HERBAL CURES: TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Dr. D.A.Patil did his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Botany from Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University (Aurangabad, M.S.) with Angiosperm as a subject of specialization in 1978 and 1983 respectively. He has about 29 years of research and teaching experience at graduate and postgraduate classes. His major research interest includes Taxonomy and Anatomy of Angiosperms, Floristics, Ethnobotany and Etymology. He has authored (i) Key to the Angiospermic Families of North Maharashtra, (ii)Flora of Dhule and Nandurbar Districts (Maharashtra), (iii) Origins of Plant Names, and co-authored, (iv) Ethnobotany of Nasik District (Maharashtra), (v) Ethnobotany of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra) and (vi) Forest Flora of Jalgaon District (Maharashtra). He has also edited a proceeding, 'Plant Diversity and Biotechnology'. He has 132 research papers to his credit published in national, international journals and journals of CSIR, India. Apart from his participation in several national and international conferences and symposia in India and abroad, many students in botany received his guidance for Ph.D. and M.Phil. degrees. He is member of Editorial Boards of four national journals and acted as a referee for Ph.D. and M.Phil. degrees for other universities. He has been awarded: (i) Dr. M.s. Swaminathan Award (1996) by Indian Botanical Society, (ii) Scientist of the Year 2004 by National Environmental Science Academy, (iii) Jivaka Ayurved Vishwa Sanman (2006) by International Academy of Indian Medicine and (iv) Life Time Education Achievement Award 2007 by Health and Education Development Association. He is ex-Dean, Faculty of Science, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, M.S. and also Ex-Chairman, Board of Studies in Botany of the same university. He is member of many prestigious academic and scientific bodies and societies. He also contributes for Marathi Daily news papers and creates interest about plants by delivering talks especially for younger generation.
HERBAL CURES TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Editor
Dr. D.A. PatH M.Sc., Ph.D. (Botany) Reader Post-Graduate Department of Botany S.S.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule-424 005 (Maharashtra)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
First Published in 2008 by Prem C. Bakliwal for Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors 807, Vyas Building, Chaura Rasta Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India Phone: 0141-2578159 e-mail:
[email protected]
© Dr. D.A. Patil
ISBN 978-81-7910-250-3
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied for any purpose by any means, manual, mechanical or electronic, without prior and written permission of the copyright owner and the publishers.
Printed at Sheetal Printers Jaipur (Raj.) India
•
PREFACE The science of medicine, whether traditional or folkloric, has undergone a phenomenal growth with a concomitant increase of interest among the plant scientists, ethnobotanists, anthropologists, pharmacologists, medicinal chemists and druggists. Medicine differs materially from other branches of knowledge like algebra, trigonometry, astronomy and the like. In other branches, independent development of each would be required before the principles of one be applied to the purposes of the other. But this is not the case in medicine. Medicine is developed from a desire from within, and not from any foreign impetus. Ailment! disease is not separate companion of life. The desire springs with the ailment simultaneously which soon turns into the effort to heal. It is this effort that has gone by the name of 'medicine' in every society, whether primitive or advanced. Also the origin of medicine cannot be traced to one man. It is natural and traditional in origin. The traditional communities living close to the nature acquired knowledge about the use of plant species. After a long period of observation and analysis, trial and errors, experimentation, apart from intuitive method, the innovative individuals of societies select and realize usefulness of the flora in their ambience. Their plantlore passes over generations. The development of medicine starts from tapping the traditional/indigenous wisdom after establishing rapport with the indigenous people. Bioassay-guided fractionation and determination of molecular structure are necessary. The task does not end with these in recent times. The IPR and benefit-sharing completes the success story of drug development. Thus a synergetic effort is needed involving the scientists from different disciplines, technologists and legal advisers. The present book 'Herbal Cures : Traditional Approach' includes total 22 articles on traditional plant uses in family welfare, wound care, diabetes and skin afflictions, ethnobotanical or ethnomedicinal plants from West Rarrh (West Bengal). Jharkhand, North Gujarat and Western Orissa, ethnotherapeutic leads from tribals of Orissa, ethnomedicinalleads from modern drug development programmes, parasitic angiosperms from mythology to medicine, graphic review of ethnbotany in Chhatisgarh and
vi veterinary medicines of Gond tribals (Madhya Pradesh). It also covers topics on development and standardization of herbal medicine, methods of tribal drug purification, ethnomedicinal uses of Neem plant and traditional knowledge with particular emphasis on ethnomedicines/traditional medicines. Articles on recent approaches in phytochemical and biological importance of Calendula officinalis, in vitro regeneration and phytochemical screening, antibacterial activity and hypoglycaemic effects of Ocimum sanctum. This book is the outcome of efforts of the experts. Their ideas, experience, thoughts and opinions shaped the book significantly and would be valuable immensely to its users. It will help popularize the subject of traditional medicine and provide instructions for the learners. I thank heartly to all honourable experts/ authors for contributing in such a scientific pursuit. The opinions and text contained herein are those of the contributors. The book will cater to the immediate needs of students, teachers and research workers. I would appreciate to pass on comments and suggestions from the users of this book which will help improve the future edition or print. Throughout its preparation, well wishers and colleagues freely gave their help and advice. It is thankfully acknowledged. I particularly appreciate and acknowledge the painstaking effort of Mr. Akshay Jain of Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors aaipur, Rajasthan) for publishing this book with full zeal and zest. Dhule (Maharashtra)
Dr. D. A. Patil
CONTENTS Preface
1. 2
Contributors Lit of Colour Plates Traditional Use of Plants in India in Family Welfare - Priyadarshan Sensarma Development and Standardization of Herbal Medicines : An Overview of Current Status
v ix xiii
1
41
- c.P. Malik, Bhavneet Kaur, Aman Verma and Chitra Wadhwani 3.
Plants Used in Wound Care
76
- Richa Deo and Usha Mukundan
4. 5.
Traditional Knowledge : Views, Necessity and Prospects -D.A. Patil Ethnomedical Leads and Good Raw Drug Handling Practices for Modern Drug Development Programme
105
115
-M. Brahmam
6.
Ethnotherapeutic Leads from the Tribals of Orissa (India) to Control Diabetes mellitus
129
-M. Brahmam 7.
In vitro Regeneration, Phytochemical Screening, Antibacterial Activity and Hypoglycemic Effect of Ocimum sanctum L.
145
- N. Chandrakala, E. Jennifer Nancy Rani, M. Prabakaran and M. Ayyavoo
8.
Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-I - N.K. Patel, I.c. Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar
158
viii
9.
Ethnomedicinal Plants of North Gujarat Part-II
- N.K. Patel, I.C Patel, A. R. Seliya and D.N. Parmar 10. Folk Remedies against Skin Afflictions in Maharashtra
197 218
- Shubhangi Pawar, M. V. Patil and D.A. Patil
11. Ethnomedicinal Plants of Jharkhand, India
248
- Harish Singh
12. The Parasitic Angiosperms: From Mythology to Medicine - R.B. ladhav, S.P. Bhatnagar and
5.1.
264
Surana
13. In vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Some Medicinal Plants of Genus Buhinia Linn.
285
- Ravindra G. Mali, Shailaja G. Mahajan and Anita A. Mehta
14. Medicinal Uses of Plants as Revealed from Tribal Communities in Purulia District, West Bengal
295
- Sujit Kumar MandaI and Ambarish Mukherjee
15. Indigenous Knowledge of Veterinary Medicines among Gond Tribals of Noradehi Wildlife Sanctuary (M.P.)
302
- Anjali Rawat, Arti Gupta and T.R. Sahu
16. Ethnobotany of Western Orissa, India
316
-L.M. Behera and S. K. Sen
17. Ethnobotanical Survey in West Rarrh for Natural Health Care and Green Belt Movement
332
- Ashis Ghosh
18. Ethnobotany in Chhattisgarh (India) : A Graphic Review and Future Directions - Amia Tirkey 19. Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) : A Panacea - M. V. Patil, Shubhangi Pawar and D.A. Patil 20. Phytochemical and Biological Importance of Calendula officinalis L. - Madhurima, S.H. Ansari, Md. Sohail Akhtar and Prawez Alam 21. Methods of Purification of Tribal Drugs in India -D.C Pal and CR. Paul
340 348 368 387
22. Ethnobotanical Heritage on Traditional Drug Practices Relating to Diabetes in Magadh Region (Bihar) - R.K. Goel, Rajul Goel, B.K. Prasad and D.K. Yadav
390
CONTRIBUTORS Akhtar, Md. Sohail Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Alam, Prawez Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-l1O 062. Ansari, S.H. Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Ayyavoo, M. Sri Gowri Biotech Research Academy, Nagai Main Road, Thanjavur-613 001, Tamil Nadu, India. Behera, L.M. P.G. Deptartment of Botany, G.M. (Auto.) College, Sambalpur-768 001. Bhatnagar, S.P. Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, BirIa Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835 215. Brahmam, M. Regional Research Laboratory (C.S.I.R.), Bhubaneswar-751 013, Orissa. ChandrakaIa, N. P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College, Thanjavur-614 904 Tamil Nadu.
x
Deo, Richa Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400 086. Ghosh, Ashis Saraswati Vidyamandir, P.O. Midnapore, District-Paschim Medinipore-721 101, W. Bengal. Goel, R.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Goel, Rajul Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University, Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Gupta, Arti Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003 (M.P.). Jadhav, R.B. Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.c. Patel College of Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405, Maharashtra. Kaur, Bhavneet Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Madhurima Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Jamia Hamdard, (Hamdard University), New Delhi-110 062. Mahajan, Shailaja G. Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009. Mali, Ravindra G. Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009. Malik, c.P. Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. MandaI, Sujit Kumar Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104, W. Bengal. Mehta, Anita A. Department of Pharmacology, L.M.College of Pharmacy, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad-380 009.
xi
MUKherjee, Ambarish Department of Botany, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan-713 104, W. Bengal. Mukundan, Usha Plant Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College, Ghatkopar (W), Mumbai-400086, Maharashtra. Pal, D.C Retd. Botanist, Industrial Section, Indian Museum, B.S.!., 1, Sudder Street, Kolkata-700 016, W. Bengal. Parmar, D.N. Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Patel, I.C Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Patel, N.K. Department of Biology, Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265. PatiI, D.A. P.G. Department of Botany, S.s.V.P. Sanstha's L.K. Dr. P.R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule-424 005 (M.S.). PatiI, M.V. Department of Botany, GET's Arts, Science & Commerce College, Nagaon-424 004, District Dhule (M.S.). Paul, CR. 48, Pioneer Park, Maa Sarada Road, Borasat (N), Kolkata-700 124, West Bengal. Pawar Shubhangi Department of Botany, Pratap College, Amalner-425401, District Jalgaon (M.s.). Prabakaran, M. P.G. & Research Department of Zoology & Biotechnology, A.V.V.M Sri Pushpam College (Autonomous), Poondi-613503, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Prasad, B.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar. Priyadarshan Sensarma Retd. Professor, 8/9, Chandra Mondal Lane, Kolkata-700 026.
xii
Rani, E. Jennifer Nancy P.G. & Research Department of Microbiology, Ponnaiyah Ramajayam College, Thanjavur-614904 Tamil Nadu. Rawat, Anjali Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.). Sahu, T.R. Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar-470 003, (M.P.). Seliya, A.R. Sheth M. N. Science College, Department of Life Sciences, Hemchandracharya North Gujarat University, Patan-384 265, Gujarat. Sen, S.K. Department of Botany, Panchayat College, Bargarh-768 028. Singh, Harish Central Botanical Laboratory, Botanical Survey of India, P.O.-Botanic Garden, Howrah (West Bengal) 711 103. Surana, S.J. Bioecology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacognosy, R.C Patel College of Pharmacy, Shirpur-425 405. Tirkey, Amia School of Life Sciences, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur- 492 010, (CG.). Verma, Aman Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Wadhwani, Chitra Institute of Biotechnology and Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy of Design, Technology and Management, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Yadav, D.K. Environmental Biology Laboratory, University Department of Botany, Magadh University Bodh-Gaya-824 234, Bihar.
LIST OF COLOUR PLATES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Abrus precatorius Abutilon indicum Acalypha indica Achyranthes aspera Adhatoda zeylanica Aerva lanata Andrographis paniculata Arachis hypogaea Argyreia nervosa Aristolochia bracteolata Bacopa monnieri Boerhavia diffusa Brassica juncea Kalanchoe pinnata Calotropis gigantea Canavalia gladiata Cannabis sativa Cassia italica Catharanthus roseus Cayratia tri/olia Celosia argentea Cephalonoplos segetum Chenopodium album 23.
177 177 177 177 177 177 177 177 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 178 179 179 179 179 179 179 179
xiv
24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32. 33.
34:
35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.
45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.
55. 56. 57. 58. 59.
Cicer arietinum Cichonlm intybus Cissus quadrangula Cleome viscosa Clitoria ternatea Coccinia grandis Commelina diffusa Corchonls aestuans Crotalaria retusa Ctenolepsis cerasiformis Cucumis sativus Cuscuta reflexa Cymbopogon citratus Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Cynodon dactlJlon Cype.nlS rotundus Echinops echinatus Eclipta prostrata Enicostema axillare Euphorbia neriifolia Evolvlllus alsinoides Fagonia eretica Gloriosa superba Glycine max Gymnema sylvetre Indigofera tinctoria Ipomoea nil Jatropha curcas Lablab purpllreus Lagenaria siceraria 'Leptadenia reticulata Leucas aspera Luffa acutangula Luffa cylindrica Lycopersicon esculentum Momordica charantia
179 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 181 181 181 181 181 181 181 181 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 182 183 183 183 183 183 183 183 183 184 184 184
xv 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.
65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.
72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96.
Momordica dioica Mukia maderaspatana Nicotiana tabacum Ocimum tenuiflorum Passiflora foetida Pergularia daemia Phaseolus vulgaris Phyllanthus amarus Physalis minima Pithecellobium dulce Pongamia pinnata Portulaca quadrifida Psidium guajava Pterocarpus marsupium Raphanus sativus Rosa damascena Sapindus laurifolia Saraca asoca Semecarpus anacardium Sesbania grandiflora Sida orientalis Syzygium cumini Syzygium malaccense Tamarindus indica Terminalia bellirica Terminalia catappa Terminalia chebula Thespesia populnea Trichosallthes dioica Triticum aestivum Typha domingensis Vigna radiata Vigna unguiculata Viola cinerea Vi tis vinifera Withania somnifera Xanthium strumarium
184 184 184 184 184 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 186 187 187 187 187 187 187 187 187 188 188 188 188 188 188 188 188
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Methodology
3.
Enumeration of information 3.1
Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
3.2
Treatment of semen
3.3
Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
3.4
Infertility of woman
3.5
Ensuring easy delivery
3.6
Prevention of pregnancy
3.7
Termination of pregnancy
4.
Discussion and conclusions
5.
Summary
6.
Appendix A & B
7.
Suggested Readings
1. INTRODUCTION The expression 'Family Welfare' with special reference to this subcontinent implies 'Family Planning'. This is perhaps inescapable in the context of population explosion and increasing poverty of the larger section of the society. But can the economically backward societies, plagued with lack of education, afford to respond positively to the measures of population control, unless their conjugal life is made more pleasant with cheap but effective steps? It is a hard fact of life tl:at poor people have very limited opportunities of enjoying life, either in physical or mental or in both spheres. Better conjugal life is seldom enjoyed by the poor for various factors and reasons. One of the major reasons is the great increase in the number of children-which enhances
2
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
poverty and other problems. In such situation it becomes imperative on the scientists to suggest cheap but hygienic measures to improve upon the quality of conjugal life of the poor and backward people. This idea persuaded the present author to search the traditional use of plants in India for various aspects of family welfare. India is a country of diversity-The land mass may be divided into almost all the known climatic zones, and there are two groups of islands situated in Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. Being rich in biodiversity this country has been included in the list of the 12 mega diversity centres of the world. There are more than 400 scheduled tribes of different ethnicity residing in various ecological niche, besides the inheritors of the Vedic and Pre-Vedic cultures. It is obvious that the spectrum of knowledge about the life and the universe and the skill of utilizing the resources vary among these communities of men. It is only natural that there will be divergence among them in the use of plants-it may be remembered that normally men like to utilize the resources available in their ambiance. In this condition to get an idea about the traditional use of herbal course of different diseases in India, the ethnic societies and literary works should be studied. It needs to be mentioned here t1}at there are numbers of literary works written in Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, Persian, and some other languages. Further in additional to the texts on medical science (Ayurveda) there are many other works, in Sanskrit, which contain reckonable volume of information about the traditional approach towards the plants and their use. Hence, the job of collecting data about the traditional use of the herbal cures in India is vast and complex. But an humble beginning can, perhaps, be made with some selected texts and ethnic societies. Being guided by this idea the present ethnobotanical venture has been made. The ethnobotanical exploration in India was perhaps initiated by Mitra (1913-1916, 1919, 1922, 1933 to 1939), subsequently a great philip was given by Bodding (1925, 1927, 1940); since the last half of the 20th century Jain (1956, 1963a, 1963b, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1979, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1991), Maheshwari (1961, 1980, 1986), Pal (1970, 1972, 1973, 1980), Pal and Jain (1998), and many others are carrying out methodical studies among the tribals of India, but the vast literary sources of India are still awaiting through investigations. Albeit some efforts have been made by Majumdar (1938), Basu (1966), Karnick (1975), Sensarma (1984, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1995 etc.), Manilal (1988) and others. Hardly any attempt has been made to correlate the information collected from the tribal studies with the same gleaned from the literary sources. For obtaining a comprehensive idea regarding the traditional use of plants in this subcontinent corroboration and correlation of information are important. Before accepting or rejecting the ethnobotanical information for practical application in the modern society, the veraity of the same is to be ascertained. In accomplishing this important but great task, the ethnobotanist is dependent on the cooperation of phytochemist and pharmacologist. A preliminary effort, in ascertaining the veracity of the ethnobotanical information, collected from textual and tribal sources, however, may be made by comparing the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani Pharmacopias on one hand, and the chemical properties of the contents of the concerned plants on the other. This exercise of verification will not help to draw the conclusive inference, but may be a significant supportive step towards the objectives.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
3
Keeping the above in view, the present attempt has been made : (i) to correlate the textual and tribal information regarding the use of plant materials in the physiology of human reproduction, and (ii) to compare the same with the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicines as also with the chemical data available from authentic sources.
2. METHODOLOGY The textual information have been collected from five non-ayurvedic texts, viz., Agni Purana, Garuda Purana, Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vijacintamani Tantra. Information regarding uses of plants by three tribes, viz., the Bhats, the Bhils and the Santals, have been obtained from published works and the field surveys. The medicinal and chemical information have been gathered from The Indigenous Drugs of India (1896/1984) of K.L. Dey, Indian Medicinal Plants (4 Vols. 1918/1981) by Kirtikar and Basu, Second Supplement to GlossanJ of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles (1992) by L.V. Asolkar, K.K.Kakkar and O.J.Chakre and from Wealth of India published by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India. The ethnobotanical information have been classified into following groups : (i) Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life, (ii) Treatment of the semen, (iii) Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia, (iv) Treatment of infertility of women, (v) Ensuring easy delivery, (vi) Preventing pregnancy, and (vii) Termination of pregnancy. Generally the botanical names of the plants have been used, and the Sanskrit names have been given parenthetically in case of textual sources, and in those cases where the botanical equivalents of the Sanskrit names could not be ascertained the Sanskrit names have been put in capital letters. In case of tribal sources also the Sanskrit equivalents of the botanical names, wherever possible, have been mentioned in parenthesis.
3. ENUMERATION OF INFORMATION
3.1
Increasing the vitality and ensuring better sexual life
(a)
Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that (i) application of the sap of Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) Rich. ex Walp (kadamba) along with honey and cane-sugar over the sex-organs in beneficial for conjugal life, (ii) the sap of Limonia acidissima L. (kapittha), Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka), Magadhi (many botanical equivalents have been suggested, e.g. Dioscorea bulbifera L., Jasminum officinale L., Piper longum L.), mixed with honey also serve the same purpose. (iii) the sexual vigour of a man increases immensely by regular consumption of milk in which the following have been boiled : the decoction of fruits of Terminalia chebula Retz.(haritaki), Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (vahera), and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki), wood of Santalum album L. (candana), juice of Bacopa monnirei (L.) Wettst. (bhrnga), and Marsilea quadrifolia L. (cuncuka), HEMA (Datura metel L. or Mesua nagassarium (Burm. f & Kosterm), and DOSHA (Curcuma longa L.?), (iv) man who consumes equal quantities of powdered grains of Vigna radiatus (L.) Wilczek (syn. Phaseolus radiatus L. var. roxburghii) (masa), Hordeum vulgare L. (yava), Piper
4
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
peepuloides Wall. (pippali), Triticum aestivum L. (godhuma), and a variety of OnJza sativa L. (sali), boiled with Piper peepuloides Wall. (whole plant?), and drinks milk with canesugar, can have longer duration of copulation, (v) if a man applies the paste of Wedelia calendulacea Less. (bhrngaraja), Biophytum sensitivum L. (lajjaluka) and Adansonia digitata L. (goraksa) externally over the penis, he can keep the woman extremely satisfied; (vi) the woman who washes her sex organs with the extract of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (vahera), Terminalia chebula Retz. (harikati) and Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki) can win her husband completely. (b) Tribal sources To increase the potency of a man the Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal, 1986) give him (i) to drink the water containing root paste of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (satavari) for fifteen days in the morning; (ii) the seedling roots of Bombax ceiba L. (salamali) to chew; and (iii) administer ghee mixed with root paste of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (musali). To treat the impotency of man the Santals (Bodding, 1925/1986, p.357) administer, for a period of one month, pills made by pestling the roots of Themeda gigantea Hackel and Tragia involucrata L. (vrscikali) along with camphor.
3.2
Treatment of the Semen
(a)
Textual sources The Agni Purana states that (i) the quantity of sperms can be increased by consumption of ghee either boiled with the juice of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (satavari) or along with the grains of Vigna radiatus (L.) Wilczek (masa) and Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. (kalamvi); (ii) the use (specific method not mentioned) of Santalum album L. (canadana), Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. (malati), Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (laksa) and Plectranthus barbatus Andi. (girimrttika) can help curing the deformed sperms. The Vijacintamani Tantra contains a long list of herbal medicines. According to this text, (i) consumption of 2 tola powder of sundried Cressa cretica L. (rudanti) before lunch for a period of one month improves the quality of sperms-the text, however, adds that for the particular month, the lunch of the patient should be constituted of rice and milk only; (ii) the entire vegetative plant of Wedelia calandulacea Less. (bhrangaraja) along with its roots should be dried in sun, powdered, and consumed along with stale rice for a period of six months to treat the defective sperms and to increase the quantity of the healthy sperms, but during those six months the patient should eat only rice and milk and must not consume any salted food; (iii) consumption of equal quantities of powdered fruits of Embelia ribes Burm. f. (vidanga) and Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. (hijjala) mixed with honey and oil (seasame? ) makes the sperms effective; (iv) consumption of sundried and powdered roots of white variety of Boerhavia diffusa L. (punarnava) along with milk for a period of one month, makes the sperm healthy. (b)
Tribal sources The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., ibid (i) chew 5 or 6 leaves of Grewia rhamnifolia Roth
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
5
for 20 days to concentrate the semen; and (ii) to treat the nocturnal pollution, they consume the flowers of Bombax ceiba L. (salmali).
3.3
Treating leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
(a)
Textual sources
According to the Agni Purana a lady should consume (i) white or red flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa) for treatment of the white or red discharge; (ii) Mimosa pudica L. (samanga), flowers of Grislea tomentosa Roxb. (dhataki), Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (lodhra), and Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (nilotpala) with milk. The Prayoga Cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment of leucorrhoea: (i) the paste of root bark of Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker (rohitaka) or the seeds of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (amalaki) should be consumed along with sugar and honey; (ii) consumption of fruits of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. along with honey stops the white discharge; (iii) consumption of roots of Gossypium herbaceum L. (karpasa) along with the water, in which sun-dried rice has been washed, cures the disease; (iv) the sap of Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. (guduchi) or the extract of roots and leaves of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) along with honey make a good medicine for this disease; and (v) a good medicine is obtained by pasting the roots of Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv. (kusa) in the water in which sundried rice has been washed. (b)
Tribal sources
In leucorrhoea the Bhils give the stem-bark extract of MitragtJna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (dhulikadamba) with sugar to ladies till cure (Maheshwari, Kalakoti & Lal, 1986). The Santal women take root-powder of Smilax perfoliata Lour. with rice powder in the form of cake to cure white and blood discharge with urine (Mudgal & Pal, 1980). Bodding (pp.359-362) records a long list of medicines used by the Santals for treatment of menorrhagia. The herbal ones are as follows : (i) the flowers of Hibiscus rosasinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kamal), Erythrina indica Lam. (paribhadra), Pterospermum acerifolius Willd. (karnikara), the roots of Helianthus annuus L. (survyyamukhi), the flesh of the fruits of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), the flowers and leaf or bark of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (sephalika), should be boiled together, and the liquid thus obtained should be given to the patient to drink daily till the discharge gradually ceases; (ii) the flowers of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. (Karanikara), the roots of Helianthus annnus L. (suryyamukhi), and the wood of Pterocarpus santalinus L. f (raktacandana) should be pestled together, and pills made from this paste should be consumed daily by the patient till cure; (iii) pills made from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala), barks of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Streblus asper Lour. (sakhotaka) along with some opium should be consumed by the patient with the juice of roots of Ficus glomerata Roxb. (udumbara) daily; (iv) twenty one pills should be made from the paste obtained by grinding the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), flesh of the fruits of Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw.
6
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
(nagaranga), along with twelve black peppercorns, the patient should swallow the pills three times a day with about an ounce of spirit; (v) the patient should daily consume a pill made from the paste obtained by grinding together the flowers of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira), Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. (karanikara), roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (atibala), Helianthus annuus L. (suryyamukhi), and little opium; (vi) a liquid medicine is prepared by boiling the paste of the roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (dhataki), flesh of the fruit of Diospyros embryopteris Pers. (tinduka), and the wood of Pterocaropus santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), a mixture of saltpetre and Anthemis pyrethrum should be added, and then the patient should drink it; (vii) the roots of Indigofera pulcheUa Roxb., Desmodium triflorum DC. (tripadi), and Commelina suffruticosa Bl. should be grinded with the rice made from sundried grain of a variety of black paddy, this paste should be mixed with the refuse of molasses-the same should be consumed by the patient; (viii) the patient should drink for fifteen days the medicine obtained by boiling in water the paste of the roots of Michelia champaca L. (campaka), flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), and a little wood of Pterocarpus santalinus Lf. (raktacandana), (ix) the patient should consume daily the pill made with the bulb and flower of Nymphaea lotus L. (kambala), flower of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), roots of Helianthus annuus L. (suryyamukhi), and a little opium; (x) pills made with the roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sw. (kankatika), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G.Don (kutaja), Bombax ceiba L. (salmali), bark of Streblus asper Lour. (sakhotaka), and a little of opium should be taken regularly by the patient.
3.4
Infertility of Woman
(a)
Textual sources
The Agni Purana states that if the lady, who often suffers from miscarriage, consumes the root of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Sesamum orientale L. (ilia), Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride (madhuka) and sugar the conception becomes secure. For treating the infertility of women, the Garuda Purana states that (i) plant of
Vernonia cineria (L.) Less. (sahadevi) along with its roots should be collected on some particular day; the same should be dried in shade and powdered, this powder should be consumed twice daily with milk of one-coloured cow for few days. According to the Indrajala Tantra, a sterile lady should consume the root of Clitoria
ternatea L. (aparajita) with goat's milk for a few days. The Prayoga cintamani prescribes the following herbal medicines for the treatment of a barren lady. The patient should consume (i) the paste of young leaves of Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Gyotismati) with ghee, or (ii) flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gapa), with stale rice, or (iii) the roots of red variety of Gossypium herbaceum L. (raktakarpasa) and Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp. (nagadamani) specially during the period of menstruation, or (iv) equal quantities of paste of roots of Sida cordifolia L. (bala) and Piper nigrum L. (marica) for three days, and (v) a medicine obtained by pestling
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
7
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (asvagantha), roots or Mandragora officinarum Berlt. (ll}kamana), and the young prop roots of Ficus benghalensis L. (vatavyala) along with milk-consumption of this medicine for seven consecutive nights would surely make a women fertile. (b) Tribal sources The Santals have some medicines to treat the barrenness in women-but they are not purely herbal in nature. These are complex mixtures of chemicals, plants and animals (Bodding, p.357).
3.5
Ensuring Easy Delivery
(a)
Textual sources
To facilitates smooth delivery of the child, the Agni Purana gives two prescriptions. The first one states that the paste of Datura metel L. (dhustura), Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (sahadevi), Cardiospermum helicacabum L. (rudrajata) and Biophytum sensitivum L. (lajjaluka) should be applied externally over the womb. According to the second one, if the paste of any of the following plants-Solanum nigrum L. (kakamci), Gloriosa superba L. (languli) or Justicia gendarussa Burm. f (atarusaka) is applied on the lower side of the naval region of the pregnant, the delivery will be smooth and easy. The Garuda Purana also contains similar idea-it states that if the paste of any \one of the following plants is plastered to the lower side of the naval region and in the mouth of vagina of the pregnant lady, the delivery will be smooth and painlessGloriosa superba L. (languli), Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja) and Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha). The Indrajala Tantra contains the following three observations (i) introduction of the powdered roots of Boerhavia diffusa L. (punarnava) into the vagina at the time of delivery makes the process easy and painless; (li) affixing the roots of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (sahadevi) on the waist of the pregnant serves the purpose, and (iii) tying the 'north extending roots' of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (vasaka) with seven threads on the waist of the pregnant ensures smooth and easy delivery. According to the Prayoga cintamani, the paste of anyone of the following plants is useful : Stephania elegans Hk. f & T. (patha), Gloriosa superba L. (languli), Rajata (Achyranthus aspera L. ?) and Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. (sinhasya). (b)
Tribal sources
The Bhils (Maheshwari et al., 1986) have the following two recipes: (i) the stembark of Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (aksikiphala) is powdered, mixed with water, filtered, sugar candy is added to the filtrate, and this mixture is given to the ladies two times a day for three weeks, and (li) the root of stem (about 8 cm long) of Echinops echinatus Roxb. (tiksnagra) is crushed and the paste mixed with water is given once to the pregnant lady. The Santals (Boding, p. 363) use the following methods : (i) stick the root or the entire plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga) into the top of the doorway before
8
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
delivery but remove it immediately after delivery; (li) insert the roots of Ocimum sanctum L. (tulasi) (pulled out by one breath) into the pregnant's hair of the head; (iii) extract of the root Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. (arka) should be mixed with black pepper corns-some amount of this liquid should be drunk by the pregnant and a portion should be warmed and applied over her abdomen.
3.6
Prevention of Pregnancy
(a)
Textural sources
No herbal medicine for this purpose could be gleaned from the texts under the present study. (b)
Tribal sources
The Bhats (La! and Lata, 1980) give the ladies to consume (i) the leaves of Lycium barbatum L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (yastimadhu), roots of Sida spinosa L. (nagabala), anthers of Mesua forrea L. (nagakesara), and galls of Pistacia integerrima L. (karkatasmgi), mixed with honey, cow's milk and ghee daily; (i) powdered leaves of Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. (plaksa) and fruits of Cuminum ClJminum L. Giraka) with water after menstruation; (iii) young leaves of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) homogenously mixed with cow's milk as a slow sterilizer; (iv) the decoction of equal quantity of fruits of Cleorodendron indicum (L.) Kuntze (bharangi), Sesamum orientale L. (tila), Moringa oleifera Lamk. (sigru), Piper nigrum L. (marica) and molasses for 20 days; (v) the powdered seeds of Citrus medica L. (matulunga) along with the milk of a cow having recent male offspring as a strong sterilizer; (vi) decoction of leaves of Sphaeranthus africans L. (mundi), fruits of Xanthium strumarium L. (sankhapuspi) and Tinospora malabarica Lamk. (amrta) in the morning for 14 days. The Santals and some other tribes of Mayurbhanj (Mudgal and Pal, 1980) use the following to prevent pregnancy : (i) stem-bark decoction of Bridelia crenulata Roxb. with country liquor is given after menstruation; (li powdered seeds of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) mixed with country liquor is given for three days after menstruation; (iii) powdered stem-bark (or decoction of the same) of Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Etting (vrksadani with liquor of Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) after three days of menstruation, and (iv) flower-paste of Thysanolaena maxima (Retz.) Kuntze Guma) is given with country liquor after menstruation.
3.7
Termination of Pregnancy
(a)
Textural sources No information could be obtained from the texts under study.
(b)
Tribal sources
The Bhat women (Lal and Lata, 1980) consume anyone of the following as abortifacient: (a) equal quantity of leaves of Ficus religiosa L. (asvattha), fruits of Embelia ribes Burro. J. (vidanga), borax with cow's milk, (b) ash of seeds of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa) with latex of Ferula alliacea Boiss. (bahlikam) and cow's milk.
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
9
The Bhils (Maheshwari, Kolakoti and Lal, 1986) with pulp of heartwood of Borassus
flabellifer L. (tala) to ladies one or two times only. The Santals (a) use fresh roots (about 3 cm long) of Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga) as mechanical means for causing abortion, (b) apply bruised roots and nuts of Semecarpus anacardium L. f (bhallataka) to uterus of 3 to 5 months pregnant woman for abortion, and (c) give seed-powder of Annona reticulata L. (ramphala) with that of Piper nigrum L. (marica) for causing termination of pregnancy upto 3 to 4 months.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The number of plants, mentioned in the texts and used by the tribes for each purpose, vary to a considerable extent (Table-I). This deviation may be an index of the extent of knowledge of the sources studied with regard to the use of plants for these purposes. The textual sources, studied for the present work, do not reveal any information on the use of plants in preventing and terminating pregnancy (Table-II). It may be mentioned in this connection that Ayurvedic works like Caraka Samhita and Susruta Samhita also do not throw light on these aspects, but they contain instructions about better sexual life, treatment of penis, semen, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, menstrual disorders, etc. (Appendix-A). All these texts were prepared either in ancient or in medieval ages. During those period the problem of population control did not arise, rather in those periods every clan could get greater dominance and influence with its numerical increase. This idea derives strength even by analyzing the studies made on the tribals at different decades of the twentieth century; as for example, the Santal Medicine and connected folklore (1925, 1927, 1940) monumental contribution of Bodding, who spent nearly thirty years amongst the Santals earlier, do not contain much information in this regard, while most of the modem studies of the tribes bring out some information on this important aspect. And some of the later Ayurvedic works mention about the use of vegetal materials in preventing and terminating pregnancy (Appendix-B). In this connection it must be admitted that the information regarding the use of plants by the Bhats is incomplete, the community which uses a large number of plants for prevention and termination of pregnancy must be utilizing some plants of for other purpose of family welfare too. Amongst the textural sources, the Agni Purana mentions maximum number of plants for all aspects of conjugal life, while the Garud Purana, Prayoga Cintamani, and Indrajala Tantra concentrate only on the ailments of females. Should it be imagined that those texts were ignorant/ indifferent about the ailments of the males, or ailments among the males were comparatively less then? More investigations are required to get the appropriate answer. Though more than one hundred plants have been referred to' in this article, only seven plants viz. Achyranthes aspera L., Asparagus racemosus Willd., Embelia ribes Burm. f, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., Holarrhena pubescens Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don, Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., and Sesamum orientale L., are common in the lists of plants in the texts
10
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
and tribes; all these seven plants are also not used for the same purpose in the texts and by the tribes (Table-Ill). Generally speaking, the method of using plants by the tribes differs from the same mentioned in the texts. It may be argued that since the tribals represent the Laukika culture and the texts belong to the Sastriya culture (Saraswari, 1970), the difference is only natural. But this hypothesis does not hold good, as divergence in use of the plants exists among the tribes themselves, and in between the textual sources too (Table -IT). These differences among the tribes may be caused by ecological factors, at least to some extent ; the Bhils live in Madhya Pradesh, the Bhats in Rajasthan, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, while the Santals live in Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. There may be other contributing factors. To assess the nature, extent, and reason (s) of these differences ethnobotanists need the cooperation of phytoanthropologists (Sensarma and Ghosh, 1995). It appears that a through probe into these divergences by competent investigators may bring out new information about the history of utilization of plant vis-a-vis the socio-cultural evolution from the plant perspective. It is interesting to note that most of the plants mentioned in this article are recognized by the Ayurveda and Allopathy system as medicinal plants, while the Yunani and Homeopathy systems acknowledge the therapeutic properties of many of them. All these systems utilize the plants as medicines for purposes other than those mentioned in this article, and seldom use of the plants in the physiology of reproduction is met with. The therapeutic uses prescribed by different systems of medicine of the seven species of plants, common in the lists of texts and tribes, along with the chemical contents of the same have been shown in Table- IV. Information regarding the use of the species of plants, mentioned in this article, as could be gathered from investigations conducted by different scholars on some ethnic communities and literary sources of India, has been separately enumerated (Table -Y). This observation brings out clearly the necessity of verification of the textual and tribals information, as stated earlier, by both the methods, viz., phytochemical and pharmaceutical analysis, and proving. It may, however, be said on the basis of the information mentioned in this paper that the ethnobotanical studies of texts and tribes may help in finding out the utilities of easily available herbal materials with efficacy for various aspects of family welfare.
Any ethnobotanical study not only brings out new information about the manplant relationship, but the same also indicates new areas of research in plant science, and involved socio-cultural history of man. Thus the importance of ethnobotany is not limited to its utilitarian significance, this branch of scientific persuasion also helps to comprehend the progress of human civilization.
5. SUMMARY The author has shed light on traditional medicinal plants used for family planning in India. The traditional drugs or drug yielding plants have been evaluated comparatively. Textural information from five non-ayurvedic texts viz., Agni purana, Garuda purana, Indrajala Tantra, Prayoga Cintamani and Vajacinatamani Tantra, as well as Indian folklore of three tribes viz., the Bhats, Bhils and Santals have been analyzed critically. The information is also discussed alongwith the data from Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha
11
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
and Allopathy. The author has pointed out some aspects which are not covered by the monumental works in Ayurveda and causes of divergence in using plants by the tribes studied and the textual sources, apart from new areas of research. To facilitate the analysis of the materials, four Tables have been prepared; and for the sake of brevity abbreviations used have been used in the Tables Abbreviation
Full Denomination
AP
Agni Purana
GP
Garuda Purana
IT
Indrajala Tantra
PC
Prayoga Cintamani
VC
Vijacintamani Tantra
I
Increasing vitality and ensuring better sexual life
II
Treatment of semen
III
Treatment of leucorrhoea and menorrhagia
IV
Treatment of infertility of women
V
Ensuring easy delivery
VI VII
Prevention of pregnancy
MOD
Termination of pregnancy Medicine for other disease(s) TABLE 1
Number of species of plants mentioned in the sources for various purposes
I
II
PURPOSES III IV V
17
06
05
Sources Agni Purana Garuda Purana Indrajala Tantra
06 05
Prayoga Cintamani Vijacintamani Tantra Bhat Bhil Santal
05 02
02
01 22
05 01 01
07
09
04
VI
VII
16
04
04
03
02 03
01 04
04
t-I N
TABLE-2 Table Use of Plants in Family Welfare Sources
Better Sexual Life
I Agni Purana Adansonia digitata, Anthocephalus chinensis, Bacopa monnieri, Bjophytum sensitivum, Hordeum vulgare, Limonia acidissima, Madhuca longifolia, Marsilea quadrifolia, Oryza sativa, Piper peepuloides, Emblica officinalis, Santalum album, Termiinalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Triticum aestivum, Vigna radiata, Wedelia chinensis Garuda Nil Purana
Prayoga Cintamani
Nil
Purposes Treatment of Treatment of Infertility Semen Leucorrhoea and Menorrhagia IV II III Aganosma Grislea tomentosa, Madhuca dichotoma, Hibiscus longifolia, rosasinensis, Nelumbo Asparagus racemosus, Butea Mimosa pudica, nucifera, monosperma, Nelumbo nucifera, Sesamum Ipomoea orientale Symplocos aquatica, racemosa Santalum album, Vigna radiata
Nil
Nil
Nil
Adhatoda zeylanica, Aphanamixis
Vernonia albicans
Ensuring Easy Delivery V Biophytum sensitivum, Cardiospermum helicacabum, Datura me tel, Gloriosa superba, Justicia sp., Solanum nigrum, Vernonia albicans
Achyranthes aspera, Gloriosa superba, Holarrhena pubescens, Stephania elegans Artemisia Achyranthes nilagirica, aspera, Adhatoda Cardiospermum zeylanica,
Prevention of Pregnancy VI
Tennination of Pregnancy VII
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
~
~
tl
>
'en"
il:
> Z Nil
Nil
C/l rrl Z
en
> Contd ...
'~"
>
~
... Contu.
:=
I
II
III
V
IV
VI
VII
-> t:j '"'l
Desmostachya bipinnata, Gossypium herbaceum, Emblica officinalis, Tinospora cordifolia
Vijacintamani Barringtonia acutangula, Boerhavia Tantra diffusa, Cresssa cretica, Embelia ribes, Wedelia chinensis Nil Indrajal Tantra
Bhat
Nil
Nil
Nil
helicacabum, Ficus bengalensis, Gossypium herbaceum, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Mandragora officinalis, Piper nigrum, Sida cordifolia, Withania somnifera Nil
Gloriosa superba, Stephania elegans
0
~
r"'
c::
CIl
!!'l
0
"rl
I-d r"'
~ ....Z
->-~ CIl
Z
Nil
Nil
Nil
~
> ;s::
~
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Clitoria ternatea
Nil
Adhatoda zeylanica, Boerhavia diffusa, Vernonia albicans Lycium barbatum
Nil
Nil
~
r"'
"rl
> := !!'l Butea monosperma, Citrus medica, Clerodendrum indicum, Cuminum
Butea monosperma, Embelia ribes, Ferula alliacea, Ficus Contd ...
I-l
(,jJ
~
...Contd.
~
I
Bhil
Santal
Asparagus racemosus, Bombax ceiba, Curculigo orchioides Themeda gigantea, Tragia involucrata
II
Bombax ceiba, Gre111ia rhamnifolia Nil
III
Mitragyna paruifolia
Abutilon indicum, Anthemis pyrethrum,
IV
Nil
Nil
V
VI
cyminum, Ficus arnottiana, Gly.cyrrhiza glabra, Lycium barbarum, Mesua ferrea, Moringa oleifera, Piper nigrum, Pistacia chinensis sub sp. integerrima, Sesamum orientale, Sida spinosa, Sphaeranthus africanus, Tinospora sinensis, Xanthium strumarium Nil
Dillenia pentagyna, Echinops echinatus. Borassus A chyranthes aspera, Boerhavia flabellifer,
VII
religiosa, Oercxiendrum indicum
:P Borassus flabellifer
~
t::l
>
'::t::" CIl
>
Z
Achyranthes aspera, Contd ...
r:J) ttl
Z
CIl
>
'"
~
>
...Contd. I
II
III
Bombax ceiba, Borassus flabellifer, Citrus aurantium, Commelina suffruticosa, Desmodium triflorum, Diospyros malabarica, Erythrina indica, Ficus racemosa, He/ianthus annuus, Hibiscus rosasinensis, Holarrhena pubescens, Indigofera cassioides, Michelia champaca, Nelumbo nucifera, Nerium indicum, Nyctanthes arbortristis, Pterospermum acerifolium, Pterocarpus santalinus, Smilax perfoliata, Streblus asper, Woodfordia jruiticosa, Marsilea quardifolia
IV
V
diffusa, Bombax ceiba, Calotropis gigantea, Ocimum sanctum
VI
Bridelia crenulata, Butea monosperma, Dendrophthoe falcata, Madhuca longifolia
VII
Annona reticulata, Gloriosa superba
16
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
TABLE 3 Complete list of plants and their uses Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Family
1. 2. 3. 4.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Achyranthes aspera L. Adansonia digitata L. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic
Malvaceae Amaranthaceae Bombacaceae Acanthaceae
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. Annona reticulata L. Anthemis pyrethrum L. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich. Aphanamyxis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Biophytum sensitivum L. Boerhavia diffusa L. Bombax ceiba L.
Apocynaceae Annonaceae Asteraceae Rubiaceae Meliaceae Asteraceae Liliaceae Scrophulariaceae Myrtaceae Oxalidaceae Nyctaginaceae Bombacaceae
17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Borassus flabellifer L. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Cardiospermum helicacabum L.
Arecaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Asclepiadaceae Sapindaceae
22. Citrus aurantium L. 23. Citrus medica L. 24. Clerodendron indicum (L.) Ktze. 25. Clitoria tematea L. 26. Commelina suffruticosa B1. 27. Cressa cretica L. 28. Cuminum cyminum L. 29. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. 30. Datura metel L. 31. Dendrophthoe falcate (Lf.) Etting 32. Desmodium triflorum DC. 33. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf.
Rutaceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae Commelinaceae Convolvulaceae Apiaceae Amaryllidaceae Solanaceae Loranthaceae Fabaceae Poaceae
Uses prescribed by Texts Tribes GP:V AP:I PC:III,Vi IT:V APII
Sant:III SantV, VII
Sant:VII Sant:III AP:I PC:III PC:IV AP:II AP:I VC:II AP:I,Vi IT:V VC:II Bhil:I,IIi Sant:III Bhil:VII SantVI AP:II Sant:V AP:Vi PC: IV Sant:III Sant:III Bhat:VII IT:IV Sant:III VC:II Bhat:VI Bhil:I AP:V Sant:VI Sant:III PC: III Contd ....
17
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
... Contd. Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Family
34. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. 35. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost. 36. Echinops echinatus Roxb. 37. Embelia ribes Burm. f. 38. Erythrina variegata 1. 39. Ferula alliacea Boiss. 40. Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Miq. 41. Ficus benghalensis 1. 42. Ficus racemosa 1. 43. Ficus religiosa 1. 44. Gloriosa superba 1.
Dilleniaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Myrsinaceae Fabaceae Apiaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Liliaceae
45. Glycyrrhiza glabra 1.
Fabaceae
46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Gossypium herbaceum 1. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne Grislea tomentosa Roxb. Helianthus annuus 1. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 1.
51. Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don 52. Hordeum vulgare 1. 53. Indigofera cassioides RottI. ex DC. 54. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. 55. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. 56. Limonia acidissima 1. 57. Lycium barbatum 1. 58. Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) Mcbride 59. Mandragora officinalis 1. 60. Marsilea quardrifolia 1. 61. Mesua ferrea 1. 62. Michelia champaca 1. 63. Mimosa pudica 1. 64. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. 65. Moringa oleifera Lamk. 66. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 67. Nerium indicum Mill.
Malvaceae Tiliaceae Lythraceae Asteraceae Malvaceae Apocynaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Convolvulaceae Acanthacee Rutaceae Solanaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae Marsileaceae Clausiaceae Magnoliaceae Mimosaceae Rubiaceace Moringaceae Nelumbonaceae A pocynaceae
Uses prescribed by Tribes Texts Bhil:V Sant:III Bhat:V VC:II Sant:III Bhat:VII Bhat:VI PC:IV Sant:III Bhat:VII AP:V, GP:V, PV:V SantVII, Bhat:VI PC:I1I, IV Bhil:II AP:III AP:III, PC:lV GP:V
Sant:III Sant:III Sant:III
AP:I Sant:III AP:II AP:V AP:I Bhat:V AP:I,IV PC:IV AP:I
Sant:I1I BhatVI Sant:III
AP:I1I
AP:III,IV
Bhil:III Bhat:VI Sant:III Sant:III Contd ....
18
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
... Contd. Sr. Name of the Plant No.
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. 69. Ocimum sanctum L. 70. Oryza sativa L. 71. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. 68.
72. 73. 74.
Piper nigrum L. Piper peepuloides Roxb. Pistacia chinensis Bunge subsp.
75. 76.
integerrim L. (Stew.) Rech. F. Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f
77. 78. 79.
80. 81. 82. 83.
84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98.
99. 100. 101.
Santalum album L. Semecarpus ana cardium L.f Sesamum orientale L. Sida cordifolia L. Sida spinosa L. Smilax perfoliata Lour. Solanum nigrum L. Sphaeranthus africanus L. Stephania elegana HK. f & T. Streblus asper Lour. Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Terminalia belllrica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Terminalia chebula Retz. Themeda gigantea Hackel Thysanolaena maxima Ktze. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Tragia involvucrata L. Triticum aestivum L. Vernonia albicans DC. Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilo Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. Xanthium strumarium L.
Family
Uses prescribed by Texts Tribes
Oleaceae Lamiaceae Poaceae Euphorbiaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Pistaciaceae Sterculiaceae Fabaceae Santalaceae Anacardiaceae Pedaliaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Smilacaceae
Sant:III Sant:V AP:I AP:I, PC: III Bhat:VI AP:I BhaT:VI Sant:III Sant:III AP:I, II Sant:VII AP:IV PC:IV
Bhat:VI . Sant:III
AP:V Solanaceae Asteraceae Menispermaceae GP:V, PC:V Moraceae Symplocaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Poaceae Poaceae
Fabaceae Asteraceae Solanaceae Lythraceae Asteraceae
Bhat:VI
Sant:II1 AP:III AP:I AP:I Sant:I Sant:VI
Menispermaceae PC:III Menispermaceae Euphorbiaceae Poaceae Asteraceae
Bhat:VII
Bhat:VI Sant:I
AP:I GP:IV AP:I, II VC:II PC:II Sant:III Bhat:VI
~
TABLE 4
1::0
Therapeutic uses of seven species of plants in different systems of medicine Sr. No.
Name of the Plant
Texts
Tribes
Ayurveda
Unani
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy
=l
Chemical contents of the plants
0
Z
>
t"'"
e
[J'l
1.
2.
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae) Asparagus racemosus Willd.
GP:V, PC:V AP:II
Santal:V, VII Bhil:I
MOD
The root is galactagogue, and MOD
3.
Embelia ribes Burm f (Myrsinaceae)
4.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Malvaceae)
VC:II
AP:III, PC:IV
Bhat:VII
Santal:III
Cures urinary discharges, and MOD
The buds are used to treat uterine and vaginal discharges, seminal weakness, and flowers fried in ghee are used to check excessive menstruation.
MOD
The root is galactogogue, and useful in gonorrhoea MOD
MOD
MOD
The plant is rich in potash
tT1
0
'Tl
~ t"'"
> ~
MOD
--[J'l
Z
MOD
MOD
The drug contains embelin, quercitol, christembine, a resinoid, tannins, fatty ingredients, and minute quantities of volatile oil. Some parts The flowers of the plant contain moisture, are nitrogen, fat, crude demulcent fibre, calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid. The leaves contain carbotone.
Z 0
>
Z
~
s::
~
~
t"'"
'Tl
> ::=
tT1
~
Contd...
.\C
I-.J
·..Contd. Sr. No.
0
Name of the Plant
5.
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don
6.
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Nelumbonaceae)
Texts GP:V
Tribes Santal:1II
AP:III, IV Santal:1II
Ayurveda
Unani
MOD
The bark checks excessive menstrual flow; the leaves are useful to regulate menstruation, and MOD
Anthers are sedative to the uterus; seeds are sedative to the pregnant uterus, and all parts are MOD
The root is good to treat spermatorrhoea; seeds are tonic to the uterus, useful in menorrhagia and leucorrhoea, and many parts are MOD
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy MOD
The bark and seeds are antiperiodic, they are used after delivery to give proper tone to vagina
Chemical contents of the plants The therapeutic value of this lant is due to the presence of alkaloids which occur as tannate. The principal alkaloid is conessine; there are seventeen other alkaloids. In addition to alkaloids it contains gums, resins, tannins, some types of alcohols
MOD I-c:I liI:l
~
0
> liI:l til ::r: > Z C/l ttl
Z
til
> liI:l Contd...
•
== >
•
... Contd. Sr. No.
Name of the Plant
Texts
AP:IV
7.
Sesamum orientale L. (Pedaliaceae)
Tribes
BhatVI
Ayurveda
Unani
The roots and The seeds seeds cure galactogogue, menorrhagia, useful in and MOD urinary concretions, and MOD
Uses Prescribed by Homoeopathy Allopathy
MOD
Chemical contents of the plants The seeds yield edible oil and important as a source of protein for human nutrition. The seeds also contain carbohydrates, oxalic acid, calcium, phosphorus, and other mineral matters
22
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
TABLE 5
Use of the species of plants by other tribes and texts in family welfare 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Birhor : Leaf decoction is used as wash for vaginal infection and dried seed powder as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic and unani systems of medicine, it is used as anti-inflammatory agent of genital organs, and in spermatorrhoea, besides many other diseases. In allopathic system, the species is considered as medicinal. Achyranthes aspera L. Tribes of Chotanagpur and Bastar : Root is as abortifacient. Ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh and Tharus employ root to women for treatment of antifertility. Ethnic communities of Orissa and Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use root in bleeding in delivery. Asurs, ethnic Communities of Meghalaya and Orissa use root for fascilitating childbirth. Since the time of the Atharvaveda this species is regarded as medicinally important, and in Ayurvedic system it is used for treatment of many diseases. In homoeopathic system, it is used in menorrhagia. In allopathic system, too different parts of the plant are used for treatment of various diseases. Adansonia digitata L. In Ayurvedic system, the fruits are used for treatment of many other diseases. In allopathic system leaves are used as diaphoretic, and also as polyphylactic against fever. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. It is an important medicinal plant in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems, but no part of the plant is used in family welfare. Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. In tribal, Ayurvedic and allopathic systems various parts of the plant are used in treatment of different diseases, but not for any purpose of family planning. Annona reticulata L. Different parts of the plant are used as antidysenteric and anthelmintic in the folk and allopathic systems. Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) DC. (Santal : Akor Kora) According to Bodding, Santals use the plant (Santal name : Akor Kora) as an ingredient of the medicines of puerperal fever and menorrhagia. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lam.) Rich. Ethnic communities of Orrissa use bark in antifertility. In Sukla Yajurveda : bark extract is noted in rectifying defects of semen. Later Ayurvedic works mention roots and flowers as abortifacient; and in allopathic system stem bark extract is used as anthelmintic and hypoglycaemic. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur employ bark in pain after child birth. Totos use various parts of the plant in different diseases, but not in family welfare.
Contd...
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
23
Contd ...
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Later Ayurvedic works note decoction of root-bark in menorrhagia, while according to Caraka Samhita stem bark and flowers are useful in many diseases. In homoepathic and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used in various diseases, including cancer. Artemisia nilagirica (Cl.) Pamp. Garhwalis employ the plant in menstrual disorders. Totos, Garos, and ethnic communities of Dehradun (Uttaranchal), Kashmir, Khed Taluka (Maharashtra) use the whole plant and different parts of the same for various other diseases. In allopathic system the herb, leaves and flowers are used as anthelmintic, antispasmodic and stomachic. Asparagus racemosus Willd. In tribal, Ayurvedic and unani systems the plant, its roots and leaves are used in many deficiencies and diseases, but not in the physiology of reproduction, though roots and leaves are regarded as galactogogue. In allopathic system the root is used in impotency and azcospermea besides other diseases. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. Nayadis, Bhils, ethnic communities of Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Maharashtra use the herb as tonic and different parts in many diseases but not in family welfare. According to Atharva Veda the herb improves the quality of semen; in Ayurvedic system it is used for invigorating sex and in many disabilities and diseases; in unani and allopathic systems the herb is considered useful in low adynamic conditions and many other diseases. Barringtonia acutangula (L.) Gaertn. Mikirs, Santals,. and some ethnic communities of Orissa find different vegetative parts useful for various ailments, but not in family welfare. The Ayurvedic works as well as unani and allopathic systems recognize the utility of this species in some other ailments.
Biophytum sensitivum L. Rural folk of Orissa and ethnic communities of Sagar district consider the plant as antiexcitant. Bhils use root to decrease sexual vigour; and the ethnic communities of Ratan Mahal Hills (Gujarat) maintain that smoking dried leaves with tobacco reduces the reproductive capabilities of man, and excessive use of the same renders him impotent. Kasis, Jaintias and Santals find different parts of the plant beneficial for diverse diseases. The medicinal usefulness of the leaves has been reCOgnized by the allopathic system.
.
15.
Boerhavia diffusa L. Ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan, Dahanu forest use leaf in child birth, whereas tribes of Sagar district employ root in treatment of gonorrhoea. Leaves and other parts are used in the treatment of a number of diseases by many ethnic communities of India. The medicinal importance of this species has been Contd...
24
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ...
16.
17.
18. 19.
20.
21.
22.
recognized since the days of the Rigveda: it is being used in Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, homoeopathic and allopathic systems of medicine for treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bombax ceiba L. Rural folk of Assam use leaf to treat infertility; Santals find seedling spermatorrhoea. Garhwalis and tribes of Dahanu forest use root to treat impotency. A large number of tribal societies use different parts of the plant for treatment of many diseases. In Ayurvedic system the root of sapling is used in the treatment of weakness of sex, insufficiency of sperms, gonorrhoea, and lOot-bark in menorrhagia. Borassus flabellifer L. Santals employ many parts for treatment of various ailments and diseases. The medicinal importance of the species has been recognized since the days of the Atharva Veda. Different parts of the plant are used in Ayurvedic, siddha and allopathic systems of medicine. Bridelia crenulata Roxb. Ethnic communities of Orissa use the stem-bark for treatment of antifertility. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Ethnic communities of Mayurbhanja (Orissa) use seeds as contraceptive, whereas ethnic societies of Kannanore (Kerala) employ flowers in infertility. Many tribal communities of India use different parts of the plant for treatment of many diseases. According to the Atharva Veda, the extract of stem is beneficial for sperms and helps securing conception. In Ayurvedic system the leaves are regarded as sex stimulant and useful in menorrhagia, while flowers as sex stimulant. Further, different parts of the plant are considered of medicinal importance in Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, and allopathic systems of medicine. In modern medicine the usefulness of alcoholic extracts of bark, flower in the physiology of reproduction is acknowledged. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. Nagas administer root-decoction in leucorrhoea. Sfu'ltals do so in post-natal complaints. Irulars use the latex as abortifacient. Miris, Nagas, Lodhas, Oraons, Santals, Tharus, Kumaonis, Dangs and Vasavas use different parts of the plant in many diseases. This species is considered medicinal in homoepathic and allopathic systems. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Lodhas, Mundas, Oraons use root and leaves in the treatment of some diseases. The species is ti~ed in unani and allopathic systems of medicine. Citrus aurantium L. Traditionally different parts of the plant are used in some gastro-intestinal problems. In allopathic system extracts of stem and leaf are used mainly as antimicrobial, but the peel of fruits against antifertility. Contd...
..
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
25
Contd ... 23.
Citrus medica L. Traditionally ripe fruits are considered effective in amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoea. The species is regarded as medicinal in unani system.
24.
Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Ktze.
25. 26. 27. 28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur use the root as abortifacient. In Ayurvedic and allopathic systems different parts of the plant are used for treatment of many diseases but not for family welfare. C[itoria ternatea L. Ethnic communities of Cannanore (Kerala) use the roots as abortifacient. Commelina suffruticosa B1. No other information could be obtained. Cressa cretica L. Some ethnic communities of Orissa eat the plant as vegetable. Cuminum ClJminum L. Irulars, Kotas and Todas use seeds to reduce labour pain, while ethnic communities of Chhotanagpur use the same to accelerate child delivery. Tribal societies of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) employ fruits in inflammation of testicles and breasts. In Ayurvedic, unani, and allopathic systems different parts of the plants are used for various diseases. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Ethnic communities of Purulia (West Bengal) use roots in venereal diseases. Tribes of Hazaribagh Gharkhand) employ roots in leucorrhoea. Ethnic communities of East Rajasthan find useful roots in impotency. The species is considered medicinally important in tribal, Ayurvedic, siddha, unani, and allopathic systems, and different parts are used for various purposes. Datura metel L. Santals and ethnic communites of Sagar use leaf in gonorrhoea and syphilis. Different parts of the plant are used in tribal, Ayurvedic, and allopathic systems for treatment of many diseases. Dendrophthoe falcata (Lf) Etting Ethnic communities of Tejpur (Assam), Chhotanagpur Gharkhand), Mayurbhanja (Orissa) employ the plant in antifertility, while the tribals of Bastar (Chhatisgarh) use the same for treatment of impotency. The plant is recognized as medicinal in Ayurvedic and allopathic systems. Desmodium trijlorum DC. Different parts of the plant are used by the Mundas in a number of diseases. In allopathic system of medicine too this species is considered important. Contd...
26
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd... 33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39. 40.
41.
42.
Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. While Cakradatta holds roots beneficial in menorrhagia, almost all Ayurvedic authors prescribe different parts of the plant for treatment of a number of diseases. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Totos of West Bengal, ethnic communities of Orissa and Abujhmarh reserve area find different parts of the plant useful for diverse diseases. Diospyros malabarica (Descr.) Kost. While ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh, and some ancient Sanskrit works recommend the use of fruits mainly for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and some skin diseases. Later Ayurvedic works recommend aqueous extract of green fruit in menorrhagia. Echinops echinatus Roxb. Ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh use the parts of the plant in some diseases, and in allopathic system alcoholic extract of the plant is considered as spasmogenic. Embelia nOes Burm. f Ethnic communities of Garhwal, Kamrup and North East India use fruits and seeds in a few diseases. Some Sanskrit works, including the ayurvedic texts, recommend use of different parts of the plant for a large number of diseases, but not for . anything connected with family welfare. Erythrina variegata L. Medicinal importance of the species is recognized by some ethnic communities and in many Ayurvedic works. In the Ayurvedic system the stem-bark and leaves are recommended in dysmenorrhoea. Ferula alliacea Boiss. It is considered by some modern botanists as an economically important species. Ficus arnottiana [Miq.] Miq. According to some Ayurvedic works this species is beneficial for semen and in vaginopathy. Ficus benghalensis L. Bhoxas and ethnic communities of eastern Rajasthan use latex in spermatorrhoea; while many other tribal societies use different parts of the plant for various diseases. In ayurvedic system the bark is used in seminal weakness, leucorrhoea and gonorrhoea. In modern science the bark decoction is considered for antifertility. Ficus racemosa L. While many communities use different parts of the plant in treatment of various diseases. Manipuries use the juice of pith in menorrhagia and spermatorrhoea. Contd...
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
27
Contd ... In Ayurvedic, siddha and allopathic systems the species in considered medicinally
43.
44.
45.
46.
47. 48. 49.
50.
important, while Madana nighntu states that it is useful in antifertility. Ficus religiosa L. Manipuris and ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) employ the bark in gonorrhoea. The Ayurvedic works state that different parts of the plant are useful in sex-debility, night pollution, and to cure disorders in the female sex organs. In allopathic system also the species is treated as medicinal. Gloriosa superba L. Mundas and Oraons use tuber for antifertility purpose. Santals and Garhwalis and ethnic communities of Orissa use tuberous roots for abortion. Rajanigantu, Madangnighantu and Bhavaprakasa consider it as abortifacient, while Cakradatta maintains that application of root-paste ensures easy delivery of child. According to Susruta the plant is useful in post-natal complaints. Allopathic system also recognize the medicinal importance of the species. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Medicinal properties of the species have been enumerated in many Ayurvedic works, and according to modern science the root-extract is estrogenic. Gossypium herbaceum L. Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts (Jharkhand) find root-bark and seed useful as abortifacient. The Ayurvedic system also consider the roots and seeds as abortifacient. In modern science, gossypol-a chemical obtainable from root, stem, and seed is a safe antifertility drug for male. Grewia rhamnifolia Heyne No further information could be collected. Grislea tomentosa Roxb. No further information could be collected. Helianthus annuus L. Manipuris and the ethnic communities of Salsette island (near Mumbai) use different parts of the plant for various purposes, and in modern system of medicine too it has many applications but not for any purpose of family welfare. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Manipuris employ juice of flowers in amenorrhoea. Bodos, use root in menstrual complaints and gonorrhoea. Ethnic communities of Kamrup (Assam) use flowers as contraceptive, whereas ethnic communities of Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) use flowers in impotency, and also to accelerate child birth; ethnic communities of Ranchi (Jharkhand) use bark as abortifacient, ethnic communities of Saurashtra (Gujrat) employ flowers in menorrhagia. In Ayurvedic system roots and flowers are used in seminal weakness, menorrhagia, and venereal diseases; in unani system too flowers are utilized in menorrhagia. In siddha and allopathic systems also the species is considered as medicinally important. Contd ...
28
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ... 51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57. 58.
59. 60.
61.
Holarrhena . pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don Mundas use root and leaf iI1' excessive hemorrhage after child birth. Ethnic communities of Abujh-Marh (Madhya Pradesh) find bark useful in menstrual difficulties. Many tribal communities of India use different parts of the plant in various diseases. In Ayurvedic, siddha, and unani systems the species is used against wide range of diseses. In allopathic system, alcoholic extract of fruits is used to regulate menstruation and in many other ailments. Hordeum vulgare L. Santals, Garhwalis and Kashmiris use the grains in various diseases. In ayurveda, unani and allopathy systems the species in considered important medicinally. Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. Many ethnic communities of India eat the flowers as vegetable. In modern science the alcoholic extract of root is regarded as antiviral and spasmolytic. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Ethnic communities of Hazaribagh and Ranchi (Jharkhand) employ stem is gonorrhoea, whereas ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra find stem, leaf and flowers beneficial for treatment of some diseases. In Ayurvedic system stem extract is used in gonorrhoea and a galactagogue, while other parts in treatment of different diseases. In modern science, the alcoholic extract of the plant is considered as spasmolytic. Justida gendarussa Burm. f Mikirs and Nayadis use leaf in bone dislocation and fracture. It is used in Ayurvedic system for orthopedic purposes. Limonia addissima L. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand, Oriassa and Madhya Pradesh use various parts of the plant in different diseases. Lydum barbatum L. No further information could be collected. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Mcbride Various parts of the plant are used by diverse ethnic communities of India in a number of other diseases. In Ayurvedic systems flowers are used in menorrhagia. Mandragora offidnalis L. No information could be collected. Marsilea quadrifolia L. In ayurveda it is considered as a medicinal plant fit for treatment of many other diseases. Mesua ferrea L. Bodos, Khasis, and some other ethnic communities of Assam and West Bengal use different parts of the plant in various ailments.
Contd...
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
29
Contd ... 62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
Michelia champaca L. Ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh : roots in menstrual complaints and stem-bark as abortifacient. Powder of stem-bark is prescribed in ayurveda for treatment of amenorrhoea. Mimosa pudica L. Some ethnic communities of West Bengal use the root for facilitating child-birth, whereas some tribal societies of Assam find the root beneficial in antifertility. In ayurveda, decoction of the plant is used in wounds in vagina and for vaginal plugging. Seed-oil is utilized in strengthening the erectile muscle of penis. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Ethnic communities of Madhya Pradesh consider bark as contraceptive, while Dangs use the same in syphilis. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Todas , Kotas, Irulars, and ethic communities of Jharkhand use bark and gum as abortifacient, whereas bark and leaf are used in menstrual complaints by Nayadis. Many other ethnic communities apply different parts of the plant in a number of ailments and diseases. In Ayurvedic and unani systems too all the parts of the plant are treated as medicinally important. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Ethnic communities of Sagar (Madhya Pradesh) use flowers in diarrhoea and cholera, whereas many other communities eat different parts of the plant as vegetable. In ayurveda, decoction of root is prescribed in irregular menstruation, and leaves in prolapse of uterus. Nerium indicum Mill. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand employ stem and root as abortifacient; while some tribal societies of West Bengal and Haryana use latex in various diseases. In ayurveda, different parts of the plant and latex are used in a number of ailments. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. This species occupies important position in Ayurvedic and tribal systems as medicine for many other diseases. Ocimum sanctum L. Ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply leaf as abortifacient. This species occupies an important position in tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicines mainly for its antibacterial properties. Oryza sativa L. Some ethnic communities of Bihar use flowers in antifertility. In ayurveda, the grains are used in many other diseases.
Contd...
30
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd ... 71.
72.
73. 74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. 81.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Some ethnic communities of Jharkhand apply fruits in vaginal complaints. In ayurveda, the fruits are used to treat semens and leucorrhoea. The fruits have wide application in tribal and Ayurvedic systems in many diseases. Piper nigrum L. Nayadis apply stem and leaf to facilitate child birth. Assamese use fruits in antifertility. In ayurveda, the fruits are used in gonorrhoea and also to improve the quality of semen. Piper peepuloides Roxb. In Sikkim and Darjeeliing root, stem and fruits are used in leprosy and cough. Pistacia chinensis Bunge ssp. integerrima (Stew. ) Rech. f Garhwalis use kernel in dysentery and as antidote to bites of scorpion and snake. In ayurveda, the species is used in few diseases. Pterospennum acerifolium Willd. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems bark, leaf, and flowers are used as medicine of other diseases. Santalum album L. Ethnic communities of Sagar district use seeds are abortifacient. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems, the wood is used in many diseases. Semecarpus anacardium L. f Ethnic communities of Mirzapur district apply root in impotency. Ethnic communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag disricts use bark in gonorrhoea. In tribal and Ayurvedic systems this species is used in many other diseases. Sesamum orientale L. Ethnic communities of Ranchi and Hazaribag districts apply seeds as abortifacient. Seeds of the plant are used in many diseases in ayurveda and by some tribal societies of India. Sida cordifolia L. Ethnic communities of Ranchi, Hazaribag and Varanasi districts consider the plant useful in venereal diseases. Ethnic communities of Delhi area use seeds in spermatorrhoea and gonorrhoea. In Ayurvedic system root-extract is used in leucorrhoea and menorrhagia. Different parts of the plant are used in many other diseases in Ayurvedic and tribal systems. Sida spinosa L. In ayurveda, the species is recognised as medicinal. Smilax perfoliata Lour. Garos use flowers in child birth, whereas some ethnic communites of Madya Pradesh apply roots in veneral diseases. Ethnic communities of Jaintia, Mayurbhanj,
Contd...
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
31
Contd ...
82.
83. 84. 85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
Sagar and Dehradun districts use different parts of the plant in many other diseases. Solanum nigrum L. Garhwalis and ethnic communities of Sagar district use leaf to treat inflammation of testicles. Leaves and fruits of the species are widely used in tribal and Ayurvedic systems. Sphaeranthus africanus L. No further information could be collected. Stephania elegans HK. f. & T. No further information could be collected. Streblus asper Lour. Different parts of the plant are used in many diseases in tribal and Ayurvedic systems. Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Stem of the plant is used by some ethnic communities of Jharkhand to prevent miscarriage. Bark is used in ayurveda to prevent miscarriage and in treatment of leucorrhoea. Besides these, different parts of the plant are used in ayurveda for treatment of various ailments. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn. ) Roxb. Ethnic communities of diverse regions of India use the fruits in many diseases but not in the physiology of reproduction. In Ayurvedic system the kernel of seed is used to treat the semen, and fruits are used in many other diseases. Terminalia chebula Retz. Some ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the fruits in menstrual complaints, while in the tribal and Ayurvedic systems of medicine the fruits have wide application in many other diseases. Themeda gigantea Hack. Santals use different parts of the plant for many other diseases; no other information about the medicinal use of the species could be collected. Thysanolaena maxima Ktze. Ethnic communities of Bastar use the seeds as abortifacient, whereas ethnic communities of Mayurbhanja employ flowers to treat antifertility. Tribal societies of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh apply the root for the same purpose. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. Ethnic communities of Mirzapur use the stem to increase vitality and ensuring better sexual life. Ethnic communities of Salsette islands employ the plant in menstrual disorder, while ethnic communities of Purulia use the plant in veneral Contd ...
32
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
Contd... complaints. Different parts of the plant are used by various ethnic communities of India as medic'ne in many other diseases. Extract and decoction of this plant are used in many diseases in Ayurvedic systems. 92. Tino~pora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Ethnic communities of Santal Parganas apply the stem as galactagogue, whereas tribal societies of Jaintia Hills and Terai region use stem and leaf for other diseases. The species is regarded as medicinal in Ayurvedic system. 93. Tragia involucrata L. Ethnic communities of Medinipur employ the roots as galactagogue. Ethnic communities of Meghalaya, Assam, Jharkhand, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use different parts of the plant as medicines for many other diseases. In Ayurvedic system too various parts of the plant are used in many diseases . 94. Triticum aestivum L. While straw is used to make soles of grass shoes by ethnic communities of Lahul. The grains have medicinal use in the Ayurvedic system. 95. Vernonia albicans DC. Ethnic communities of Dhasan Valley find the root beneficial in leucorrhoea. Some ethnic communities of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Kerala use different parts of the plant in many diseases. In Ayurvedic system the extract of stem is given in irregular menstruation. 96. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilc. Some ethnic communities of Maharashtra and Goa eat the seeds. 97. Wedelia chinensis (Osbeck.) Merr. It is an important plant in Ayurvedic system. Extracts of leaf and stem are used in many diseases. 98. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Roots and leaves are used by many ethnic communities as medicines in many other diseases. In Ayurvedic system, powder of root is used for improvement of semen and in many other diseases. 99. Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. Some ethnic communities of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh use flowers in treatment of ailments related to pregnancy. Ethnic communities of Bhagirathi Valley and Dhasan Valley employ flowers in menorrhagia, whereas many ethnic communities of India use various parts of the plant in a number of diseases. In Ayurvedic system flowers are used in treatment of semen and menorrhagia besides some other diseases. 100. Xanthium strumarium L. In tribal medicines, different parts of the plant are used in many diseases, but not in the ailments connected with physiology of reproduction.
.
TRADITIONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
33
APPENDIX : (A) CARAKA ON USE OF PLANTS IN THE PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION Caraka's prescriptions about the use of herbal materials in various aspects of physiology of reproduction are briefly enumerated below
1.
Treatment of semen
To improve the quality of semen, drugs having sweet taste (madhurausadha) should be administered to a man (Sarirasthana, ch.8, sloka 4).
2.
Regimens for a son of excellent qualities
Caraka states that if a lady desires to procreate a son having the following quaJities-(i) a massive body, (ii) fair complexion, (iii) strength like that of a lion, (iv) vigour, (v) strong mind, then she should eat a thin gruel (mantham), prepared by boiling white barley with the milk of a white cow having a white calf, for a period of one week starting from the first day of her purificatory bath after the menstruation (Sa.8.9). Caraka states that for this purpose some Vedic rites too should be performed by the couple desiring the child. In this rite, the priest should offer the wood of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (palasa), Balanites aegyptica Delile (ingudi), Ficus racemosa 1. (udumbara) or Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. (madhuka) as oblation to the god Agni. Sticks of Butea monosperma (palasa) should be used to bind the limits of the alter of the yajna, while stems of Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (kusa) should cover the alter (Sa.8.24).
3.
Pumsavana
Pumsavana is a sacrament performed by a pregnant lady out of the desire of having a male child. Caraka states that the pregnant lady should be administered pumsavana therapy before the manifestation of the sex of foetus. There are many steps in the pumsavana therapy, but only those steps which involve use of vegetal materials are enumerated below. (A) During the conjunction of pusya star with moon, the lady should be made to drink curd mixed with either two grains of Phaseous radiatus L. (dhanyamasa), or white variety of mustard (sarsapa) endowed with excellent qualities along with two buds (sunga) of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) growing on grazing ground of cow (gostha). (B) The lady should drink milk in which anyone or two or three of the following has/have been boiled-Achyranthes aspera L. (apamarga), Barleria cristata L. (sahacara), JIVAKA (Trema orientalis Blume or Malaxis acuminata D. Don, or Pentaptera tomentosa Bedd., or Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth, or Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) W. & A., and RSABHAKA (Mucuma pruriens (L.) DC. ?). (C) The lady, during pusya conjunction, should inhale the steam emanating from the paste of grains of Oryza sativa L. (sali) during roasting of the same. She
34
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
should also drop the juice, extracted from the paste of Sali rice after adding water to it, in her right nostril with the help of a cotton swab (Sa.8.19).
4.
Measures for maintenance of pregnancy
According to Caraka (Sa.8.20), a pregrant lady should wear the following medicines on her head or right hand in the form of a talishman for maintenance of pregnancy-Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (aindri), Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. (brahmi), Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (sataviryajsahasravirya), Stereospennum colais (Buch.-Ham. ex Dillwyn) Mabb. (amogha), Terminalia chebula Retz. (avyatha), SIVA (Curcuma longa L. or Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce or Terminalia chebula Retz.), ARISTA (Azadirachta indica A. Juss. or Melia azedarach L. or Sapindus emarginatus Vahl or Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell or Xanthium strumarium L.), Sida cordifolia L. (vatyapuspi), ana Aglaia elaeagnoidea Guss.) Benth. (visaksenakanta). Caraka continues that during pusya conjuction the lady should take bath in water boiled with these articles. Further, she should consume milk or ghee in which drugs have been boiled. She should also use, in the above manner, all the medicinal elements mentioned under jivaniya (vitalizing) group.
5.
Management of miscarriage
Sometimes during the forth month of pregnancy or there-after bleeding starts from the genital tract of the pregnant lady. If immediate attention is not given to rectify this abnormality, it may lead to miscarriage. Caraka suggests (Sa. 8.24) certain procedure to be adopted for termination of bleeding and maintenance of pregnancy. The steps which involve the use of vegetal materials are outlined below: (A) After laying the pregnant lady with her lags upwards and the headside downwards, a cool cotton Swab, dipped in ghee and mixed with the powder of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), should be placed over the vagina.
(B) The entire body of the lady, below the navel, should be sprinkled with extremely cold cow milk, decoction of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Yastimadhu), and the same of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha). (C) After bathing her with cold water, cotton swabs, dipped in the latex of latex of laticiferous trees and the juice of trees having astringent taste (Ksirinam Kasayadrumanam), should be placed inside the vagina.
(D) The lady may be given milk or ghee boiled with the bud (sunga) of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha) to consume in the dose of an aksa (approx. 12m!.).
(E) Pollens of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (padma), Nymphaea alba L. (Kumuda), Nymphaea caerulea Savign. (utpala) along with honey and sugar may be given to her to liCK. (F) Seeds of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (puskara), Scirpus grossus Lf. (kaseruka) and fruits (?) of Trapa bispinosa Roxb. (srngataka) should be given to her to eat. (G) She may be given to drink the milk in which buds of Ficus benghalensis L. (nyagrodha), cut and dried fruits of Ficus racemosa L. (udumbara), rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (saluki), blue variety of Nymphaea alba L.
TRAomONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
35
(sitotpala), and PRIYANGU (Aglaia elaeagnoidea ijuss.) Benth. I Callicarpa macrophylla Vahll Prunus mahaleb L. have been boiled. (H) She may be give to eat soft, fragrant and cold rice of red variety of Oryza sativa L. (sali) along with honey and sugar, mixed with the milk in which the following have been boiled-Sida cordifolia L. (bala), ATmALA (Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet I Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet I Sida rhombifolia L.), Saccharum officinarum L. (iksu) , roots of SASTIKA (a variety of OnJza sativa L.) and KAKOLI (Fritillaria roylei Hook. I Lilium 'polyphyllum Doni Zizphus napeca Willd.).
6.
Regimens for a pregnant lady
For ensuring appropriate growth of the foetus within the womb and for maintenance of proper health of the pregnant lady, Caraka prescribes monthwise regimen for the entire period of pregnancy (Sa. 8.32). The lady should consume wholesome food, constituted of adequate quantity of milk and rice, twice daily. Gradually drugs having sweet taste, honey, ghee, butter, etc. should be added to the milk. During the seventh month, Caraka observes, Kikkisa (white abdominal lines ) appear on the skin of abdomen of the pregnant lady, because of the pressure of the growing foetus. Caraka prescribes the following measures for the management of such a condition : (A) She should be given one tola (approximately 12g ) of butter boiled with certain selected sweet drugs (madhurausadhi) along with decoction Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Kola) to drink regularly. (B) The following should be applied over her breast as ointment : (i) paste of Santalum album L. (candana) and the stalk (mmala) of lotus (Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. ?) , (ii) powder of Albizia lebbeck Benth. (sirisa), Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. (dhataki), Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka), and SARSAPA (Brassica napus L. I Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.), or (iii) paste of Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.Ham.) Wall ex G. Don (Kutaza), seeds of Ocimum basilicum L. var. basilicum (arjaka), Cyperus rotundus L. (musta), Curcuma longa L. (haridra), or (iv) past of Azadirachta indica A. juss (nimba), Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Kola), SURASA (it appears that in Sanskrit the word Surasa has been used to designate many species, some of them are mentioned here-Aloe barbadensis Mill. I Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst. / Cinnamomum tamala Nees & Ebem. I Ocimum basilicum L. var. basilicum I Ocimum tenuiflorum L. and Rubia cordifolia L. (manjistha). (C) Oil, in which leaves of Nerium indicum Mill. (karavira) have been boiled, should be gently massaged over the abdomen. (D) Mfusin should be given with water boiled with Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum. (malati) and Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (madhuka).
7.
Treatment of udavarta
During the eigth month of pregnancy the pregnant lady may suffer from udavartaan acute condition in the abdomen along with constipation. This condition, if not properly attended to, may cause death of the foetus alone or along with the pregnant lady.
36
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
For treatment of this condition Caraka prescribes administration of a mixture, when slightly warm, as corrective measure. This particular mixture should be prepared by boiling in milk the roots of the undermentioned plants : Oryza sativa L. (sali), SASTIKA (a variety of sali), Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf. (Kusa), Saccharum spontaneum L. (kasa), Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash (virana), Hygrophila schulli (Buch. -Ham.) M. R. & S. M. Almeida (iksuvaika), VETASA (Calemus extansus Roxb.jCalamus tenuis Roxb./ Salix caprea L.), Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd . (parivuyadha), BHUTIKA (Cymbopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf.j Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. / Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten / Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague). ANANTA (Alhagi pseudalhagi M. (Bieb.) Desv./ Barleria prionitis L. / Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum / Cynodon dachJlon (L.) Pers. / Fagonia cretica L. / Gloriosa superba L. / Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. / Ichnocarpus fruitescens R. Br. / Premna serratifolia (L.) Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Kasmarya), Grewia asiatica L. (parusaka), GlYClJrrhiz glabra L. (madhuka), and Vitis vinifera L. (mrdivika). To this decoction should be added the paste of Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (priyala-part not specified), pulp inside the seed of Terminalia bellirica Roxb. (bibhitaka), and grains of Sesamum orientale L. (tila).
8.
Facilitating easy delivery
Sometimes delivery does not take place on time in spite of severe labour pain. In this situation certain measures, according to Caraka, should be adoted to facilitate the delivery. one of the measures is frequent inhalation by the pregnant lady of the powder of the following vegetal materials: Acorus calamus L. (vaca), Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet (cirabilva), Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton (ela), Gloriosa superba L. (langalika), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (Kustha). And the maternituy home should be fumigated with bark of Betula utilis D. Don (Bhurja) and the pith of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (simsapa).
9.
Removal of placenta
Sometimes the placenta does not come out immediately after delivery. To bring out the placenta Caraka suggests certain steps, some of which include the use of vegetal materials. These are enumerated below : (A) Vagina of the progenitress should be fumigated by burning the bark of Betula utilis D. Don (bhurja) along with quartz and slough of snake. (B) In the genital tract of the progenitress should be placed a cotton swab soaked in oil boiled with Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvengadum (madana), Ferula narthex Boiss. (hingu), Foenicum vulgare Mill. (satapuspa), and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (kustha). With this oil she should be given unctuous enema. (C) A decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?) PHALA (Catunaregum spinosa (Thunb.) Tirvangadum ?), IKSVAKU (Cucumis lagenarius Dum. ? ), Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (krtavedhana), Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem (dhamargava), Luffa echinata Roxb. Gimuta), Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham) Wall. ex G. Don (kutaja), and Scindapsus officinalis Schott. (hastipippali) should be used for corrective type of enema.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
37
(D) Two types of drinks should be given to the progenitress. Preparation of the drinks are mentioned below. A paste of Saussurea lappa c.B. Clarke (kustha) and Abies spectabilis (D.Don) G. Don (talisa) should be mixed with either of the following: (a) decoction of Dolichos biflorus L. (kulattha), or Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (mandukaparni) and Piper longum L. (pippali) or Balvaja (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. ?, or (b) the scum of maireya sura type of wine. (E) Caraka prescribes another drink for the progenitress. It states that a paste of Elettaria cardamommum (L.) Maton (suksamaila), Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. (kilima), Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke (kustha), Zingiber officinalis Roxb. (nagara), Embelia ribes Burm. f (vidanga), Piper longum L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago ze1jlanica L. (citraka), Nigella sativa L. (upakuncika), and black variety of Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (kalaguru) should be mixed with the smashed fleshy cut right ear of a wild bull (kharavrasabha). The paste should then be soaked in the decoction of BALVAJA (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch ?) for some time. Then the mixture should be sieved, and the remaining
liquid form the drink.
10.
Management of mother after delivery
Caraka suggests (sa.8.48) use of some vegetal materials for proper maintenance of health of the mother who has recently delivered. He says that power of Piper longum L. (pippali), Piper chaba Hunter (cavya), Plumbago zeylanica L. (citraka), and Zingiber officinalis Rosc. (srnzavera) should be given to the mother along with ghee, or oil, or vasa, or bone marrow to eat when she feels hungry. The quantity of this should be in conformity with the capability of the said mother to digest. The main food, however, should be a liquid gruel boiled with Piper longum L. (pippali).
APPENDIX: (B) AYURVEDA ON USE OF PLANTS IN BIRTH CONTROL It appears that the Ayurvedic works, since sixteenth century AD, contain some information about the use of vegetal materials in controlling sexual urge, and in preventing pregnancy. Some of these data are briefly mentioned below:
1.
Controling sexual urge
It is said that the daily drinking of juice of five leaves of Aegle marmelos Corr. ex Roxb. (bilva) by a man during adolescent age, reduces his urge for sex-life. Continuous use of this drink may cause deep slumber of sperms.
2.
Prevention of pregnancy
The oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (nimba) possesses antifertility property. External application of this oil over genital organ in useful. Consumption of the paste of root of Piper betle L. (tambula) causes infertility. According to Bhava Misra (the author of Bhavaprakasa), if a lady, during the first three days of menstruation, consumes in empty stomach, the paste of thre leaves
38
PRIYADARSHAN SENSARMA
of Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (nadeyi) along with molasses, she will remain infertile for a period of one month. It is said that if a lady repeats this process continuously for a few months, she becomes barren permanently. A woman may be made infertile with the aid of Artemisia maritima L. (nagadamani). The lady should consume a soft drink containing the paste of the root (approximately 3 gm) of this herb once daily, during the first three days of menstruation, for few oconsecutive months. It is said that consumption of leaf paste of Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. (karbudaraka)
along with the sundried grains of paddy helps prevention of ovulation, and thus the possibility of pregnancy is eliminated. If a lady consumes the paste of few leaves of PATHA (Stephania hernandifolia Walp./ Cissampelos pareira L. ?) in empty stomach for consecutive five days, from the onset of menstruation, she will loose fertility for that month.
SUGGESTED READINGS Abdul Kareem, M. (1997) Plants in Ayurveda. Foundation for Revitalization of Local Helath Traditions, Bangalore, India. Asolkar, L.V., Kakkar, KK & Chakre, D.J. (1992) Second Supplement to Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants with Active Principles. Publications and Information Directorate (CSIR), New Delhi, India.
.
Balapure, KM., Maheshwari, J.K & Tandon R.K (1987) Plants of Ramayana. Ancient Sci. Life. VII.2:76-84. Banerji, S.c. (1980) Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit Literature. Naya Prokash, Calcutta. Basu, S.K (1966) A Glossary of Plant Names Mentioned by Valmeeki and Kalidasa. West Bengal Forests, Centenary Commemoration Volume, Calcutta, pp.53 to 56. Bodding, Rev. D.P. (1925) Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore: The Santals and Disease. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10:1-132. Bodding, Rev. D.P. (1927) Studies in Santal Medicine and Connected Folklore-II. Santal Medicine. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 10:133-426.
Bodding, Rev., D.P. (1940) Studies in Santal medicine and Connected Folklore. Mem. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. 10:427-502.
Dey, KL. (1996/1934) The Indigenous Drugs of India. Dehra Dun, India. Jain, S.K. (1956) On a Botanical Trip to Nainital. Indian For. 82:22-33. Jain, S.K. (1963a) Studies in Indian Ethnobotany-Less known uses of 50 common plants from tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5:223-226. Jain, S.K & Tarafder, c.R. (1963b) Studies in Indian Ethnobotany-Native plant remedies for snakebite among the Adibasis of Central India. Indian Med. J. 57:307-309. Jain, S.K (1964) Wild plant foods of the tribals of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh). Proc.Nat. Inst. Sci. India 30B(2):56-80. Jain, S.K (1965) Medicinal plantlore of the tribals of the Bastar. Econ. Bot. 19:236-250. Jain, S.K. (1966) Grasses and rural life. Khadigramodyog. 12:324-326. Jain, S.K. (1967) Ethnobotany : Its scope and study. Ind.Mus.Buli. 2(1):39-43.
TRADmONAL USE OF PLANTS IN INDIA IN FAMILY WELFARE
39
Jain, S.K. & Tarafder, CR. (1970) Medicinal plantlore of the Santals (A Revival of P.O. Bodding's work). Econ. Bot. 24(3):241-278. Jain, S.K. (1971) Some magico-religious beliefs about plants among Adibasis of Orissa. Adibasi 12:39-44. Jain, S.K. (1975) Search for new herbal medicines. Magnolia 1(2):26-31. Jain, S.K. (1981) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBM Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. Jain, S.K. (1991) Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. Karnick, CR. (1975) Ethnobotanical records of drug plants described in Valmiki Ramayan and their uses in Ayurvedic system of Medicine. Quart./.Crude Drug Res. 13:143-154. Kirtikar, K.R. & Basu, B.D. (1981) Indian Medicinal Plants (4 Vols.). Delhi, India. Lal, S.D. & Lata, K. (1980) Plants used by the Bhat community for regulating fertility. Econ. Bot. 34:273-275. Maheshwari, J.K. (1961) The food-producing crops in the tropics. Bull. Bot. Surv. India.3:153-162. Maheshwari, J.K., Singh, K.K. & Saha, B. (1980) Ethnomedicinal uses of plants by Tharus, Kheri district, Uttar Pradesh. Bull. Medico. Ethnobot. Res. 1:318-37. Maheshwari, J.K., Kolakoti, B.S. & Lal, B. (1986) Ethnomedicine of Bhil tribe of Jhabua District, M.P. Anc.Sci.of Life. V(4):255-261. Majumdar, G.P. (1938) Some Aspects of Indian Civilization (In Plant Perspective). Kolkata, India. Manilal, K.S. (1988) Linkages of Ethnobotany with other sciences and disciplines. SEBS News Letter 7(1-3):1-2. Mitra, S.C (1913-1916) A Note on the worship of the Pipal tree in Bengal. Jour.Anthrop.Soc.Bombay 10:302-306. Mitra, S.C (1919) The mango tree in the marriage ritual of the aborigines of Chotanagpur and Santalis. /oum. Bihar & Orisssa Res. Soc. 5:259-271. Mitra, S.C (1922) On the cult of the tree-goddess in eastern Bengal. Man in India 2:228-241. Mitra, S.C (1933 to 1939) Studies in Plant Myths, J. Mythic. Soc. Vols. 23, 28, 29 & 30. Mudgla, V. & Pal, D.C (1930) Medicinal plants used by tribals of Mayurbhanj (Orissa). Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 22 : 59-62. Pal, D. C (1970) Plants associated with Durga Puja ceremony in W. Bengal. Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc. and Nat. Hist. Mus. 36: 61-67. Pal, D. C (1972) Magico-religious belief about plants among adibasis of Bihar. Folklore 13 (12): 466-447.
Pal, D. C (1973) Tribal folklore about some plants associated with eye treatment. Ibid 14 (12): 446-447.
Pal, D. C (1980) Observation on folklore about plants used in veterinary medicine in Bengal. Orissa and Bihar. Bull, Surv. India, 22 : 96-99. Pal, D. C and Jain, S. K. (1998) Tribal Medicine. Naya Prokash, Kolkata, India. Ray, P., Gupta, H. N., & Roy, M. (1980) Susruta Samhita. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi. Saraswati, B. (1970) Contribuation to The Understanding of Indian Civilisation, Karnataka University, Dharwar, India.
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Sensarma, P. (1984) Ethnobotanical investigation in the Indian Puranas V. The Vamana Purana. Jour. Econ. Tax. Bot. , 5: 634-644. Sensarma, P. (1987) Ethnobotanical investigation in the Indian Puranas VI. The Kurma Purana. Jour. Econ. and Tax. Botany 8:287-297. Sensarma, P. (1988) Ethnobotanical investigations in the Indian Puranas, The Vayu Purana. Man in India 68:278-291. Sensarma, P. (1989) Plants in the Indian Puranas : An Ethnobotanical Investigation. Naya Prakash, Kolkata. Sensarma, P. (1998) Ethnobotanical Informaton in Kautiliya Arthasastra. Naya Prokash, Kolkata, India. Sensarma, P. & Pal, D.C. (1990) Ethnobotanical investigation m the literary sources. Folklore 31(1): 1-6. Sensarma, P. & Ghosh, A.K. (1995) Ethnobotany and phytoanthropology. In : Ethnobotany : Evolution of a Discipline (pp.69-71), (Eds. R.E. Schultes and Siri Von Reis) Dioscorides Press, Portland, U.S.A. Sharma, R.K. & Dash, B. (1976) Agnivers'a Caraka Samhita. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, India. Bhattacharyya, S. (1380-1400 BS) Ciranjiva Banausadhi (In Bengali) 11 Vols. Ananda Publishers (P) Limited, Kolkata, India.
000
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES : AN OVERVIEW OF CURRENT STATUS C.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR, AMAN VERMA AND CHITRA WADHWANI
Chapter Outline 1. Introduction 2.
Herbalism
3.
World health organization: Traditional healing facts sheet
4.
National activities concerning medicinal plants
5. Herbal treatments for various diseases 6. Other popular herbal products and their uses 7. Herbal formulations 8. Challenges in drug discovery from medicinal plants 9. Statistical figures as marker for popularity of herbal drugs 10. Conduding remarks 11. References
. 1. INTRODUCTION The early part of the 20th century has witnessed an unprecedented evolution of the Global Pharmaceutical Industry. The advent of genomic research and new molecular tools has culminated into highly specific biological assays that are employed routinely in industrial drug discovery program. High throughput screening methods in conjunction with combinatorial chemistry have significantly impacted the lead compound generation and drug discovery processes. Resultantly, crude drugs have been replaced by pure chemical drugs and the developed countries have experienced a decline in popularity of medicinal plant therapy. The modern medicinal system has grown phenomenally as manifested by global pharmaceutical sales which have increased to 7 % ($ 643 billion) in 2006 fueled by strong international demand for cancer treatments and robust growth in the US market (TOI, 2007). "There has been
c.P. MALIK,
42
BHAVNEET KAUR
et al.
a dramatic growth in the Pharmaceutical market in India, during the last two decades. Indian Pharmaceutical industry, growing at 11 % annually compared with the global industry rate of 7%, is now worth $ 6 billion in the global industry that's worth $ 651 billion" according to the latest market research report on Indian healthcare sector "Opportunities in Indian Healthcare Sector" by RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006). However, the route of a compound from drug discovery to the clinic is much longer and is controlled by multiple factors, consequently, the pendulum has swung again and there is a resurgence of interest in study and use of medicinal plants primarily due to one or more of the disadvantages of chemical drugs as listed below: -
Accumulation of tissue residues due to chemotherapeutics Environmental pollution Development of drug resistance in pathogens Immunosuppressants
The consumer preference, for traditional systems of medicine, which constitute an important segment of Pharmacopeias for remedies to various disorders, is increasing exponentially. Traditional houses of ayurveda in India, which make up for small share of global herbal industry of US $ 120 billion, have taken ayurveda to export markets. Coimbatore based AVP (Arya Vaidya Pharmacy), by introducing chyawanaprash - an admired health tonic that helps boost energy, memory and immunity - in the form of a biscuit, has been the pioneer in this respect. The product has been developed bearing the tastes of both new and old generation in mind. All ingredients of chyawanaprash have been retained in the biscuit so as to ensure better health, enhance immunity and energy of the consumer. The biscuit will soon hit the export market. Punarnava Ayurveda - another ayurveda firm based in Coimbatore - is also planning to launch ayurvedic biscuit that will contain all essential ayurvedic ingredients. "Indian ayurveda firms are expanding their export market by producing an array of ayurvedic products like ayurvedic biscuits, herbal ketchup, and jams" according to a senior research analyst at RNCOS (RNCOS, 2006). There has been an explosion of alternative treatments and the therapeutic potential of herbal medicines cannot be ignored and is highlighted in few examples provided below (Crone and Wise, 1998): 1.
Feverfew: Feverfew has been used since ancient times for curing fever, headache, menstrual irregularities, and stomach discomfort. It is very beneficial in case of migraine headaches and provides relief by reducing their frequency and severity. The leaves contain an active component, parthenolide, a sesquiterpene lactone. This compound has activity as a serotonin antagonist, which inhibits release of serotonin from platelets, and prevents or reduces blood vessel spasm. The action of feverfew is believed to be similar to migraine agents such as methysergide (Tyler, 1994).
2.
Ginger: Ginger has been used as an effective antiemetic for motion sicknessinduced nausea. The therapeutic action of ginger may be in the gastrointestinal tract, as research indicates that ginger has no effect on the central nervous
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
43
system. Active components are contained in the volatile oil or oleoresin, which can be extracted by brewing an herbal tea from pieces of ginger root (Tyler, 1994). Powdered ginger capsules or ginger tea has been successful in reducing the nausea brought about by medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor agents. Recently, extracts of ginger were found to be most powerful, among several plant extracts tested for antifungal activity (Ficker et al., 2003). Zingiber offtcinale Rosc., or ginger, has been warranted as a potent antifungal agent especially as this plant is generally regarded as safe for human consumption. It has been found to be effective against a wide variety of fungi some of which were highly resistant to amphotericin Band ketoconazole. 3.
Milk Thistle: Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is used by cirrhotic patients because of its putative ability to slow liver damage. Ripe fruit from the milk thistle plant is used to derive a concentrated extract known as silymarin (Ferenci et al., 1989). In vitro as well as animal and human studies suggest that silymarin protects hepatocytes from the toxic effects of substances such as carbon tetrachloride and phalloidin (amanita mushroom). In humans exposed to hepatotoxins, silymarin has been able to reduce the likelihood of developing more extensive liver failure. Silymarin is thought to act by the presence of a large number of flavonolignans, which work on the cell membrane to prevent the entry of toxic substances into the hepatocyte. Protein synthesis is also stimulated, which accelerates the regeneration and production of new hepatocytes.
Standardized milk thistle extract has been used by Wilasrusmee et al., (2002) in a mouse lymphocyte proliferation assay in vitro. They found that lymphocyte proliferation consistently increased and the effect was associated with an increase in interferon-gamma, interleukin-4 and interleukin-10. The effect increased in a dose-dependent manner. Milk thistle extract has been found to promote neuronal differentiation and survival, suggesting potential benefits of chemicals contained in this plant for the nervous system (Kittur et al., 2002). Growth is shifting toward emerging markets for traditional plant-based remedies which are back in use and find increasing patronage strengthened by their application as: a source of direct therapeutic agents raw material base for the elaboration of more complex semi-synthetic chemical compounds models for new synthetic compounds, and taxonomic markers for the discovery of new compounds A recent survey conducted by WHO, approximates 80 % of the world population to depend mainly on the traditional medicines for primary health care (Bannerman, 1983). The production, consumption and international trade in medicinal plants, which provide an eco-friendly and complementary alternative medicine [CAM], are growing and expected to grow in future quite Significantly. CAM comprises a relatively new frontier of medical research. Herbals are moving from fringe to mainstream (Malik, 2006).
44
c.P.
MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR
et al.
India is one of the eight important Vavilovian centers of origin and crop plant diversity. It is immensely rich in medicinal and aromatic plants occurring in diverse ecosystems. Like all other old cultures, in India the plant medicines have been used both for primary health care as also remedies. The indigeneous knowledge has been formulated, documented and eventually acquired the shape of the organized four sub-systems of traditional Indian medicine: Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha & Yoga and Naturopathy. Advances in phytochemistry led to extraction of a number of active principles of medicinal plantsl herbs, which became an indispensable part of modern drug manufacturing.
Ayurveda "Ayurveda", an ancient system of health care, native to the Indian subcontinent roughly translates as the "knowledge of life". According to Charaka, "life" itself is defined as the "combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul, the factor responsible for preventing decay and death, which sustains the body over time, and guides the processes of rebirth" (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ I en.wikipedia.orgl wikil Ayurveda). According to this perspective, Ayurveda is concerned with measures to protect" ayus", which includes healthy living along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony. Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional systems of medicine to contain a sophisticated system of surgery (which is referred to as "salya-chikitsa"). Three traditions of Ayurveda exist today: two of them based on the compendia of Charka and Sushruta Samhitas, and a third tradition known as Kiishyapas. However, Ayurvedic remedies prior to these traditions also exist, as mentioned in the earlier Vedic literature (2nd millennium BC). Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health. Ayurvedic medicaments are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs. These are made either alone or in combination with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes. In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional associations to promote their case for national recognition and funding; which became a reality after independence of India in 1947. Ayurveda is now a statutory, recognized medical system of health care in India. The Central Council of Indian Medicine [CCIM] governs and recommends policies for the research and development of the system. An Encyclopedia on Ayurveda - Ayushveda.com has been developed to promote the knowledge of Ayurveda worldwide. In certain states in India, Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are included in the curriculum of modern medical courses (M.B.B.S). Mitra et al. (2002) have described the chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of the Ayurvedic drug, Swarnabhasma (gold ash). The gold ash consisted of Realgar (Arsenous sulphide), lead oxide, pure gold, and latex. Qualitative analysis showed the presence of several microelements such as Fe, AI, Cu, Zn, Co, Mg, Ca, As, Pb. The material was free from organic compounds. Oral administration showed no mortality in mice in acute doses of up to 1 mIl 20 g using a Swarmabhasma suspension containing 1 mg
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARlJIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
45
of the drug. Animals treated chronically with Swarmabhasma showed significantly increased activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase, two enzymes that reduce free radical concentration in the body.
Unani "Unani" (in Arabic, Hindustani, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc) means Greek. It derives from the Greek word Ionia, the Greek name of the Asia Minor coastline. It is also used to refer to Graeco-Arabic or Unani medicine based on the teachings of Hippocrates, based on the four humours Phlegm (Balgham), Blood (Dam), Yellow bile (Safra) and Black bile (Sauda) - it seems to mean hard substance and black material. Though the threads which comprise Unani healing can be traced all the way back to Claudius Galenus of Pergamum, who lived in the second century of the Christian Era, the basic knowledge of Unani medicine as a healing system was collected by Hakim Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna). The time of origin is dated at Circa 980 AD in Persia. As an alternative medicine, Unani has found favor in Asia, especially India. In India, Unani practitioners can practice as qualified doctors, as the Indian government approves their practice. Unani medicine is very close to Ayurveda. Both are based on theory of the presence of the elements (in Unani, they are considered to be fire, water, earth and air) in the human body. According to followers of Unani medicine, these elements are present in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness. Most medicines and remedies (often common herbs and foods) used in Unani are also used in Ayurveda. While Unani was influenced by Islam, Ayurveda is associated with Vedic culture. The base used in Unani medicine is often honey. Honey is considered by some to have healing properties and hence is used in food and medicines practiced in the Islamic world. Real pearls and metals are also used in the making of Unani medicines depending on the kind of ailment it is aimed to heal (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ / en. wikipedia.org/ wikijUnani).
Siddha In the ancient period Indian saints handled the plants and herbs for long life with better health and lived for several years. The sages were called Rishis in the North and Siddhars in the South and their systems were known as Ayurveda and Siddha. According to Siddha predictions, it is known to the world that Lord Siva taught the Siddha principles and philosophies to Matha, Sri Parasakthi. After that the Siddha principles were presented to the followers of Lord Siva and Sakthi, to Siddhars, starting with Siddhar Nantheesar, then to Siddhar Thirumoolar, Agathiyar and other disciples along with the 18 Siddhars and so on. All the Siddhars adopted the principles of Saiva Siddhantham. It is an excellent philosophical theory to human beings with holy life. In all Siddhars, Agathiyar was considered the prominent leader with his later guru Lord Subramaniyar. From the old Siddha literature we can understand that Siddhar - Agathiyar was first taught by Lord Siva, Sakthi and later by Lord Subramaniyar. Along with him we have Siddhars like Sattanathar, Korakkar, Kaalangi, Pulasthiyar, Theraiyar, Pulippani, Bogar, Ko~ganavar, Machamuni and so on. All the Siddhars taught their principles along
46
c.P. MALIK, BHAVNEET KAUR et al.
with their well experienced medicines to their disciples under Gurugulavasa. They brought the secrets in the palm leaves manuscripts with several code words for their understandings. In later stages, those code words were not clear and were not known to the next generations except the followers of hereditary and traditional people of Siddha medicines. Most of their predictions are classified with several formulations which could be followed and adopted according to the land, climate and age, severity of the disease, food and circumstances (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:/ / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddha). In general, single and even compound medicines are advised for the patients by knowing the pulse diagnosis methods, the variations of Naadi in their hands by means of Vall, Azhal, Aiyyan, or in other words called Va~tham, pitham and kapam, respectively. These three vital forces of cosmic elements are named under three Thosham, or Mukkuttram and this is activated by the functions of Punchaboothas. The five major concepts of Punchaboothas, are named as Nilam, Neer, Neruppu, Kattru and Vell, which are respectively in hands known as Prithivi, Appu, Theyu, Vayu, and Akash. According to this theory, all the substances in the universe are created under the actions or reactions of the Punchaboothas only. Even for disease also, disease occurs in the living objects (body) by means of less quantity of the ratio of the Punchaboothas only. If the ratio differs from one to another any disease may attack the body (human beings, animals, birds, flies etc.) by the way of the deficiency of certain vitamins and minerals. Siddhars in olden days followed and adopted the principles for preparing all medicines like herbal, minerals and metals. They cautioned the administration of certain Bhasmas, and Sinduras, which are well oxidized stages of metals and minerals, and advised for in taking periods, diet restrictions, according to the age, climate and land etc. Siddhars classified the diseases in different topics and accounted the total diseases for human body as 4448 diseases. They mentioned about the curable and incurable diseases along with the symptoms of the body and predicted the concerned, proper medicines also. Siddhars thoughts are derived to the medicines for curing toughest and chronic diseases like, cancer, brain tumors, blood cancer, cardiac diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, oesteoarthritis etc. All the Siddha preparations are doing wonders from patient to patient with better ailments. Nowadays the trained traditional Siddha practitioners are doing well, even with the old highest proficiency processes which were kept by their ancestors and some people make challenges with other systems for healing and curing diseases like AIDS diseases. Generally with this system several processes are there to improve the haemoglobin as well as the immunization of the AIDS patients without any side effects. More and more herbal preparations are predicted from one Siddhar to another with different kinds of Herbals. Very simple Herbal processes are advised by the Siddhars for the diseases like migraine, sinusitis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, gynaecological disturbances, leucoderma and psoriasis, asthmatic attacks, piles and fistula, rheumatisms, dental problems etc. Siddha system of science is the most effective and valuable system for the human beings in all occasions without any side effects. Everybody can follow Siddha system of medicine even for the whole family and even for the entire earth in all circumstances. Siddha system of science is an everlasting principle to the world.
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
47
Siddha System presents the slogan, "Food is being medicine and medicine is being food" to people.
Naturopathy Naturopathic medicine is a school of medical philosophy and practice that seeks to, improve health and treat disease chiefly by assisting the body's innate capacity to recover from illness and injury. It may include a broad array of different modalities, including manual therapy, hydrotherapy, herbalism, acupuncture, counseling, environmental medicine, aromatherapy, nutritional counseling, homeopathy, and so on. Practitioners tend to emphasize a holistic approach to patient care. Naturopathy has its origin in the United States, but is today practiced in many countries around the world in one form or another, where it is subject to different standards of regulation and levels of acceptance. Naturopathic practitioners prefer not to use invasive surgery, or most synthetic drugs, preferring "natural" remedies, i.e. relatively unprocessed or whole medications, such as herbs and foods (Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia; http:j j en.wikipedia.orgjwikijNaturopathy). Licensed physicians from accredited schools are trained to use diagnostic tests such as imaging and blood tests before deciding upon the full course of treatment. Naturopathic Practitioners also employ the use of prescription medications and surgery when necessary and refer out to other medical practitioners. Conventional medicine is required to undergo rigorous testing; drug trials often lasting for a decade. A criticism of alternative therapies is that they are not subject to detailed safety assessment. Advocates of naturopathy respond that many of their therapeutic interventions have been in use for hundreds and in some cases thousands of years: what is lost in formal study design is more than made up for by the breadth and depth of human experience with the interventions in question. Restrospective analysis of various herbal agents, have found some to be as or more effective than their pharmaceutical equivalents, whereas others to have little therapeutic value, and a few to be harmful. 'NaturaY does not necessarily mean beneficial or even benign. Also of concern is the ambiguity of the word "natural" and poor agreement as to its meaning. Naturopathic modalities may be controversial (e.g. homeopathy), or have proven effectiveness only for very specific conditions (e.g. acupuncture, aromatherapy). Some naturopaths may use these modalities as panacea or to improve the patient's quality of life.
2. HERBALISM Herbalism, also known as medicinal Botany (a neologism by Dr. K. Seshagirirao, University of Hyderabad, India), medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, botanical medicine and phytotherapy, is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of whole plants, plant parts and plant extracts. Tyler (1994) defines herbal medicines as "crude drugs of vegetable origin utilized for the treatment of disease states, often of a chronic nature, or to attain or maintain a condition of improved health." WHO has delineated a working definition of traditional medicine as "including diverse health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal, andj or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well-being, as well as to treat, diagnose or prevent illness" (WHO, 2002). Herbs have been portrayed as "wonder drugs" whose healing properties
48
c.P.
MALIK, BHAVNEFf KAUR
et al.
have been used to cure many ailments dating back to prehistory. There is evidence that suggests Neanderthals living 60,000 years ago in present-day Iraq used plants for medicinal purposes (found at a burial site at Shanidar Cave, Iraq, in which a Neanderthal man was uncpvered in 1960. He had been buried with eight species of plants). These plants are still widely used in ethnomedicine around the world. The plant parts used include seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark and flowers. In Cherokee medicine three categories of herbs can be distinguished (Winston, 1992). The "food herbs" are gentle in action, have very low toxicity, and are unlikely to cause an adverse response. Examples of "food herbs" include Lemon Balm, Peppermint, Marshmallow, Ginger, Garlic, Chamomile, Hawthorn, Rose hips, Nettles, Dandelion Root and Leaf, and fresh Oat extract. These herbs can be utilized in substantial quantities over long periods of time without any acute or chronic toxicity (it is important to note that allergic responses like with foods are possible, as are unique idiosyncratic reactions, and even common foods such as grapefruit juice, broccoli, and okra can interact with medications). The second category is the "medicine herbs". These herbs are stronger acting - they need to be used with greater knowledge (dosage and rationale for use) for specific conditions (with a medical diagnosis) and usually for a limited period of time. These herbs are not daily tonics and they should not be taken just because "they are good for you". These herbs have a greater potential for adverse reaction and in some cases, drug interactions. The "medicine herbs" include Andrographis, BlueCohosh, Cascara Sagrada, Celandine, Ephedra, Goldenseal, Jamaica Dogwood, Oregon Grape Root, Senna, and UvaUrsi. The last category is the "poison herbs". These herbs have strong potential for either acute or chronic toxicity and should only be utilized by clinicians who are trained to use them and clearly understand their toxicology and appropriate use. The first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in tlle Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon dated to between 13,000 - 25,000 Be. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total. In many cases, these substances (esp. alkaloids) serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Many of the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds. The use of and search for drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants (Samuelsson, 2004) have accelerated in recent years. Herbal medicines are now in great demand in the developing world for primary health care not because they are inexpensive but also as they have better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and minimal side effects. Pharmacologists, microbiologists, botanists, and naturalproducts chemists have galvanized into action together, combing the earth for phytochemicals that could be developed for treatment of various diseases. In fact, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants. The use of herbs to treat diseases is almost universal among non-industrialized societies. A number of 'traditions came to dominate the practice of herbal medicine in the Western world at the end of the twentieth century:
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF HERBAL MEDICINES
49
The Western, based on Greek and Roman sources, The Ayurvedic from India, and Chinese herbal medicine (Chinese herbology). Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to Western physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. Herbal medicine is a major component in all traditional medicine systems and a common element in ayurvedic, homeopathic, naturopathic, traditional Chinese medicine, and Native American Indian medicine. According to the WHO, 74% of 119 modern plant-derived pharmaceutical medicines are used in ways that correlated directly with their traditional uses. Major pharmaceutical companies are currently conducting extensive research on plant materials gathered from the rainforests and other places for possible new pharmaceuticals. Medicinal plants, since times immemorial, have been used in virtually all cultures as a source of medicine. The widespread use of herbal remedies and healthcare preparations, as those described in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Bible, and obtained from commonly used traditional herbs and medicinal plants, has been traced to the occurrence of natural products with medicinal properties. The use of traditional medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries, as a normative basis for the maintenance of good health, has been widely observed (UNESCO, 1996). Furthermore, an increasing reliance on the use of medicinal plants in the industrialised societies has been traced to the extraction and development of several drugs and chemotherapeutics from these plants as well as from traditionally used rural herbal remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Moreover, in these societies, herbal remedies have become more popular in the treatment of minor ailments, and also on account of the increasing costs of personal health maintenance. Indeed, the market and public demand has been so great that there is a great risk that many medicinal plants today, face either extinction or loss of genetic diversity.
3. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION: TRADITIONAL HEALING FACTS SHEET Up to 80% of people in the south use Traditional Medicine (TM) or CAM as part of primary health care. TM has been fully integrated into the health systems of China, North and South Korea and Viet Nam. In western countries, growing numbers of patients rely on CAM for preventive or palliative care: In France, 75% of the population has used complementary medicine at least once. In Germany, 77% of pain clinics provide acupuncture. The global market for traditional therapies stands at US$ 60 billion a year and is steadily growing. In the USA, expenditure on complementary or alternative medicine stands at US$2.7 billion per year.
50
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Ringworm
Ukshi
Kolhapur
LeafJuice
White patches on skin
Vartak et al., 1986
Umber
Kolhapur
Leaf Juice
Dermatis
Vartak et al., 1986
~
0'1
Caesalpiniaceae
Combretaceae 53.
Ficus glomerata Roxb. Moraceae
54.
Strychnos nux-vomica L.
Kochilakhai
Chandrapur
Stem bark
Skin 'disease
Das & Misra, 1988
55.
Carissa congesta Wight
Karvanda
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Shindkheda
Root paste in leaf juice
Skin disease
Upadhey et al., 1994
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Sindhudurga, Kolhapur
Seed paste
Western Maharashtra, Pune, Raigad, Sindhudurga, Kolhapur
Leaves
Seed oil
Apocynaceae
56.
57.
Entada rheedii Spreng. Fabaceae
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz.
Garbi
Madhavi
Malpighiaceae
58. 59.
Garcinia indica Choiss Guttiferae
Bhirand, Kokam
Sawantwadi
Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombaceae
Savar
Sawantwadi
en c: ==
01
== > Z
....
C)
Scabies
Upadhey et al., 1994
"'tI
~
>
~
Scabies
Upadhey et al., 1994
== ~ "'tI
~ .... t"" Healing wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
> Z Ij
0
Hard thorns
Pimple
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
~
Contd ...
> .-j .... t""
Iod
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
~
0
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae
Amba
Sawantwadi
Leaves
Healing wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
61.
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. Crassulaceae
Panphuti
Sawantwadi
Juice of plant
Fresh wounds
Almeida & Almeida, 1989
Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Linn.) Poit. Euphorbiaceae
Nival
Sawantwadi
Fruit
Skin infection
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
>
-> Z
-q-~ ~
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
64.
Agertatum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
65.
Emilia sonchifolia L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Wound
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Western Maharashtra
Decoction of leaves
Cracked feet
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Western Maharashtra
Latex
Skin disease
Sharma & Malhotra, 1984
Pandharkhair
Western Maharashtra
Leaf juice
Eczema
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Bhahava
Western Maharashtra
Leaf paste
Scabies
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Madhuca longifolia 0) (Koen.) Macbr. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Chev.
CIl
~
Fruit
68.
0
I:JJ
Western Maharashtra
Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae
C)
Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang. Alangiaceae
67.
3: f!1 f!1
63.
66.
~
~
60.
62.
t"'
Mahuwa
Z
0 Z
CIl
Z
~
> ::r: > ~ > CIl
:i ~
>
Sapotaceae 69.
Acacia ferruginea Willd. Leguminoceae
70.
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae
Contd ...
N N
.......
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
71. 72.
73.
74. 75. 76. 77.
78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83.
Crotalaria verrucosa Linn. Leguminoceae Hydrocarpus wightiana Blume Flacourtiaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Leguminoceae Crotalaria retulsa L. Leguminoceae Psoralia corylifolia L. Leguminoceae Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth. Mimosaceae Turraea villosa Benn. Mcliaceae Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae Barleria prionitis L. Acanthaceae Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. Zinziberaceae Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae
N N
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Western Maharashtra
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Kadu Kavath
Western Maharashtra
Seed oil
Pimples boils
Jayanand Tosh, 1996
Palas
Amaravati tahsil
Leaves
Scabies
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Khulkhula
Amaravati tahsil Amaravati tahsil
Plant
Skin disease
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Seed oil
Leprosy
Deshmukh et ai., 1999
Bawchi Kinnal Shirish Kapur bhendi Sapsan Akhara Panhaladi Tripakshi Dakati Dudhi
Raigad District Raigad District
Root Bark Root, Seeds
Skin disease, leprosy Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
co
til
e1:11 == == > Z
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
C"l
~
Raigad District
Root tuber
Raigad District Raigad District Raigad District Raigad District
Root tuber
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
Leaf ash
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
Rhizome and tubers Plant ash
Leucoderma
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Eczema
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Plant
Ringworm
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Leprosy
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
~
>
~
~
~
r-<
> Z 0
0
~ ~
~
Contd ...
r-<
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 84.
Argemone mexicana L.
~
0
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
t"' ~
Pivla Dhotra
Raigad District
Root, Leaf, Seed
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
-:>
Papaveraceae 85.
Argyriea sericea Dalz.
~ a::
rTI
0
rTI
fJ)
Gaval
Convolvulaceae Bahava
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Leaf juice
Raigad District
Leaf juice
Scabies
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
Raigad District
Fruits
Pimples
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
C)
> Z
86.
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae
87.
Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke Scrophulariaceae
88.
Woodfordia fruiticosa (L.) Kurz. Lythraceae
Dhati
Raigad District
Flower paste
Injuries
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
89.
Cissus pallida (Wt and Am.) Steud. Vitaceae
Khaud
Raigad District
Root
Tumours
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
90.
Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae
Phanasi
Raigad District
Bark, fruit
Ulcer
Kothari & MoorthY' 1988
Z
91.
Hydrolea zeylanica (L.) Vahl Hydrophyllaceae
Raigad District
Leaf Poultice
Ulcer
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
:=>
en
-:> --q"" ~
Z
~
0 Z fJ)
s:: > > fJ)
:;::l
92.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
BhamSet
Raigad District
Leaf paste
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
93.
Argyriea nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer. Convolvulaceae
Samydra Shok.
Raigad District
Leaf Poultice
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
94.
Termanalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wt. & Am. Combretaceae
Arjuna
Raigad District
Bark, Leaves
Wounds
Kothari & Moorthy, 1988
95.
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker. -Gawl. Convolvulaceae
Pungi
Jalgaon District
Leaf Paste
Swellings
Shisode & PatiI, 1993
96.
Tragia phukenetii R. Smith
Agya
JaIgaon District
Root
Injury
Shisode & PatiI, 1993
Euphorbiaceae
fJ)
>oj
~
Contd ...
:;::l
>
~
\0
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 97.
Clematis gouriana Roxb.
N
~
Local Name
Study Area
Maruvel
Dahanu District
Ranunculaceae
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Leaf paste
Blisters on skin
Shah et al., 1983
Plant part used and Recipe
98.
Coculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. Menispermacee
Verti, Vag Vel
Dahanu District
Leaf & Root extract
Rash on the skin
Shah et al., 1983
99.
Cleome gynandra L.
Tilivani
Dahanu District
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Shah et al., 1983
Karanj
Dahanu District Dahanu District
Seed oil
Shah et al., 1983
Leaf juice
Cutaneous disease Ringworm
Dahanu Forest division Dahanu Forest division
Leaf juice
Ringworm
Shah et al., 1983
100. 101. 102.
103.
104.
105.
Capparadiaceae Derris indica (Lam.) Bennet. Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis L. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae Eclipta alba L. Asteraceae
Neuracanthus trinervis wt. Acanthaceae Vitex negundo L.
Ran Takala Mika
Bhanjra
Nasula
Nirgudi
Verbenaceae 106.
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. Lamiacee
107.
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae
Dipmal
0
Shah et al., 1983 CJ'l ::I:
c::
OJ
::I:
> ....
Z
Plant extract
Skin rash
C)
Shah et al., 1983
~
Dahanu Forest division
Plant ash
Dahanu Forest division
Leaf paste
Dahanu Forest division
Flower bud
Dahanu Forest division
Root decoction
Skin disease
~
Shah et al., 1983
:(J
Shah et al., 1983
:<
~
Eczema
~
~
I""
Ringworm
Shah et al., 1983
>
Z 0
Eczema'
0
~
Shah et ai" 1983
~
..,> Contd ...
r=
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
IoTj
Local Name
0
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
r'
~
~
ttl
108. 109. 110. 111.
112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120.
Conyza stricta WilId. Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaverceae Cleome chelidonii Linn. f Capparidiaceae Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae Thespesia populnea Linn. Soland ex Corr. Malvaceae Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. Abrus precatorius Linn. Fabaceae Desmodium trifolium (Linn.) DC. Fabaceae Indigofera tinctoria Linn. Fubaceae Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Cassia tora Linn. Caesalpiniaceae
Bham bynti Piw la Dhotra
Khandala
Root decoction
Skin disease
Khed Taluka
Plant juice
Skin disease
Khed Taluka
Infusion of plant
Skin disease
Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, 1987 Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, 1987 janardhanan,1963
3: ttl
> Cl t tl
til
G"l
> Z
~
Ambadi
Khed Taluka
Plant juice
Sores, wound
janardhanan,1963
C/l ~
Z
Ran Bhendi Bor
Khed Taluka Khed Taluka
Leaves Root powder
Eczema
janardhanan,1963
Ulcer, old wounds Fresh wounds
janardhanan,1963
~
90 Z
-E: til
Burja
Khed Taluka
Decoction or Root bark
Lalgunja
Khed Taluka
Leaves, root bark, seeds
Skin disese
janardhanan,1963
Ranmethi
Khed Taluka
Fresh leaves
Wound absecess
janardhanan,1963
Nil, Cali
Khed Taluka
Root juice
Ulcer sores, scabies
janardhanan,1963
Karanj
Khed Taluka
Root juice
janardhanan,1963
Rantakala
Khed Taluka
Leaves, seeds
Ulcer, sorus, scabies Skin disease
Takaia
Khed Taluka
Root paste
Ring worm, skin disease
janardhanan,1963
janardhanan,1963
Z
> ::t: > ~ til ~ ::o::s >
janardhanan,1963
~
Contd ...
Vl .....
...Contd. Botanical Name &: Family Sr. No.
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
121.
Acacia arabica Willd. Mimosaceae
Babhul
KhedTaluka
Gum powder
Burns, scald
Janardhanan,l963
122.
Acacia rugata (Lamk.) liam.Mimosaceae Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth Rubiaceae Artemisia nilagirica Pomp. Rubiaceae Plumbgo zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae Dregea volubilis (Linn. f.) Benth. ex liook. f. Asc1epiadaceae liemidesmus indicus (Linn.) Schultz. Asc1epiadaceae Datura metel Linn. Solanaceae
Shikakai
Khed Taluka
Pod decoction
Dendruff
Janardhanan,l963
Kadam
Khed Taluka
Barkpste
Muscular pain
Janardhanan,l963
Dhordavan
KhedTaluka
Infusion of plant
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
Chitrak
Khed Taluka
Root paste
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
liirandodi
Khed Taluka
Leaves
Boil, abscesses
Dhatura
Khed Taluka
Seed, leaves
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
129.
Leucas aspera Spreng.
Dipmal
Khed Taluka
Roots
Scabies
130.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. liypoxidaceae Aloe vera Linn. Liliaceae
Kali musali
Khed Taluka
Leaves
Korphad
Khed Taluka
Rhizome
Itch, skin disease Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963 Janardhanan,1963 Janardhanan,1963
Bach-nag
Khed Taluka
Leaf juice
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
123. 124. 125. 126.
127.
128.
131. 132 133.
Gloriosa superba Linn. Liliaceae Ocimum sanctum L. Labiatae
'"
~
Local Name
Janardhanan,1963
'"
en c:==
=
== >
Z
Anantmul
KhedTaluka
Root
Skin disease
Janardhanan,1963
C"l
~
~ >
~
~
Tulsi
Marathwada
Leaves
Skin disease
Rohidas & Bankar, 2002
:<
-~ r-<
> Z 0
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~
r-<
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name &: Family No.
'T.I
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
0
r"
X
:;:a t!1
134.
Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f) Convolvulaceae
135.
Calophylum inophylum L.
136.
Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.) K.Schum. Bignoniaceae
137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142.
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae Garcinia indica Choisy
Samudrashok
Marathwada
Flower
Skin disease
Jtohidas & Bankar, 2002
0
t!1
Tripakshi
Raigad district
Leaves
Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Raigad district
Wood extract
Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Kadhineem
Raigad district
Root extract
Chitrak
Raigad district Kamala tribal area
fIl
> G1
-.., >
Z
fIl
(/)
Piwla dhotra
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
ZS Z
Root paste
Itching, Leucoderma Skin disease
Kothari & Moorthy, 1996
Root Seed
Skin disease
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
S
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981 Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
-q -a:: Z
Bhava
Kolaba Dist.
Rhizome
Skin disease
Kali musali
Kolaba Dist.
Fruit, Bark
Skin disease
Kokam
Kolaba Dist.
Root bark
Skin disease
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
Guttiferae 143.
Wagatea spicata Dalz. Caesalpiniaceae
Vagati
Kolaba Dist.
Leaves
Black spot on skin
Vartak & Mandavgane, 1981
144.
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Papilionaceae
Shurpunkha
Dhule
Leaf root
Ringworm
Yadav & Bhamare, 1989
145.
Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae
Takalu
Dhule
Achenes
Skin disease
Borse et al., 1990
Kadu-jira
Dhule
Bulb
Burns, swelling
Borse et al., 1990
146.
== t!1
>
." ." r"
Z
fIl
~
> ~
fIl
.., = ~
N
Contd ...
~ ~
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 147.
Crinum defixum Ker.GawI. Amaryllidaceae
148.
Lepidagathis trinervis Wall. ex Nees Acanthaceae
149.
Phyllanthus fraternus Webster Euphorbiaceae
150.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae
151.
Sterculia urens Roxb. Sterculiaceae
152.
153.
154.
N
Local Name Kumbaya
Dador
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae
155.
Allium cepa L. Liliaceae
156.
Cissampelos pareira Linn.
157.
Menispermaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaverceae
Kuru phad Piwla dhotra
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Nasik Dist.
Ash of inflorescence
Wound, swelling
Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
Nasik Dist.
Plant latex
Boils
Nasik Dist.
Seed oil
Skin disease
Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan,1986 Sharma & Lakshminarsimhan, 1986
Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay Salsette island near Bombay
Gum
Blisters
Shah, 1984
Seed oil
Cutaneous disease
Shah, 1984
Skin disease
Shah, 1984
Root paste
~
C/'J
= = >-Z c:: til
C)
....
Leaves
Scabies, skin disease
Shah, 1984
Skin disease
Shah, 1984
loti
~
>-
!!J Cloves
~
~
~
Salsette island near Bombay
Paste of leaves
Sores
Shah, 1984
Chandra pur
Paste of leaves
Boils
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
0
Malhotra & MoorthY' 1973
loti
Chandrapur
.... t'"
>-
Plant
Burns
Contd ...
Z 0
~
>..., .... t'"
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
"T1
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
0
Literature Source
t""
:;0:
~
tn
158. 159. 160. 161.
Polycarpea corymbosa Linn. Caryophyllaceae Portulaca oleracea Linn. Portulacaceae
Bhisky
Boils
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandrapur
Plant
Burns
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. Malvaceae
Kankari
Chandra pur
Paste of leaves and flowers
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Sida rhombifolia Linn. Malvaceae
Gubatada
Leaves
Swelling
Byltneria herbacea Roxb. Sterculaceae
163.
Boswellia serrata Roxb. Burseraceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Abrus precatorius Linn. Fabaceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Fabaceae
Gunja
168.
165.
Paste of leaves
Pasale
162.
164.
Chandra pur
Chandrapur
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandra pur
Powdered stem
Swelling
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Salai
Chandrapur
Gumresin
Sores
Neem
Chandrapur
Paste of seed
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Chandrapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Palas
Chandrapur
Leaves
Skin disease
Bavachi
Chandrapur
Seed Powder
Piles
Albizzia lebbeck Benth. Mimosaceae
Chinchola
Chandrapur
Seed Powder
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
169.
Careya arborea Roxb. Lecythidacee
Kumbi
Chandrapur
Bark powder
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
170.
Glinus lotoides (Linn.) Kuntze. Aizoaceae
Cho.ndrapur
Decoction of plant
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
171.
Tricholepis glaberrima DC. Rubiaceae
Chandra pur
Paste of plant
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
166. 167.
Bhrhmidandi
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
-:> tn ==
t:l tn
trJ
0
>
..,Z trJ
en
-:> :;0:
Z
-B ~
t""
0 Z
trJ
Z
~
> ::t: > ::::l > trJ
..,::t: ~
N
Contd ...
w
til
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
t-) ~
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
172.
Verononia cinerea (Linn.) Less. Rubiaceae
Osari
Chandrapur
Plant
Wound, sore
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
173.
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. Ebenaceae
Tumri
Chandrapur
Dried flower
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
174.
Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green Euphorbiaceae
Julapimpli
Chandrapur
Boils
Malhotra & Moorth) , 1973
175.
Mallotus philIippensis (Lamk.) MuelI.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis Linn. Euphorbiaceae Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Butea superba Roxb. Fabaceae Garcinia indica Choiss. Clusiacee
Korvel
Chandrapur
Poulitice of leaves Root powder
Skin disease
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
Erand
Chandrapur
Stem
Skin disease
Umber
Chandrapur
Root fumes
Piles
Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973 Malhotra & Moorthy, 1973
176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184.
Ziziphus oenoplia MilI.Rhamnaceae Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. Papilionaceae Celastrus paniculata Willd. Celastraceae Capparis horrida Lj. Cappiridacee
C"\
en ::t: c: l:1l:I ::t:
Piwla Dhotra
Akola District
Tuber paste
Ulcer
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
> Z ~ ....
Palas bel
Akola District Akola District
Decoction of fruit
Skin disease
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
~
Ratan bel Ramber Tinis Malkagni Taral
West Melghat West Melghat West Melghat Baramati
~
~
Fruit paste
Boils
Kamble & Pradhan, 1980
Stem bark
Wounds
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
3:: ~
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
~ .... I"'
Root bark Leaf powder
Wounds Skin disease
Badhe & Sharma, 1981
Piles
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
"tI
> Z 0
0
Contd ...
~ "tI
~ .... I"'
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 185. 186. 187.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Derris indica A. Juss. Fabaceae Psoralea corylifolia L.
"rl
Local Name Kadulimb Karanjii Bawachi
Study Area Baramati Baramati Baramati
Plant part used and Recipe Bark leaves seeds Seeds Whole plant
Ailment Treated Skin disease Skin disease Skin disease
Fabaceae 188.
Tephrosia purpurea L.
Unhali
Baramati
Whole plant
Skin disease
Fabaceae 189.
Coccinia indica L.
Literature Source Deokule & Magdum, 1992
m ==
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
'JJ
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Baramati
Leaves
Skin disease
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Chitrak
Baramati
Root, Milky juice
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Jai
Baramati
Leaves
Skin disease
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Haldikumkum
Baramati
Root, leaves, flower
Pile
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae
Gulbakshi
Baramati
Root, leaves
Boils
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
194.
Aristolochia bracteata Retz. Aristolochiaceae
Popte
Baramati
Root, leaves
Eczema
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
195.
Gossypium herbaceum Linn. Malvaceae
Kapasyo
Baramati
Root leaves
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
1%.
Urginea indica Kunth Liliaceae Acacia catechu Willd. Mimosaceae
Jangali kando
Baramati
Fruits
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Katis
Baramati
Bulb
Cuts on feets
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Cucurbitaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae 191. 192.
Jasminum grandiflorum (L.) Bailey Oleaceae Asclepias currassavica L. Asclepiadaceae
193.
197.
r-' :;;r:::
~ m
Tondali
190.
0
Contd ...
0 .... m
> C)
> .... Z
'JJ
>-l
fJl
....:;;r::: Z
~
~ .... q ....
0 Z
'JJ
.... Z
~
> ::e > := > 'JJ
::e>-l
:=
>
I'.J ~
'I
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204.
205. 206. 207.
208. 209. 210.
Citrus medica Linn. Rutaceae Argemone mexicana Linn. Papaveraceae Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Fabaceae Annona squamosa Linn. Anonnaceae Vigna trilobata Verdc. Pa pilionaceae Carica papaya Linn. Caricaceae Lawsonia inermis Linn. Lythraceae Pongamia pinnata Pierre Papilionaceae Ficus religiosa Linn. Moraceae Tridax procumbens Linn. Compositae Aegle marmelos Corr. Rutaceae Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae Ficus arnottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae
N
~
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
Nimbavi
Baramati
Bark decoction
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Unhalyo, Piw la dhotra Palaho, palas
Baramati
Fruit
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Baramati
Latex
Scabies
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Sitaphal
Baramati
Flower infusion
Abscess
Baramati
Root paste
Abscess
Papai
Baramati
Root paste
Ringworm
Mehndi
Baramati
Fruit
Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992 Deokule & 1992
C»
Magdum, Magdum, Magdum,
fJl ::t:
Magdum,
::t:
Konji, Konruj
Baramati
Leaf paste
Scabies, Soggy cuts between toes Scabies
Pimple
Baramati
Seed oil
Abscess
Kodakja khod, Ghav Pala, Unnalgo Bili, Bil
Baramati
Bark ash
Bleeding wounds
Baramati
Leaf paste
Abscess
Deokule & Magdum, 1992
Amba
Baramati
Leaf juice
Wounds
Amsa
Jalgaon District
Bark decoction
Ringworm
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Pawar & Patil, 2004
c:: = > Z
C) ....
Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992 Deokule & Magdum, 1992
~
~
~
~
~
~
....~ !'"'
> Z t:j
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~ r:::
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
IT.!
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
ar-< ~
~
r!1
211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224.
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Cassia tora L. Caesalpiniaceae Cassine albens (Retz.) Kosterm. Celastraceae Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae Ficus bengalensis L. Moraceae Bryophyllum pinnatum Kurz. Crassulaceae Mangifera indica Linn.Anacardiaceae Tridax procumbens Linn. Asteraceae Calatropis gigantea R.Br. Salmalia malabarica Sch. & Endl. Bombacaceae Convolvulus microphylIus Linn. Convolvulaceae Sesamum indicum Linn. Pedaliaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn. Cyperaceae Martynia annua Linn. Pedaliaceae
Mendi
Jalgaon District
Leaf extract
Tarota, Takala
Jalgaon District
Pimpal
Jalgaon District
Seed and other additives Gum
Wad Pan phuti Amba Ekdandi Rui Sawar Hawari Lapati Tili Gundayo cunjwla Wagh nokhyo
Jalgaon District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Allergic dermatitis
Pawar & Patil, 2004
Wound due to thorns Anjuri
Pawar & Patil, 2005
~
r!1
t:j
....
r!1 til
> C)
Pawar & PatiI, 2005
>.... Z
til
Bark infusion
Scabies
Pawar & PatiI, 2005
-l
C/l ~ ....
Leaf infusion
Abscess
Pawar & Patil, 2005
Leaf poultice
Wound, boils, swellings Cracked feet cut
Sonawane et al., 2006
Rooted leaves
Sonawane et al., 2006
Z
..,r->til
:::0
::r: -l
:::0
Entire plant
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Seed oil
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Tuberous root pastel powder Ripe fruit oil
Boils, abscess
D'souza, 1993
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
>-
N
Contd ...
w
1.0
... Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
225.
Ocimum sanctum Linn. Lamiaceae
Kali tulji
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Wounds
D'souza, 1993
226.
Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Lamiaceae Aloe barbadensis Mill. Liliaceae Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Papilionaceae Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. Verbenaceae Cleome viscosa Linn. Capparadaceae Cajanus cajan Millsp. Pa pilionaceae Trichodesma indicum R. Br. Boraginaceae Operculina turpenthum Silva Manso. Convolvulaceae Sterospermum suaveolens DC. Bignoniaceae Orthosiphon pallidus Royle Lamiaceae
Ran tulus
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Dekti Korphad
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf pulp
Bums, wounds
D'souza, 1993
Leaf powder entire plant paste Leaf juice
Scabies, white spots on skin Scabies
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Wound
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Fresh wound
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 233.
234. 235.
236. 237.
Cayratia camosa Gagnes Vitaceae Apluda mutica Linn. Poaceae
Bapchyo Bawachi OraniPokai arandi Berocero Stengalue Leydya Tuwi Tor Agykhod Agyo
D'souza, 1993
:I:
> Z
C)
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Leaf paste
Wounds ringworm
D'souza, 1993
Tiwanyo
Nandurbar District
Leaf powder
Wounds
D'souza, 1993
Tilkhado
Nandurbar District
Bark Paste
Boil with pus
D'souza, 1993
Sonyo Jaigli tulasi, Mali phuli
fJl :I:
c:: CiS
Leaf paste
Padlo
~
0
~
~ ~ 3:: ~ ~
~
r"'
> Z t:l
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~
r "'
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No. 238.
Local Name
Crataeva nurvula Ham. Capparidaceae
Wayrow
239.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae
240.
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
61 !"" ~
~
:::rn
Nandurbar District
Bark paste
Nimbwo, Nimbda
Nandurbar District
Fumes of dried leaves
Skin allergy
D'souza, 1993
Tectona grandis Linn. Verbenaceae
Hag, Sag
Nandurbar District
Entire plant paste or ash
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
-
241.
Cressa cretica Linn. Convolvulaceae
Ran Chana, RanChano
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
C/l
242.
Hibiscus cannabinus Linn.
Kheto-pendo
Nandurbar District
Root paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
Malvaceae
Scabies
Literature Source D'souza, 1993
0 en
rn
~
> Z
~
~
--~
Nandurbar District
Entire plant decoction
Wound
D'souza, 1993
Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. Caryophyllaceae
Tomano Dhamda Pandharphuli, Viali Phuli
Q
Nandurbar District
Tender leaf
Rinworm
D'souza, 1993
-
245.
Cassia fistula Linn. Pa pilionaceae
Kerwalo Bahava
Nandurbar District
Bark paste
Scabies
D'souza, 1993
246.
Jatropha gossipifolia Linn.
Nandurbar District
Latex
Burns
D'souza, 1993
Euphorbiaceae
Roturondo Chandrya
Ziziphus oenoplia Mill.
Chambor
Nandurbar District
Root paste
Abscess
D'souza, 1993
243.
Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl Tiliaceae
244.
247.
Rhamnaceae 248.
Alstonia scholaris R. Br. Apocynaceae
Sciten
Nasik District
Stem bark smoke
Itching
Patil & Patil, 2006
249.
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae
Kate-math
Nasik District
Leaf ash
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
250.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae
Kardai
Nasik District
Latex
Skin infection
Patil & Patil, 2006
0 Z en
Z
~
> == > ::c > en
:i::c
>
Contd ...
..-~
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
251.
Cassine albens (Retz.) Koestem. Celastraceae
Bhuttya kalas
Nasik District
Latex gum
Crack of lips
Patil & Patil, 2006
252.
Cryptolepsis buchananii R.&S.. Asclepiadaceae
Bhui-kawali
Nasik District
Latex
Boils
Patil & Patil, 2006
253.
Cucumis prophetarum Linn. Cucurbitaceae
Chibbd
Nasik District
Fruit paste
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
254.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae
Kala cheda
Nasik District
Root paste
Wounds
Patil & Patil, 2006
255.
Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Asteraceae
KalaMaka
Nasik District
Leaf juice
Soggy cracks between toes
Patil & Patil, 2006
256.
Ficus amottiana (Miq.) Miq. Moraceae
Khadak Payer
Nasik District
Latex
Boils, pimples
Patil & Patil, 2006
257.
Ficus glomerata Roxb.
Umber
Nasik District
Root latex
258.
Ficus virens (Miq.), Mig. Moraceae
Ambepayer
Nasik District
259.
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. Rubiaceae
Haldu
260.
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae
261.
262.
~
N
rJl
:=
c:::
1:11
Patil & Patil, 2006
Latex
Chicken pox, small pox Eczema rayer
:= > Z C1 ....
Patil & Patil, 2006
I-d
Nasik District
Stem bark ash
Burns
Patil & Patil, 2006
~
Anantmul, Upsali
Nasik District
Root Paste
Itching and burning sensation of skin
Patil & Patil, 2006
;
~
~I:j Soggy cuts between toes
Patil & Patil, 2006
Contd ...
0
~ I-d
~ .... r-<
...Contd. Botanical Name &; Family Sr. No. 263.
264.
265. 266. 267.
268. 269. 270. 271. 272 273. 274.
Ipomoea illustris (CB.CI.) Prain. Convolvulaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merril Anacardiaceae Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. Cucurbitaceae Meyna laxiflora Robyns Rubiaceae Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roem. Cucurbitaceae Phyllanthus fratemus Webster Euphorbidceae Pistia stretiotes Linn. Araceae Polygonum barbatum Linn. Polygonaceae Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Fabaceae Psoralea coryllifolia L. Fabaceae Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Scrophulariaceae Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) Wight & Am. Combretaceae
Local Name Gogveli Mondhal
Study Area Nasik District Nasik District
Plant part used and Recipe Leaves fumes Stembark paste
Ailment Treated Chicken box Swellings
Literature Source
'T.I 0 r-<
~
~ Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006
==
I!I
0
I !I CII
;I> C'l
> Z
Dodka Aliv Mekh,Gel Mekh Dadar Gondal
Karanj Bauchi Ramban Arjuna Sadada
Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District Nasik District
Leaf paste
Leprosy
Patil & Patil, 2006
CII
"'l
en
-q~
Leaf ash
Inflammed part or swelling Soggy cuts been toes Boils, skin infections Burns
Patil & Patil, 2006
Leaf extract
Septics wounds
Patil & Patil, 2006
Seed oil
Eczema
Patil & Patil, 2006
Warmed leaf Leaf ash Plant paste
Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006 Patil & Patil, 2006
Z
;I> :;! r-<
0 Z
CII
Z
~
> > ">CII
= = "> "'l
Seed oil
Leucoderma
Patil & Patil, 2006
Leaf ash
Leprosy
Patil & Patil, 2006
Stem bark ash
Injuries
Patil & Patil, 2006
Contd ...
~
~
...Contd. Sr. Botanical Name & Family No.
Local Name
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
275.
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker.Gawl. Convolvulaceae
Pingul weI
Nasik District
Leaf paste
Swellings, Knots
Patil & Patil, 2006
276.
Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f
Kunwarpato
Nasik District
LeaflJulp
Burns
Tayade & Patil, 2005
277.
Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae Aristolochia bracteata Retz. Aristolochiaceae Baliospermum raziana Keshav et Yog. Euphorbiaceae Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.Papilionaceae Calatropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Crataeva adansonii DC. Ca pparidaceae
Piwala Dhotra
Nandurbar District
Latex
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Kidmar
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
Leaf juice
Eczema
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Seed paste
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
278. 279.
280. 281. 282. 283.
Emblica officinalis Gaertn.
Dati
en
Palas Rui Varno
Jatropha gossipifolia L. Lawsonia inermis L.
287.
Trichondesma indica (L.) R. Br. Boraginaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
c:: =
::r: Latex
Boils, Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Bark infusion
Boil withpus
Tayade & Patil, 2005
~
Cl ....
""d
~
,?:l
Fruit powder
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Chandra Jyot
Nandurbar District
Latex
Burn
Tayade & Patil, 2005
~
Mendi
Nandurbar District
Leaf paste
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
....I""'~
Udanfuli
Nandurbar District Nasik District
Leaf powder
Scabies
Tayade & Patil, 2005
Bark infusion
Scabies
Patil & Patil, 2006
Lythraceae 286.
Nandurbar District
Flower paste
Nandurbar District
Euphorbiaceae 285.
Nandurbar District Nandurbar District
::r:
Awala
Euphorbiaceae 284.
t
Neem
~
""d
> Z t:l
0
~ ~
Contd ...
~ .... I""'
... Contd. Botanical Name & Family Sr. No.
"rj
Local Name
0
Study Area
Plant part used and Recipe
Ailment Treated
Literature Source
r-<
~
~
tTl
288.
Cassia fistula "Linn.
Bahava
Nasik District
Costus speciosus (Koenig) J. E.5m. Zingiberaceae
Pewda
Nasik District
Maduca longifolia (Koen.) Macbr. Sapotaceae
Mahuwa
Nasik District
Flower paste
Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Plumbaginaceae
Chitrak
Nasik District
Root juice
292.
Terminalia bellirica Roxb. Combretaceae
Behda
Nasik District
293.
Thespepsia lampas Dalz. Malvaceae
Panbhendi
Nasik District
Caesalpiniaceae 289. 290. 291.
Leaf paste
Patil & Patil, 2006
Bark paste
Ringworm Scabies
Rhizome
Leprosy
PatH & Patil, 2006
:::
> tTl
!;j
tTl
rn
Cl
Abscess
PatH & Patil, 2006
>
Z
rn
o-l
Scabies, leprosy, white spot on skin
Patil & Patil, 2006
Seed oil
Pimples
PatH & Patil, 2006
Root powder
Skin disease
Patil & Patil, 2006
en
-> ~ q~
Z
0 Z
rn
Z ~
> > ~ rn :t: :t: o-l
:;::::I
>
246
SHUBHANGI PAWAR,
M.V.
PATIL AND
D.A.
PATIL
REFERENCES Almeida, M.R. & Almeida, S.M. (1989) Folklore and utility of vascular plants from Sawantwadi. In : Proceedings of All India Symposium on Biology and Utility of Wild Plants (Prof.G.L. Shah Comm.Vol.), Department of Biosciences, South Gujarat University, Surat, India, pp.2339. Anand Kumar, Kulkarni, B.G. & Singh, N.P. (1981) Medicinal and economic plants growing at Pune. Maharashtra Vidnyan Mandir Patriea 15:64-74. Badhe, P.D. & Sharma, B.N. (1981) Ethnomedicinal methods of Korkutribes of West Melghat. B.M.E.B.R. 3(2-4):162-172. Bhamare, P.B. (1998) Ethnomedicinal plants used by tribals in Dhule district, Maharashtra, India. ,.Swamy Bot.CI. 15:78-83. Bhamare, P.B. (1998) Traditional knowledge of plants for skin ailments of Dhule and Nandurbar districts, Maharashtra (India). ,.Phytol.Res. 11(2):195-196. Borse, S.c., Bhamare, P.B. and Patil, D.A. (1990) Medicinal plantlore of tribals of Dhule district, Maharashtra. Biojournal 2(1):47-54. D'Souza, Marie (1993) Tribal Medicine. Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development, New Delhi. Das, P.K. & Misra, M.K. (1988) Some medicinal plants among Kondhas around Chandrapur (Koraput). J.Eeon.Tax. Bot. 12(1):103-109. Deokule, S.s. & Magdum, D. K. (1992) Enumeration of medicinal plants from Baramati area, District Pune, Maharashtra State. ,.Eeon.Tax.Bot. (Addl.Ser.) 10:289-299. Deshmukh, V.R., Muratkar, G.D. & Rothe, S.P. (1999) Preliminary observations of the medicinal and economically important leguminous plant species from Amaravti Tehsil. rEeon. Tax.Bot. 23(2) : 283-289. Janardhan, K.P. (1963) An enumeration of the medicinal plants of Khed taluka, Maharashtra State. Bull. Bot.Surv. India. 5(3-4):363-374. Jayananda Tosh (1996) Ethnobotanical study of western Maharashtra. rEeon.Tax.Bot. (Addl. Ser.) 12:169-174. Kamble, S.Y. & Pradhan, S.G. (1980) Ethnobotany of the 'Korkus' in Maharashtra. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22(1-4):201-202. Kothari, M.J. & Moorthy, S. (1987) Floristic composition and utility of wild plants in Raigad district, Maharashtra. In : Proceedings of All India Symposium on Biology and Utility of Wild Plants (Prof.G.L. Shah Comm. Vol.), Department of Biosciences, South Gujarat University, Surat, India, pp.100-107. Kothari, M.J. & Moorthy, S. (1996) Ethnobotany in human welfare of Raigad district of Maharashtra. In : Ethnobiology In Human Welfare (Ed. S.K. Jain), Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. pp.403-407. Kulkarni, B.G. (1968) Medicinal plants from Vengurla, Sawantwadi, Phonda and Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. Maharashtra Vidnyan Mandir Patriea 3(1):18-24. Mahabale, T.S. (1987) Botany And Flora of Maharashtra, Gazetteer of India, Maharashtra State, Gazetteers Department, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay, India. Malhotra, S.K. & Moorthy, S. (1973) Some useful and medicinal plants of Chandrapur district, Maharashtra State. Bull.Bot.Sure;. India 15(1-2):13-21.
FOLK REMEDIES AGAINST SKIN AFFLICfIONS IN MAHARASHTRA
247
Patil, M.V. & Patil, D.A (2006) Certain ethnomedicinal practices amongst aborigines of Nasik district (Maharashtra) for human skin afflictions. In : Advances in Medicinal Plants, Vol.II. (Ed. Prajapti et al.). Asian Medicinal Plants and Health Care Trust, Jodhpur, India. Pawar, Shubhangi & Patil D.A (2004) Observations on folkloric medicinal plants of Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Indian J. Trad. Knowled. 3(4):437-441. Pawar, Shubhangi & Patil, D.A (2005) Herbal folk medicine of Jalgaon district (Maharashtra). ].Phytol.Res. 18(2): 235-237. Rathor, O.S., Zare, M.K. & Chavan, V.B. (2002) Ethnobotanical studies in some less known plants of Marathwada. In : Plant Resource Development (Ed. AM.Mungikar & AS. Bhutkar) Dr. B.AM. University, Aurangabad·, India. pp.86-89. Rohidas, S.B. & Bankar, G.J. (2002) Marathwada : Rich source of medicinal plants. In : Plant Resource Development (Ed. AM.Mungikar & AS.Bhutkar) Dr.B.AM.University, Aurangabad, India, pp.224-228. Shah, G.L. (1984) Some economically important plant of Salsette island near Bombay. J.Ecoll. Tox.Bot. 4:141-151. Shah, G.L., Yadav, S.S. & Badrinath, V. (1983) Medicinal plants from Dahanu forest division in Maharashtra State. J.Econ.Tax. Bot. 4:141-151. Sharma, B.D. & Lakshminarsimhan, P. (1986) Ethnobotanical studies in Nasik district (Maharashtra). J.Ecoll. Tax. Bot. 8(2):439-454. Sharma, B.D. & Malhotra, S.K. (1984) A contribution to the ethnobotany of tribal areas in Maharashtra. ].Econ. Tax. Bot. 5(3):533-537. Shisode, S.B. & Patil, D.A (1993) Native medicinal plants of Jalgaon district, Maharashtra. Biojournal 5(1-2):79-82. Sonawane, Y.D., Ansari Ziya & Mamude, Y.B. (2006) Utilization of some medicinal plants of Baglan Taluka of Nasik District (Maharashtra State). ].Swamy.Bot. Cl. 23:173-174. Tayade, S.K. & Patil, D.A (2005) Ethnomedicinal traditions of tribals of Nandurbar district (Maharashtra) J.Phytol.Res. 18(2):251-254. Tayade, S.K. & Patil, D.A (2006) Ethnomedicinal wisdom of tribals of Nandurbar district (Maharashtra). Natural Prod. Rediance 5(1):64-69. Upadhye Anuradha, 5., Kumbhojkar, M.S. & Vartak, V.D. (1986) Observations on wild plants used in folk medicine in the rural areas of Kolhapur district. Ancient Sci.Life 6(2):119-121. Upadhye, Anuradha S. & Kumbhojkar, M.S. (1992) Ethnobotany of Madhuca from western Maharashtra. ].Econ. Tax. Bot. (Addl.Ser.) 10:79-81. Upadhye, Anuradha S., Vartak, V.D. & Kumbhojkar, M.S. (1994) Ethnomedico-botanical studies in western Maharashtra, India. Ethnobotany 6:25-34. Vartak, V.D. & Mandavgane Rekha (1981) Enumeration of medicinal plants from Kamala tribal area, Kolaba district, Maharashtra State. J.Univ.Poona (Sci. & Tech.) 54:91-99. Ved Prakash & Mehrotra, B.N. (1987) Ethnobotanical studies on the flora of Khandala, Maharashtra State. J.Econ. Tax.Bot. 9(1):205-208. Yadav, 5.5. & Bhamare, P.B. (1989) Ethnomedico-botanical studies of Dhule forests in Maharashtra. J.Econ. Tax.Bot. 13(2):455-460.
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INDIA
HARISH SINGH
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Enumeration
3.
Summary and conclusion
4.
Acknowledgements
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION th
Jharkhand is the 28 State of the Indian Republic, formed by carved out from Bihar on November 15, 2000. It is lies between 220 00' and 240 37' N latitude and 83 0 15' and 870 01' E longitude. The state is bounded by Bihar in the North, West Bengal on the East, Chattisgarh in the West and Orissa on the South with 79,714 sq. km. geographical area. The phisiography of the state is hills, valley, and plateau with altitude ranging from 1000 to over 4000 feet. Jharkhand is the home of many tribal communities along with a dynamic floristic diversity. The scheduled tribe population of Jharkhand is 26.30 % of the total population of the state. There are all together 29 scheduled tribe in the state, but the largest tribal group are Munda, Oraon, Kharia, Ho and Santhal. The tribes are mainly concentrating in Chhotanagpur Plateau and Santhal Parganas including Ranchi, Gumla, Lohardaga, Palamau, Hazaribagh, Singhbhum, Giridih, Dhanbad, Sahibganj, Godda, Pakud, Dumka and Deoghar districts. Due to close association of forest, the tribes possess a unique knowledge about the medicinal uses of plant wealth of their surroundings from many generations. They depend mostly on ethno medicines for the treatment of different diseases, disorders and ailments. This traditional knowledge is now fast disappearing due to modernization, habitat destruction and tendency of the younger generation to discard traditional health system.
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A considerable ethnomedico-botanical work has been done by a large number of ethnobotanists on the state viz., (Bodding, 1925, 1927; Bondya et al., 2004; Chandra, 1995; Chandra and Pandey, 1984, 1985; Chandra et al., 1985,1987; Chaudhuri, 1974; Chaudhuri, and Pal, 1976; Chaudhuri et al., 1977; Girach and Aminuddin, 1995; Goel et al., 1984, 1987, 1987; Goel and Mudgal, 1988; Guha, 1957; Gupta, 1963, 1981, 1987; Hembrom, 1991, 1994, 1996; Hembrom and Goel, 2005; Islam & Jha, 2003; Jain, and Tarafder, 1970; Jain, 1989, 1996, 2003; Jain et al., 1990, 1994; Jaipuriar, 2003; Jha et al., 1997; Jha and Verma, 1996; Kumar, 1997; Kumar and Goel, 1998; Kumar, 1992; Kumari et al., 1991; Mahato and Mahato, 1996; Mahato et al., 1996, 1992; Manna and Samaddar, 1984; Pal, 1980; Pal and Jain, 1998; Pal and Srivastava, 1976; Pandey et al., 1998; Paul, 1977; Prasad et al., 1998; Prasad, 1988; Raghav et al., 2005; Ram and Saha, 1998; Rani, and Mishra, 2002; Roy Choudhuri, 1963; Sahoo and Mudgal, 1993(1997); Sahu et al.,2003; Saren et al., 2006; Sarkar & Agarwal, 1978; Sharma, 1981, 1988; Sharma & Sinha, 1980; Shukla and Verma 1996; Singh, 2003; Singh and Singh, 1992; Singh and Sinha, 1991; Singh et al., 1992, Singh, 1987; Singh, 1955; Sinha et al., 1981; Sinha and Nathwat, 1989, 1989, 1991; Srivastawa and Verma, 1981; Srivastava, 2006; Tarafder, 1978, 1983a, 1983b, 1983c 1983d, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1984d, 1984e, 1985, 1986, 1987; Tarafder & Chaudhuri, 1981; Topno, 1997; Trebedi, 1986; Trevedi et al., 1985,1987; Uniyal, 1995; Upadhyay et al., 1998; Verma and Pandey, 1990; Verma et al., 1999; Vidhyarthy and Gupta, 2004). In the present paper, author has given emphasis on diseasewise ethnomedicinal plants, which might be useful for further ethno-pharmacological investigation.
2.
ENUMERATION
In the present paper, the plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each group of diseases, disorders and ailments alongwith parts used, author citation, parts used and local names in brackets. Abortion Root of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu) and soft twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used for abortion porposes. Asthma Bark of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), leaf of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), fruit pulp of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), leaf, flower and seed of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb. and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are given in asthma, bronchitis, lung infection and as expectorant. Bone fracture Roots of Vitis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) is used on bone fracture in tribal belt of Jharkhand. Burns Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, and Sial Kanta), root of Bombax
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ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, and Talmuli) and fruit of Marttj11ia annua L. (Budisarsar) are used in the treatment of burns. Contraceptives Root of Flemingia c/tappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. and leaf juice of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as contraceptives in the tribal area of Jharkhand. Cough and Cold Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), leaf of Adhatoda vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. (Be]), stem bark of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), plant of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha), root of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. ( Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), leaf of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), root of Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), fruit and flower of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), seed of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. ex Dalz. ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi), and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used by the tribe in cough and cold. Diaorrhoea and Dysentery Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), plant of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Chhatni, Chatian), gum of Anogeissus lati/olia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), bark of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-KunJaw, Miridi, Putri, and Gote Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), fruit, seed oil and bark of DiosptJros melanoXljlon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), plant of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. (Buang-dumbo, Teli), leaf of Gloriosa superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Glossogt;ne pinnatifida DC. (Otebarangu, Bajardanti), bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), plant of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. , fruit of Punica granatum L. (Anar), fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi), and fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun) are given in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. Diabetes Root of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), wood of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija, Bijasal), seed and bark of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun) are used in the treatment of diabetes.
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Digestive disorder Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), leaf of Aegle marmelos (L.) Carr. (Bel), plant of Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajguru mba, Gadh), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Sabnul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), root and flower of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Singda, Koinar), root of Blumeopsis jlava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), root of Bombax ceiba L. (Mur-red, Simbal), Bark of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Benda, Paras, Palas, Dhak), leaf and fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor), root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), plant of Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), root of Croton r~xburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gate Potri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), root of Desmodium pulchellum (L.) Backer (Eth-Ka-Jar), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua), fruit of Ficus racemosa L. syn. F.glomerata Roxb. (Dumbri, Gular), root of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karala, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), root of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach), bark of Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), plant of Polygonllm barbatllm L. (Gara-bera-aha, Sensa), bark of Pongamia pi/mata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), flower of Pterospermum acerifolium willd. (Mackchand, Mackchun), seed of Ruellia Sllffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin of SllOrea robusta Roxb. ex Gaertn. f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), stem bark of Spodias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Amra), plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), bark and leaf of Tamarindus indica L. (Emli, Tetar), fruit of Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (Bahera, Bahaira), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), and root of Thalictrum foliosum DC Gurbula) are used in digestive disorder including indigestion, stomach pain, gastric trouble, as appetizer, constipation, biliousness, burning sensation etc. Delivery Root of Achyrallthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), root of Adhatoda vasica Nees (Vasaka, Basak), leaf of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba, Gadh), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), root of Gloriosa superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), flower of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Urhul), root of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), bark of Sterculia urens Roxb. and root of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi) are used to accelerate and for easy, smooth and painless delivery. Dog bite Plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), flower of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), bark of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), leaf of Clerodelldrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), plant of Lygodium jlexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), root of Sida acuta Burm. f (Baria~, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of
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BARISH SINGH
Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetorum (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar, Loto and Mouna) and fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) are used in jackal, monkey and dog bite including hydrophobia. Ear trouble Seed of Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), seed of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), fruit of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., root of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in earache, pus discharges and infection in ear. Epilepsy Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), whole plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), plant and root of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri) and leaf of Marttjnia annua L. (Budisarsar) are given in epilepsy. Eye complaints Seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root and leaf of Clerodendrum serra tum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), plant of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Dubilata), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant and root of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), seed of Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.(Gal Phuli), fruit of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi),stem bark of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur, Ratanganda), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula)and plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in the treatment of redness, swelling, pain, inflammation, conjunctivitis etc. in eyes. Fever Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Brandis (Karam, Karam), plant and root of Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Midni, Lupora), leaf of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex. Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), root of Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk. (Rajgurumba, Gadh), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), seed of Caesalpinia crista L. (Kath Karanj), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), leaf of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Cassia occidentalis L. (Ba:ka Chakur, Chakar), plant and root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), root of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili, Bharangi), root of CnJPtolepis buchanani R.Br. ex Roem & Schult. (Vaish- Lakashman, Medha- Singhi), leaf, seed and root of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), seed oil and bark of Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Tiril, Kend, Tendu, Kendu, Terel), root and stem bark of Diosptjros montana Roxb. (Kendu), root of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), root of Gloriosa
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superba L. (Kari-hari, Nagaser), root of Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. (Chotaka -dudhi, Anaising, Dudhmala, Dudhijeri), bark of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya), root of Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), bark of Melia azedaraclz L. (Bakain, Nim), fruit of Meyna laxiflora Robins. (Katob, Mauna, Ber-Ka-Mowna-Gach), plant of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), bark of MitragrJna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. (Karmi), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Mucuna pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi), root of Plumbago zeylanica L. (Chitrak), root of Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC (Chanbida, Nilkanthi, Nil Kanti), seed oil of POllgamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax zeylanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC (Jurbula), bulb of Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (BanPiyaj, Jangli Piyaj), whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu), leaf and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi), root of Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni), root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea, Dhawai, Ichha, Dhaunai), root of Wrightia toementosa (Roxb.) Roem. & Schult. (Kari-dudhi), plant of Xanthium strumarium L., root of Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay syn. Randia dumetomm (Retz.) Lam. (Kharhar, Loto and Mouna) are used in fever including malarial, typhoid, intermittent and high fever with senselessness. Gum diseases Leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. and leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in gum diseases including swelling, pyorrhea, bed smell etc. Headache Plant of Andrographis palliculata (Burmf.) Wall. ex Nees (Chirak, Kalmegh, Kamraj, Chireita, Chiraita), leaf of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), root of Croton roxburghii Balak. syn. C. oblongifolius Roxb. (Kuti-Kun-Jaw, Miridi, Putri, Gote Potri), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), fruit of Leonotis nepetafolia (L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), Leaf of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam, Jatni), bark of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), Spilanthes calva DC, root of Trichosanthes palmata Roxb., leaf of Vitex llegundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Woodfordia fruticosa ( L.) Kurz (Dhutkiphul, Itchea, Dhawai, Ichha, and Dhaunai) are used for treating headache. Jaundice Whole Plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), Leaf of Phyllanthus nimri L.(Jara amla), plant of Solanum nigmm L. (Makoi) and whole plant of Urtica dioica L. (Bichhu ghas) are used in jaundice and liver troubles. Leprosy Whole Plant of Commelina benghalensis L. (Kanchare), flower bud of Hibiscus rosasinensis L. (Urhul), plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), and root of Mucuna pmriens (L.) DC (Alkusi, Algusi) are used in leprosy and leucoderma. Leucorrhoea Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and
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Gogotram) and rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli) are used in the treatment of leucorrhoea. Miscarriage Seed of Butea monospenna (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. (Banskali), fower and root of Prosopis spicigera L. (Mimosaceae), leaf of Punica granatum L. (Anar) and wood of Symplocos racemosa Roxb. (Lodh, Ratan Gaur, Ratanganda) are used to prevent miscarriages during pregnancy. Pains Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, and Kanijari), root of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, and Chirdhiri), stem bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Chhatni, Chatian), root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), whole plant of Atljlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), root of Carissa carandas L. (Kanwad) and Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkangui, Minjni, Kujri), whole plant of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), whole plant of Crotolaria spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli), root of Desmodium gangeticllm (L.) DC. (Sinar), root of Desmodium oojeinensis (Roxb.) Ohashi (Sanan), root of Lygodillm fIexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), seed of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), resin of Shorea robllsta Roxb. ex Gaertn. f (Sal, Sakhua), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir), stem, leaf and fruit of Tillospora cordifolia (L.) Miers. (Gursilai), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) are used in body pain, muscle strain, chest pain, etc. by the tribal people of Jharkhand. Piles Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. (Kakrendha), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, and Talmuli), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), whole plant of Equisetum debile Roxb.ex Vauch. (Hajorua), peduncle of Solanum melollgena L. (Baigan), plant juice of Solanum nigrum L. (Makoi) and leaf juice of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of itching piles, bleeding piles and fistula. Post delivery complaints Stem bark of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), leaf of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Costus specioslls (Koen.)Smith, plant of Crotolaria alata Buch.-Ham. (Jhunjhunka), root of Piper longum L. (Pipali), root of Pogostemon parviflorus Benth., bark of Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Bija, Bijasal), leaf of Punica granatum L. (Anar), root of Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb. (Charpandu, Ranu), and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in fever, weakness, and to check bleeding and to remove out the placenta after delivery.
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF JHARKHAND, INDIA
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Rheumatism Gum of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), whole plant of Crotolaria spectabilis Roth syn. c.sericea Retz. (Jhuka, Jhunjhunia), root and plant of
Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), seed oil of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), pseudo bulb of Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl. (Patharkela), seed oil of Pongamia pimzata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of rheumatism. Scorpion sting Plant of Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root of Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. (Palati, Akanta, Akwan, Palti), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar) and root of Rubia cordifolia L. are used locally on the part stung by scorpion. Skin diseases Seed of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), leaf of ArgtjTeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), whole plant of Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. (Brahmi), gum of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), seed of Cassia tora L. (Chakar, Chakor), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), root and leaf of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), leaf of Commelina bengizalensis L. (Kanchare), rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Baia Shir, Kitamuli, Masvaru, Talmuli), seed ,leaf and root of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Darukanda), plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), whole plant of Ipomoea hispida (Vahl) Roem. & Schult. (Pitohri), inflorescence of Leonotis nepetafolia (L.) R.Br. (pogu-jata, Tompepuru, Traangia), stem bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) CB.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), seed oil of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), seed oil of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), root of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Saparum, Khirsari, Harsingar), inflorescence of Ocimum basilicum L. (Achi-Koam, Jatni), seed oil of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Karanj), seed oil of Schieichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken (Kusum), wood oil of Tectona grandis L.f. (Sagwan), fruit of Terminalia chebuia Retz. (Rolla, Harra) and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in skin diseases including ringworm, itches, scabies, acne, boils, blister, sores, ulcer, tumor, irritation, sprain, blood purifier etc. Snake bite Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), plant of Anogeissus Iatifolia (Roxb. ex DC) Wall. ex Guill. (Dhauta, Dhaonta), root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Bauhinia vahlii (Wt. & Am.) Benth. (Gungu Sakam), stem bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), root of Cissampelos pareira L. (Parai, Nankijari, Parhi, Chatakpapar, Pitusing and Bandarkana), root and leaf of Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Spreng. (Bhanwar muili,
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Bharangi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC (Sinar), root of Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. (Saurighas, Chorant), bark of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), whole plant of Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth.ex Kurz (Serpgandha) and root of Rubia cordifolia L. are used in snakebite as well as to keep away the snakes. Swelling Root and leaf of Barleria cristata L. (Bantishi), root of Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. (Chamgar, Ghato, Bhant), seed of Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Pogu-jata, Tompepuru, and Traangia) is used in the treatment of swollen breast of woman and root of Lygodillm flexuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Nagenacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri) are used in the treatment of swelling. Throat sore Leaf of Moringa oleifera Lam. (Munga, Sajna), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, gum of Sterculia urens Roxb. and fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra) are used in the treatment of throat infection. Toothache Bark of Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd.ex Del. ssp. indica (Benth.) Bren. (Babul), seed of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), root of AhJlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), plant of Blumeopsis flava (DC) Gagnep. (Mageba, Bansorso), fruit of Datura metel L. (Tuntura, Datura), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma. ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC (Buang-dumbo, Teli), whole plant of GlossogtJne pinnatifida DC (Otebarangu, Bajardanti), fruit of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), plant of Spilanthes calva DC, and leaf and twig of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in the treatment of toothache, swelling and caries. Tuberculosis Seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), seed of Holarrhena antidysenterica (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. (Karaia, Korea, Hat dudhia, Toa and Koroiya) and leaf of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar) are given in the treatment of tuberculosis. Urinary disorder Root of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), root of Mimosa pudica L. (Lajouni, Jajwanti, Chauimaui), leaf of Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir., root of Pueraria tubeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd) DC (Bandundi, Sarur) and root of Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. (Atkir) are used in renal trouble, gravel complaint, blood discharge and other urinary disorder. Venereal diseases Seed of ArgtjYeia nervosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), bark of Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex Hook.f. (Dauntha), fruit of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), twig of Sida acuta Burm. f (Bariatu, Ipidipium, Bariari), root of Smilax ovalifolia
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Roxb. (Atkir), leaf of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Kudda, Jamun), root and fruit of Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.ex Dalz.ex Gibs. (Bankapas, Ban Kapasi) and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used in burning sensation in vagina, gonorrhoea, spermatorrhoea, irregular menstruation cycle, hydrocele and genital related diseases. Veterinary Leaf of Abrus precatorius L. (Gunj, Karjani, Ghunchi, Kanijari), bark of Alstonia scholaris (L.) RBr. (Chhatni, Chatian), leaf of ArgtjYeia neroosa (Burm. f) Bojer syn. A. speciosa (Lf.) Sweet (Marang- harlu, Jamru chalam, Chherisim), plant of Attjlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), fruit of Cassia fistula L. (Bandur lauri, Harri, Amaltas, Bandar lahari), root of Dillenia indica L. (Korkot), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), leaf of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. syn. Phyllanthus emblica L. (Emli, Aura, Meral, Aonla, Aoula), plant of Euphorbia hirta L. (Lal dhunia), bark of Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Robinson (Meda, Meda bokla), bark of Pueraria tllbeorsa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. (Bandundi, Sarur), root of Smilax ze1jlanica L. (Ram Pawan, At- Ker, Ram datoon), leaf and branch of Sterculia urens Roxb., root of Trichosallthes palmata Roxb., bulb of Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. (Ban-Piyaj, Jangli Piyaj) and whole plant of Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. syn. Vernonia conyzoides DC. (Kaliziri, Jonkitin, Ranu) are used in diarrohoea, swelling, esophagus trouble, hoof disease, injury, fracture and other diseases of cattle/ animals. Vomiting Root of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), root of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Sinar), stem bark of Diospyros montana Roxb. (Kendu), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti) and plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita) are used to check vomiting. Vermifuge Fruit granules of Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg. (Gari- Sandari, Rurigach, Rori and Thipaj kanla), leaf of Melia azedarach L. (Bakain, Nim), pseudo-bulb of Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lind!. (Patharkela), whole plant of Urtica dioica L., root of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Wattakaka valubilis L. Stapf. (Par, Nak-chikni) are used for killing/removing tapeworm, thread worm, round worm, hook worm, pin worm, ascaris, and other intestinal worms. Weakness Roots of Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Sataur, Atkir, Satmul, Satawar, Satur and Gogotram), leaf of Attjlosia scarabaeoides (L.) Benth. (Bonkurthy, Bankurthi), leaf of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Chokiada, Bengsak, Brihmi, Ben sag), root of Crotolaria alata Buch.Ham. Ghunjhunka), root of Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeffrey (Kaoputki), root of Rubia cordifolia L., plant of Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham. (Chiraita), fruit of Terminalia chebula Retz. (Rolla, Harra), root of Thalictrum foliosum DC. Gurbula) and leaf and root of Vitex negundo L. (Sind war, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used as tonic in weakness for vigor, vitality and strength.
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Wound Whole plant of Achyranthes aspera L. (Chirchiti, Sitirked, Chirchiri, Chirdhiri), leaf and inflorescense of Ageratum conyzoides L. (Gandhari, Puru), leaf of Argemone mexicana L. (Bakula, Rangeni Kata, Sial Kanta), bark of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Salga, Salia), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), seed oil of Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Kujri- daru, Malkan-gui, Minjni, Kujri), plant of Lygodium j1exuosum (L.) Sw. (Kalijhiri, Kalijhak, Na&enacha, Mahadebjat, Bish and Sita chouri), fruit of MarhJnia annua L. (Budisarsar), leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) and root of Vi tis repanda W. & A. (Harjora, Harjarwa) are used for cut, wound, injury, sore and inflammation. Wormicide Bark of Adina cordifolia (Willd.ex Roxb.) Beth. & Hook. f. ex Brandis (Karam, Karam), seed and bark of Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Bendo, Paras, Palas, Dhak), root of Carissa spinarum L. (Gara, Gadasur, Khunti, Karonda, Karanda, Konad), root of Dioscorea alata L. (Pahadkanda, Chupri- Au), whole plant of Elephantopus scaber L. (Asma-ri-red, Nankijari, Marachuta, Mejurjhuti, Chirchitri and Bugrodenti), and leaf of Vitex negundo L. (Sindwar, Sinduar, Hudri, Sindwair, Sunduwar and Tursi) are used to kill sore worm.
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The present paper describes some important ethnomedicinal plants of Jharkhand, which are being used by various tribes for the treatment of forty major groups of diseases, disorders and ailments (Abortion, asthma, bone fracture, burns, contraceptives, cough and cold, diarrhoea and dysentery, diabetes, digestive disorder, delivery, dog bite, ear trouble, epilepsy, eye complaints, fever, gum diseases, headache, jaundice, leprosy, leucorrhoea, miscarriage, pains, piles, post delivery complaints, rheumatism, scorpion sting, skin diseases, snake bite, swelling, throat sore, toothache, tuberculosis, urinary disorder, venereal diseases, veterinary, vomiting, vermifuge, weakness, wound and as wormicide). These plant species have been arranged alphabetically in each group along with author citation, parts used and local names in parenthesis.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata and Deputy Director, Central Botanical Laboratory, Howrah for all necessary facilities.
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Prasad, U.N. (1988) Survey Report on availability resources of medicinal plants in the tribal and other areas of North and South Chhotanagpur division as well as tribal area of Dumka and other areas of Gaya, Aurngabad, Nawada and Monghyr districts (Unpublished). Chapter 9:56-62. Raghav, C.S., Suneja, Poonam, Bhatt, KC., Tomar, J.B. & Malik, 5.5. (2005) Exploration of medicinal and aromatic plants in tribal areas of Jharkhand and West Bengal for Chemo-ethnobotanical studies. p.147-158. In. Prabhuji, S.K et aI. (eds) Recent Advances in Medicinal Plant Research: Vision 21 st Century. Satish Publication House, New Delhi. Ram, RL. & Saha, V. (1998) Ethnobotanical wealth of Ranchi district, Bihar. Part I: Herbal medicinal plants used against dysentery. Adv. Plant Sci. 11(1):249-252. Rani, Sandhya & Mishra, G.D. (2002) Some medicinal plants used by the tribes of Jharkhand. Indian Med. Homoeo. Jour. 1(4):16-19.
Roy Choudhuri, P.c. (1963) Folklore in aid of medicine. Folklore 4(9):308-309. Sahoo, AK & Mudgal, V. 1993. (1997) Ethnobotany of South Chotanagpur (Bihar). Bull. bot. surv. India 35(1-4):40-59.
Sahu, H.B., Bondya, S.L., Kumar, J. & Sharma, H.P. (2003) Studies on ethno-medicinal properties of plant barks used as drugs by the indigenous people of Ranchi district of Jharkhand. Int.
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Saren, AM., Halder, AC. & Singh, Harish (2006) Ethnomedicinal plants of Mahilong Forest Range in Ranchi District, Jharkhand. J. econ. taxon. Bot. Sarkar, PK & Agarwal, V.S. (1978) Notes on Pholidota imbricate LindI. (Orchidaceae) and its local uses in Ranchi district, Bihar. Bull.Bot.Surv.India 20(1-4):182-183. Sharma, P.c. (1981) Folklore antifertility plant drug of Bihar. Bull. Medico- ethno- bot. Res. 2: 296302. Sharma, P.c. (1988) Some intresting medicinal folklores from Bihar. Bull. Medico- ethno- bot. Res. 9(3-4):89-95. Sharma, P.c. & Sinha, G. N. (1980) Folklore medicinal plants of Ranchi district (Bihar). Nagarjun 24(1):1-3. Shukla, Gyanesh & Verma, B.K(1996) Roots- A vital plant part to cure body ailments among tribal/rural folklore of western Bihar. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Add. Ser. 12: 392-394. Singh, C.B. (2003) Forest flora in the life and economy of the tribals of Santhal Parganas, Jharkhand. Jour. Non-Timber Forest Prod. 10(1-2): 20-33. Singh, L.B. & Singh, c.L. (1992) An Ethno-Medico-Botanical study of Deoghar district (Bihar). BiojournaI4(1-2):83-86.
Singh, L.B. & Sinha, S.K. (1991) Ethnobotany of Paharia tribe of Sahibganj District, Bihar. Environment and Ecology 9(2): 541-543. Singh, L.B., Verma, AK & Sinha, S.s.N. (1992) Preliminary observations on the ethnomedicinal plants of Godda district (Bihar). J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. Add. Ser. 10:205-208. Singh, M.P. (1987) Tribal medicinal plants used in animals diseases of Chotanagpur. Indian Forester 113(11):758-759. Singh, Thakur Balwant (1955) Bihar ki vanaspatiyan. Sree Baidyanath Ayurveda Bhawan Pvt. Ltd. Publication, Patna. Sinha, G.N., Pandey, B.N. & Sharma (1981) Geographical distribution of ayurvedic medicinal plants in Bihar-I Haritakyedivarga. Sachitra Ayurveda 34(1): 30-33.
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Sinha, RK & Nathwat, G.S. (1989) Antifertility effects of plants used by the street herbal vendors for birth control. Ancient Science of Life 9(2):66-68. Sinha, R.K & Nathwat, G.S. (1989) Medicinal plants and plant products used by the street herbal vendors in the treatment of poliomyelitis in children. Jour. Research & Education in Indian medicine 8(1):23-26. Sinha, R.K & Nathwat, G.S. (1991) Plants and plant products used in the treatment of some respiratory disorder by the street herbal vendors. Jour. of Scientific Res. in plants and medicine 10(1-4):1-5. Srivastawa, D.K & Verma, S.K (1981) An ethnobotanical study of Santal Pargana, Bihar. Indian Forester 107:30-41. Srivastava, Sanjay (2006) Dependence of local people and issues in conserving local resources: Case of Dalma Wildlife Sanctury, Jharkhand. Indian Forester 132(1):31-42. Tarafder, CR. (1978) Some in~eresting new uses of the well known plant Vitex negundo L. (Nisinda). Bull. Bot. SUrD. India 20:176-177. Tarafder, CR. (1983a) Traditional medicinal plants used by the tribals of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar- plants used in stomach troubles. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4(3):891-896. Tarafder, CR. (1983b) Ethnobotanical observation on Nisinda. Folklore 24(8):170-174. Tarafder, CR. (1983c) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. Part I : Plants used for antifertility and conception. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4:483-489. Tarafder, CR. (1983d) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. Part II : Plants used for abortion. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 4:507-516. Tarafder, CR. (1984a) Medicinal plants traditionally used by the tribals of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar: Skin diseases and sores. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26(3-4):149-153. Jarafder, CR. (1984b) Less known nine medicinal plants used by the tribals for curing gonorrhoea in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar. Folklore 25:47-49. Tarafder, CR. (1984c) Less known ten medicinal plants are used by the tribals of bringing taste to a sick person in Hazaribagh district, Bihar. Vanyajati 32(3):9-11. Tarafder, CR. (1984d) Ethnogynaecology in relation to plants. III. Plants used to accelerate delivery and pre and post natal care. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 5: 572-576. Tarafder, CR. (1984e) Less known twenty three medicinal plants used by the tribals for curing boils in Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts, Bihar. Vanyajati 32:14-19. Tarafder, CR. (1985) Acacia catechu Willd. Fabaceae. Indigenous and less known uses of the plants. Folklore 26(8):158-159. Tarafder, CR. (1986) Ethnobotany of Chhotanagpur. (Less known and unknown 38 medicinal plants used by the tribals). Folklore 27(6):119-125. Tarafder, CR. (1987) Some traditional knowledge about tribal healths of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts. Folklore 28(2):37-42. Tarafder, CR. & Chaudhuri, H.N.Rai (1981) Less known medicinal uses of plants among the tribals of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts in Bihar. p.208-217. In Jain, S.K. (ed.) Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Oxford and IBH, New Delhi. Topno, KK (1997) Plants used by tribals of Chotanagpur against diabetes. The Botanica 47:99101. Trebedi, G.N. (1986) Ethnobotany of Chotanagpur (Bihar). Folklore 27:119-124.
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Trebedi, G.N., MolIa, H.A. & Pal, D.C. (1985) Some use of plants from the tribal areas of Chotanagpur, Bihar. Nagarjun 29:15-18. Trebedi, G.N., MolIa, H.A. & Pal, D.C. (1987) Some traditional knowledge about tribal health (plants used by the tribals of Hazaribagh and Ranchi districts). Folklore 28(20):37-42. UniyaI, M.R. (1995) Bihar ke Adivasi evam Jari Bootiyan. Sree Baidyanath Ayurveda Bhawan Pvt Ltd. Publication, Patana. Upadhyay, D.P., Kumar, K. & Tiwari, R.K. (1998) Ethnobotanical study of skin treatment uses of medicinal plants of Bihar. Pharma. Biology 36(3):162-172. Verma, S.K. & Pandey, A.K. (1990) Ethnobotanical notes on certain medicinal plants used by the tribals of Lohardaga district, Bihar. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 14(2):329-333. Verma, S.K., Srivastava, D.K. & A.K. Pandey (1999) Ethnobotany of Santhal Pargana. Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.p. 1-132. Vidhyarthy, Anil Kumar & Gupta, H.S. (2004) Ethnomedicinal study of some important plants of Jharkhand and their conservation. Indian Forester 130(2):149-156.
000
THE PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS : FROM MYTHOLOGY TO MEDICINE R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Parasitic angiosperms : General consideration
3.
Parasitic plants : Myths or medicine ?
4.
Parasitic plants : Diversity and distribution
5.
Host-Parasite interaction : Cause and consequence of pharmacological Effects
6.
Are the parasitic plants only pests or more than that ?
7.
Conclusions
8.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Despite of remarkable developments in separation and screening sciences, bioinformatics and data handling systems, computational and combinatorial chemistry, natural products (NP) remain dominant part of modem medicine. From recent survey, it is evident that about 67% of today's marketed drugs find their origin in natural products (Newman et. al., 2003). Unsurpassable structural and functional diversity, unique design, relevance to biological systems and biocompatibility of NP constitute the central dogma of drug discovery arena (Feher & Schmidt, 2003; Grabowski & Schneider, 2007). The industrial drug discovery is always in search of novel molecules that can be developed into the drugs. This drug discovery and development is trillion dollars business and large amount of money is invested in searching such new molecules. Since success rate in 'lead' finding is frequently poor, the drug discovery program usually includes chemically diverse material in lead finding process in order to enhance chances of getting new molecules. In addition of 'normal' life-forms, unusual life-forms thus considered as important source
THE PARASmC ANGIOSPERMS: FROM MYfHOLOGY TO MEDICINE
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of unusual molecules. Parasitic plant community consequently attracted researchers because of their strange habit and long ethnomedicinal history. About 3900 species of parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering plants) are reported from in nearly every habitat type and plant communities found throughout world (Musselman & Press, 1995). Because being unusual life-form, parasitic plants remain subject of much curiosity to the scientific community since ancient times. Similarly their strange growth habit, blooming during winter, does not follow a 12 month vegetation period, unusual mode of seed dispersal, and wide spread distribution could be the origin of their mystic and ethnomedicinal use in different cultures. The European mistletoe, Viscum album L. having more than 2000 year's history of its medicinal uses. The term 'mistletoe' has been used to refer to a large number of perennial hemi-parasitic flowering plants from the families Viscaceae and Loranthaceae sensu stricto. The term 'mistletoe' derives from the Anglo-Saxon misteltan (or mistiltan); 'mistle' meaning dung, and 'tan' meaning twig. Thus it literally means 'dung-on-a-twig' (Calder 1983). The mistletoe as a medicine was not restricted to Europe, but is also observed in other parts of the world, or was transformed to similar plants. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical properties and uses among different cultural groups. These are primarily thought to be mystic in origin (Arndt 2000). Despite of widespread prevalence of parasitic plants in ethnomedicine, except few European species, most of the parasitic plants of world have not been investigated extensively in terms of modern pharmacology. The major problem in rationalization of ethnomedicinal claims of mistletoes is transformation of similar folk remedy claims to several different mistletoes. The likeness in their morphological and nutritional mode might be the reason for such transformation. In addition, presence of certain secondary compounds varies within and among the populations of parasitic plants, depending on the host association of individual parasite (Stermitz & Harris 1987). Thus their" characterization as well as specifying host plant is necessary to authenticate the folk' remedy claims and to allocate observed pharmacological activities. It is, therefore, important to know the species-wise ethnobotanical information which is much more' pertinent in rationalizing their ethnomedicinal claims. In present communication effort has been made to review the parasitic plants used traditionally by different ethnic groups/ cultures and civilizations in the light of recent pharmacological and phytochemical findings. On the basis of data accumulated and our experience on some parasitic plants, we observed some trends in both folk medicine and pharmacological activities. These are also discussed in this paper. Unfortunately, parasitic plants are largely investigated as invasive pests and as a detriment to forest health by policy makers, foresters, lay people and even biologists. However, recent studies underline their significance in different facets of life sciences. A brief account of these investigations is also considered to familiarize with significance of parasitic plant community.
2. PARASITIC ANGIOSPERMS: GENERAL CONSIDERATION The medicinal properties of plants are dependent on their chemical composition. Several exogenous and intrinsic factors are known to affect chemical makeup of the plants. These factors include climate, altitude, ontogenetic stage, geographical location, diurnal
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changes, genetic make-up etc. In addition to these factors, chemical composition of parasitic plants is dependent on type of host plant and degree of dependence of parasitic plant on the host. In understanding the degree of influence caused by host plant on secondary chemicals of parasitic plant, it is pertinent to consider various nutritional modes of parasites. The parasitic plants are evolved with complex nutritional mode which is quite different from 'normal' photosynthetic green plants. On the basis of nutritional modes, flowering plants can be categorized as autotrophic and heterotrophic (Daniel 2002). The majority of green plants (angiosperms) are autotrophic. The plants which have adopted a heterotrophic mode, obtain all or some of their carbohydrates from another organism. The heterotrophs are further divided into two groups, mycotrophs and haustorial parasites (Furman & Trappe 1971). Haustorial parasite that form modified roots called haustoria constituting the morphological and physiological connection with host plant. Haustorial parasitism appears to have evolved only in flowering plants (dicots). Among the various unrelated families of parasitic plants, two basic types of parasitism exist: holoparasites and hemi-parasites. Holoparasites are totally achlorophyllus (or nearly so), non-photosynthetic, and obtain all their water and nutrients from host xylem and phloem. Most holoparasites occur on host roots; however, some species of Cuscuta are stem parasites that have lost thylakoids, chlorophyll and light-dependent CO2 fixation (Machado & Zetsche 1990). Holoparasitism has evolved independently in different lineages like Cynomorriaceae, Convolvulaceae Balanophoraceae, Scrophulariaceae, Rafflesiales, Lennoaceae and Hydnoraceae. Hemi-parasites (semi-parasites) are chlorophyllus and photosynthetic (at least during some part of their life cycle) yet they obtain water and nutrient via haustorial connections to the host plant. Depending upon their degree of dependence on host, hemiparsites can be grouped into facultative and obligate. Facultative hemiparasites do not require a host to complete their life cycle but are photosynthetic and, when presented with host roots, invariably form haustorial connection. When attached to host roots, these parasites extract water and dissolved mineral via direct, cell-to-cell connections to the xylem. Facultative hemiparasites found in several root parasitic families such as Scrophulariaceae, Oleaceae, Opiliaceae, Santalaceae and Krameriaceae. Obligate hemiparasites needs to attach to a host to complete their life cycle. These are further grouped as primitive and advanced type. The primitive type includes stem parasites of Loranthaceae, Misodendraceae and some Viscaceae. These parasites are photosynthetic xylem feeders, but being stem parasites, they cannot exist independent of host plant. The advanced obligate hemiparasites attach not only to host xylem but also obtain host carbon via phloem connections. Concomitant with this nutritional is the loss of photosynthetic function, at least to some degree or during some stage of life cycle. It includes most species of Phacellaria (Santalaceae), Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae), Arceuthobium (Viscaceae), Cassytha (Lauraceae) and Striga gesnerioides (Scrophulariaceae). The present review, however, considers not only hemi-parasites (mistletoes) but also holoparasites since later category demonstrated some interesting pharmacological properties.
3. PARASITIC PLANTS: MYTHS OR MEDICINE? In many cultures, mistletoes have been a source for many concepts, symbols, and rituals. Since early days, they have been one of the most magical, mysterious and scared
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267
plants of folklore. Mistletoes, in general, are considered to have magical properties and uses among different cultural groups tend to be primarily for illness thought to be mystic origin. Because of their unusual life-form (strange growth habit, blooming during winter, does not follow a 12 month vegetation period, and unusual mode of seed dispersal), many cultures have respected, feared or thought them to have magical properties (Polhill & Wiens 1998; Arndt 2000). To them, plant represented ever-lasting life and they believed the plant was antidote for poisons and ensured fertility, and to possess miraculous properties to cure each illness. The mythological and medicinal history of parasitic plants is more or less co-evolved with European mistletoe, Viscum album L. Even today, the evergreen mistletoe is thought to be a symbol of fertility and good luck during the Christmas tide in many European countries and North America. This tradition dates back several thousand years to a time when bough of mistletoe were hung to protect evil spirit and to promote fertility (Kandela, 2001). The occurrence of Viscum album L. in Southern Europe was first reported by Theophrastus (321-287 BC) and was later mentioned by others such as Aristotle and Plinius (Doris 2004). The intensions of mistletoe uses were manifold and conflicting in several cases. According to the Greek physician and author Dioscorides (15-85 AD), Hippocrates (460-377 BC) used the mistletoe to treat disease of the spleen and complaints associated with menstruation. Plinius (23-79 AC) reported mistletoe from Oak trees, when applied as chewed pulp, to be beneficial for epilepsy, infertility and ulcers. Around 150 AC, the Platonist Celsus reported the use of mistletoe in the treatment of swelling or tumors (Arndt 2000). During middle ages, mistletoe was recommended as a treatment for epilepsy. In the 12th century, the abbess and composer Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) wrote mistletoe as a treatment for spleen and liver. It was also applied for deworming children, to treat labour-pains, gout and affections of lung and liver. However, when applied in wine, it was used to treat leprosy. When applied as a plaster, mistleto~ was suggested to be beneficial in the treatment of mumps and fractures, while the binding of their leaves to the palms and sole will heal hepatitis. During the 18th century, mistletoe was applied for 'weakness of the heart' and oedema. Mistletoe-containing ointment, Viscin, was reported to be effective for eczema, ulcers of the feet, burns and granulating wounds. The scientific interest on mistletoe awakened in the 20 th century, as Gaultier (1910) investigated the effect of oral or subcutaneous applications of fresh V. album extracts on blood pressure in man and animals. In 1920, Rudolf Steiner (founder of anthroposophy), introduced Viscum album as anti-cancer agent. Around 1960, anti-cancer lectins were isolated by Vester and Nienhaus. Recognition of these medicinal properties substantially changes the view of European community towards this plant. Perhaps made possible by their wide distribution, mistletoe species have been used in folk medicine by cultures on almost every continent at some point in history. Similar to Europe, mistletoe as a remedy is also observed in other parts of the world. It is evident that several of ethnomedicinal claims of Viscum album were also transformed to several different mistletoes around globe. The likeness in their morphological and nutritional mode might be the reason for such transformation. The North American mistletoe (Pharadendran spp.) was used by the Native Americans as an abortifacient, and by farmers for 'clearing cattle'. Argentine mistletoe (Ligaria cuneifalia) is used in local
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R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
folk medicine to treat hypertension (Arndt 2000). In Africa, Viscum aethiopicum was a remedy to treat diarrhoea. Loranthus and Viscum species were used by the Zulu as an enema for stomach troubles in children. To treat diabetes mellitus, Loranthus bengwensis L. has been widely used in Nigerian folk medicine (Obatomi et. al., 1994). Similar to Europe, mistletoes in Asia are known for their magical as well as medicinal properties. In Nepal, Tamang ethnic group of Phulchoki area believed that the use of mistletoes infected Urtica dioica wood brings good luck during gambling (Kunwar et.al., 2005). Mistletoes are also used by several ethnic groups in India with bad intension to reduce fertility and milk in cattle. In Japanese folk medicine, mistletoe (Taxillus kaemferi) was a remedy to treat hypotension while other mistletoes such as Loranthus parasitikus, Loranthus yadoriki were used in Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat hypertension, spasms of the heart, rheumatic pain, threatened abortion and locally to treat frost-bite (Paulus & Ding, 1987). In western part of India, a tea prepared from mistletoe is traditionally used to treat diabetes. In Nepal, mistletoes are used as medicine, fodder and food. Besides these, few species are used in trapping birds and few others are for food for birds and butterflies. These are extensively applied for curing muscular swelling, sprains, fractures and dislocations (Kunwar et.al., 2005). Some important parasites with their ethnomedicinal claims and findings in pharmacological activities along with their chemical constituents are given in table 1.
4. PARASITIC PLANTS : DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION Although parasitic plants do not constitute dominant life form in an ecosystem, there exists approximately 3900 species of haustorial parasitic plants (about 1 % of flowering plants) distributed in 278 genera of 18 families. Parasitic plants are present in highly diverse ecosystems from tropics to temperate and are reported from in nearly every habitat type found throughout world except tropical rain forests from where only few species of parasitic plants are reported. This might be because of special requirement of negative water potential for parasitic (especially hemi-parasites) plants which is difficult to maintain high transpiration rate in dense and dark conditions of tropical rain forests. The moist tropical habitats are dominated by families such as Rafflesiaceae, Loranthaceae, Balanophoraceae, Mitrastemonaceae and Olaceae. In Grassland and Savannah ecosystems, diverse members of families Scrophulariaceae and Loranthaceae are observed. Savannas, with large solar exposure and several host trees, provide ideal habitat for these mistletoes. From xeric habitats families such as Cynomoriaceae, Hydnoraceae and Apodanthaceae are reported. In terms of overall numbers, the majority of parasitic plant species occur in ecosystem undisturbed by humans. The habitat is topographically and ecologically defined by the host trees. Host size and canopy characteristics determine where mistletoe can grow (Dawson et. al., 1990). The parasite families, Loranthaceae and Viscaceae have separate geographic origins and a different cytological history. The most primitive genera of LQranthaceae occur in South America, New Zealand and Australia. The Viscaceae seems to have originated in south-east Asia, from where it has dispersed mainly in the tropics and northern hemisphere (Kirkup et. al., 2000). The accrual of knowledge of medicinal properties of natural products in any ethnic group is largely dependent on the distribution and diversity of flora and fauna of region.
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This can be evident from distribution data of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. About 280 species of Loranthaceae and Viscaceae are reported from Africa. From this brief review, it is perceptible that diverse mistletoes constitute the part of African folklore out of which Loranthaceae members are predominant. It was also recorded that in comparison to Viscaceae, Loranthaceae are more prominent group of mistletoes in Africa (Kirk up et. al., 2000). Thus it appears that the evolution of folklore is largely dependent on magnitude of biodiversity of region. From this brief survey of parasitic plants, it is evident that about 71 % folk remedy claims are acceptable when validated in terms of modern pharmacology. Most frequently recorded folk remedy claims of parasitic plants are (in decreasing order): anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, anti-microbial, anti-arthritic, wound-healing, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, anti-convulsant, diuretic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory activities. Most frequently observed pharmacological activities of parasitic plants are (in decreasing order): cytotoxic/ anti-cancer, anti-microbial, antihypertensive, anti-viral, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, anti-oxidant, imm~lnomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
S. HOST-PARASITE INTERACTION : CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE OF PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS Although chemical ecology of interaction between parasitic plants and their hosts is poorly understood, transfer of secondary compounds to a parasite from its host plant is known to sustain the existence of parasites (Adler et al. 2001). The host plant does have influence on secondary chemicals and thus observed pharmacological activity (Osadebe et. al., 2004). When such activities are based on phenolics of parasite, the chances of variation are high. This is due to fact that several phenolics are reported to transfer from host to parasitic plant ijadhav et. al., 2005). Additionally the variation is also dependent on the degree of dependence of parasitic plant on host. The transfer of secondary metabolites from host to parasite is parallel to their nutritional mode. The holoparasite chemistry is largely dependent on host since these are non-photosynthetic, and obtain all their water and nutrient from host xylem and phloem. On other hand, the hemiparasites are photosynthetic yet they obtain water and nutrient from host xylem, thus the presence of certain secondary compounds varies within and among the populations of hemiparasitic plants, depending on the host association of individual parasites (Stermitz & Harris 1987). It was also recorded that a high concentration of phenolics appears to be a general feature of parasitic angiosperms (Khanna et al., 1968). This broad class comprises flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids and phenylpropanoid compounds. The reduced forms of polyphenolics are powerful antioxidants equivalent to ascorbate. Thus several activities such as cytoprotection, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-microbial, anti-fertility, anti-ulcer, anti-hypertensive and eNS related activities are mediated, at least in part, through anti-oxidant potential of these polyphenolics. However, it should not be confused that it is only transferred secondary chemicals that are responsible for activity. The parasitic plants (both holoparasite and hemi-parasite) have their own secondary chemicals. It is also known that parasitic plants do not synthesize or modify the secondary compounds taken up from their hosts (Simms, 1992). Thus the secondary chemicals of parasitic plant are the sum of the accumulated, transferred chemicals from host and its own chemicals. Thus this might be the reason why several parasitic plants are effective in treatment of different disorders.
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R.B. }ADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.}. SURANA
The parasitic plants unable to biotransform the transferred secondary chemicals because of absence of enzymes required. This subsequently leads to accumulation of certain secondary compounds in parasitic plant and their quantity in certain parasite found to be several fold higher than host plant (Katrin et. al., 1999). The chances of maximal transfer and accumulation of secondary chemicals are more in holoparasitic plants since these are feeding on xylem as well as phloem. This is an important part of commercial exploitation. An additional benefit in this connection is that holoparasite offer lower chemical complexity and thus simplicity of isolation in comparison to the host plant. Along with primary metabolites, secondary metabolites such as alkaloids can be transferred from host plants to certain parasitic plants without the capability of producing alkaloids (Stermitz & Harris, 1987). Alkaloids are an important class of phytoconstituents having potential and diverse pharmacological activities. Transfer of alkaloids from host to parasitic plant has been reported in several genera e.g. Cuscuta (Convolvulaceae), Viscum (Viscaceae), Castilleja, Pedicularis, Orobanche and Ortizocarplls (Scrophulariaceae) (Adler & Wink, 2001). The alkaloid transfer in hemiparasite is due to fact that these compounds are trapped by hemiparasite when these are moved via the phloem as alkaloid N-oxides. It was also recorded that transferred alkaloids are utilized for defense purpose by parasite either directly or in modified forms ego Castilleja and Pediculan's spp. are known to synthesize their own irridoid toxins. It should be however noted that uptake of alkaloids is selective and only one or more of the alkaloids of the host are found in parasite. Further, a given parasite growing on different host may sequester different kinds of alkaloids and the amount of the alkaloids borrowed from given host by different parasites is also different (Harbone, 1999). Although the passive as well as active transport mechanisms are reported in such transfer, why only selective secondary chemicals are transferred and by which mechanism is largely still remains to be answered. One of the potential applications of mistletoe is their anti-cancer activity. Ample information available that indicates that the European mistletoe, Viscum album, can be used as adjuvant in treatment of cancer therapy because of its anti-cancer and immunomodulatory activity. Similar use of several other parasites from different continent is also reported (Varela et. al., 2004). It is apparent that compounds such as lectins, viscotoxins, thionins, proteins, yeptides, oligosaccharides, alkaloids and polyphenolic are responsible for cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects (Pfuller, 2000). Certain C16-alkynic fatty acids are reported to have inhibitory effects on cancer cell invasion (Ohashi et. al., 2003). Thus from above discussion it is clear that in addition to the other factors, influence caused by host on secondary chemicals becomes important concern in pharmacological rationalization of folk remedy claims of given parasite. However, only in few cases, such claims are given on host basis. Probably, this might be the reason why different species of parasitic plants have been investigated for similar pharmacological properties. Interestingly, folk remedy claims share striking similarity between different cultural groups and persisted for over 2000 years are also reflected in pharmacological validation. 6. ARE THE PARASmC PLANTS ONLY PESTS OR MORE mAN TIIAT?
The major part of world community considers parasitic plants as invasive pests and eventually strategies are framed to destroy them in protection of the forests.
~
TABLE 1
:I: rrJ
Parasitic plants with their ethnomedicinal claims and recorded pharmacological activities Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
~
References
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Balanophora abbreviata BI. (Balanophoraceae)
(Thailand) Used in treatment of infectious fever and thought to be a toxic herb which causes leprosy and lymph-node cancer. (Denmark) Used as antiCassytha filiformis L. hypertensive agent (Lauraceae) Cuscuta chinensis Lam. (Asia) Used as a tonic for liver and kidney, and to treat (Convolvulaceae) impotence and seminal emission. Also used as aphrodisiac and anti-tumor agent (Asian) Used as a substitute of Cuscuta japonica Cuscuta cJlinensis Choisy (Convolvulaceae) Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (India) In treatment of fits, insanity, melancholy, (Convolvulaceae) protracted fevers, retention of wind and indurations of the liver and externally for itch
Dendrophthoe falcata (Linnf-) (Loranthaceae)
(India) Used as astriengent, aphrodiasiac, narcotic and diuretic. Plant useful in
Antibacterial and antiinflammatory activities
Lignans
Hosokawa et. aI., 2004; Trakulsomboon et. al., 2006.
n
z
-
Cl
acr>
'"tI rrJ
Anti-hypertensive and cytotoxic Bone healing, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant and hepatoprotective activity Anti-hypertensive and anti-oxidant activity Anti-fertility effects (Delayed maturation and suppression of ovarian steroidogenesis), antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-convulasant, antiviral activity Diuretic, anti-lithiatic, anti-hypertensive, antifertility activity
Aporphine alkaloids Flavonoids, cuscutic acids A-D, alkaloids, glycosides, polysaccharides and lignans Caffeoylquinic acid Derivatives and flavonoids Cuscutalin (lactone), flavonoids, and proteins
Adsersen & Adsersen, 1997; Stevigny 2002. Yahara, 1994; Yao et. aI., 2005; Hang-Jun, 2005; Yen, 2007.
~
s::
cr>
~
~
~ ~
:I:
Oh et. aI., 2002; Yang et. al.,2006.
ar-< a
Cl
100( >-j
a Awasthi, 1981; Gupta et. al., 2003; Pal et. al., 2003; Pal et. aI., 2006.
~
-rrJ
0
n
Z
rrJ
Triterpenoids, flavonoids
Hemadri et. al., 1983; Alekuttey et. aI., 1993; Balraman et. al. 1993; N
Contd ...
;::1
N
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Elytranthe globose BI. (Loranthaceae) Elytranthe maingayi Van Tiegh. (Loranthaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported pulmonary TB, asthma, wound swelling, renal calculi and also used as anti-fertility agent (Indonesia) Cough, headache, and expel the afterbirth (Indonesia) In treatment of cancer, malaria, and as tonic and diuretic
Elytranthe tubaej10ra (Indonesia) In treatment of Ridley (Loranthaceae) cancer, malaria, and as tonic and diuretic Globimetula cupulata (Africa) Used in treatment of (DC.) Van Tiegh. diabetes mellitus and (Loranthaceae) hypertension Korthalsella opuntia (Denmark) Used as anti(Thunb.) Merrill hypertensive agent (Loranthaceae) Ligaria cuneifolia (R. et (Argentina) As substitute of P.) Tiegh. Viscum album for anti(Loranthaceae) hypertensive effects
Loranthus bengwensis L. (Loranthaceae) Loranthus globosus Roxb. (Loranthaceae)
(Africa) Used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Asia) Used in the treatment of menstrual abnormalities, to check abortion, acute and
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
~
Nadkami, 2000; Mallavadhani et. al., 2006. Antiviral and cytotoxic activities Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Flavonoids, steroids, condensed tannins Alkaloids, amino acids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, hydrolysable tannins Alkaloids, flavonoi~, triterpenoids, hydrolysabIe tannins
Lohezic-Le D. at et. aI., 2002. Lohezic-Le D. et. al., 2002.
Lohezic-Le Devehat et. al.,2002.
Anti-diabetic and antihypertensive activity
Ojewole & Adewole, 2007.
Anti-hypertensive
Adsersen & Adsersen, 1997.
Immunomodulatory, cytotoxic, antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities
Anti-diabetic activity
Galactoside-specific lectin, leucoanthocyanidins, catechin-4-a-01 and Proanthocyanidins and flavonoids
Fernandez et. al., 2003; Cerda, 2005.
~
~ > 0 := ~ r;J'l
~
=
:= > >-l Z
Obatomi et. aI, 1994.
> C') > '" > Z 0
r;J'l
Antihypertensive, Antimicrobial, cytotoxic, antiviral,
Sadik et. al., 2003; Islam et. al., 2004.
~ r;J'l
c:: > Z >
'"
Contd ...
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Loranthus micranthus Linn. (Loranthaceae)
Loranthus parasiticus Linn. (Loranthaceae)
Lorantltus yadoriki Sieb. (Loranthaceae) Phoradendron crassifolium (Pohl ex DC.) Eichler (Viscaceae) Phoradendron liga (Gill. ex H. et A.) Eichl. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported chronic diarrhea, headache and itch (Africa) Used in the treatment of epilepsy, diabetes, hypertension, headache, infertility, cancer, rheumatism, menopausal syndrome, Plant is also used locally as an antimicrobial and antispasmodic agent (China) Used to tonify liver and kidney, dispel wind-damp, strengthen sinews and bones, and nourish blood. Also used to treat defiCiency of liver and kidney, with symptoms of pain of the joints and muscles or weakness of the tendons and bones
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
"":l m == "0
~
CIl
antihepatotoxic activity.
:3 (")
Anti-microbial, antidiabetic activity.
Alkaloids, cyanogenetic glycosides, saponins, fIavonoids, tannins, proteins, and resins
Osadebe et. al., 2004; Osadebe & Akabogu, 2006; Ojewole & Adewole, 2007.
> Z
Cl ....
0
CIl "U
m :;o:l
::CIl ITt 0
:;o:l
Bone healing and hepatoprotective activity
Sesquiterpene lactones
Okuda et. al., 1987; Yang et. al., 1987; Yao et. al., 2005.
::
~ ~ 0== I"'" 0 Cl 0<
~
0
~
m
Anti-viral activity (Bolivia) Used to treat fever
Cytoprotective activity
(Argentina) Used in the treatment of hypertensive and as substitute of Viscum album
Anti-hypertensive, immunomodulatory , anti-cancer, antimicrobial activity
Triterpenoids and saccharides
Yung, 1996; Wang et. al., 2000. Gonzales et. al., 2000.
Galactose-specific lectin (Ligatoxin-B), Flavonoids, C-
Varela et. ai., 2004.
....t:::J (") ....
Z m
N
Contd ...
tj
~
·..Contd. Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References
~
glucosylflavones, 3desoxyproanthocyanidins
Phoradendron robinsonii Urb. (Viscaceae) Phoradendron tomentosum (DC.) Gray. (Loranthaceae)
Used as substitute of Viscum album
Anti-mycobacterial activity
Used as substitute of Viscum album
Cytotoxic activity
Phrygilanthus acutifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) Eichler (Loranthaceae)
(Argentina.) Used in the treatment of throat pain and respiratory diseases
Psi ttacanthus calyculatus (DC.) G. Don. (Loranthaceae) Psittacanthus cuneifolius (Ruiz and Pav.) Blume (Loranthaceae) Scurrula atropurpurea (Blume) Danser (Loranthaceae)
Rivero-Cruz et. al., 2005
Apigenin, apigenin Cglycosides, vitexin, schaftoside and isoschaftoside, phoratoxins
Anti-microbial, antiinflammat.ory, antinociceptive antipyretic effects and diuretic activity (Mexico) Used in the treatment Endothelium-dependent vaso-relaxation in rat of hypertension aortic ring (Argentina) Used to cure (+ )-catechin, quercitrin, fractures. reynoutrin (quercetin3-xyloside) and avicularin (quercetin3a-arabofuranoside) Oava and Indonesia) Used for Inhibitory effects on Xanthines, flavanes, the treatment of cancer cancer cell invasion flavonol glycosides, activity monoterpene glucoside, lignan glycoside and fatty acids
Dossaji et. al., 1983; Johansson 2003.
Daud et. al., 2005; Daud et. ai., 2006.
'-" > I::J
== Rodriguez-Cruz et. al., 2003 Graziano et. al., 1967.
~
CIl
~ c= == >
2l
> G1 > Ohashi et. al., 2003.
"~
I::J CIl
~
CIl
Contd ...
•
~
!=
e > Z >
"
~
...Contd. Parasitic plant
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported
(Indonesia) Used in treatment of snakebite, wounds, fever, beriberi, malaria and after childbirth Scurrula fusca (BL.) G. (Indonesia) Used for the treatment of cancer Don. (Loranthaceae) (Indonesian) Used to treat Scurrula oortiana (Korth) Danser tumors (Loranthaceae) (India) Used to prevent Striga densiflora conception (Benth.) Benth. (Scrophulariaceae) (Africa) Used in the treatment Striga hermonthica of malaria (Del.) Benth. (Scrophulariaceae) (India) Used to prevent Striga lutea Lour. conception (Scrophulariaceae) (India) Used in treatment of Striga Orobanchioides Benth. diabetes (Scrophulariaceae)
Scurrula ferruginea Danser (Loranthaceae)
Pharmacological report Antiviral and cytotoxic activities
Phytochemical(s) Flavonoids, condensed tannins
References Lohezic-Le D. et. al., 2002.
::r: tTl
~ ~
fIl
=l
( ')
~
-
C')
Anti-tumor activity
Perseitol (D-glycero-Dgalacto-heptitol)
Anti-tumor activity
lsruzu et. al., 2002.
0
Murwani, 2003.
:::fIl
fIl
~
:=
"T1
Anti-fertility activity
Flavonoids
Okpako & Ajaiyeoba, 2004.
Anti-malarial activity
Anti-fertility
Anti-fertility, Antiandrogenic, antibacterial, antioxidant, antihistaminic, mast cell stabilizing activities (Latin America) In treatment of Inhibit the Struthanthus snakebites haemorrhagic effect orbicularis (H. B. K.) induced by Bothrops Blume (Loranthaceae) atrox venom in vitro (Africa) In treatment of Anti-microbial activity Tapinanthus stomach ache, diarrhea, dodonelfolius (DC.)
Hiremath et. al., 1997.
Flavonoids
Hiremath et. al., 1997.
:= 0
::: ~ ~
::r: 0 r-< 0
C')
0< -,j
0
Flavonoids
Hiremath 1997; Harish et.al., 2001; Badami et. al., 2003.
~
-tTl
I:)
( ')
Z
tTl
Otero et. al., 2000.
Anthraquinones, saponins and tannins
Deeni & Sadiq, 2002; Ojewole & Adewole, 2007. Contd ...
N
"
U1
N
...Contd. Parasitic plant Danser, (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus globiferus (A. Rich.) Van Tiegh. (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus nyasicus (Baker & Sprague) Danser (Loranthaceae) Tapinanthus sessilifolius (p. Beauv.) van Tiegh (Loranthaceae) Taxillus chinensis (Dc.) Danser (Loranthaceae) Viscum album L. var. album
Viscum angulatum Heyne ex DC. (Viscaceae) Viscum articulatum Burm. f. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported dysentery, wound and cancer
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
Antioxidant activity
(Mexico USA) Used as food
Cook et. al., 1998.
(Africa) Used in treatment of diabetes mellitus and hypertension.
Anti-diabetic activity
(Africa) Used in the treatment of malaria
Anti-malarial, antimicrobial, calcium channel-blocking activity Inhibit fatty acid synthase
(Europe) Used in managing of a wide range of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, chronic cramps, stroke, stomach problems, heart palpitations, to lower blood pressure, difficulties in breathing and hot flushing in menopause. Also used as sedative and anticancer (Asia) Used to treat hypertension, atherosclerosis, rheumatism, neuralgia and arthritis in Chinese medicine. In India,
References
~
Vasodilator, sedative, cardiac-depressant, diuretic, antiinflammatory, lmmuno-stimulant, anti-ulcer, anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant activity
Musabayane et. al., 2006.
Avicularin (glycosylated flavonoid), quercetin
Okpako & Ajaiyeoba, 2004; Tarfa et. al., 2004. Wang et. al., 2006.
~
~ > t:l
--= ~
Lectins, non-lectin proteins, peptides, thionins, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, triterpenoids, polyalcohols and polysaccharides
Pfuner Uwe, 2000; Gurbuz et. al., 2002; Orhan et. al., 2005.
C/)
~ Q:j
= ~ Z
> C"l > :;a > Z t:l
Flavonoids, triterpenoids and fatty acids
Chiu & Chang, 1986; Rastogi & Mehrotra, 1993; Krishnamani & Kumar, 2000; Kshirsagar Contd ...
'J)
~ C/)
c:: :;a > Z >
... Contd. Parasitic plant
Viscum capense L. j, (Viscaceae)
Viscuin coloratum (Kom.) Nakai (Viscaceae) Viscum cruciatum Sieber (Viscaceae) Viscum trifiorum DC. (Viscaceae) Viscum tuberculatum A. Rich. (Viscaceae)
Ethnomedicinal use(s) activity reported whole plant is used externally in the form of pest for skin cuts and as food source (Asia) In India it is used as alexipharmic, aphrodisiac, and alternative, useful in 'kapha', 'vata', disease of blood and in treatment of ulcer, epilepsy and biliousness and paste applied on minor fractures. In Chinese medicine plant used in treatment of hemorrhage, pleurisy, gout, heart disease, epilepsy, arthritis and hypertension (Africa) for the treatment of epilepsy, asthma, bronchitis, warts, excessive or irregular menstruation and also applied to bleeding parts including the nose, to stop hemorrhage Used in treatment of inflammation
Pharmacological report
Phytochemical(s)
References & Singh, 2001; Lin et. al.,
2002. Anti-inflammatory activity
Flavanones and triterpenoids.
Jain, 1%5; Chandra et. al., 1985; Tiwari 1995; Chhetri et. al. 2005; Chiu, 1996; Leu et. al. 2004.
Antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities
Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins and triterpene steroids
Amabeoku et. al., 1998.
(palestinian) Used in treatment of cancer
Inhibitor of Viscolin, a chalcone phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity Antimitotic and cytostatic activity
(Denmark) Anti-hypertensive
Anti-hypertensive
Hwang et. al., 2006. Ahumada et. al., 1995; Mohammed et. m., 2000. Adsersen & Adsersen , 1997.
Kenya as a poultice on the chest for pneumonia and liver trouble
Arndt,2000.
278
R.B. JADHAV, S.P. BHATNAGAR AND S.J. SURANA
However, numerous studies have shown that mistletoes are an important structural and functional com!,onent of forests and woodland communities. It is an ideal material for understanding the various interaction interfaces such as plant-plant, plant-microorganisms, plant-animals and plant-plant community. Mistletoes having profound consequences for those species associated with their hosts and also have a strong impact on the larger communities in which they occur by altering forest structure and composition (Geils & Hawksworth, 2002). The common opinion that mistletoes are destructive weeds should be challenged. These are more important as indicators of habitat health, rather than agents of destruction. Their significance is already proven in supporting continental drift theory (Leppik, 1973). The communication in between two cells is hot topic in life sciences. Parasitic plants have proven their suitability in understanding such communications. Recently, these are identified as ideal tool to understand the horizontal gene transfer (Mower et. al., 2004; Roney et. al., 2007). Therefore conservation of this unusual life-form needs to be emphasized. 7. CONCLUSIONS
Mistletoe was considered a heal-all by the Druids and the history of its use reflects this idea. Surprisingly, although much of early uses of parasitic plants were based on myth and folklore, many of these uses may be supported by the findings of modern science. However, only few species have been attempted for systematic investigation and several species need validation in terms of modern pharmacology. Mistletoe may prove beneficial as primary or adjunct treatment of various pathologies and its therapeutic utility in cancer treatment can be hoped as only just beginning. The parasitic plants have history of thousand years for their medicinal uses and are also proven their suitability in treatment of several disorders. In addition, these are emerging as fundamental instructive tools in understanding various biochemical processes. Thus conventional thinking about parasitic plants needs to be changed and these should be viewed in broader perspective. REFERENCES Adler, L.S. & Wink, M. (2001) Transfer of quinazolidine alkaloids from host to hemiparasites in two Castilleja-LupL'lus associations: analysis of floral and vegetative tissue. Biochem. Syst. EcoZ. 29: 551-561. Adler, L.S., Karban, R. & Strauss, S.Y., (2001) Direct and indirect effects of alkaloids on plant fitness via herbivory and pollination. Syst. EcoZ., 82: 2032-2044. Adsersen, A & Adsersen, H. (1997) Plants from Reunion Island with alleged antihypertensive and diuretic effects an experimental and ethnobotanical evaluation. J. EthnopharmacoZ. 58: 189-206. Ahumada, M.e, Garcia, M.D., Saenz, M.T. & Aznar, J., (1995) Antimitotic and cytostatic activity of Viscum cruciatum Sieber parasitic on Crataegus monogyna Jacq. Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae 70: 233-236. Alekutty, N.A, Srinivasan, K.K., Gundu, P.R., Udupa, AL., & Keshavamurthy, K.R. (1993) Diuretic and anti-lithiatic activity of Dendrophthoe fa1cata. Fitoterapia 64: 325-331. Amabeoku, G. J., Leng, M. J. & Syce, J. A, (1998) Antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities of Viscum capense. ]. Ethnopharmacol. 61: 237-241.
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Arndt, B. (2000) Introduction: history of mistletoe uses In: Arndt Bussing (Ed.), Mistletoe: The genus Viscum, Hardwood Academic Publishers, Singapore, pp.1-6. Awasthi, L.P. (1981) The purification and nature of an antiviral protein from Cuscuta reflexa plants. Arch. Virol. 70: 215-23. Badami,S., Gupta, M. K. & Suresh, B. (2003) Antioxidant activity of the ethanolic extract of Striga orobanchioides. J. Ethnopharmacol., 85: 227-230. Balraman, R, Hingorani, N. & Rathod, S. (1993) Studies on the anti-hypertensive effect of abana in rats. Ind. J. Pharmacol. 25: 209-214. Calder, M. (1983) Mistletoes in focus: An introduction In: Calder M & Bernhardt (Eds), Te Biology of Mistletoes, Academic Press, Australia, pp.19-46. Cerda, Z.P., Fernandez, T., Aulicino, P., Cavaliere, V., Greczanik, 5., Caldas, Lopes. E., Wagner, M., Ricco, R, Gurni, A., Hajos, S. & Alvarez, E. (2005) Ligaria cuneifolia flavonoid fractions modulate cell growth of normal lymphocytes and tumor cells as well as multi-drug resistant cells. Immunobiol. 209: 737-749. Chandra, K., Pandey, B.N. & Lal, V.K. (1985) Folk-lore medicinal plants of Dumka (Bihar). Ancient Sci. Life 4: 181-185. Chhetri, D.R, Deewa, B., Po F.e., Sujata, K., Gagan, e. & Sippy, P., (2005) Current status of ethnomedicinal plants in the Darjeeling Himalaya. Curro Sci. 89: 264-268. Chiu, N.Y. & Chang, K.H. (1986) The Illustrated medicinal plants of Taiwan, SMC Publishing Inc. Taipei, Vol-2, pp. 23. Chiu, S.T. (1996) Flora of Taiwan, 2nd Ed., Vol. II, Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Taipei, pp. 282-285. Cook, J.A., VanderJagt, D.J., Dasgupta, A., Mounkaila, G., Glew, R.5., Blackwell, W. & Glew, RH. (1998) Use of the trolox assay to estimate the antioxidant content of seventeen edible wild plants of niger. Life Sci. 63: 105-110. Daniel, L.N. (2002) Parasitic plants of the world In: Lopez-Saez J.A., Catalan P. & Saez L. (Eds.) Parasitic plants of the Iberian peninsula and Balearic Island, Mundi-Prensa Libros, S.A., Madrid, pp. 7-27. Daud, A., Gallo, A. & Riera, A.S. (2005) Antimicrobial properties of Phrygilanthus acutifolius. J. Ethnopharmacol. 99:193-197. Daud, A., Habib, N. & Sanchez Riera A. (2006) Anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and antipyretic effects of extracts of Phrygilanthus acutifolius flowers. J. Ethnopharmacol. 108:198-203. Dawson, T.E., Ehieringer, J.R & Marshall, J.D. (1990) Sex-ratio and reproductive variation in the mistletoe Phoradendron juniperinum (Viscaceae). Am. J. Bot. 77: 584-589. Deeni, Y.Y. & Sadiq, N.M. (2002) Antimicrobial properties and phytochemical constituents of the leaves of African mistletoe (Tapinanthus dodoneifolius (Dq Danser) (Loranthaceae): an ethnomedicinal plant of Hausaland, Northern Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 83: 235-240. Doris, Z. (2004) Biological flora of Central Europe: Viscum album L. Flora, 199: 181-203. Dossaji, S. F., Becker, H. & Exner, J. (1983) Flavone C-glycosides of Phoradendron tomentosum . from different host trees. Phytochem. 22: 311-312. Feher, M. & Schmidt, J.M. (2003) Property Distributions: Differences between Drugs, Natural Products, and Molecules from Combinatorial Chemistry. J. Chern. Inf. Comput. Sci. 43: 218227.
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000
IN
VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS OF GENUS BAUHINIA
RAVINDRA
G.
MALI, SHAILAJA
G.
LINN.
MAHAJAN AND ANITA A. MEHTA
Chapter Outline 1.
Introduction
2.
Materials and methods
3.
Results
4.
Discussion and conclusions
5.
References
1. INTRODUCTION Plants are recognized for their ability to produce a wealth of secondary metabolites and mankind has used many species for centuries to treat a variety of diseases (Cragg et ai., 1999). Secondary metabolites are biosynthesized by plants for different purposes including growth regulation, inter and intra-specific interactions and defense against predators and infections. Many of these compounds from natural sources have been shown to present interesting biological and pharmacological activities and are used as chemotherapeutic agents. They serve as the prototypes or models for synthetic drugs possessing physiological activities similar to the originals (Verpoorte, 1998). The traditional medicines hold a great promise as source of easily available effective anthelmintic agents, particularly in tropical developing countries. It is in this context that the people consume several plants or plant-derived preparations to cure helminthic infections (Satyavati, 1990). Mali et ai (2004, 2005, 2007) have studied indigenous medicinal plants for anthelmintic activity; similar activity is evaluated of three species of the genus Bauhinia Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae) viz., Bauhinia variegata, Bauhinia tomentosa and Bauhinia racemosa.
Bauhinia is a genus distributed throughout the tropical regions of the world. About 15 species of Bauhinia occur in India (Anonymous, 1988). Many useful products such as tannin, fibre, gum and oil are obtained from Bauhinia species. Bauhinias are also
286
RAVINDRA
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MAHAJAN, ANITA A. MEHTA
used for afforestation and in the manufacturing of wood wool board (Puntambekar, 1952). BAUHINIA VARIEGATA LINN.
The plant popularly known as 'Raktakanchan' is a medium sized deciduous tree found throughout India, Burma and China (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). A freshly collected bark is greyish brown externally and cream colored internally. The internal surface, however,gradually turns red and on drying becomes brown and smooth. The external surface remains greyish brown and rough due to large number of exfoliations, transverse cracks and fissures (Prakash et al., 1978). Leaves are 10-15 cm long, rigidly sub-coriaceous and deeply cordate. The flowers are bisexual, irregular and light magenta in colour. The pods are long, hard, flat, dehiscent and 10-15 seeded.
Bauhillia variegata Linn.
Traditional uses All parts of the plant like bark, root, flower and flower buds are ascribed to possess various medicinal properties. In Ayurveda, stem bark is reported to be useful in krmiroga (helminthic infestation), gandamala (scrofula) and vrana (wounds). In Unani system of medicine, the bark is described as liver tonic and useful in asthma, wounds, leprosy, dysmenorrhoea and menorrhagia.The flower buds are useful for piles, cough, eye diseases, liver complaints, as styptic in haematuria and menorrhagia (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). The root is carminative and is used in dyspepsia and flatulence. Decoction of the root is reported to prevent obesity. The bark is astringent, tonic and anthelmintic. It is also beneficial in scrofula, ulcers and skin diseases. Dried flower buds are used for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, worms, piles and tumours. Decoction of the buds is given in cough, piles, haematuria and menorrhagia. The flowers are used as laxative (Chopra et al., 1956; Nadkarni, 1954; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies In a preliminary phytochemical study, the stem bark of B.racemosa showed presence of steroids, saponins and tannins Ooshi and Sabnis, 1989). The stem bark also showed presence of hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1978). The
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VITRO ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS
287
stem yielded a flavonone glycoside characterized as 5, 7-dihydroxyflavonone-4 -0 a -L - rhanmopyranosyl- P - D - glucopyranoside (Gupta et ai., 1979). The isolation of d-sitosterol, lupeol, kaempferol-3-glucoside and a 5, 7-dimethoxyflavonone-4 -0 -a - L - rhanmopyranosyl- P- D-glucopyranoside was also reported from the stem of the plant (Duret and Paris, 1977; Gupta et ai., 1980). Pharmacological Studies The effects of B.variegata were studied on rats with goitre induced by neomercazole and found to be effective in bringing the goitrogenic thyroid to normal level (Veena et ai., 1975). The saline extract of seeds exhibited haemagglutinating activity against erythrocytes of man, rat, rabbit, sheep and horse (Roy and Bhalla, 1981). The leaf extract of the plant exhibited toxicity against ringworm causing fungi Epidennophyton floccosum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypseum (Mishra et ai., 1991). The decoction of bark and leaves was found to inhibit the activity of peptic enzymes like protopectinase andpolygalacturonase of Alternaria tenuis (Prasad and Gupta, 1967). The antitumour activity of ethanol extract of B.variegata was evaluated against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice (Rajkapoor et al., 2003).The plant has shown chemoprotective and cytotoxic effect against N-nitrosodiethylamine induced liver tumours and human cancer cell lines (Rajkapoor et al., 2006). As claimed in the traditional system, the stem bark of B.variegata is not investigated for its anthelmintic potential. BAUHINIA TOMENTOSA LINN. Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. popularly known as 'Pivala kanchan' is an erect shrub found throughout India, North and South America, Australia, Nepal and China. The leaves are broader than long, coriaceous and pubescent below. The flowers are yellow, with a maroon dot at the base of the central petal and distinct odour. Pods are stalked, flat, pointed, glabrous and 8-12 seeded (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). Traditional uses All parts of the plant like leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, root bark and stem bark have been reported to be useful in traditional system of medicine to relieve a variety of ailments. Decoction of the root bark is prescribed for liver troubles and as a vermifuge. The bruised bark is externally applied on tumours and wounds. Infusion of the stem bark is useful as an astringent gargle. The leaves constitute an ingredient of a plaster applied to abscesses. The native practitioners in southern India prescribe the small dried buds and young flowers in dysentery. The fruit of the plant is diuretic while seeds are used as tonic (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies The flowers are reported to yield rutin, quercetin (Rowand Viswanadham, 1954), isoquercetin and quercetin-3-glucoside (Subramanian and Nair, 1963). The seeds are rich source of minerals like Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn (Mohan and Janardhan, 1995). Pharmacological Studies The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the plant screened for various biological activities, viz., antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoal and diuretic (Abraham et ai., 1986).Various extract of dried leaves of B.tomentosa were screened for antimicrobial activity
288
RAVINDRA G. MALI, SHAILAJA G. MAHAJAN, ANITA A. MEHTA
and chloroform and ethanol extract of the plant showed significant antimicrobial activity against tested organisms (Mythreyi et al.,2005). As mentioned in indigenous system of medicine, the root bark of B. tometltosa is not investigated for its proclaimed anthelmintic activity.
BAUHlNIA RACEMOSA LAMK. It is a small, bushy tree with drooping branches, found throughout India, Ceylon
and China. Leaves are broader than long, rigidly coriaceous and slightly cordate. The bark is bluish black, rough, pinkish red inside, turning brown on exposure. Flowers are white or pale yellow and pods are stalked, glabrous, blunt at the apex, tapering to the base (Kirtikar and Basu, 1999). Traditional Uses Traditionally the leaves are used in diarrhoea, pyrexia and as astringent and alexipharmic. Decoction of leaves is given in malaria. They are also. used as fodder and in the manufacturing of bidis. The bark is astringent and used for the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. It is reported as vermicide (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Anonymous, 1988). Phytochemical Studies The stem bark of B. racemosa was reported to contain octacosane, a-amyrin and a-sitosterol (Prakash and Khosa, 1976). The root bark yielded a new, tetracyclic 2, 2dimethykhroman derivative, de-O-methylracemosol along with racemosol (Prabhakar et al., 1994). The fixed oil obtained from seeds was found to be rich with linoleic acid and others were lauric, myristic, stearic, palmitic and oleic acids ijoshi and Garg, 1980}. Pharmacological Studies The 50 percent ethanolic extract of the stem bark revealed CVS effects in dogs and cats, hypothermia and gross behavioral effects in mice and anticancer activity against human epidermoid carcinoma of nasopharynx in tissue culture (Dhar et al., 1968). The seed extract is reported to exhibit platelet antiaggregation activity (Mukherjee and Chatterjee, 1991). As described in traditional system of medicine the bark of B.racemosa is not investigated for its anthelmintic activity. The phytopharmacologicalliterature search and wide variety of traditional uses of all these three species of Bauhinia Linn. prompted us to investigate their anthelmintic potential in a scientific manner.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant collection and authentication The stem bark of B.variegata, root bark of B.tomentosa and stem bark of B.racemosa were collected from the fields near Chopda and their botanical identification were confirmed from Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Koregaon Road, Pune. Specimen voucher of each plant having No.165415, RGM Aland RGM A4 has been deposited in the department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, College of Pharmacy, Chopda.
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289
Preparation of extract The plant materials were dried for several days in shade and powdered with the help of an electric grinder. The powder (300 g) of each plant, were defatted using petroleum ether (40-60°C). They were subjected for air drying and extracted exhaustively with 95 % ethanol in a Soxhlet apparatus separately. The liquid extracts so obtained were filtered and distilled on water bath to get syrupy mass. The extracts were finally dried at low temperature under reduced pressure in a rotary evaporator. The crude ethanolic extracts so obtained were subjected to preliminary phytochemical testing for the presence of different chemical classes of compounds (Kokate, 1994; Harborne, 1994). Worms Collection and Authentication Indian earthworm Pheretima posthuma L.Vaill (Annelida) were collected from the water logged areas of soil and Ascardia galli Schrank (Nematode) worms were obtained from freshly slaughtered fowls Gallus gallus Spadiceus (Phasianidae). Both worm types were identified at the P.G. Department of Zoology, Pratap College, Amalner, Maharashtra. Preparation of Test Sample Samples for in vitro study were prepared by dissolving 2.5 gm of crude ethanolic extract of each plant in 25 ml of distilled water to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg/ ml. From this stock solution, different working dilutions were prepared to get concentration range of 10, 50 and 100 mg/ml. Anthelmintic Assay The anthelmintic assay was carried out as per the method of Ajaiyeoba et al. (2001) with necessary modifications. The assay was performed on adult Indian earthworm, Pheretima posthuma due to its anatomical and physiological resemblance with the intestinal roundworm parasite of human beings (Vidyarthi, 1967; Thorn et al., 1977; Vigar, 1984; Chatterjee, 1967). Because of easy availability, earthworms have been used widely for the initial evaluation of anthelmintic compounds in vitro (Sollmann, 1918; Jain et al., 1972; Dash et al., 2002; Szewezuk et al., 2003; Shivkar et al., 2003). Ascardia galli worms are easily available from freshly slaughtered fowls and its use, as a suitable model for screening of anthelmintic drug was advocated earlier (Kaushik et al., 1974; Lal et al., 1976; Tandon et al., 1997). Fifty ml formulations containing different concentrations of crude ~thanolic extracts (10, 50 and 100 mg/ml in distilled water) were prepared and six worms (same type) were placed in it. This was done for both types of worms. Time for paralysis was noted when no movement of any sort could be observed except when the worms were shaken vigorously. Time for death of worms were recorded after ascertaining that worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in warm water (50°C). Piperazine citrate (10 mg/ml) was used as reference standard while distilled water as control.
290
RAVINDRA
G.
MALI, SHAILAJA
3.
G.
MAHAJAN, ANITA A. MEHTA
RESULTS
TABLE 1 Anthelmintic activity of ethanolic extract of stem bark of B. variegata Test subs. Concentration (mglml)
Time taken for Paralysis (P) and Death (D) of worms (Minutes) P. posthuma
A.galli
P
D
P
D
Vehicle Extract
10
49.25±0.31
60.84±0.45
57.16±0.29
64.94±0.33
Extract
50
21.86±0.52
41.20±0.35**
30.14±0.21
42.92±0.36*
Extract
100
10.97±0.12**
22.13±0.25***
Piperazine
10
16.17±0.14
55.32±0.19
14.27±0.41*** 29.93±0.43*** 20.10±0.13
59.08±0.14
citrate Results expressed as Mean ± SEM of six observations. Values are significantly different from reference standard (piperazine citrate) ***p Z .... n > t"'
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Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Paspalum scobiculatum 1. Pistia stratiotes 1. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Jungli Jalebi
Mimosaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Seed
Kodon Jalkumbhi Kajur
Poaceae Araceae Arecaceae
Herb Herb Shrub
Hyder M
Th Cr Ph
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Karanj
Fabaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Pterocarpus santalinus 1.
Fabaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Rubia cordifolia 1.
Rakt Chandan Majistha
Rubiaceae
Herb
M
Th
Semecarpus anacardium 1. f.
Bhilawa
Anacardiaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.
Sal Sakhua
Dipterocarpaceae Tree
M
Ph
Grains Boiled seed used as meal Whole plant Plant juice used Fruit Fruits and plant juice used Kernel of Fruits juice used Fruits Seed Seed powder used by the patients Leaves and Decoction of leaves used Roots Fruits Processed seeds used by the patients Heart wood Decoction of heart wood effective Seed Process seeds used by the patients. Fruits, Leaf Equal part of fruits of Fruits Harr and Behera mixed Fruits with the same quantity of Amla form a Triphala which can cure diabetes
Plant species
Local name
Family
Habit
Habitat
X
Strychonos nux-vomica 1.
Kuchla
Strychnaceae
Tree
M
Ph
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Terminalia chebula Retz. Terminlia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.
Jamun Harr Bahera
Myrtaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae
Tree Tree Tree
M M M
Ph Ph Ph
Part used Fruits
Therapeutic uses
~
Fresh juice of the fruits more effective All parts of the plant used by the patient Seed powder used
Contd ...
::r::I
~
~ 0 t!1
.r ::r::I
~r"'
~ 0
p
0::1
~
~
:=
> CIl > ~ > Z ~
0
~ 10(
> ~
~
rr.I
... Contd. Plant species
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight. and Am. Tinospora cordifolia (Wild.) Miers. ex Hook f & Thorn. Trapa natans L. Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
~
Local name
Family
Habit
Habitat M
Part used Bark
Powdered barks used
= Q
Dry stem powder effective Fruits used Seeds more effective
....~~
Combreataceae Tree
Guruch
1)\
Green stem
Singara Maithia
Menispennaceae Climbing Hydr shrub Trapaceae Herb M Fabaceae Herb M
Cr Th
Tribulus terrestris L.
Gokhuru
Zygophyllaceae Herb
M
Th
Trachispermum ammi (L.) Sprague Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.
Ajwain
Apiaceae
Herb
M
Th
Fruit Shoot and seeds Fruits and Roots Fruit
Parwal
Cucurbitaceae
Herb
M
Th
Poaceae
Shrub
M
Ph
Fruit and leave Roots
Herb
X
Th
Roots
Withana somnifera (L.) Dunal Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)
Ashwagandha Solanaceae Dawi
Lytharaceae
Shrub
Z 0
Life forms Ph
Atjun
Vetivera zizanioides (L.) Nash Khukhus
Therapeutic uses
:x:
Ph
Flower
> Z .... (') > t"'
ttl ==
> C'l ttl
Powder of fruits or roots cure the diabetes Decoction of fruits used Fruits used as vegetable Roots powder prescribed by Vaidyas Roots powder water used Powder of dry flowers a effective
0 Z ~ ~
> 0 ::j .... 0 Z
> t"'
0~ c:: C'l
""tl ~
> q .... (') ttl
Cr : Cryptophyte, Geo : Geophytes, Hemi : Hemicryptophytes, Hydr : Hydrophyte, M : Mesophyte, Ph : Phanerophyte, Th : Therophyte, X : Xerophyte
CIl
~
ttl t"'
~ ....
Z
C'l
396
R.K. GOEL, RAJUL GOEL, B.K. PRASAD AND D.K. YADAV
REFERENCES Anonymous (1973) Wild plants for food, medicines, fiber, fodder and other purposes. In: Ethnobotany: Chapter 6, Status report on All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Anonymous (1976) Wealth of India (Vol. 1-11), CSIR, New Delhi, India. Arora, R.K. (1989) Ethnobotany and plant domestication. In : Global Perspective, Method and Application in Ethnobotany, pp. 49-57. Bhattacharjee, S.K. (1999) Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Pointer Publishers, Jaipur, India. Goel, Raju, Goel, R.K., Pandey, B.N. & Yadav, D.K (1999) Medicinal Plants used for Jaundice in Magadh Region (Central Bihar), India, In : Prof.K.S.Manilai. Commemoration Volume on Biodiversity, Conservation and Taxonomy of Flowering Plants. (Eds. M. Sivadasan & . Mathew), Mentor Books, Calicut, pp. 349-355. Haines, H.H. (1921-25) Flora of Bihar and Orissa. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun (1978), India. Jain, S.K. (2001) Human aspects of plant diversity. Distinguished Economic Botanist Award Lecture, The Society of Economic Botany. 54C, pp. 459-470, New York Botanical Garden Pressm, Brous, USA. Kirtikar, KR. & Basu B.D. (1935) Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol.1-4) 2nd Ed. Periodical Expert, Delhi, India. Manilal, KS. (1989) Linkage of botany with other sciences and disciplines. In: Resources, Persons, Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (Ed. S.K. Jain), NBRI. Lucknow, India. Natesh, S. & Mohan Ram, H.Y. (1999) An update on green medicine. J.lndian Bot. Soc. 78(1-11):1323. Pushpagadon, P. (2000) The Role of Ethnobotany in 21 Century. In : National Seminar on Plant Biodiversity, Systematic, Conservation and Ethnobotany, p. 63, 10th Annual General Body Meeting of IAAT, Department of Botany, Siliguri, West Bengal, India. Ved Prakash (1998) Indian Medicinal Plants: Current Status. J.Ethnobotany 10:112-121. Varrier, P.K., Nambiar, V.P.K. & Kutty, c.R. (1994) Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol.1-5). Orient Longman Ltd., Madras, India.
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