Head and Neck Cancer

TYPES OF CANCER

HEAD AND NECK CANCER Head and neck cancers are cancers that start in the tissues and organs of the head and neck. They include cancers of the larynx (voice box), throat, lips, mouth, nose, and salivary glands. Most types of head and neck cancer begin in squamous cells that line the moist surfaces inside the head and neck (for example, the mouth, nose, and throat). Tobacco use, heavy alcohol use, and infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV) increase the risk of many types of head and neck cancer.

ENDOMETRIAL CANCER(URETHRAL CANCER) The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In women, the urethra is about 1½ inches long and is just above the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 8 inches long. It goes through the prostate gland and the penis to the outside of the body. In men, the urethra also carries semen.

Urethral cancer is a rare cancer that occurs more often in men than in women. There are three types of urethral cancer. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type. It forms in the flat cells that line the urethra. Transitional cell carcinoma forms in cells near the urethral opening in women and in the part of the urethra that goes through the prostate gland in men. These cells change shape and stretch as urine passes out of the body. Adenocarcinoma forms in the glands near the urethra. These glands make and release mucus and other fluids. Urethral cancer can metastasize (spread) quickly to tissues around the urethra and has often spread to nearby lymph nodes by the time it is diagnosed. Signs of urethral cancer include bleeding or trouble urinating.

BONE CANCER There are several types of bone cancer. Osteosarcoma is the most common bone cancer. It starts in bone cells that make new bone tissue. It usually forms at the end of long bones, such as the leg bones, but can form in any bone. It is most common in teenagers and in adults older than 65 years. Malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone is a very rare bone cancer. It is treated like osteosarcoma. Ewing sarcoma includes several types of bone tumors. Ewing sarcoma tumors usually form in the hip bones, the ribs, or in the middle of long bones. The disease occurs most often in teenagers and young adults. Ewing tumors are most common in bone but can also form in soft tissue. Having past treatment with radiation can increase the risk of osteosarcoma. A small number of bone cancers are caused by inherited conditions. Signs and symptoms of bone tumors include a lump, swelling, and pain. Bone cancer is rare. Most bone tumors are benign (not cancer).

BRAIN TUMOR The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system (CNS). Brain and spinal cord tumors are growths of abnormal cells in tissues of the brain or spinal cord. Tumors that start in the brain are called primary brain tumors. A tumor that starts in another part of the body and spreads to the brain is called a metastatic brain tumor. Brain and spinal cord tumors may be either benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer). Both benign and malignant tumors cause signs and symptoms and need treatment. Benign brain and spinal cord tumors grow and press on nearby areas of the brain but rarely spread into other parts of the brain. Malignant brain and spinal cord tumors are likely to grow quickly and spread into other parts of the brain. There are many types of brain and spinal cord tumors. They form in different cell types and different areas of the brain and spinal cord. The signs and symptoms of brain and spinal cord tumors depend on where the tumor forms, its size, how fast it is growing, and the age of the patient. Brain and spinal cord tumors can occur in both adults and children. The types of tumors that form and the way they are treated are different in children and adults. In adults, anaplastic astrocytomas and glioblastomas make up about one-third of brain tumors. In children, astrocytomas are the most common type of brain tumor. The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on many factors, including age, tumor size, tumor type, and where the tumor is in the CNS.

BREAST CANCER The breast is made up of glands called lobules that can make milk and thin tubes called ducts that carry the milk from the lobules to the nipple. Breast tissue also contains fat and connective tissue, lymph nodes, and blood vessels. The most common type of breast cancer is ductal carcinoma, which begins in the cells of the ducts. Breast cancer can also begin in the cells of the lobules and in other tissues in the breast. Invasive breast cancer is breast cancer that has spread from where it began in the ducts or lobules to surrounding tissue. In the U.S., breast cancer is the second most common cancer in women after skin cancer. It can occur in both men and women, but it is very rare in men. Each year there are about 2,300 new cases of breast cancer in men and about 230,000 new cases in wome

EYE CANCER Intraocular melanoma is a rare disease in which cancer forms in melanocytes in the eye. Melanocytes are cells that make melanin (the pigment that gives skin and eyes their color). Intraocular melanoma begins in the uvea. The uvea has three parts. The iris is the colored area at the front of the eye. The ciliary body is a ring of muscle tissue that changes the size of the pupil and the shape of the lens. The choroid is a layer of blood vessels that brings oxygen and nutrients to the eye. Most intraocular melanomas begin in the choroid.

There may be no early signs or symptoms of intraocular melanoma. It is sometimes found during an eye exam. Risk factors for intraocular melanoma include having fair skin that freckles and burns easily, does not tan, or tans poorly and having blue, green, or other light-colored eyes.

ORAL CANCER Cancer in children and teenagers is rare. Since 1975, the number of new cases of childhood cancer has slowly increased. Since 1975, the number of deaths from childhood cancer has decreased by more than half. Unusual cancers are so rare that most children's hospitals might see less than a handful of some types in several years. Because the unusual cancers are so rare, there is not a lot of information about what treatment works best. A child's treatment is often based on what has been learned from treating other children. Sometimes, information is available only from reports of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of one child or a small group of children who were given the same type of treatment.

THYROID CANCER (THROAT CANCER) The thyroid is a gland at the base of the throat near the windpipe. It is shaped like a butterfly, with a right lobe and a left lobe. A thin piece of tissue connects the two lobes. The thyroid makes hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and weight. There are four types of thyroid cancer. These are papillary, follicular, medullary, and anaplastic thyroid cancer. Papillary is the most common type of thyroid cancer. Anaplastic thyroid cancer is hard to cure with current treatment. Other types of thyroid cancer can usually be cured. Being exposed to radiation to the head and neck as a child increases the risk of thyroid cancer. Having certain genetic conditions such as familial medullary thyroid cancer, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A syndrome, and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B syndrome can also increase the risk of thyroid cancer.

ANAL CANCER Anal warts: Anal warts (also called condylomas) are growths that occur just outside the anus and in the lower anal canal below the dentate line. Occasionally they can be found just above the dentate line. They are caused by infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). Anal warts are unlikely to develop into anal cancer, but people who have had anal warts are more likely to get anal cancer The inner lining of the anal canal is the mucosa. Most anal cancers start from cells in the mucosa. Glands and ducts (tubes leading from the glands) are found under the mucosa. The glands make mucus, which acts as a lubricating fluid. Anal cancers that start from cells in the glands are called adenocarcinomas. The anal canal changes as it goes from the rectum to the anal verge:  

Cells above the anal canal (in the rectum) and in the part of the anal canal close to the rectum are shaped like tiny columns. Most cells near the middle of the anal canal are shaped like cubes and are called transitional cells. This area is called the transitional zone.



About midway down the anal canal is the dentate line, which is where most of the anal glands empty into the anus.



Below the dentate line are flat (squamous) cells.



At the anal verge, the squamous cells of the lower anal canal merge with the skin just outside the anus. This skin around the anal verge (called the perianal skin or the anal margin) is also made up of squamous cells, but it also contains sweat glands and hair follicles, which are not found in the lining of the lower anal canal.

BLADDER CANCER Bladder cancer symptoms include painless blood in the urine or frequent and painful urination. Bladder cancer is highly treatable with options such as surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. Bladder cancer is the rapid, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the bladder. Cancer usually begins in the lining of the bladder. The cancerous cells may spread through the lining into the muscular wall of the bladder. Invasive bladder cancer may spread to lymph nodes, other organs in the pelvis (causing problems with kidney and bowel function), or other organs in the body, such as the liver and lungs.

COLON CANCER Cancers of the colon and rectum (colorectal cancer) start when the process of the normal replacement of lining cells goes awry. Mistakes in mucosal cell division occur frequently. For reasons that are poorly understood, sometimes mistakes occur that escape our editing systems. When this occurs, these cells begin to divide independently of the normal checks and balances that control growth Once a colorectal cancer forms, it begins to grow in two ways. First, the cancer can grow locally and extend through the wall of the intestine and invade adjacent structures, making the mass (called the primary tumor) more of a problem and harder to remove. Local extension can cause additional symptoms such as pain or fullness, or cause blockages of the colon or nearby

structures. Second, as the cancer grows it begins the process of metastasis, shedding thousands of cells a day into the blood and lymphatic system that can cause cancers to form in distant locations.

ESOPHAGEAL CANCER Cancer of the esophagus (also referred to as esophageal cancer) starts in the inner layer (the mucosa) and grows outward (through the submucosa and the muscle layer). Since 2 types of cells can line the esophagus, there are 2 main types of esophageal cancer: Squamous cell carcinoma The esophagus is normally lined with squamous cells. Cancer starting in these cells is called squamous cell carcinoma. This type of cancer can occur anywhere along the esophagus. Once, squamous cell carcinoma was by far the more common type of esophageal cancer in the United States. This has changed over time, and now it makes up less than half of esophageal cancers in this country. Adenocarcinoma Cancers that start in gland cells are called adenocarcinomas. This type of cell is not normally part of the inner lining of the esophagus. Before an adenocarcinoma can develop, gland cells must replace an area of squamous cells, which is what happens in Barrett’s esophagus. This occurs mainly in the lower esophagus, which is where most adenocarcinomas start. Adenocarcinomas that start at the area where the esophagus joins the stomach (the GE junction, which includes about the first 2 inches of the stomach called the cardia), tend to behave like cancers in the esophagus (and are treated like them, as well), so they are grouped with esophagus cancers.

GALLBLADDER CANCER  Gallbladder cancer is a rare disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the gallbladder.  Risk factors for gallbladder cancer include being female, and Native American.  Symptoms of gallbladder cancer include jaundice (yellowing of skin and whites of eyes), pain, fever, nausea and vomiting, bloating, and lumps in the abdomen.  Gallbladder cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose because there often are no noticeable signs in the early stages. When there are symptoms they often resemble other illnesses, and the gallbladder is hidden behind the liver.

STOMACH CANCER Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, is cancer developing from the lining of the stomach.[1] Early symptoms may include heartburn, upper abdominal pain, nausea and loss of appetite. Later signs and symptoms may include weight loss, yellow skin, vomiting, difficulty swallowing, and blood in the stool among others.[2] The cancer may spread from the stomach to other parts of the body, particularly the liver, lungs, bones, lining of the abdomen and lymph nodes.[3] The most common cause is infection by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which accounts for more than 60% of cases.[4][5][6] Certain types of H. pylori have greater risks than others. Other common causes include eating pickled vegetables and smoking. About 10% of cases run in families and between 1% and 3% of cases are due to genetic syndromes inherited from a person's parents such as hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. Most cases of stomach cancers are gastric carcinomas. This type can be divided into a number of subtypes. Lymphomas and mesenchymal tumors may also develop within the stomach. Most of the time, stomach cancer develops through a number of stages over a number of years.[5] Diagnosis is usually by biopsy done during endoscopy. This is then followed by medical imaging to determine if the disease has spread to other parts of the body.[2] Japan and South Korea, two countries that have high rates of disease, screen for stomach cancer.[5]

HEART CANCER Heart cancers can develop from any part of the heart. Benign myxomas are the most common tumor arising from within the heart. Even though their cellularity is benign they may still be lethal, as described below. In adults, the most common malignant heart cancers are angiosarcomas, which tend to develop in the right upper chamber of the heart (atrium). Angiosarcomas originate from cells that form the lining of blood vessels. When these cells become cancerous, they multiply and create irregular blood vessel-like masses that can bulge into the atrium and spread to adjacent structures. Cardiac rhabdomyosarcoma is the second most common primary heart cancer in adults and the most common primary heart cancer in children. These tumors originate from muscle cells that have become cancerous. Rhabdomyosarcomas can develop anywhere in the heart but almost always involve at least a portion of the myocardium, the heart’s thick muscular layer. Less common types of primary heart tumors include cardiac liposarcomas, mesotheliomas, fibrosarcomas, fibrous histiocytomas and schwannomas. Symptoms of heart cancer can resemble those of heart disease, such as chest pain, irregular heart rhythms, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Sometimes these symptoms develop suddenly. Radiation and chemotherapy can be used to help manage symptoms. Sometimes surgery may also help control symptoms, but this is performed only at specialized centers.

PANCREATIC CANCER Pancreatic cancer occurs when a malignant tumour forms in the pancreas. Click here for more information about the pancreas and what it does. There are two main types of pancreatic cancer:

Exocrine tumours These make up the vast majority of all pancreatic cancers (around 90%) and come from the cells that line the ducts in the pancreas which carry digestive juices into the intestine. These are called pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas. Other exocrine tumours of the pancreas are rarer, and include adenosquamous carcinomas and undifferentiated carcinomas.

Endocrine tumours These are known as neuroendocrine tumours, and are much less common. These tumours sometimes make hormones such as insulin, and glucagon, to control blood sugar. Often referred to as either PETs or islet cell tumours, they are very rare, making up just 2-5% of pancreatic tumours. Click on this link for more information on the types of neuroendocrine pancreatic cancers.

What causes pancreatic cancer? The causes of pancreatic cancer are not known. However, there are some risk factors that make developing pancreatic cancer more likely: Cigarette Smoking – There is a direct relationship between the amount you smoke and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Age – The risk of developing pancreatic cancer increases with age. Chronic Pancreatitis – Long-term inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis) has been linked to pancreatic cancer.

Diabetes – There have been a number of reports which suggest that diabetics have an increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer. Obesity – Recent studies have shown that risk is higher in people who are obese (have a Body Mass Index more than 30). Some studies show that obese women who carry their weight on their stomach area are at an increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer

PROSTATE CANCER The prostate is the gland below a man's bladder that produces fluid for semen. Prostate cancer is common among older men. It is rare in men younger than 40. Risk factors for developing prostate cancer include being over 65 years of age, family history, and being African-American. Symptoms of prostate cancer may include



Problems passing urine, such as pain, difficulty starting or stopping the stream, or dribbling Low back pain



Pain with ejaculation



To diagnose prostate cancer, you doctor may do a digital rectal exam to feel the prostate for lumps or anything unusual. You may also get a blood test for prostate-specific antigen (PSA). These tests are also used in prostate cancer screening, which looks for cancer before you have symptoms. If your results are abnormal, you may need more tests, such as an ultrasound, MRI, or biopsy. Treatment often depends on the stage of the cancer. How fast the cancer grows and how different it is from surrounding tissue helps determine the stage. Men with prostate cancer have many treatment options. The treatment that's best for one man may not be best for another. The options include watchful waiting, surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy. You may have a combination of treatments.

LUNG CANCER The lungs are a pair of cone-shaped breathing organs inside the chest. The lungs bring oxygen into the body when breathing in and send carbon dioxide out of the body when breathing out. Each lung has sections called lobes. Two tubes called bronchi lead from the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs. The two main types of lung cancer are non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer. The types are based on the way the cells look under a microscope. Non-small cell lung cancer is much more common than small cell lung cancer. Tobacco smoking is the most common cause of lung cancer. Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer in the U.S. and the number of deaths from lung cancer in women is increasing. For most patients with lung cancer, current treatments do not cure the cancer.

BLOOD CANCER Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. Most blood cells form in the bone marrow. In leukemia, cancerous blood cells form and crowd out the healthy blood cells in the bone marrow. The type of leukemia depends on the type of blood cell that has become cancerous. For example, acute lymphoblastic leukemia is a cancer of the lymphoblasts (white blood cells that fight infection). White blood cells are the most common type of blood cell to become cancer. But red blood cells (cells that carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body) and platelets (cells that clot the blood) may also become cancer. Leukemia occurs most often in adults older than 55 years, and it is the most common cancer in children younger than 15 years. Leukemia is either acute or chronic. Acute leukemia is a fast-growing cancer that usually gets worse quickly. Chronic leukemia is a slower-growing cancer that gets worse slowly over time. The treatment and prognosis for leukemia depend on the type of blood cell affected and whether the leukemia is acute or chronic. Chemotherapy is often used to treat leukemia.

LIVER CANCER The liver has many important functions in the body. For example, it cleans toxins from the blood, makes bile that helps digest fat, makes substances that help blood clot, and makes, stores, and releases sugar for energy. Primary liver cancer is cancer that starts in the liver. The most common type of primary liver cancer is hepatocellular carcinoma, which occurs in the tissue of the liver. When cancer starts in other parts of the body and spreads to the liver, it is called liver metastasis. Liver cancer is rare in children and teenagers, but there are two types of liver cancer that can form in children. Hepatoblastoma occurs in younger children, and hepatocellular carcinoma occurs in older children and teenagers. The bile ducts are tubes that carry bile between the liver and gallbladder and the intestine. Bile duct cancer is also called cholangiocarcinoma. When it begins in the bile ducts inside the liver, it is called intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. When it begins in the bile ducts outside the liver, it is called extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. Extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma is much more common than intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma.

VAGINA CANCER The vagina (birth canal) leads from the cervix (the opening of the uterus) to the outside of the body. The most common type of vaginal cancer is squamous cell carcinoma, which begins in the thin, flat cells that line the vagina. Other types of vaginal cancer are adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make mucus and other fluids), melanoma, and sarcoma. Infection with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV) causes most vaginal cancer. Vaccines that protect against infection with these types of HPV may reduce the risk of vaginal cancer. Vaginal cancer often does not cause early signs or symptoms. It may be found during a routine pelvic exam. When found early, vaginal cancer can often be cured.