent to which the males in families get bigger helpings of food at mealtimes or have all their washing and ironing done for them!) Although this may seem quite trivial, it becomes more concerning when a woman’s situation is perceived through ‘male’ eyes within institutions in wider society. Dobash & Dobash’s (1979) Scottish study of violence against women, noted that police officers were unlikely to arrest a husband for using violence against his wife. In relation to education, Spender (1983) found that men controlled the education system and therefore, more importance was placed on male experience and knowledge. Furthermore, the curriculum and interaction in the classroom was found to be biased in favour of boys. However, more contemporary research seems to be indicating that some improvements are taking place in relation to women’s place in society. For example in relation to education, Francis (2000) found that female achievement in schools was improving with girls overtaking boys in many subjects. However, it was also noted that boys still dominated classrooms and teachers still tended to leave girls to themselves while giving more attention to the boys. In relation to the study of the family in particular, Young & Wilmott (1973) found that in terms of tasks being undertaken within the family, there was evidence that roles had become much more symmetrical with many more domestic tasks being shared more equally between men and women.
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Increased equality in domestic chores has consequently increased opportunities for women in areas such as employment which has made a significant financial difference to many families.
The final theory we will examine, symbolic interactionism, will focus more on how the interaction within families has an impact on how people behave and how they develop their idea of who they are and how they ‘fit in’ to their social worlds.
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Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family As you may recall, the four key features of symbolic interactionist theory you should know are: •
the idea of the self-concept
•
the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction
•
the concept of ‘role-taking’
•
the individual as an influence on society
So how do you think symbolic interactionist theory would approach explaining the family in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain the family in symbolic interactionist terms using these key features. (Don’t worry about not getting it absolutely right, as you will be given further information!) the self-concept ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
symbols, labels and interaction ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
the concept of ‘role-taking’ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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the individual as an influence on society ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Symbolic Interactionist Theory and the Family Key features and sociological concepts The idea of the self-concept is very significant in a symbolic interactionist examination of the family. As you have learned from earlier notes, a person’s experiences and interactions within his or her family plays a crucial part in how they construct their sense of ‘self’. A great deal of contemporary sociological research on the family which is done from a symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on role analysis. This could include how the role of husband and wife might be defined in different families or at different stages in family life such as after the birth of children. Symbolic interactionists therefore emphasise the interactions that take place in families that lead to the negotiation of roles and role identity within families. The process of socialisation is central to many sociological theories and the socialisation of children is considered by most sociological perspectives to be one of the few remaining (and most critical) functions of the family in modern societies. In terms of symbolic interactionist theory, the emphasis is on the vital interactions and processes through which our personalities and self-concepts are formed and through which the values and attitudes of our culture are passed from one generation to the next in symbolic ways. One of the ways in which the symbolic interactionist perspective differs from many other perspectives is in its ability to focus on the reciprocal nature of interaction. For example, in examining the small scale interactions that take place within families, naturally a focus would be on how a child is socialised and integrated into its family and wider culture, with much interactionist research focusing on issues relating to self-esteem, gender or sibling identities and relationships within the family. However, what the symbolic interactionist approach is also able to examine, is the idea that the socialisation process is highly reciprocal with parents and children affecting one anothers' self-concepts. For example although we may be aware of the extent to which a child can lose confidence and self-esteem due to being discouraged or criticised by his or her parents, it is not uncommon for parents to think they have ‘failed ‘in some way because of their interpretation of the way that their child interacts with them. Symbolic interaction theory is in a position to examine these reciprocal interactions and the extent to which they contribute to an individual’s self-concept and their understanding of their role.
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Symbolic interactionist theory is also helpful in examining how the negotiation of roles and identity becomes problematic if there is not a shared understanding between those taking part in an interaction. An example to illustrate this could be when families seeking asylum in this country are expected to renegotiate their roles in unfamiliar cultural contexts, for example enrolling children at school or seeking health care. It could also relate to a situation where a gay or lesbian couple approaches an agency seeking to adopt a child. It might even apply to a situation where a child with a physical disability who has been encouraged by her family to be independent and adventurous, finds in difficult to play with the other children in a school playground due to a teacher’s overly protective attitude. Each of these situations arise due to the interpretative processes that take place in an interaction. We may believe we have a shared understanding of a communication symbol, such as a word like ‘family’ or ‘disability’ and this shapes our interaction. However, when we interact with others on the basis of a ‘label’ rather than with a person as an individual, this can lead to problems in terms of someone’s self-perception and self-concept. Earlier in the notes we examined how this can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Take a moment to discuss again what this term means with your tutor or class colleagues. In relation to the study of Sociology for Care, symbolic interactionist theory is particularly helpful in highlighting the extent to which the processes and interactions that take place within the family as well as in wider society can have an impact on an individual’s life chances. The examples outlined above relating to the family seeking asylum, the gay or lesbian couple seeking to adopt a child and the little girl with a physical disability who was discouraged from playing with other children in the playground, each illustrate in different ways how an individual’s life chances can be negatively affected by other people’s perception of them. This situation becomes even more complicated when it begins to have an effect on someone’s perception of themselves. However, symbolic interactionist theory, because it is able to adopt a ‘social action’ or freewill approach to explaining society (rather than the deterministic approach of structural theories), can also emphasise the extent to which people can take control of and change their own lives through the interaction with others. In this respect, therefore it is able to acknowledge that it is not only society that influences the individual, but that the individual can also influence and change society through many small scale processes and interactions.
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Sociological Aspect: The Family
Revision and Check-up Opportunity Read the case study relating to Akram again on page 90 of the support notes.
Select one of the following sociological theories: •
functionalist
•
conflict
•
feminist
•
symbolic interactionism
Apply two features of your selected theory to the case study material by explaining the relevance of socialisation or culture to the family.
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Sociological Perspectives on Deviance We will now focus on deviance as the second aspect of society which forms part of the support pack material for this unit. In the space below, write a few lines about what your understanding by the word ‘deviance’. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Share your definitions with the rest of the class group. Although it is likely that people in your class have provided a fairly accurate and similar definition, it is less likely that everyone will really agree on this idea once we examine it in more detail. This is because the concept of deviance is often considered to be ‘relative’. Basically, this means that what one person believes is deviant, another person may accept as normal behaviour. To help stimulate your ‘sociological imagination’ in relation to the idea of deviance, take some time to complete the following written activity and, once completed, discuss your thoughts as a class group. •
Select two different behaviours which you think everyone in the class would consider deviant.
•
Are either or both of these behaviours also considered to be crimes?
•
Think of two examples of behaviour that would be considered to be deviant but not criminal.
•
Think of two examples of behaviour that would be considered to be crimes but are not necessarily considered to be deviant behaviour.
•
Provide two examples of an act that could be considered deviant, but only depending on the context in which they took place.
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Sociological Perspectives on Deviance In the next section of the unit we will examine different sociological perspectives on deviance. As with ‘the family’ we will discover that different sociological theories will provide different perspectives on the family as an aspect of the social world in which we live. As we have already completed the process of applying different sociological theories to the family, hopefully you will now have a better idea of how the different sociological theories we have been studying are likely to have contrasting views on deviance. However, if you are still struggling to get to terms with the four different theories, then this section of the support notes will provide you with a further opportunity to remind you of some of the key features. We will be examining deviance from: •
a functionalist perspective
•
a conflict perspective
•
a feminist perspective
•
a symbolic interactionist perspective
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Functionalist Theory and Deviance As you may recall, the four key features of functionalist theory you should know are: •
consensus on norms, values and roles
•
integration and interdependence
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stability and continuity
•
dysfunctionality
So how do you think functionalist theory would explain deviance in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and briefly explain deviance in functionalist terms using these key features. consensus on norms, values and roles ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
integration and interdependence ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
stability and continuity ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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dysfunctionality ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Functionalist theory and deviance Key features and sociological concepts Functionalists believe that society is maintained through a generally accepted set of rules based on a consensus on norms, values and roles. From a functionalist perspective deviance would be considered to be behaviour that was viewed as threatening the stability of society by breaking the established rules. Sociological theory in general recognises that people learn the rules of the culture to which they belong through the processes of socialisation. Individuals or groups who are considered not to be conforming to the agreed norms and values may, however, have been socialised according to a set of norms and values that differ from those generally accepted by the majority. In this respect, their behaviour may be considered to be dysfunctional by many people. It is important to recognise, however, that within their own culture or sub-culture such behaviour may be considered to be the norm. Functionalism also highlights the manner in which stability and continuity is maintained in society when the shared agreement on norms and values is passed on from one generation to the next. If an opposing set of norms, values or deviant behaviour prevailed in a particular group or sub-culture, then functionalist theory would highlight the extent to which this would be seen as a threat to the stability of society. Using the biological or mechanical analogy referred to earlier can also be helpful in trying to understand and explain deviance from a functionalist perspective. As functionalist theory believes that the social institutions within society are integrated and interdependent, it follows that it is important that they all work together for the common good. If one component of a body or complex piece of machinery fails to work properly, then it can become dysfunctional and affect the smooth running of the whole. In order for ‘the body’ of society to remain integrated and in order to maintain stability, functionalist theory would suggest that individuals or groups who demonstrate deviant behaviour should be rehabilitated or removed from society in order to remove the threat that their deviant behaviour creates. Ideally they should also ‘relearn’ the expected norms of society in order to ‘fit back in’ as fully functioning parts of the society to which they belong.
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Functionalist theory is very effective in highlighting the extent to which society uses interdependent formal and informal agencies of social control to ensure that people adhere to the accepted rules of society. Sanctions are used by both informal and formal agencies of social control to regulate behaviour. Informal social control may take place in the family or through the influence of a peer group and even in the workplace. In these settings it will be through processes of approval, disapproval and social pressure that expectations of behaviour are established and deviant behaviour is controlled. Examples of formal agents of social control could include the police, courts or prisons. Negative sanctions or punishments handed out by formal agents of social control could include individuals spending time in institutions which have been established within society to help maintain social order such as prisons or secure residential units for young people. Interestingly, such institutions may themselves be perceived as ‘mini-societies’ in their own right, within which inmates or residents find that it is important to learn and abide by certain rules or codes of conduct in order to survive as part of a different sub-culture. In many cases individuals or groups whose behaviour is considered to be deviant by wider society often face limited life chances across a range of areas. For example to use the example above, people who have spent time in prison or children and young people who have spent time ‘in care’ looked after by the local authority may find it more difficult to secure employment or housing. For many this may result in financial and/or emotional insecurity. There are many other groups in society who face what the Commission for Equality and Human Rights (CEHR) refer to as multiple discrimination across a range of social institutions in society. This often comes about when some aspect of behaviour, culture, lifestyle, personality or even health is not perceived as conforming to the accepted norm. Groups who may experience this could include lone parents, people who face mental health difficulties, homeless people, minority ethic groups or individuals with some form of disability. This would therefore suggest that the idea of deviance can be considered to be ‘relative’, which means that it is dependent upon the circumstances and point of view of those considering any behaviour. What may be perceived as deviant by one group, in a particular context or even at a particular point in history, may not be considered as deviant by a different group, in a different context or a different point in history. The perception of deviance can change as society changes. However, as functionalist theory emphasises the importance of stability and continuity, this perspective finds it difficult to explain change in society. The next sociological theory we will study, conflict theory, is more able to focus on this issue. Also, where a functionalist perspective would suggest that the social rules that exist in society are created and enforced for the benefit of everyone or the ‘common good’, conflict theory adopts quite a different point of view.
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Conflict Theory and Deviance As you may recall, the four key features of conflict theory you should know are: •
power differentials built into social structures
•
competition over scarce resources
•
control, coercion and constraint imposed by dominant group
•
social conflict and change
So how do you think conflict theory would approach explaining deviance in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try to explain the family in conflict terms using these key features power differentials in social structures ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
competition over scarce resources ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
control, coercion and constraint ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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social conflict and change ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Conflict theory and deviance Key features and sociological concepts Conflict theory believes that power differentials are built into the social structures of society. In terms of explaining deviance, this theory emphasises the extent to which it is those with most power in society who define what is perceived as deviant and/or criminal behaviour. Conflict theorists would also suggest that the laws that exist in society reflect and protect the interests of these dominant groups. They would explain this in terms of the dominant group trying to maintain its control over society’s resources. Conflict theory also emphasises the extent to which the agencies of social control that are in a position to influence our behaviour and beliefs such as the mass media, education, the judiciary or religion are controlled by those with established power in society. As a way of illustrating this point, conflict theorists could highlight how ‘white-collar’ crime (middle class crime) such as tax evasion, or falsifying expense claims are less frequently reported or prosecuted than crimes that are perceived to be more ‘working class’ such as benefit fraud. It is also interesting to reflect on the way in which TV, newspaper and billboard advertising is often used to emphasise the scale of crimes such as social security fraud. To illustrate this point further it would also be helpful to consider the findings of a survey conducted in the 1960’s that claimed civil servants had ‘stolen’ small items from their places of work with a total value greater than all the bank robberies carried out in the same year… but we don’t see adverts about this type of crime on TV! This again emphasises the relative nature of deviance by highlighting that those in positions of power in society have control over what is defined as deviant and or criminal behaviour. Furthermore, corporate crimes, which are those carried out by large companies to benefit the company as a whole rather than any particular individual, are often under-represented in official crime statistics thereby adding to the ‘common-sense’ belief that most crime is committed by the ‘lower’ classes in society.
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Exploitation of the less powerful by the more powerful in society could in itself be perceived as deviant behaviour. However, since it is the most powerful that control society, then their behaviour would not be classed as deviant by the members of the powerful groups themselves. For example, wealthy factory owners or chief executives of large corporations are likely to feel justified in making huge profits and living an extravagant lifestyle, despite the fact that people who work for them may be earning a low wage and experience poor living conditions. Conflict theorists would view this as a consequence of the power imbalance built into the structure of our society and the fact that those in powerful positions wish to retain control over society’s resources. Naturally this creates restricted life chances for those who do not hold positions of power or influence in society. Some lifestyles, or even the social circumstances in which people live, may be perceived as being deviant by a large proportion of society. One of the strengths of conflict theory is that it is able to highlight that for a considerable number of people it is their weakened position in society that creates or dictates the type of lives they lead rather than personal choice. For example, National Health Service (NHS) figures in 2004 showed that men living in Scotland’s most deprived areas (most of which are in Glasgow) can expect to die 10 years earlier than the Scottish average. Many conflict theorists, especially Marxists, see social class inequalities as the central cause of poverty in society which can lead to some people becoming involved in what are perceived to be criminal or deviant activities. In relation to some of the key sociological concepts we have learned about as part of this unit, conflict theory would emphasise the importance of recognising that the culture into which we are socialised is characterised by an imbalance of power and that part of our socialisation process involves us learning our place in society. Conflict theory highlights that ‘our place in society’ is defined in terms of the amount of power or control we have or don’t have. If we are part of a dominant group, we are more likely to find ourselves in a position where we can exert control, coercion and constraint over less powerful individuals or groups. If we find ourselves socialised into a position of lower status in our culture, then we are likely to have experiences that involve rules being imposed on us by those more powerful than ourselves. As society is structured in this way, with those possessing most power defining what is deviant, conflict theorists believe it is then easy for those with most power in society to maintain the moral high ground. In relation to social class for example, the number of working class prisoners in the prison population far outnumber those form middle or upper classes. Other groups in society who are less powerful or marginalised in society are also disproportionately represented in prisons and in crime statistics. Conflict theory highlights the need to question the extent to which courts, the police force and other related institutions concerned with social control may be biased against those with less power in society such as minority ethnic groups, people with mental health difficulties or even women.
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Conflict theorists would suggest that this situation arises because the social institutions that make up society operate in such a way as to protect the interests of the most powerful. This next theory we will examine is feminist theory, a type of conflict theory, which will focus on the power imbalances that exist in society between men and women and the way that this imbalance is reflected in social institutions in society.
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Feminist Theory and Deviance As you may recall, the four key features of feminist theory you should know are: •
gender role socialisation
•
equal rights for women
•
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking
•
oppression and subordination through patriarchy
So how do you think feminist theory would approach explaining deviance in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain deviance using these key features of feminist theory. gender role socialisation ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
equal rights for women ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
questioning of ‘malestream’ thinking ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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oppression, subordination and patriarchy ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Feminist theory and deviance Key features and sociological concepts The most fundamental element of feminist theory is the idea that within society economic and political power is in the hands of men, and that patriarchy which is the power through which men dominate women, is deep-rooted in the social institutions in society. For the most part feminists use this line of reasoning to emphasise the extent to which women then find themselves oppressed and subordinated in society. In terms of researching the topic of deviance as an aspect of the social world we live in, one of the first points that feminist theorists would highlight is the fact that before the emergence of modern feminism in the 1970s there was very little evidence of research being conducted by women in this field or even research on deviance in general in relation to women or women’s behaviour. This gender blindness, which was typical of much of the malestream thinking that predominated society at that time, meant that there was a lack of understanding (or interest) regarding issues surrounding whether or what crimes women committed and why. However, once the feminist movement emerged and sociology began to include the female perspective in studies of deviance and criminal behaviour, some interesting facts began to emerge. For example it became clear from statistics that in general women committed fewer crimes than men, that the types of crime women committed frequently differed from those committed by men and that when women were charged with crimes their sentences tended to be more lenient than those received by men. Feminist theory highlights the extent to which our attitudes and perceptions of male and female deviant or criminal behaviour is deep-rooted in the gender role socialisation which takes place within the culture to which we belong. Throughout this process we are socialised into expecting men to be more tough and dominant than women and as a consequence we expect men to be more likely than women to carry out acts of violence, aggression or serious offences. Feminists might also argue that as men are less restricted by the demands of children and the home, they also have more freedom and opportunity to commit crime or to become involved in deviant behaviour. However, it is also interesting to note that those women who do commit serious offences, especially when violence is involved, often receive much more severe punishment than men who commit a similar offence. An explanation for this could be that our gender role
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socialisation leads us to expect women to be compliant and obedient so that when they severely contradict this norm, the punishment (or sanction) is much more severe than for men towards whom there is more of an expectation or acceptance of deviant or criminal behaviour. The feminist approach is therefore very effective in highlighting the gendered nature of crime and has been useful in explaining the relationship between women’s deviant or criminal behaviour and different aspects of life chances. For example some key pieces of sociological research have shown that the most common reasons women gave for their criminal behaviour included drug or alcohol dependence and/or poverty. A high percentage of women who are in prison are there for non-payment of fines, drug offences, or for offences involving theft or fraud, which they committed in order to feed themselves or their children (Browne, 2005). A major contribution that feminism has made is to draw attention to the victimisation of women in society, especially within the home. Incidents of domestic abuse, the reporting and investigation of rape and aspects of prostitution have all been the focus of sociological research conducted from a feminist perspective. The result has been that feminist campaigns have been successful in bringing about changes in the law and policies within the police force and courts that relate to rape, domestic abuse and sexual violence. The feminist approach has been able to do this because of its ability to focus on how the life chances of many women are adversely affected by the power of patriarchy that persists in society that has led to the oppression and subordination of many women. As noted earlier in the support pack, it is important to recognise that not all deviant acts are criminal. Conflict theory also highlighted that it is often those in the position of most power who are able to define the nature of deviant behaviour. These points are also relevant when examining feminist theory relating to deviance. A feminist perspective is useful in helping us to understand how gender role socialisation creates expectations of our behaviour as men or women. There are, however, consequences that can occur when individuals do not conform to the expected norm. For example women who choose to be childless are frequently perceived to be ‘deviant’ and can be subjected to stigma and discrimination. Similarly women who opt to follow a career, especially if it happens to be in a male dominated profession, are often perceived as being deviant, and are likely to encounter more difficulties than male counterparts in terms of securing promotion. This is often referred to as having to break the ‘glass ceiling’, an informal barrier that prevents women rising to the highest positions in organisations, despite the fact that legislation and policies exist promoting equal rights for women. Other
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behaviour which may be perceived as deviant as it does not conform to the norm in terms of the socialisation of females, could be women who choose to live as part of a lesbian partnership or who opt to use surrogacy as a means of having a family. In such situations it is likely that stigma and discrimination will be experienced. Ideas of how we are expected to adopt and fulfil our ‘roles’ in life are central to the next sociological theory we will study, symbolic interactionism.
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Symbolic Interactionist Theory and Deviance As you may recall, the four key features of symbolic interactionist theory you should know are: •
the idea of the self-concept
•
the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction
•
the concept of ‘role-taking’
•
the individual as an influence on society
So how do you think symbolic interactionist theory would explain deviance in terms of these key features? Take each feature in turn and try to briefly explain deviance from a symbolic interactionist perspective using the four key features below. the self-concept ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
symbols, labels and interaction ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
the concept of ‘role-taking’ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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the individual as an influence on society ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Symbolic interactionist theory and deviance Key features and sociological concepts As symbolic interactionist theory adopts a micro-sociological perspective, it concentrates on explaining behaviour at an individual or small group level and, from examining these small-scale interactions, builds up a picture of society. In relation to the study of deviance, the focus is on the interactions that lead to an individual’s behaviour being defined in terms of deviance. Central to this approach is the idea of the selfconcept. How we view our ‘self’ is dependent upon perceptions about the feedback we receive from others during social interactions. A person is likely to perceive his or her behaviour as deviant if they receive feedback from others such as disapproval, distaste or discrimination, which leads them to believe that their behaviour is unacceptable or wrong. This interaction may take place using a range of symbols, which will include both language and aspects of non-verbal communication such as gestures. This symbolic interaction contributes towards a person’s self-concept. If the interaction is perceived in a negative way then a person may choose to recognise that their behaviour is being seen as deviant or unacceptable and may change or adapt their behaviour accordingly. However, when the interaction produces negative feedback on a regular basis within a range of settings, then the individual concerned may incorporate the notion of deviance into their self-concept. These ideas become especially significant when someone has clearly been labelled in some way, and as a consequence of the label is expected to perform a role attached to which certain behaviours are expected. This idea of role-taking can be considered to be fairly positive in some contexts. However, when an individual has a deviant label applied to them in social interactions then a situation can develop whereby they begin to ‘live up’ to the expected behaviours associated with the label and a self-fulfilling prophecy can occur. An example of this could be a 16 year old youth who lives in a residential care unit run by the Social Work Department finds that many people he interacts with (teachers at school, class mates, potential employers, the local college) all interact and give feedback to him based on him being ’in care’. As a consequence people seem to have poor expectations of his behaviour and abilities. Although he may initially try to shake off this label, as he feels he is ‘more than just a kid in care’, it becomes increasingly difficult for him to do so and gradually his behaviour conforms to
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others’ expectations of him. This in turn confirms the expectations of the role he was expected to play and so a self-fulfilling prophecy has occurred. Unfortunately this can result in a cyclical process whereby the more a person perceives himself or herself to be deviant, the more their behaviour may show deviant tendencies and the more deviant behaviour they engage in, the more disapproval they will receive. Symbols, labels and the idea of role-taking are inherent in all cultures and, through the process of primary and secondary socialisation we learn the significance of different symbols and roles that are important to the cultures to which we belong. Different cultures may have different symbols that are of significance to them for religious, historical or spiritual reasons and there is likely to be a shared understanding of the meaning of these symbols within a person’s culture. However, there may be a lack of understanding of the significance of these symbols outwith the culture. Discuss some examples of this with your class tutor. In terms of roles, the significance of socialisation and culture is also hugely significant when considering symbolic interactionist theory and deviance. In our study of the family we have already established that most of us have a shared understanding of the word (or symbol) ‘family’ and the different roles that are likely to be played within the families we belong to (mother, father, sister, brother, housewife, breadwinner etc.) However, although we had a shared understanding of the words, it was unlikely that we had a shared experience of ‘family’ and the roles played within our families. As a sociological theory symbolic interactionism is particularly interested in examining the meanings and experiences of individuals in more depth as a way of understanding society more clearly. In terms of applying this idea to the topic of deviance, some people may perceive particular roles in life as being deviant or not conforming to the norm. As a consequence their interactions with others in these situations or fulfilling these roles may involve negative perceptions. Examples of this might include being a single parent, having experienced domestic violence, being a ‘house-husband’, having a disability, having a mental illness, being lesbian, gay or bisexual, growing up in care, belonging to a minority religion or ethnic group within a society or having spent time in prison. If interactions are based on negative perceptions of such ‘labels’ then this can have an impact on the life chances that are afforded to some people and the opportunities that they are given. In terms of the significance of symbolic interactionist theory to the context of care, it is vital that as practitioners we recognise the power that labelling can have on shaping the interactions we have with service users as well as recognising the extent to which labels can have an impact of their life chances. For the most part the emphasis in these notes has been on the
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potentially negative aspects of this process. However, as an action theory, symbolic interactionism is effective in recognising that through social interactions individuals can also influence others’ perceptions in a positive way. Through this process individuals and small groups can influence and shape society to redefine what is perceived as deviant behaviour. Examples to illustrate this could be the numerous committed individuals, pressure groups and campaigns that have been prominent in highlighting examples of discrimination as well as the range of ways in which people have successfully challenged negative perceptions of mental health, disability and racial or religious intolerance.
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Revision and Check-up Opportunity ContrastingSociological Perspectives on the Family and Deviance You have now completed all the learning and teaching covering the key topics in Outcome 1 and 2 of the unit and in doing this have actually touched upon some of the main points we will examine in the final part of the unit. As a way of checking out your understanding and preparing for the NAB assessment and external exam, you should now complete the following piece of work. Read the case studies for Akram, Ethel and Rab again. (pages 90 - 94)
Select one of the case studies and write a short essay (approximately 200-300 words) explaining how two contrasting sociological theories would explain either the family or deviance in relation to Akram, Ethel or Rab. In your short essay you should ensure that you: •
clearly explain some (or if possible all) key features of both sociological theories selected
•
apply the key features to the case study you have selected
•
try to incorporate the sociological concepts of socialisation, culture and life chances into your discussion
•
evaluate the selected theories by briefly commenting on which one you believe is most effective in explaining the points you have highlighted in the case study.
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Outcome 3: Introduction and Overview In this outcome you will be analysing the way in which a sociological understanding can help us gain some insight into the principles that underpin care practice. The principles that form part of the National Care Standards will be examined, but as well as these, the importance of some of the guiding values that underpin the standards will be highlighted. The specific guiding values significant to care which we will be examining are empowerment, valuing diversity, social inclusion and social justice. The issue of social inequality will be a fundamental element of this final outcome. Although the idea of social inequality has been implicitly addressed in earlier parts of the unit, the emphasis in this outcome will be on recognising that social inequality can lead to oppression, cycles of poverty or deprivation, marginalisation and social exclusion. As a means of highlighting these points, you will be investigating the social issues of disability, homelessness and health status. The role that legislation plays in addressing social inequalities will also be examined. You will be encouraged to explore how the emergence of positive values and principles which emphasise empowerment, valuing diversity, social inclusion and social justice have had a positive impact on social policy and the provision of care services. In the first two outcomes of this unit, you have been provided with a large amount of explanatory information and exercises to prepare you for the work to be completed in this final outcome. For Outcome 3 of the Sociology for Care unit, you will find that you will be expected to complete a fair amount of independent study and investigation to develop your understanding and analysis of some of the key issues outlined below. For this reason there are less notes in this section of the Support Pack, but it is expected that you will generate a range of your own information independently or as class groups which you may then choose to collate and/or share.
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OUTCOME 3 Analyse the way in which a sociological understanding provides insight into the principles underpinning care practice. Performance Criteria (a) Describe the principles underpinning care practice. (b) Analyse the concept of social inequality through contemporary social issues relevant to care practice. Overview of topics Principles underpinning National Care Standards • • • • • •
dignity privacy choice safety realising potential equality and diversity.
Guiding values in care • • • •
empowerment valuing diversity social inclusion social justice.
Social Inequality • • •
Explanation and consequences Oppression, discrimination, marginalisation, cycles of poverty and deprivation, marginalisation, social exclusion Role of legislation.
Contemporary Social Issues • • •
disability homelessness health status.
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Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards For anyone who has studied the unit Values and Principles at Higher or Intermediate 2 level, then these principles should already be familiar to you. Similarly if you have recently worked in a care setting or are perhaps completing a placement as part of the Practical Skills for Care unit in the Higher Care Practice course, then you will know about the National Care Standards which have been established in Scotland by the Care Commission. For anyone who does not have this information or experience, you should take the opportunity in your own study time to access the website of the Care Commission and familiarise yourself with some of the material there. If you haven’t watched it before, you should view their short DVD, which you can do online, to find out about the range of services which the Care Commission provides. http://www.carecommission.com However, irrespective of whether you are familiar with the National Care Standards, the fundamental principles upon which the standards are based will be familiar to you. They are dignity, privacy, choice, safety, realising potential, equality and diversity.
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Review Exercise: Care Settings Care services can be delivered in a range of varied settings by a wide variety of care professionals. This means that the same principles underpinning the National Care Standards must be applied in a variety of locations by a range of different carers. Using information from the Care Commission website, your previous learning in other Intermediate 2 or Higher Care units, and your own personal work or placement experience, provide a brief summary of at least three different care settings. You do not necessarily have to name the care organisation but rather state the type of care service provided and the service user group, a brief summary of what the service involves and a suggestion of the carers who may be involved in providing the service. For example: Care Setting:
Residential Care Home for Older Adults
Service Provided: 24 hour care to ensure the physical, emotional and social well being of all residents through assessing and meeting their personal care needs, providing medical attention as required and social activities to promote cognitive abilities Carers:
Nursing staff, carers, dieticians, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, GPs, dieticians, as well as contact with cooks, cleaners, drivers and volunteers.
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Care Setting: _______________________________________________________ Service Provided: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Carers: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Care Setting: _______________________________________________________ Service Provided: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Carers: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Care Setting: _______________________________________________________ Service Provided: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Carers: ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
Once you have completed this exercise, share your information with the rest of the class group. If in the process of this exercise you find out about any care services or settings about which you had previously been unfamiliar, be sure to take note of them.
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Principles Underpinning the National Care Standards
As noted previously, the fundamental principles upon which the standards are based are likely to be familiar to you. They are dignity, privacy, choice, safety, realising potential, equality and diversity. As a way of checking that you are able to understand the significance of these principles to the actual provision of care services you will now be asked to complete a small group activity. In your groups you will be asked to select a client group and care setting upon which you will focus your discussion of the principles underpinning the National Care Standards. The previous exercise reviewing a range of care settings should have been helpful to you in preparing for the next group activity. Some of you may already have completed similar activities in other units, so this will be a further opportunity for you to check and reinforce your understanding. You will be asked to take each of the six principles and clearly explain ways in which that principle can be put into practice in the care setting you have selected. In order to make the most of this group activity, it would be helpful to have a range of care settings represented within the class group.
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Principles underpinning the National Care Standards
Client Group:
_____________________________
Care Setting:
_____________________________
Putting the National Care Standard Principles into Practice
Dignity:
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Privacy:
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Choice:
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Safety:
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
Realising
___________________________________________________
Potential: ___________________________________________________
Equality and ___________________________________________________ Diversity: ___________________________________________________
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Guiding Values in Care For the purposes of the Sociology for Care unit, we will be highlighting four particular values that are very important in all aspects of care provision. Having now studied some fundamental sociological concepts and key sociological theories you will have a deeper understanding of what these values truly mean and why they are so important to the people who may require care services. The four values we will highlight are: •
empowerment
•
valuing diversity
•
social inclusion
•
social justice
Use sociology or care textbooks to find your own definitions of these terms, and on the basis of your research write a few lines explaining each term in the space below. empowerment
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
valuing diversity
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
social inclusion
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
social justice
__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________
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Social Inequality and Values and Principles in Care The values and principles referred to in the Sociology for Care unit are vitally important to all individuals in society, but more especially to particular groups who may face social inequalities resulting in oppression, discrimination, marginalisation, cycles of poverty/deprivation, marginalisation and social exclusion. Many individuals who have these experiences require support from a range of care services at some stage in their lives. It is therefore extremely important that individual care workers, as well as the care agencies they are employed by, adhere to the values and principles highlighted throughout this final part of the unit. For those who may have already completed the Values and Principles for Care unit, you may recall that the two core values emphasised in the unit were: •
the value of respect for the worth and dignity of every individual
•
the value of according social justice and promoting the social welfare of every individual.
It is essential that care organisations develop policies and procedures that have these core values at the heart of all elements of their care provision. Studying issues related to social inequality will also reinforce the importance of these values. “The term social inequality simply refers to the existence of socially created inequalities.” (Haralambos et al, 2004: 1) In the final part of the unit you will be examining how the insight which sociology has hopefully given you can help to examine how the guiding values of empowerment, valuing diversity, social inclusion and social justice are particularly important to individuals who may face social inequality through issues relating to: •
disability
•
homelessness
•
health status.
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Investigation: Social Inequality/Contemporary Social Issues Decide as a class group or seek guidance from your class tutor about how you will conduct this investigation. Use websites, textbooks, journal articles or contact agencies and organisations to find out information about the oppression, discrimination, marginalisation, cycles of poverty/deprivation, marginalisation and social exclusion that can be experienced by individuals or groups who have a disability, experience homelessness or who have a particular health problem or condition. You might also find that your local community centre, health centre or GP surgery is a useful source of leaflets and information. Check with your tutor whether there is any possibility of arranging some speakers to come to talk to you about some of the issues that your investigations might raise. Websites or organisations you could make effective use of will be wide and varied. Some examples are SHELTER, Cyrenians, Turning Point Scotland, Capability Scotland, the Multiple Sclerosis Society, Terrence Higgins Trust, and the Commission for Equality and Human Rights Ideally at the end of your investigation you should be able to explain how organisations that embrace certain guiding values can have a positive impact on overcoming the social inequalities faced by particular groups in society. You should focus on the guiding values of: •
empowerment
•
valuing diversity
•
social inclusion
•
social justice.
One possible way of sharing the information from your investigation might be to find or develop a case study based on an individual who has faced inequality through having a disability, being homeless or having a health problem of some description. The case studies could then be presented or ‘swapped’ between groups in order for students to examine the consequences of inequality for the particular individuals concerned and to highlight the ways in which positive care values and guiding principles can or have improved the life chances of the individuals featured in the case studies. Before beginning your investigation, however, you should read the following pages relating to the relevance of legislation as part of the process of promoting social justice and social inclusion and, in the process of carrying out your investigation, be aware of any legislation that has been significant to the social issue being investigated.
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The Role of Legislation Depending on which social issue you investigate, you are likely to come across a range of different pieces of legislation. Although it is not necessary as part of this unit to have any in-depth knowledge of the legislation itself, it is important that you gain some insight into the role of legislation in addressing social inequalities. It is also likely that you will find that over the years it has been necessary to amend or develop legislation in response to the need to protect and empower vulnerable groups in society. Some key legislation that should already be familiar to students who have undertaken the Values and Principles for Care unit includes: Disability Discrimination Acts 1995 and 2005 NHS and Community Care Act 1990 Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002 Adults with Incapacity Act (Scotland) 2000 The Regulation of Care (Scotland) Act 2001 Mental Health: Care and Treatment (Scotland ) Act 2003 In your investigation of social issues surrounding disability, homelessness and health status you should remember to highlight any recent policy developments or legislation that believe have been significant .
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Concluding Comments In studying this unit you have learned that developing an understanding of sociology can help us to explain and more fully understand the society in which we live and enable us to challenge many taken for granted assumptions about the social world we live in. Developing this understanding has provided us with more insight into the influences that can shape an individual’s life chances and life experiences. Studying key sociological concepts and contrasting sociological theories has further enabled us to appreciate that there are different ways of viewing and explaining society. This has been helpful in that it has shown us that some theories are particularly good at highlighting the importance of particular issues in relation to how society functions and how individuals within society behave. By focussing on issues of social inequality that are faced by some individuals or groups in society, it has also been possible to see how the guiding values and principles that are fundamental to care practice can actually enhance and empower those who require care services at some stage in their lives. Hopefully studying this unit will also have enabled you to develop your ‘sociological imagination’. It should also have enabled you to become a more knowledgeable, less judgemental and more self-aware practitioner if you do decide to follow a career in care or decide to continue your studies in this field of work. However, even if you do not decide to work in a care setting at any point in your future, please remember that the information, knowledge and insight you should have gained through studying this unit may help you develop an understanding of social justice. This should encourage you to be a more compassionate human being and a more responsible citizen within your community.
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References Dobash, R. and Dobash, R.( 1979) Violence against Wives. Open Books: London. Francis, B. (2000) Boys, Girls and Achievement: Addressing the Classroom Issues Routeledge: London. Haralambos, M., Holborn, M and Heald, R. (2004) Sociology Themes and Perspectives HarperCollins: London. Hubbard, G., Tester , S. and Downs, M.G. (2003) Ageing & Society 23: 99 -114 Cambridge University Press: London. Miller, J (Ed) et al (2000) Care in Practice. Hodder and Stoughton: London. Moore, S. (2002) Social Welfare Alive! Nelson Thornes: Cheltenham. Parsons, T. (1959) The Social Structure of the Family’ in R.N. Anshen (ed.) The Family: its Functions and Destiny Harper & Row: New York. Pascall, G. (1986) Social Policy: A Feminist Analysis Tavistock: London. Spender, D. (1983) Invisible Women: Schooling Scandal Women’s Press: London. Wheeler, B., M. Shaw, R. Mitchell and D. Dorling (2005) Life In Britain: Using Millennial Census data to understand poverty, inequality and place Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Wright-Mills, C. (1959) The Sociological Imagination Oxford University Press: New York. Young, M. and Wilmott, P. The Symmetrical Family Routeledge & Kegan Paul: London.
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Tutor Notes
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Suggested Responses for Key Worksheets and Activities •
Revision exercise: Structural and Action theories
•
Revision Exercise: Overview of Sociological Theories.
Outcome 1 Revision Exercise: Structural and Action theories Completed Grid
STRUCTURAL
ACTION
Interested in explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
Believes that society shapes the individual
Believes that individuals and groups shape society
Starts with society as a whole and then analyses the inter-related social structures and institutions
Starts with the individual and then generalises about society
Interested in trends and social forces
Interested in meanings and interactions
Determinism is implicit in analysis
Free will or human agency is implicit in analysis
Mostly uses quantitative methods of research
Mostly uses qualitative methods of research
Would examine unemployment by looking at the number and details of people claiming benefit or attending a job centre
Would examine unemployment by asking unemployed people about their experiences of being unemployed by using an unstructured interview technique or by observing them
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Outcome 1 Overview of Sociological Theories: Revision Exercise: Sample Answers A range of correct answers would be acceptable, based on the format of the sample answers below.
Knowledge and Understanding 1. Explain one similarity and two differences between structural and action theories in sociology. •
one similarity is that both structural and action theories are Interested in explaining and making sense of the social world we live in
•
one difference is that structural theories believe that society shapes the individual whereas action theories believe that it is the interactions between individuals that shape society.
•
a second difference is that structural theories are interested in how wider social forces have an influence on human behaviour whereas action theories are more interested in focussing on the meanings and interpretation of small scale social interactions and processes.
2. Identify and briefly describe two key features of each of the following sociological theories •
functionalism
•
conflict
•
feminism
•
symbolic interactionism
Two key features of each theory are: Functionalism •
consensus on norms, values and roles – there is a shared agreement in society about how people are expected to behave and about what is considered to be important in life
•
integration and interdependence – the social institutions that make up society such as the family, education, the economy and religion are all inter-related and share the same values and norms
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Conflict •
power differentials are built into social structures – within society different groups possess different levels of power. Often this is related to economic wealth. Social institutions are set up in such a way that those with most power are able to exert control over those with less power and can dominate or even exploit them.
•
competition over scarce resources – the potential abuse of power usually arises due to competition over limited resources in society. As a consequence those with more power are keen and able to protect their own interests.
Feminism •
gender role socialisation – throughout primary (and secondary) socialisation males and females learn how to fulfil different roles in life, with females usually being encouraged to accept inferior roles, often based on traditional views of women as child bearers and home-makers
•
equal rights for women – one way to overcome the exploitation and oppression of women in society is to ensure that laws are created and enforced which ensure that women have equal rights to men in terms of employment opportunities, rates of pay and conditions of work
Symbolic Interactionism •
the idea of the self-concept – we gain our sense of who we are based on the feedback we receive from others during our social interactions with them. Our perceptions of this feedback form the basis of our self-concept.
•
the significance of symbols and labels in social interaction – during social interactions a range of symbols, both verbal and non-verbal are used and interpreted. The meanings we give to these symbols are significant in our future interactions. If a label is attached to an individual, then this symbol can suggest an expectation of behaviour which can, in some instances, result in a self-fulfilling prophecy.
3. Explain one similarity and one difference between functionalist and conflict theory. •
one similarity between functionalist and conflict theory is that they both adopt a macro-sociological or structural approach when examining society
•
one difference is that functionalist theory believes that there is a shared agreement in society about rules, values and norms, whereas conflict theory believes that the rules that exist in society have been put in place by those with most power to protect their own interests
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4. Explain one strength and one weakness of feminist and symbolic interactionist theory. Feminism •
one strength of feminist theory is that it has highlighted the significance of domestic violence and the abuse of women within their own families and been influential in changing the law to afford women more protection
•
one weakness of feminist theory is that it finds it difficult to explain why it is that many women do not feel exploited or oppressed within their families or wider society
Symbolic Interactionism •
one strength of symbolic interactionist theory is that it is good at providing insight into the impact of the labelling process and the interpretation and meaning that people give to the social interactions they take part in
•
one weakness of symbolic interactionist theory is that it overlooks the wider social forces that can have a significant impact on how individuals live their lives
5. Explain how the idea of our role in society would be explained by each of the following sociological theories •
functionalism
•
conflict
•
feminism
•
symbolic interactionism
Functionalist theory would highlight that we learn our roles through the processes of socialisation and that there is a shared agreement between the social institutions that make up society about how certain roles should be performed and the expectations of behaviour associated with each role. Conflict theory would suggest that our roles in life are dependent on where we are located in terms of the power differentials that exist in society. If we are part of a dominant group then we are likely to have a powerful and influential role in society. If we are part of a less powerful group then we will have a more inferior or subordinate role in society.
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Feminist theory would highlight the extent to which gender-role socialisation influences the roles carried out by males and females in society. Through this process women are socialised into accepting a subordinate and inferior position to men and are usually encouraged to conform to what are considered to be traditional female roles. Symbolic Interactionist theory highlights the extent to which roles are negotiated through the processes of social interaction. When we adopt a role there is an expectation that we will ‘act’ according to a ‘script’ and that feedback from others will reinforce our ‘performance’ of the role. 6. Select two sociological theories and identify two ways in which they contrast with each other. Functionalist and symbolic interactionist theory can be contrasted with each other in a number of ways. For example, functionalist theory is a structural theory which focuses on how society shapes individual behaviour and examines the impact that wider social forces can have on how individuals live their lives. By contrast, symbolic interactionist theory adopts a more action based approach and focuses on how small scale interactions between individuals and small groups create the society in which we live. Secondly, in examining social behaviour they adopt different types of research methods. Functionalist research is usually based on quantitative data (official statistics, large scale surveys) whereas symbolic interactionist research would make more use of qualitative data generated by research methods such as participant observation or unstructured interviews.
Scottish Further Education Unit
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