Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine - Thieme; (January 26, 2010)
May 9, 2017 | Author: Cela King | Category: N/A
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Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine - Thieme; (January 26, 2010)...
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Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine
Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine Edited by
Based on the work of
Eric W. Baker
Michael Schuenke Erik Schulte Udo Schumacher Illustrations by
Markus Voll Karl Wesker
Thieme New York · Stuttgart
Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. 333 Seventh Avenue New York, New York 10001 Based on the work of Michael Schuenke, MD, PhD, Erik Schulte, MD, and Udo Schumacher, MD Eric W. Baker, MA, MPhil Educational Coordinator and Director of Human Gross Anatomy Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology New York University College of Dentistry New York, New York 10010 Michael Schuenke, MD, PhD Institute of Anatomy Christian Albrecht University Kiel Olshausenstrasse 40 D-24098 Kiel Erik Schulte, MD Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology Johannes Gutenberg University Saarstrasse 19-21 D-55099 Mainz Udo Schumacher, MD, FRCPath, CBiol, FIBiol, DSc Institute of Anatomy II: Experimental Morphology Center for Experimental Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf Martinistrasse 52 D-20246 Hamburg Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Head and neck anatomy for dental medicine / edited by Eric W. Baker ; based on the work of Michael Schuenke, Erik Schulte, Udo Schumacher ; illustrations by Markus Voll, Karl Wesker. p. ; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-60406-209-0 (softcover : alk. paper) 1. Head—Anatomy— Atlases. 2. Neck—Anatomy—Atlases. I. Baker, Eric W. (Eric William), 1961– II. Schünke, Michael. III. Schulte, Erik. IV. Schumacher, Udo. [DNLM: 1. Head—anatomy & histology—Atlases. 2. Dentistry— Atlases. 3. Neck—anatomy & histology—Atlases. WE 17 H432 2010] QM535.H43 2010 611’.910223--dc22 2009041592
Developmental Editor: Bridget N. Queenan and Julie O’Meara Editorial Director, Educational Products: Cathrin Weinstein, MD, and Anne T. Vinnicombe Associate Manager, Book Production: Adelaide Elsie Starbecker International Production Director: Andreas Schabert Director of Sales: Ross Lumpkin Vice President, International Marketing and Sales: Cornelia Schulze Chief Financial Officer: James W. Mitos President: Brian D. Scanlan Illustrators: Markus Voll and Karl Wesker Compositor: MPS Content Services, A Macmillan Company Printer: Leo Paper Products Ltd. Copyright © 2010 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. This book, including all parts thereof, is legally protected by copyright. Any use, exploitation, or commercialization outside the narrow limits set by copyright legislation without the publisher’s consent is illegal and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to photostat reproduction, copying, mimeographing or duplication of any kind, translating, preparation of microfilms, and electronic data processing and storage. Important note: Medical knowledge is ever-changing. As new research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy may be required. The authors and editors of the material herein have consulted sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide information that is complete and in accord with the standards accepted at the time of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error by the authors, editors, or publisher of the work herein or changes in medical knowledge, neither the authors, editors, nor publisher, nor any other party who has been involved in the preparation of this work, warrants that the information contained herein is in every respect accurate or complete, and they are not responsible for any errors or omissions or for the results obtained from use of such information. Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources. For example, readers are advised to check the product information sheet included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the information contained in this publication is accurate and that changes have not been made in the recommended dose or in the contraindications for administration. This recommendation is of particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs.
ISBN 978-1-60406-209-0
Dedication
To my wonderful wife, Amy Curran Baker, and my awe-inspiring daughters, Phoebe and Claire.
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Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI
Head 1
Cranial Bones
4
Development of the Cranial Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Skull: Lateral View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Skull: Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Skull: Posterior View & Cranial Sutures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Calvaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Skull Base: External View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Skull Base: Internal View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Sphenoid Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Temporal Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Occipital Bone & Ethmoid Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Mandible & Hyoid Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2
Organization of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Sensory Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Motor Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Skeletal Muscle: Innervation & Embryonic Development . . . . 60 Autonomic Motor Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Peripheral Nerves & Nerve Lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Cranial Nerves: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Cranial Nerve Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 CN I & II: Olfactory & Optic Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 CN III, IV & VI: Oculomotor, Trochlear & Abducent Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 CN V: Trigeminal Nerve, Nuclei & Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 CN V1: Trigeminal Nerve, Ophthalmic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 CN V2: Trigeminal Nerve, Maxillary Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 CN V3: Trigeminal Nerve, Mandibular Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 CN VII: Facial Nerve, Nuclei & Internal Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 CN VII: Facial Nerve, External Branches & Ganglia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 CN IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 CN X: Vagus Nerve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 CN XI & XII: Accessory Spinal & Hypoglossal Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Neurovascular Pathways through the Skull Base . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Muscles of the Skull & Face Muscles of Facial Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Muscles of Facial Expression: Calvaria, Ear & Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Muscles of Facial Expression: Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Muscles of Mastication: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Muscles of the Head: Origins & Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3
Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck Arteries of the Head: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 External Carotid Artery: Anterior, Medial & Posterior Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 External Carotid Artery: Maxillary Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 External Carotid Artery: Terminal Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Internal Carotid Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Veins of the Head: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Veins of the Head: Deep Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Innervation of the Head & Neck
5
Neurovascular Topography of the Head Anterior Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Lateral Head: Superficial Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Lateral Head: Intermediate Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Infratemporal Fossa: Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Pterygopalatine Fossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
VII
Contents
Regions of the Head
6
Orbit & Eye Bones of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Communications of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Extraocular Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Cranial Nerves of the Extraocular Muscles: Oculomotor (CN III), Trochlear (CN IV) & Abducent (CN VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Neurovasculature of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Topography of the Orbit (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Topography of the Orbit (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Lacrimal Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Eyeball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Eye: Blood Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Eye: Lens & Cornea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Eye: Iris & Ocular Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Eye: Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Visual System (I): Overview & Geniculate Part. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Visual System (II): Lesions & Nongeniculate Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Visual System (III): Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Visual System (IV): Coordination of Eye Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7
Nose & Nasal Cavity Nose: Nasal Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Nose: Paranasal Sinuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Nasal Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Nasal Cavity: Neurovascular Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nose & Paranasal Sinuses: Histology & Clinical Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Olfactory System (Smell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8
Temporal Bone & Ear Temporal Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Ear: Overview & External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
VIII
Middle Ear (I): Tympanic Cavity & Pharyngotympanic Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Middle Ear (II): Auditory Ossicles & Tympanic Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Inner Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Arteries & Veins of the Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Auditory Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Auditory Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Vestibular Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Vestibular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9
Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions Oral Cavity: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Permanent Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Structure of the Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Incisors, Canines & Premolars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Molars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Deciduous Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Hard Palate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Mandible & Hyoid Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . 196 Muscles of Mastication: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Suprahyoid Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Lingual Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Lingual Mucosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Pharynx & Tonsils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Pharynx: Divisions & Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Muscles of the Soft Palate & Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Muscles of the Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Pharynx: Topography & Innervation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Salivary Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Neurovasculature of the Tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Gustatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Contents
Neck
Neuroanatomy
10
13
Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck Vertebral Column & Vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Ligaments of the Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Joints of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Ligaments of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Ligaments of the Craniovertebral Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Muscles of the Neck: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Muscles of the Neck & Back (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Muscles of the Neck & Back (II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Muscles of the Posterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Intrinsic Back Muscles (I): Erector Spinae & Interspinales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Intrinsic Back Muscles (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Intrinsic Back Muscles (III): Short Nuchal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Prevertebral & Scalene Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Suprahyoid & Infrahyoid Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11
Neuroanatomy Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Spinal Cord: Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Brain: Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Brain & Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Spinal Cord & Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Dural Sinuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Arteries of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Larynx Larynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Laryngeal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Larynx: Neurovasculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Larynx: Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
12
Neurovascular Topography of the Neck Arteries & Veins of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Lymphatics of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Cervical Plexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Cervical Regions (Triangles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Cervical Fasciae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Posterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Lateral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Anterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Deep Anterolateral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Parapharyngeal Space (I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Parapharyngeal Space (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
IX
Contents
Sectional Anatomy
Appendix
14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck Coronal Sections of the Head (I): Anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Coronal Sections of the Head (II): Posterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Coronal MRIs of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (I): Anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (III): Posterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Transverse Sections of the Head (I): Cranial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Transverse Sections of the Head (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Transverse Sections of the Head (III): Caudal . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Transverse Sections of the Neck (I): Cranial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Transverse Sections of the Neck (II): Caudal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Transverse MRIs of the Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Transverse MRIs of the Oral Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Transverse MRIs of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Sagittal Sections of the Head (I): Medial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Sagittal Sections of the Head (II): Lateral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Sagittal MRIs of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Sagittal MRIs of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
X
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Preface
I was amazed and impressed with the extraordinary detail, accuracy, and beauty of the material that was created for the three-volume THIEME Atlas of Anatomy by authors Michael Schuenke, Erik Schulte, and Udo Schumacher and artists Markus Voll and Karl Wesker. I felt that these atlases and their pedagogical concepts were a significant addition to anatomical education. I was delighted to be invited to use this exceptional material as the cornerstone of an effort to create an atlas that specifically focuses on the structures of the head and neck as they are taught to students of dental medicine. Starting from the extensive coverage of these structures distributed across the three volumes of THIEME Atlas of Anatomy, I have organized, revised, and added new material to create Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine, a learning atlas for the first-year students of dental medicine taking a gross anatomy course. Because of the exceptional quality artwork and explanatory information concerning the structures of the head and the neck, it can also serve as a reference for practitioners of dental medicine and for students and practitioners in the more general field of dentistry (dental hygiene, dental assistants, etc.) and/or any field dealing primarily with the head and neck (ENT, speech pathology, ophthalmology, etc.). Some key features of this atlas are as follows: Organized in a user-friendly format in which each two-page spread is a self-contained guide to a specific topic. Intuitively arranged to facilitate learning. Coverage of each region begins by discussing the bones and joints and then adds the muscles, the vasculature, and the nerves. This information is then integrated in the topographic neurovascular anatomy coverage that follows. Features large, full-color, highly detailed artwork with clear and thorough labeling and descriptive captions, plus numerous schematics to elucidate concepts and tables to summarize key information for review and reference. Includes a full chapter devoted to sectional anatomy with radiographic images to demonstrate anatomy as seen in the clinical setting. The study of head and neck anatomy is challenging due to the intricacies of the structures involved, but this atlas manages to convey detailed anatomical information in a way that is both thorough and efficient, making for a very effective study tool.
I would like to thank Susana Tejada, class of 2010, Boston University School of Dental Medicine, and the group of dedicated anatomy instructors who provided feedback to Thieme as they were developing the concept for this atlas: Dr. Norman F. Capra, Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, University of Maryland Dental School, Baltimore, Maryland; Dr. Bob Hutchins, Associate Professor, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Baylor College of Dentistry, Dallas, Texas; Dr. Brian R. MacPherson, Professor and Vice-Chair, Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky; and Dr. Nicholas Peter Piesco, Associate Professor, Department of Oral Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. I would like to thank my colleagues at New York University who assisted me in this endeavor: Professor Terry Harrison, Department of Anthropology, for fostering my interests in comparative anatomy and instilling an appreciation for detail and accuracy in anatomical description; Dr. Richard Cotty for his keen eye in looking over the sectional anatomy in this atlas; Dr. Phyllis Slott, Dr. Elena Cunningham, Dr. Avelin Malyango, and Dr. Johanna Warshaw for assistance in all things anatomy related, including countless discussions on all aspects of current anatomical education and the need for a detailed head and neck anatomy atlas. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Inder Singh for mentoring me as an anatomist and serving as an inspirational anatomy professor. I would like to thank my colleagues at Thieme Publishers who so professionally facilitated this effort. I wish to thank Cathrin Weinstein, MD, Editorial Director, Educational Products, for inviting me to create this atlas. I extend very special thanks and appreciation to Bridget Queenan, Developmental Editor, who edited and developed the manuscript with an outstanding talent for visualization and intuitive flow of information. I am also very grateful to her for catching many details along the way while always patiently responding to requests for artwork and labeling changes. Thanks to Julie O’Meara, Developmental Editor, for joining the team in the correction phase. She graciously reminded me of deadlines, while always being available to work with me on proofs and to troubleshoot problems. Finally, thanks to Elsie Starbecker, Associate Manager, Book Production, who with great care and speed produced this atlas with its over 900 illustrations. Their hard work has made Head and Neck Anatomy for Dental Medicine a reality. Eric W. Baker New York, New York
XI
Head 1
Cranial Bones
4
Development of the Cranial Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Skull: Lateral View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Skull: Anterior View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Skull: Posterior View & Cranial Sutures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Calvaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Skull Base: External View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Skull Base: Internal View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Sphenoid Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Temporal Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Occipital Bone & Ethmoid Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Mandible & Hyoid Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2
Organization of the Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Sensory Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Motor Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Skeletal Muscle: Innervation & Embryonic Development . . . . 60 Autonomic Motor Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Peripheral Nerves & Nerve Lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Cranial Nerves: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Cranial Nerve Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 CN I & II: Olfactory & Optic Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 CN III, IV & VI: Oculomotor, Trochlear & Abducent Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 CN V: Trigeminal Nerve, Nuclei & Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 CN V1: Trigeminal Nerve, Ophthalmic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 CN V2: Trigeminal Nerve, Maxillary Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 CN V3: Trigeminal Nerve, Mandibular Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 CN VII: Facial Nerve, Nuclei & Internal Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 CN VII: Facial Nerve, External Branches & Ganglia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 CN IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 CN X: Vagus Nerve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 CN XI & XII: Accessory Spinal & Hypoglossal Nerves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Neurovascular Pathways through the Skull Base . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Muscles of the Skull & Face Muscles of Facial Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Muscles of Facial Expression: Calvaria, Ear & Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Muscles of Facial Expression: Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Muscles of Mastication: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Muscles of the Head: Origins & Insertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3
Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck Arteries of the Head: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 External Carotid Artery: Anterior, Medial & Posterior Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 External Carotid Artery: Maxillary Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 External Carotid Artery: Terminal Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Internal Carotid Artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Veins of the Head: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Veins of the Head: Deep Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Innervation of the Head & Neck
5
Neurovascular Topography of the Head Anterior Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Lateral Head: Superficial Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Lateral Head: Intermediate Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Infratemporal Fossa: Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Pterygopalatine Fossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Development of the Cranial Bones
Fig. 1.1 Bones of the skull Left lateral view. The skull forms a bony capsule that encloses the brain and viscera of the head. The bones of the skull are divided into two parts. The viscerocranium (orange), the facial skeleton, is formed primarily from the pharyngeal (branchial) arches (see p. 61). The neurocranium (gray), the cranial vault, is the bony capsule enclosing the brain. It is divided into two parts based on ossification (see Fig. 1.2). The cartilaginous neurocranium undergoes endochondral ossification to form the base of the skull. The membranous neurocranium undergoes intramembranous ossification.
Fig. 1.2 Ossification of the cranial bones Left lateral view. The bones of the skull develop either directly or indirectly from mesenchymal connective tissue. The bones of the desmocranium (gray) develop directly via intramembranous ossification of mesenchymal connective tissue. The bones of the chondrocranium (blue) develop indirectly via endochondral ossification of hyaline cartilage. Note: The skull base is formed exclusively by the chondrocranium. Elements formed via intramembranous and endochondral ossification may fuse to form a single bone (e.g., the elements of the occipital, temporal, and sphenoid bones contributing to the skull base are cartilaginous, while the rest of the bone is membranous).
Table 1.1 Development of the skull The bones of the skull can be understood using three major criteria: embryonic origins, location in the skull, and type of ossification. The majority of the viscerocranium (facial skeleton) is derived from the pharyngeal (brachial) arches (see p. 61). The neurocranium (cranial vault) is divided into membranous and cartilaginous parts based on ossification. The cartilaginous neurocranium (endochondral ossification) forms the skull base. Embryonic origins Cranium Ossification Adult bone V N I E Paraxial mesoderm Nm I Occipital bone (upper portion) Nc E Occipital bone (lower portion) Nm I Parietal bone Nm E Temporal bone (petrous part) Nm E Temporal bone (mastoid process) Neural crest Nm I Temporal bone (squamous part) Nm I Frontal bone Nc E Sphenoid bone V I Sphenoid bone (pterygoid process) V E Ethmoid bone Nc E Ethmoid bone (cribriform plate) 1st branchial arch, V I Maxilla Neural crest, maxillary process pharyngeal V I Nasal bone (branchial) arches V I Lacrimal bone V I Vomer V I Palatine bone V I Zygomatic bone V I Temporal bone (tympanic part) V E Inferior nasal turbinate V I Mandible 1st branchial arch, mandibular V E Malleus process V E Incus 2nd branchial arch V E Stapes V E Temporal bone (styloid process) V E Hyoid bone (superior part, lesser cornu) 3rd branchial arch V E Hyoid bone (inferior part, greater cornu) V = viscerocranium; N = neurocranium; Nm = neurocranium (membranous); Nc = neurocranium (cartilaginous); I = intramembranous; E = endochondral. Note: Tubular (long) bones undergo endochondral ossification. The clavicle is the only exception. Congenital defects of intramembranous ossification therefore affect both the skull and clavicle (cleidocranial dysostosis).
2
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Anterior fontanelle Anterior fontanelle
Coronal suture Sphenoid (anterolateral) fontanelle
Posterior fontanelle
Frontal suture
Lambdoid suture
Coronal suture
Mastoid (posterolateral) fontanelle
A
Fig. 1.3 Cranial sutures (craniosynostoses) and fontanelles A Left lateral view of neonatal skull. B Superior view of neonatal skull. The flat cranial bones grow as the brain expands; thus the sutures between them remain open after birth. In the neonate, there are six areas
Pterion
Sagittal suture Posterior fontanelle
B
(fontanelles) between the still-growing cranial bones that are occupied by unossified fibrous membrane. The posterior fontanelle provides a reference point for describing the position of the fetal head during childbirth. The anterior fontanelle provides access for drawing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples in infants (e.g., in suspected meningitis).
Coronal suture
Coronal suture Sagittal suture
Sphenofrontal suture
Squamous suture Lambdoid suture Lambdoid suture
Lambda
Asterion
B
Bregma
Sphenosquamous suture
A
Fig. 1.4 Sutures in the adult skull A Left lateral view. B Superior view. Synostosis (the fusion of the cranial bones along the sutures) occurs during adulthood. Although the exact times of closure vary,
the order (sagittal, coronal, lambdoid) does not. Closure of each fontanelle yields a particular junction (see Table 1.2). Premature closure of the cranial sutures produces characteristic deformities (see Fig. 1.14, p. 9).
Table 1.2 Closure of sutures and fontanelles Fontanelle
Age at closure
Suture
Age at ossification
1 Posterior fontanelle
2–3 months (lambda)
Frontal suture
Childhood
2 Sphenoid (anterolateral) fontanelles
6 months (pterion)
Sagittal suture
20–30 years old
2 Mastoid fontanelles
18 months (asterion)
Coronal suture
30–40 years old
1 Anterior fontanelle
36 months (bregma)
Lambdoid suture
40–50 years old
3
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Skull: Lateral View Coronal suture
Pterion Frontal bone
Squamous suture Parietal bone
Sphenoparietal suture
Sphenofrontal suture
Sphenosquamous suture Supraorbital foramen Sphenoid bone, greater wing Ethmoid bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone
Infraorbital foramen Anterior nasal spine Maxilla Lambdoid suture
Styloid process Articular tubercle Postglenoid tubercle
Mandible Zygomatic arch
Mental protuberance
Zygomatic bone Mental foramen
Fig. 1.5 Lateral view of the skull (cranium) Left lateral view. This view displays the greatest number of cranial bones (indicated by different colors in Fig. 1.6). The individual bones and their salient features are described in the pages that follow. The teeth are described on pp. 180–189.
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Mastoid process External acoustic meatus
Mastoid foramen Tympanomastoid fissure
Asterion
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Temporal bone, squamous part Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Ethmoid bone Lacrimal bone Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla Occipital bone Temporal bone, petromastoid part Mandible
Temporal bone, styloid process
Temporal bone, tympanic part
Fig. 1.6 Cranial bones: overview Left lateral view. Table 1.3 Bones of the skull The cranial bones are shown within the skull and some are also shown individually (see referenced pages; boldface page numbers are for bones shown individually). Bone
Page
Bone
Page
Frontal bone
5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 108, 142
Temporal bone: • Squamous part • Petrous part • Tympanic part • Styloid part
5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 18, 19
Nasal bone
5, 7, 11, 108, 142
Occipital bone
5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 20
Lacrimal bone
5, 108, 142
Parietal bone
5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14
Ethmoid bone
5, 7, 14, 21, 108, 142, 190
Sphenoid bone: • Greater wing • Lesser wing • Pterygoid process
5, 7, 9, 14, 16, 17, 108, 142, 190
Maxilla
5, 7, 9, 12, 108, 142, 190
Vomer
9, 12, 142, 190
Palatine bone
9, 12, 108, 142, 190
Inferior nasal concha
7, 12, 142, 190
Zygomatic bone
5, 7, 12, 108
Hyoid bone
23
Mandible
5, 7, 9, 22
5
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Skull: Anterior View
Nasion
Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Frontal incisure
Supraorbital foramen
Supraorbital margin Nasal bone
Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing
Temporal bone Orbit
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate
Sphenoid bone, greater wing Zygomatic (malar) bone
Infraorbital margin Ethmoid bone, middle nasal concha
Piriform (anterior nasal) aperture Maxilla
Vomer Inferior nasal concha
Infraorbital foramen
Anterior nasal spine Intermaxillary suture
Mandible
Fig. 1.7 Anterior view of the skull The boundaries of the facial skeleton (viscerocranium) can be clearly appreciated in this view (the individual bones are shown in Fig. 1.8). The bony margins of the anterior nasal aperture mark the start of the respiratory tract in the skull. The nasal cavity, like the orbits, contains a
Teeth
Mental foramen
sensory organ (the olfactory mucosa). The paranasal sinuses are shown schematically in Fig. 1.9. The anterior view of the skull also displays the three clinically important openings through which sensory nerves pass to supply the face: the supraorbital foramen, infraorbital foramen, and mental foramen.
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Head
1. Cranial Bones
Frontal sinus
Frontal bone Parietal bone
Nasal bone Ethmoid bone, middle nasal concha
Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Ethmoid cells
Temporal bone
Sphenoid sinus
Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Maxillary sinus
Zygomatic bone
Inferior nasal concha
Nasal cavity
Maxilla
Mandible
Fig. 1.8 Cranial bones, anterior view
Frontonasal pillar
Vertical zygomatic pillar
Fig. 1.9 Paranasal sinuses Anterior view. Some of the bones of the facial skeleton are pneumatized; that is, they contain air-filled cavities that reduce the total weight of the bone. These cavities, called the paranasal sinuses, communicate with the nasal cavity and, like it, are lined by ciliated respiratory epithelium. Inflammations of the paranasal sinuses (sinusitis) and associated complaints are very common. Because some of the pain of sinusitis is projected to the skin overlying the sinuses, it is helpful to know the projections of the sinuses onto the surface of the skull.
Horizontal zygomatic pillar
A
Frontonasal pillar Vertical zygomatic pillar
B
I Horizontal zygomatic pillar
Fig. 1.10 Principal lines of force (blue) in the facial skeleton A Anterior view. B Lateral view. The pneumatized paranasal sinuses (Fig. 1.9) have a mechanical counterpart in the thickened bony “pillars” of the facial skeleton, which partially bound the sinuses. These pillars develop along the principal lines of force in response to local mechanical stresses (e.g., masticatory pressures). In visual terms, the framelike construction of the facial skeleton may be likened to that of a frame house: the paranasal sinuses represent the rooms, and the pillars (placed along major lines of force) represent the supporting columns.
II
III
Fig. 1.11 Le Fort classification of midfacial fractures The framelike construction of the facial skeleton leads to characteristic patterns of fracture lines in the midfacial region (Le Fort I, II, and III). Le Fort I: This fracture line runs across the maxilla and above the hard palate. The maxilla is separated from the upper facial skeleton, disrupting the integrity of the maxillary sinus (low transverse fracture). Le Fort II: The fracture line passes across the nasal root, ethmoid bone, maxilla, and zygomatic bone, creating a pyramid fracture that disrupts the integrity of the orbit. Le Fort III: The facial skeleton is separated from the base of the skull. The main fracture line passes through the orbits, and the fracture may additionally involve the ethmoid bones, frontal sinuses, sphenoid sinuses, and zygomatic bones.
7
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Skull: Posterior View & Cranial Sutures
Parietal foramina
Lambda Sagittal suture
Parietal bone
Lambdoid suture Occipital plane Temporal bone, squamous part
Supreme nuchal line
Temporal bone, petrous part
Asterion Superior nuchal line
External occipital protuberance
Median nuchal line (external occipital crest)
Mastoid foramina Mastoid notch
Inferior nuchal line
Temporal bone, mastoid process
Vomer Occipital condyle
Temporal bone, styloid process
Palatine bone
Sphenoid bone, pterygoid process
Mandibular foramen
Mylohyoid groove Maxilla, palatine process
Incisive foramen
Mandible
Teeth Mylohyoid line
Digastric fossa
Fig. 1.12 Posterior view of the skull The occipital bone, which is dominant in this view, articulates with the parietal bones, to which it is connected by the lambdoid suture. Wormian (sutural) bones are isolated bone plates often found in the lambdoid suture. The cranial sutures are a special type of syndesmosis
8
Genial (mental) spines
(i.e., ligamentous attachments that ossify with age). The outer surface of the occipital bone is contoured by muscular origins and insertions: the inferior, superior, median, and supreme nuchal lines.
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Temporal bone, squamous part
Temporal bone, petromastoid part
Vomer
Sphenoid bone
Palatine bone
Maxilla Mandible
Fig. 1.13 Posterior view of the cranial bones
A
B
C
D
Fig. 1.14 Premature closure of cranial sutures The premature closure of a cranial suture (craniosynostosis) may lead to characteristic cranial deformities: A B C D
Sagittal suture: scaphocephaly (long, narrow skull). Coronal suture: oxycephaly (pointed skull). Frontal suture: trigonocephaly (triangular skull). Asymmetrical suture closure, usually involving the coronal suture: plagiocephaly (asymmetric skull).
A
B
Fig. 1.15 Hydrocephalus and microcephaly A Hydrocephalus: When the brain becomes dilated due to CSF accumulation before the cranial sutures ossify, the neurocranium will expand, whereas the facial skeleton remains unchanged. B Microcephaly: Premature closure of the cranial sutures results in a small neurocranium with relatively large orbits.
9
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Calvaria Nasal bone Bregma
Frontal bone
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Frontal crest
Frontal sinus Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Sagittal suture
Superior and inferior temporal lines A
Parietal foramen
Occipital bone
Lambdoid suture Meningeal grooves Parietal bone
Granular foveolae
Fig. 1.16 Exterior (A) and interior (B) of the calvaria The external surface of the calvaria (A) is relatively smooth, unlike its internal surface (B). It is defined by the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones, which are interconnected by the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures. The smooth external surface is interrupted by the parietal foramina, which gives passage to the parietal emissary veins (see Fig. 1.21). The internal surface of the calvaria bears a number of pits and grooves: • Granular foveolae (small pits in the inner surface of the skull caused by saccular protrusions of the arachnoid membrane [arachnoid granulations] covering the brain) • Groove for the superior sagittal sinus (a dural venous sinus of the brain, see Fig. 1.21 and Fig. 3.21, p. 53)
10
B Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Parietal foramen
• Arterial grooves (which mark the positions of the arterial vessels of the dura mater, such as the middle meningeal artery, which supplies most of the dura mater and overlying bone) • Frontal crest (which gives attachment to the falx cerebri, a sickleshaped fold of dura mater between the cerebral hemispheres).
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Nasal bone Diploic veins
Emissary vein Endosteal layer of dura mater
Frontal bone
Scalp Outer table Diploë Dural sinus
Inner table Dura mater
Parietal bone
Meningeal layer of dura mater Falx cerebri
Occipital bone
Fig. 1.17 Exterior of the calvaria viewed from above
Fig. 1.18 The scalp and calvaria The three-layered calvaria consists of the outer table, the diploë, and the inner table. The diploë has a spongy structure and contains red (blood-forming) bone marrow. With a plasmacytoma (malignant transformation of certain white blood cells), many small nests of tumor cells may destroy the surrounding bony trabeculae, and radiographs will demonstrate multiple lucent areas (“punched-out lesions”) in the skull.
Fig. 1.19 Sensitivity of the inner table to trauma The inner table of the calvaria is very sensitive to external trauma and may fracture even when the outer table remains intact (look for corresponding evidence on CT images).
Superior sagittal sinus Parietal emissary vein and foramen
Anterior temporal diploic vein Frontal diploic vein
Posterior temporal diploic vein
Confluence of the sinuses Transverse sinus
Occipital emissary vein and foramen
Sigmoid sinus
Mastoid emissary vein and foramen
Occipital diploic vein
Condylar emissary vein External vertebral venous plexus
Fig. 1.20 Diploic veins in the calvaria The diploic veins are located in the cancellous or spongy tissue of the cranial bones (the diploë) and are visible when the outer table is removed. The diploic veins communicate with the dural venous sinuses and scalp veins by way of the emissary veins, which create a potential route for the spread of infection.
Fig. 1.21 Emissary veins of the occiput Emissary veins establish a direct connection between the dural venous sinuses and the extracranial veins. They pass through cranial openings such as the parietal foramen and mastoid foramen. The emissary veins are of clinical interest because they may allow bacteria from the scalp to enter the skull along these veins and infect the dura mater, causing meningitis.
11
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Skull Base: External View Median palatine suture
Teeth
Transverse palatine suture
Palatine process Maxilla Zygomatic process Zygomatic bone
Palatine bone
Frontal bone
Inferior nasal concha
Sphenoid bone
Vomer
Temporal bone, zygomatic process
Lateral and medial plates, pterygoid process
Temporal bone, squamous part
Spheno-occipital synchrondrosis
Temporal bone, tympanic part Temporal bone, petrous part, mastoid part
Foramen magnum
Occipital bone Parietal bone
Fig. 1.22 Bones of the base of the skull Inferior view. The base of the skull is composed of a mosaic-like assembly of various bones. Cavernous sinus
Fig. 1.23 Relationship of the foramen lacerum to the carotid canal and internal carotid artery Left lateral view. The foramen lacerum is not a true aperture, being mostly occluded in life by a layer of fibrocartilage; it appears as an opening only in the dried skull. The foramen lacerum is closely related to the carotid canal and to the internal carotid artery that traverses the canal. The greater petrosal nerve and deep petrosal nerve pass across the superior surface of the foramen lacerum (see pp. 85, 94).
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Middle cranial fossa
Carotid canal Temporal bone, petrous part
Fibrocartilage Sphenoid sinus Foramen lacerum
Internal carotid artery
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Incisive foramen (canal) Posterior nasal spine
Palatine bone
Choana
Greater palatine foramen
Zygomatic bone, temporal surface
Lesser palatine foramen
Inferior orbital fissure
Infratemporal crest Zygomatic arch
Scaphoid fossa Sphenoidal foramen
Hamulus Pharyngeal canal
Foramen ovale
Vomerovaginal canal
Foramen spinosum
Pharyngeal tubercle
Foramen lacerum Petrotympanic fissure
Mandibular fossa
Carotid canal
Occipital condyle
Jugular foramen
Mastoid process
Stylomastoid foramen
Mastoid incisure (Posterior) condylar canal
Hypoglossal (anterior condylar) canal
Mastoid foramen
Foramen magnum Inferior nuchal line
Median nuchal line
Superior nuchal line
Supreme nuchal line
Fig. 1.24 The basal aspect of the skull Inferior view. Note the openings that transmit nerves and vessels. With abnormalities of bone growth, these openings may remain too small or may become narrowed, compressing the neurovascular structures that
External occipital protuberance
pass through them. The symptoms associated with these lesions depend on the affected opening. All of the structures depicted here will be considered in more detail in subsequent pages.
13
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Skull Base: Internal View
Frontal bone
Anterior cranial fossa
Ethmoid bone Jugum sphenoidale
Sphenoid bone Temporal bone, squamous part Temporal bone, petromastoid part
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing
Dorsum sellae
Middle cranial fossa
Foramen magnum
Petrous ridge (crest)
Posterior cranial fossa
Occipital bone A
Anterior cranial fossa
Fig. 1.25 Bones of the base of the skull, internal view
Frontonasal pillar Anterior transverse pillar Pterygoid pillar Midlongitudinal pillar
A
B
14
Vertical zygomatic pillar Horizontal zygomatic pillar
Posterior transverse pillar
B
Middle cranial fossa
Posterior cranial fossa
Foramen magnum
Fig. 1.26 The cranial fossae A Interior view. B Midsagittal section. The interior of the skull base is deepened to form three successive fossae: the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae. These depressions become progressively deeper in the frontal-to-occipital direction, forming a terraced arrangement that is displayed most clearly in B. The cranial fossae are bounded by the following structures: • Anterior to middle: lesser wings of the sphenoid bone and the jugum sphenoidale • Middle to posterior: superior border (ridge) of the petrous part of the temporal bone and the dorsum sellae
Fig. 1.27 Base of the skull: principal lines of force and common fracture lines A Principal lines of force. B Common fracture lines (interior views). In response to masticatory pressures and other mechanical stresses, the bones of the skull base are thickened to form “pillars” along the principal lines of force (compare with the force distribution in the anterior view on p. 7). The intervening areas that are not thickened are sites of predilection for bone fractures, resulting in the typical patterns of basal skull fracture lines shown here. An analogous phenomenon of typical fracture lines is found in the midfacial region (see the anterior views of Le Fort fractures on p. 7).
Head
Ethmoid bone, cribriform plate
Frontal crest
1. Cranial Bones
Frontal sinus
Chiasmatic groove
Optic canal Anterior clinoid process Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum Arterial groove Foramen lacerum Clivus Petro-occipital fissure Hypoglossal canal
Ethmoid bone, crista galli Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing Sphenoid bone, greater wing Sphenoid bone, hypophyseal fossa Posterior clinoid process Temporal bone, petrous part Internal acoustic meatus Jugular foramen
Groove for sigmoid sinus
Foramen magnum Cerebellar fossa Internal occipital crest
Groove for transverse sinus
Internal occipital protuberance Cerebral fossa
Fig. 1.28 Interior of the base of the skull The openings in the interior of the base of the skull do not always coincide with the openings visible in the external view because some neurovascular structures change direction when passing through the bone or pursue a relatively long intraosseous course. An example of this is the internal acoustic meatus, through which the facial nerve, among other structures, passes from the interior of the skull into the petrous part of the temporal bone. Most of its fibers then leave the petrous bone through the stylomastoid foramen, which is visible from the external aspect (see Fig. 4.35, p. 83, and Fig. 4.53, p. 94 for further details).
located in the anterior, middle, or posterior cranial fossa. The arrangement of the cranial fossae is shown in Fig. 1.26. The cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone connects the nasal cavity with the anterior cranial fossa and is perforated by numerous foramina for the passage of the olfactory fibers (see Fig. 7.15, p. 148). Note: Because the bone is so thin in this area, a frontal head injury may easily fracture the cribriform plate and lacerate the dura mater, allowing CSF to enter the nose. This poses a risk of meningitis, as bacteria from the nonsterile nasal cavity may enter the sterile CSF.
In learning the sites where neurovascular structures pass through the base of the skull, it is helpful initially to note whether these sites are
15
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Sphenoid Bone
Palatine bone Sphenoid bone
Vomer
Occipital bone
Temporal bone
A
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Temporal bone
B Parietal bone
Fig. 1.29 Position of the sphenoid bone in the skull The sphenoid bone is the most structurally complex bone in the human body. It must be viewed from various aspects in order to appreciate all its features (see also Fig. 1.30): A Base of the skull, external aspect. The sphenoid bone combines with the occipital bone to form the load-bearing midline structure of the skull base. B Base of the skull, internal aspect. The lesser wing of the sphenoid bone forms the boundary between the anterior and middle cranial fossae. The openings for the passage of nerves and vessels are clearly displayed (see details in Fig. 1.30). C Lateral view. Portions of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone can be seen above the zygomatic arch, and portions of the pterygoid process can be seen below the zygomatic arch.
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone, greater wing
C
Fig. 1.30 Isolated sphenoid bone A Inferior view (its position in situ is shown in Fig. 1.29). This view demonstrates the medial and lateral plates of the pterygoid process. Between them is the pterygoid fossa, which is occupied by the medial pterygoid muscle. The foramen spinosum and foramen ovale provide pathways through the base of the skull (see also in C). B Anterior view. This view illustrates why the sphenoid bone was originally called the sphecoid bone (“wasp bone”) before a transcription error turned it into the sphenoid (“wedge-shaped”) bone. The apertures of the sphenoid sinus on each side resemble the eyes of the wasp, and the pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone form its dangling legs, between which are the pterygoid fossae. This view also displays the superior orbital fissure, which connects the middle cranial fossa with the orbit on each side. The two sphenoid sinuses are separated by an internal septum (see Fig. 7.11, p. 145).
16
Pterygoid process
Temporal bone
C Superior view. The superior view displays the sella turcica, whose central depression, the hypophyseal fossa, contains the pituitary gland. The foramen spinosum, foramen ovale, and foramen rotundum can be identified. D Posterior view. The superior orbital fissure is seen particularly clearly in this view, whereas the optic canal is almost completely obscured by the anterior clinoid process. The foramen rotundum is open from the middle cranial fossa to the pterygopalatine fossa of the skull (the foramen spinosum is not visible in this view; compare with A). Because the sphenoid and occipital bones fuse together during puberty (“tribasilar bone”), a suture is no longer present between the two bones. The cancellous trabeculae are exposed and have a porous appearance.
Head
Superior orbital fissure
Lesser wing
Sphenoid crest
1. Cranial Bones
Aperture of sphenoid sinus Greater wing Foramen rotundum
Greater wing
Medial plate Lateral plate Temporal surface
Pterygoid process
Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum
A
Pterygoid hamulus
Body
Pterygoid fossa Lesser wing
Sphenoid crest
Aperture of sphenoid sinus
Orbital surface
Greater wing
Temporal surface
Superior orbital fissure
Foramen rotundum
Pterygoid canal
B
Lesser wing
Medial plate
Pterygoid fossa
Optic canal
Lateral plate
Pterygoid hamulus
Jugum sphenoidale
Pterygoid process
Superior orbital fissure
Greater wing Chiasmic groove Foramen rotundum Foramen ovale
Anterior clinoid process
Foramen spinosum C
Sella turcica
Hypophyseal fossa
Posterior clinoid process Lesser wing
Optic canal
Posterior clinoid process Superior orbital fissure
Anterior clinoid process
Greater wing, cerebral surface Foramen rotundum
Pterygoid canal
Cancellous trabeculae
Foramen ovale D
Pterygoid fossa
Dorsum sellae
Medial plate Lateral plate
Pterygoid process
17
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Temporal Bone
Parietal bone
Fig. 1.31 Position of the temporal bone in the skull Left lateral view. The temporal bone is a major component of the base of the skull. It forms the capsule for the auditory and vestibular apparatus and bears the articular fossa of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
Temporal bone Occipital bone
Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone, greater wing Petrous pyramid
Mandibular fossa Squamous part
Styloid process
Squamous part
Tympanic part Tympanic part
Petromastoid part
Petromastoid part
Styloid process B
A
Fig. 1.32 Ossification centers of the left temporal bone A Left lateral view. B Inferior view. The temporal bone develops from four centers that fuse to form a single bone: • The squamous part, or temporal squama (light green), bears the articular fossa of the TMJ (mandibular fossa).
Chorda tympani
Facial nerve
Tympanic membrane Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Internal carotid artery Internal jugular vein
18
Mastoid process
Mastoid air cells
• The petromastoid part (pale green) contains the auditory and vestibular apparatus. • The tympanic part (darker green) forms large portions of the external auditory canal. • The styloid part (styloid process) develops from cartilage derived from the second branchial arch. It is a site of muscle attachment.
Fig. 1.33 Projection of clinically important structures onto the left temporal bone The tympanic membrane is shown translucent in this lateral view. Because the petrous bone contains the middle and inner ear and the tympanic membrane, a knowledge of its anatomy is of key importance in otological surgery. The internal surface of the petrous bone has openings (see Fig. 1.34) for the passage of the facial nerve, internal carotid artery, and internal jugular vein. A fine nerve, the chorda tympani, passes through the tympanic cavity and lies medial to the tympanic membrane. The chorda tympani arises from the facial nerve, which is susceptible to injury during surgical procedures (see Table 4.22, p. 82, and Fig. 4.34, p. 83). The mastoid process of the petrous bone forms air-filled chambers, the mastoid cells, that vary greatly in size. Because these chambers communicate with the middle ear, which in turn communicates with the nasopharynx via the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube (also called eustachian tube), bacteria in the nasopharynx may pass up the pharyngotympanic tube and gain access to the middle ear. From there they may pass to the mastoid air cells and finally enter the cranial cavity, causing meningitis.
Head
1. Cranial Bones
Postglenoid tubercle
Zygomatic process
Temporal surface
External acoustic opening Articular tubercle
Mastoid foramen
Mandibular fossa
External acoustic meatus
Petrotympanic fissure
Tympanomastoid fissure Styloid process
A
Zygomatic process
Tympanic canaliculus
Mastoid process
Articular tubercle Mandibular fossa
Arcuate eminence
Groove for middle meningeal arteries
Carotid canal
External acoustic opening
Styloid process
Petrous ridge (groove for superior petrosal sinus)
Mastoid process
Jugular fossa Mastoid canaliculus
Mastoid notch
Stylomastoid foramen Occipital groove
Mastoid foramen
Aqueduct of the vestibule B Zygomatic process Internal acoustic meatus Mastoid foramen
C
Petrous apex Groove for sigmoid sinus
Styloid process
Fig. 1.34 Left temporal bone A Lateral view. An emissary vein passes through the mastoid foramen H[WHUQDO RULÀFH VKRZQ LQ A LQWHUQDO RULÀFH LQ C DQG WKH FKRUGD W\PSDQL SDVVHV WKURXJK WKH PHGLDO SDUW RI WKH SHWURW\PSDQLF ÀVsure (see Fig. 4.35S 7KHPDVWRLGSURFHVVGHYHORSVJUDGXDOO\ LQ OLIH GXH WR WUDFWLRQ IURP WKH VWHUQRFOHLGRPDVWRLG PXVFOH DQG LV pneumatized from the inside (see Fig. 1.33). B Inferior view.7KHVKDOORZDUWLFXODUIRVVDRIWKHWHPSRURPDQGLEXODU MRLQWWKHPDQGLEXODUIRVVD LVFOHDUO\VHHQIURPWKHLQIHULRUYLHZ7KH IDFLDO QHUYH HPHUJHV IURP WKH EDVH RI WKH VNXOO WKURXJK WKH VW\OR
PDVWRLGIRUDPHQ7KHLQLWLDOSDUWRIWKHVXSHULRUMXJXODUEXOELVDGKHUHQW WR WKH MXJXODU IRVVD DQG WKH LQWHUQDO FDURWLG DUWHU\ SDVVHV WKURXJKWKHFDURWLGFDQDOWRHQWHUWKHVNXOO C Medial view. 7KLV YLHZ GLVSOD\V WKH LQWHUQDO RULÀFH RI WKH PDVWRLG I RUDPHQDQGWKHLQWHUQDODFRXVWLFPHDWXV7KHIDFLDOQHUYHDQGYHVWLEXORFRFKOHDU QHUYH DUH DPRQJ WKH VWUXFWXUHV WKDW SDVV WKURXJK WKHLQWHUQDOPHDWXVWRHQWHUWKHSHWURXVERQH7KHSDUWRIWKHSHWURXV ERQH VKRZQ KHUH LV DOVR FDOOHG WKH petrous pyramid ZKRVH DSH[RIWHQFDOOHGWKH´SHWURXVDSH[µ OLHVRQWKHLQWHULRURIWKHEDVH RIWKHVNXOO
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Head
1. Cranial Bones
Occipital Bone & Ethmoid Bones
Occipital squama
Hypoglossal canal (anterior condylar) Foramen magnum
Fig. 1.35 Integration of the occipital bone into the external base of the skull Inferior view. B
Jugular notch
Posterior condylar canal Jugular process
Basilar part
Hypoglossal (anterior condylar) canal
Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Pharyngeal tubercle
(Posterior) condylar canal
Internal occipital crest
Inferior nuchal line
Posterior condylar canal
Foramen magnum
Superior nuchal line
External occipital protuberance
Supreme nuchal line
Fig. 1.36 Isolated occipital bone A Inferior view. This view shows the basilar part of the occipital bone, whose anterior portion is fused to the sphenoid bone. The condylar canal terminates posterior to the occipital condyles, and the hypoglossal canal passes superior and opens anterior to the occipital condyles. The condylar canal is a venous channel that begins in the sigmoid sinus and ends in the occipital vein. The hypoglossal canal contains a venous plexus in addition to the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII). The pharyngeal tubercle gives attachment to the pharyngeal raphe, and the external occipital protuberance provides a palpable bony landmark on the occiput.
20
Groove for transverse sinus
Cruciform eminence
External occipital crest (median nuchal line)
A
Internal occipital protuberance
Occipital condyle
Foramen magnum
Jugular process C
Basilar part
B Left lateral view. The extent of the occipital squama, which lies above the foramen magnum, is clearly appreciated in this view. The internal openings of the condylar canal and hypoglossal canal are visible along with the jugular process, which forms part of the wall of the jugular foramen (see p. 13). C Internal surface. The grooves for the dural venous sinuses of the brain can be identified in this view. The cruciform eminence overlies the confluence of the superior sagittal sinus and transverse sinuses. The configuration of the eminence shows that in some cases the sagittal sinus drains predominantly into the left transverse sinus.
Head
Fig. 1.37 Integration of the ethmoid bone into the internal base of the skull Superior view. The superior part of the ethmoid bone forms part of the anterior cranial fossa, and its inferior portions contribute structurally to the nasal cavities and orbit. The ethmoid bone is bordered by the frontal and sphenoid bones.
1. Cranial Bones
Fig. 1.38 Integration of the ethmoid bone into the facial skeleton Anterior view. The ethmoid bone is the central bone of the nose and paranasal sinuses. It also forms the medial wall of each orbit.
Perpendicular plate
Crista galli
Crista galli Cribriform plate
Ethmoid air cells
Orbital plate
A
Crista galli
B Anterior ethmoid foramen
Ethmoid air cells
Orbital plate
Superior meatus
Middle concha
Crista galli
Posterior ethmoid foramen
Ethmoid air cells
Perpendicular plate
Orbital plate Superior concha
Ethmoid bulla Perpendicular plate
Middle concha C
Fig. 1.39 Isolated ethmoid bone A Superior view. This view demonstrates the crista galli, which gives attachment to the falx cerebri and the horizontally directed cribriform plate. The cribriform plate is perforated by foramina through which the olfactory fibers pass from the nasal cavity into the anterior cranial fossa (see Fig. 7.15, p. 148). With its numerous foramina, the cribriform plate is a mechanically weak structure that fractures easily in response to trauma. This type of fracture is manifested clinically by CSF leakage from the nose (“runny nose” in a patient with head injury). B Anterior view. The anterior view displays the midline structure that separates the two nasal cavities: the perpendicular plate. Note also the middle concha, which is part of the ethmoid bone (of the conchae, only the inferior concha is a separate bone), and the ethmoid cells, which are clustered on both sides of the middle conchae.
Ethmoid infundibulum
Uncinate process
D
Middle concha
Perpendicular plate
C Left lateral view. Viewing the bone from the left side, we observe the perpendicular plate and the opened anterior ethmoid cells. The orbit is separated from the ethmoid cells by a thin sheet of bone called the orbital plate. D Posterior view. This is the only view that displays the uncinate process, which is almost completely covered by the middle concha when in situ. It partially occludes the entrance to the maxillary sinus, the semilunar hiatus, and it is an important landmark during endoscopic surgery of the maxillary sinus. The narrow depression between the middle concha and uncinate process is called the ethmoid infundibulum. The frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, and anterior ethmoid air cells open into this “funnel.” The superior concha is located at the posterior end of the ethmoid bone.
21
1. Cranial Bones
Head
Mandible & Hyoid Bone
Head of mandible
Pterygoid fovea
Neck of mandible
Coronoid process Oblique line Ramus of mandible
Head of mandible
Alveolar part of mandible Mental foramen
Alveoli (tooth sockets)
Coronoid process Lingula
A
Mental protuberance
Body of mandible
Mandibular notch Coronoid process
Mandibular foramen Mylohyoid groove Head of condyle Pterygoid fovea Condylar process
Sublingual fossa
Submandibular fossa
Mandibular foramen
B
Lingula
Superior and inferior genial spines
Digastric fossa
Mylohyoid line
Ramus of mandible Alveolar part Mental tubercle
C
Angle
Mental foramen
Body of mandible
Oblique line
Fig. 1.40 Mandible A Anterior view. The mandible is connected to the viscerocranium at the temporomandibular joint, whose convex surface is the head of the mandibular condyle. This “head of the mandible” is situated atop the vertical (ascending) ramus of the mandible, which joins with the body of the mandible at the mandibular angle. The teeth are set in the alveolar processes (alveolar part) along the upper border of the mandibular body. This part of the mandible is subject to typical agerelated changes as a result of dental development (see Fig. 1.41). The mental branch of the trigeminal nerve exits through the mental foramen. The location of this foramen is important in clinical examinations, as the tenderness of the nerve to pressure can be tested at that location.
22
B Posterior view. The mandibular foramen is particularly well displayed in this view. It transmits the inferior alveolar nerve, which supplies sensory innervation to the mandibular teeth. Its terminal branch emerges from the mental foramen. The mandibular foramen and the mental foramen are interconnected by the mandibular canal. C Oblique left lateral view. This view displays the coronoid process, the condylar process, and the mandibular notch between them. The coronoid process is a site for muscular attachments, and the condylar process bears the head of the mandible, which articulates with the articular disk in the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone. A depression on the medial side of the condylar process, the pterygoid fovea, gives attachment to portions of the lateral pterygoid muscle.
Head
1. Cranial Bones
A
B
C
Fig. 1.41 Age-related changes in the mandible The structure of the mandible is greatly influenced by the alveolar processes of the teeth. Because the angle of the mandible adapts to changes in the alveolar process, the angle between the body and ramus also varies with age-related changes in the dentition. The angle measures approximately 150 degrees at birth and approximately 120 to 130 degrees in adults, decreasing to 140 degrees in the edentulous mandible of old age. A At birth the mandible is without teeth, and the alveolar part has not yet formed. B In children the mandible bears the deciduous teeth. The alveolar part is still relatively poorly developed because the deciduous teeth are considerably smaller than the permanent teeth.
Lesser horn
A
D
C In adults the mandible bears the permanent teeth, and the alveolar part of the bone is fully developed. D Old age is characterized by an edentulous mandible with resorption of the alveolar process. Note: The resorption of the alveolar process with advanced age leads to a change in the position of the mental foramen (which is normally located below the second premolar tooth, as in C). This change must be taken into account in surgery or dissections involving the mental nerve.
Greater horn
Lesser horn
B
Body
Greater horn
Body
Lesser horn
Greater horn
C
Fig. 1.42 Hyoid bone A Anterior view. B Posterior view. C Oblique left lateral view. The hyoid bone is suspended by muscles between the oral floor and larynx in the
neck. The greater horn and body of the hyoid bone are palpable in the neck. The physiological movement of the hyoid bone during swallowing is also palpable.
23
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of Facial Expression
Galea aponeurotica (epicranial aponeurosis)
Occipitofrontalis, frontal belly
Corrugator supercilii
Procerus Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
Orbicularis oculi
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi Levator labii superioris
Nasalis
Zygomaticus minor
Levator labii superioris
Zygomaticus major
Zygomaticus minor
Levator anguli oris
Zygomaticus major
Parotid duct and gland Buccinator Buccal fat pad
Levator anguli oris Risorius
Depressor anguli oris Platysma Depressor labii inferioris
Fig. 2.1 Superficial facial muscles: anterior view Anterior view. The superficial layer of muscles is shown on the right side of the face. Certain muscles have been cut on the left to expose deeper muscles. The muscles of facial expression are the superficial layer of muscles that arise either directly from the periosteum or from adjacent muscles and insert onto other facial muscles or directly into the connective tissue of the skin. Because of their cutaneous attachments, the muscles of facial expression are able to move the facial skin (an action that may be temporarily abolished by botulinum toxin in-
24
Masseter (muscle of mastication) Orbicularis oris Depressor anguli oris Depressor labii inferioris Mentalis
jection). They also serve a protective function (especially for the eyes) and are active during food ingestion (closing the mouth). The muscles of facial expression are innervated by branches of the facial nerve (CN VII). As these muscles terminate directly in the subcutaneous fat, and because the superficial body fascia is absent in the face, surgeons must be particularly careful when dissecting this region. The muscles of mastication lie deep to the muscles of facial expression. They control the movement of the mandible and are innervated by branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V).
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Galea aponeurotica Superior auricular muscle Occipitofrontalis, frontal belly
Temporoparietalis (variable) Orbicularis oculi Anterior auricular muscle Nasalis Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
Levator labii superioris Occipitofrontalis, occipital belly
Zygomaticus minor
Posterior auricular muscle
Orbicularis oris Zygomaticus major
Trapezius
Risorius
Sternocleidomastoid
Depressor labii inferioris Mentalis
Depressor anguli oris Platysma
Fig. 2.2 6XSHUÀFLDOIDFLDOPXVFOHVODWHUDOYLHZ Left lateral view. The galea aponeurotica is a tough tendinous sheet stretching over the calvaria; it is loosely attached to the periosteum. The muscles of the calvaria that arise from the galea aponeurotica (temporoparietalis and occipitofrontalis) are collectively known as the “epicranial muscles.” The occipitofrontalis has two bellies: frontal and RFFLSLWDO 7KH WUDSH]LXV DQG VWHUQRFOHLGRPDVWRLG PXVFOHV DUH VXSHUÀcial neck muscles.
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Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of Facial Expression: Calvaria, Ear & Eye
Galea aponeurotica
Epicranial aponeurosis
④ ②
① Orbicularis oculi
③
Procerus
Corrugator supercilii
A
B
Parotid gland
Fig. 2.3 Muscles of facial expression: calvaria and ear A Anterior view of calvaria. B Left lateral view of auricular muscles.
⑤
⑥
Orbicularis oculi, orbital part
⑦
Orbicularis oculi, orbital parts
Orbicularis oculi, palpebral parts
Orbicularis oculi, lacrimal part Posterior lacrimal crest
Zygomaticus major and minor
⑨
Alar cartilage
⑧
Levator labii superioris
A
Fig. 2.4 Muscles of facial expression: palpebral fissure and nose A Anterior view. The most functionally important muscle of this region is the orbicularis oculi, which closes the palpebral fissure (a protective reflex against foreign matter). As the orbicularis oculi closes the palpebral fissure, it does so by closing from lateral to medial, thus spreading lacrimal secretions across the cornea. If the action of the orbicularis oculi is lost because of facial nerve paralysis, the loss of this protective reflex will be accompanied by drying of the eye from prolonged exposure to the air. The function of the orbic-
26
Anterior lacrimal crest B
ularis oculi is tested by asking the patient to squeeze the eyelids tightly shut. B The orbicularis oculi has been dissected from the left orbit to the medial canthus of the eye and reflected anteriorly to demonstrate its lacrimal part (called the Horner muscle). This part of the orbicularis oculi arises mainly from the posterior lacrimal crest, and its action is a subject of debate (it may have a functional role in drainage of the lacrimal sac).
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Head
B
A
D
C
Fig. 2.5 Changes of facial expression: palpebral fissure and nose Anterior view. A Corrugator supercilii. B Orbicularis oculi. C Nasalis. D Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi.
Table 2.1 Muscles of facial expression: calvaria & ear, palbebral fissure & nose Muscle and parts
Origin
Insertion
I*
Main action(s)
Epicranial aponeurosis near coronal suture
Skin and subcutaneous tissue of eyebrows and forehead
T
Elevates eyebrows; wrinkles skin of forehead
T
Elevate ear
Calvaria and ear ① Occipitofrontalis, frontal belly
Auricularis muscles ②
Anterior
Temporal fascia (anterior portion)
Helix of the ear
• Pull ear superiorly and anteriorly
③
Posterior
Epicranial aponeurosis on side of head
Upper portion of auricle
• Elevate ear
④
Superior
Temporal fascia
Helix of the ear
Occipital bone (highest nuchal line) and temporal bone (mastoid part)
Epicranial aponeurosis near coronal suture
Occipitofrontalis, occipital belly
PA
• Pull ear superiorly and posteriorly Pulls scalp backwards
Palpebral fissure and nose ⑤
Orbicularis oculi
Whole muscle acts as orbital sphincter (closes eyelids) T/Z
• Voluntary closure of eyelids, furrowing of nose and eyebrows during squinting
• Orbital part
Medial orbital margin (frontal bone and maxilla) and medial palpebral ligament
Adjacent muscles (occipitofrontalis, corrugator supercilii, levator labii, etc.)
• Palpebral part
Medial palpebral ligament
Eyelids (as lateral palpebral raphe)
• Voluntary (sleeping) and involuntary closure (blinking) of eyelids
• Lacrimal part
Lacrimal crest
Tarsi of eyelids, lateral palpebral raphe
• Pulls eyelids medially
⑥
Procerus
Fascial aponeurosis of lower nasal bone
Skin between eyebrows
T/Z
Pulls eyebrows medially and inferiorly (frowning)
⑦
Corrugator supercilii
Bone of superciliary arch (medial end)
Skin above supraorbital margin
T
Acts with orbicularis oculi to pull eyebrows medially and inferiorly (during squinting)
⑧
Nasalis Maxilla
Aponeurosis at bridge of nose
B/Z
• Compresses nasal aperture (compressor naris)
• Transverse part • Alar part ⑨ Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
Ala nasi Frontal process of maxilla
Greater alar cartilage and orbital muscles (levator labii superioris and orbicularis oris)
• Widens nasal aperture (flares nostril) by drawing ala toward nasal septum B/Z
Elevates upper lip, increases the curvature of the nasolabial furrow, dilates nostril
* Innervation: The muscles of facial expression are innervated by six branches of the facial nerve (CN VII). The posterior muscles are innervated by the posterior auricular (PA) nerve, which arises before the facial nerve enters the parotid gland (see p. 84). The anterior muscles are innervated by five branches off the parotid plexus of the facial nerve: temporal (T), zygomatic (Z), buccal (B), mandibular (M), and cervical (C).
27
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of Facial Expression: Mouth ④
Orbicularis oculi
③ Levator anguli oris
Lateral pterygoid Temporomandibular joint
①
② Orbicularis oris Risorius
Masseter (muscle of mastication)
Masseter (cut)
⑤ B
A
Mentalis
Temporalis (cut) (muscle of mastication)
⑥
Levator labii superioris
Lateral pterygoid (muscle of mastication) Orbicularis oris
Medial pterygoid (muscle of mastication) Mandibular ramus (cut)
Depressor labii inferioris Mentalis
C
Depressor anguli oris
⑧
Masseter (cut) D
Depressor labii inferioris
⑦
Zygomaticus minor Zygomaticus major
Buccinator
Zygomaticus minor (cut) Levator labii superioris
Zygomaticus major (cut)
Parotid duct Levator anguli oris
Fig. 2.6 Muscles of facial expression: mouth Left lateral view. A Zygomaticus major and minor. B Levator labii superioris and depressor labii inferioris (exposed by removal of the depressor anguli oris). C Buccinator. D Levator anguli oris and depressor anguli oris. E Anterior view.
28
Levator anguli oris (cut) Buccinator
⑩
Masseter
Platysma
⑨
Depressor anguli oris E
Depressor anguli oris (cut) Depressor labii inferioris
⑪
Depressor labii inferioris (cut)
Head
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Fig. 2.7 Changes of facial expression: mouth Anterior view. A Orbicularis oris. B Buccinator. C Zygomaticus major. D Risorius. E Levator anguli oris. F Depressor anguli oris. G Depressor labii inferioris. H Mentalis.
Table 2.2 Muscles of facial expression: mouth Muscle ①
Zygomaticus major
②
Zygomaticus minor
Origin
Insertion
I*
Main action(s)
Zygomatic bone (lateral surface, posterior part)
Muscles at the angle of the mouth
Z
Pulls corner of mouth superiorly and laterally
Upper lip just medial to corner of the mouth
Pulls upper lip superiorly
③ Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi (see Fig. 2.1)
Maxilla (frontal process)
Upper lip and alar cartilage of nose
Levator labii superioris
Maxilla (frontal process) and infraorbital margin
Skin of upper lip
Mandible (anterior portion of oblique line)
Lower lip at midline; blends with muscle from opposite side
M
Pulls lower lip inferiorly and laterally, also contributes to eversion (pouting)
④
⑤ Depressor labii inferioris
B/Z
Elevates upper lip; flares nostril Elevates upper lip
⑥
Levator anguli oris
Maxilla (canine fossa, below infraorbital foramen)
Muscles at the angle of mouth
B/Z
Raises angle of mouth; helps form nasolabial furrow
⑦
Depressor anguli oris
Mandible (oblique line below canine, premolar, and 1st molar teeth)
Skin at corner of mouth; blends with orbicularis oris
B/M
Pulls angle of mouth inferiorly and laterally
⑧
Buccinator
Alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible (by molars); pterygomandibular raphe
Lips, orbicularis oris, submucosa of lips and cheek
B
• Suckling in nursing infant • Presses cheek against molar teeth, working with tongue to keep food between occlusal surfaces and out of oral vestibule; expels air from oral cavity/resists distention when blowing Unilateral: draws mouth to one side
⑨
Orbicularis oris
Deep surface of skin Superiorly: Maxilla (median plane) Inferiorly: Mandible
Mucous membrane of lips
B/M
Acts as oral sphincter • Compresses and protrudes lip (e.g., whistling, sucking, kissing) • Resists distention (when blowing)
⑩
Risorius
Fascia and superficial muscles over masseter
Skin of corner of mouth
B
Retracts corner of mouth as in smiling, laughing, grimacing
⑪
Mentalis
Frenulum of lower lip
Skin of chin
M
Elevates and protrudes lower lip (drinking)
Skin over lower neck and upper lateral thorax
Mandible (inferior border); skin over lower face; angle of mouth
C
Depresses and wrinkles skin of lower face and mouth; tenses skin of neck; aids in forced depression of the mandible
Platysma
* Innervation: The muscles of facial expression are innervated by six branches of the facial nerve (CN VII). The posterior muscles are innervated by the posterior auricular (PA) nerve, which arises before the facial nerve enters the parotid gland (see p. 84). The anterior muscles are innervated by five branches off the parotid plexus of the facial nerve: temporal (T), zygomatic (Z), buccal (B), mandibular (M), and cervical (C).
29
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of Mastication: Overview The muscles of mastication are located at various depths in the parotid and infratemporal regions of the face. They attach to the mandible and
receive their motor innervation from the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3).
Table 2.3 Masseter and temporalis muscles Muscle
Masseter
Origin
Insertion
Innervation*
Action
①
Superficial head
Zygomatic bone (maxillary process) and zygomatic arch (lateral aspect of anterior ⅔)
Mandibular angle and ramus (inferior lateral surface)
Masseteric n. (anterior division of CN V3)
Elevates mandible; also assists in protraction, retraction, and side-to-side motion
Middle head
Zygomatic arch (medial aspect of anterior ⅔)
Mandibular ramus (central part of occlusal surface)
Zygomatic arch (deep surface of posterior ⅓)
Mandibular ramus (superior lateral surface) and inferior coronoid process
Temporal fascia
Coronoid process of mandible (apex, medial surface, and anterior surface of mandibular ramus)
Deep temporal nn. (anterior division of CN V3)
Vertical (anterior) fibers: Elevate mandible Horizontal (posterior) fibers: Retract (retrude) mandible Unilateral: Lateral movement of mandible (chewing)
②
Temporalis
Deep head
Superficial head ③
④
Deep head
Temporal fossa (inferior temporal line)
* The muscles of mastication are innervated by motor branches of the mandibular nerve (CN V3), the 3rd division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V).
⑤
④ ③
⑥ ⑦
① ② ⑧
Fig. 2.8 Masseter
Fig. 2.9 Temporalis
Fig. 2.10 Pterygoids
Table 2.4 Lateral and medial pterygoid muscles Muscle
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
⑤
Superior (upper) head
Greater wing of sphenoid bone (infratemporal crest)
Mandible (pterygoid fovea) and temporomandibular joint (articular disk)
⑥
Inferior (lower) head
Lateral pterygoid plate (lateral surface)
Mandible (pterygoid fovea and condylar process)
Mandibular n. (anterior division of CN V3) via lateral pterygoid n.
Bilateral: Protrudes mandible (pulls articular disk forward) Unilateral: Lateral movements of mandible (chewing)
⑦
Superficial (external) head
Maxilla (maxillary tuberosity) and palatine bone (pyramidal process)
Pterygoid rugosity on medial surface of the mandibular angle
Elevates (adducts) mandible
Deep (internal) head
Medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate and pterygoid fossa
Mandibular n. (anterior division of CN V3) via medial pterygoid n.
⑧
30
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Head
Zygomatic arch
Frontal bone
Parietal bone Inferior temporal line Superior temporal line
Masseter, deep part
Temporalis
Temporal bone External acoustic meatus Mastoid process Zygomatic arch (cut)
Joint capsule of temporomandibular joint
Temporalis
Styloid process A
Masseter, superficial part
Lateral ligament
Fig. 2.11 Temporalis and masseter Left lateral view. A Superficial dissection. B Deep dissection. The masseter and zygomatic arch have been partially removed to show the full extent of the temporalis. The temporalis is the most powerful muscle of mastication, doing approximately half the work. It works with the masseter (consisting of a superficial, an intermediate, and a deep part) to elevate the mandible and close the mouth. Note: A small portion of the lateral pterygoid is visible in B.
Joint capsule Lateral ligament Lateral pterygoid B
Coronoid process
Masseter (cut)
31
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles
Temporalis (cut)
Lateral pterygoid, superior head (cut)
Lateral pterygoid, superior head
Articular disk
Temporomandibular joint capsule
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head (cut)
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head
Medial pterygoid, deep (internal) head
Medial pterygoid (superficial and deep heads)
Pterygoid process, lateral plate
Masseter (cut) A
Fig. 2.12 Lateral and medial pterygoid muscles Left lateral views. A The coronoid process of the mandible has been removed here along with the lower part of the temporalis so that both pterygoid muscles are observed (see Fig. 2.11B). B Here the temporalis has been completely removed, and the inferior head of the lateral pterygoid has been windowed. The lateral pterygoid initiates depression of the mandible, which is then continued by the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles and gravity. With
B
Medial pterygoid, superficial (external) head
the temporomandibular joint opened, we can see that fibers from the superior head of the lateral pterygoid blend with the articular disk. The lateral pterygoid functions as the guide muscle of the temporomandibular joint. The medial pterygoid runs almost perpendicular to the lateral pterygoid and contributes to the formation of a muscular sling that partially encompasses the mandible (see Fig. 2.13). Note how the inferior head of the lateral pterygoid originates between the two heads of the medial pterygoid.
Pterygoid process, lateral plate Temporalis
Temporalis Upper and lower compartments Lateral pterygoid, superior head
Articular disk Head (condyle) of mandible, articular surface
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head
Coronoid process (with temporalis)
Fig. 2.13 Masticatory muscular sling Oblique posterior view. The masseter and medial pterygoid form a muscular sling in which the mandible is suspended. By combining the actions of both muscles into a functional unit, this sling enables powerful closure of the jaws and side-to-side movements when acting unilaterally. Note: The space between the medial border of the mandible and the medial pterygoid is referred to as the pterygomandibular space. It is important as it is the target area for administering local anesthesia to the inferior alveolar nerve.
32
Masseter, deep head Medial pterygoid, deep (internal) head Masseter, superficial head Mandibular angle
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Superior sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri
Frontal lobe
Inferior sagittal sinus
Superficial and deep temporal fascia
Dura mater
Temporal lobe Optic nerve (CN II)
Ethmoid air cells
Temporalis (deep and superfical heads)
Sphenoid sinus
Lateral pterygoid, superior head
Zygomatic arch
Masseter, deep head
Coronoid process Nasopharynx
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head Lateral pterygoid plate Medial pterygoid
Parotid gland Oropharynx
Masseter, superficial head
Tongue
Inferior alveolar nerve (from posterior division of CN V3) in mandibular canal
Mandible
Lingual septum
Submandibular gland (extraoral lobe)
Platysma
Geniohyoid
Hyoglossus
Digastric, anterior belly
Mylohyoid
Fig. 2.14 Muscles of mastication, coronal section at the level of the sphenoid sinus Posterior view. The topography of the muscles of mastication and neighboring structures is particularly well displayed in this section.
33
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics
Retrusion
Transverse axis through head of mandible (axis of rotation)
150°
A
Head (condyle) of mandible
B
Median plane
Protrusion
Axis of rotation
Axis of rotation
Resting condyle Swinging condyle
Balance side (mediotrusion)
Working side (laterotrusion) Working side
C
Bennett angle
Fig. 2.15 Movements of the mandible in the TMJ Superior view. Most of the movements in the TMJ are complex motions that have three main components: • Rotation (opening and closing the mouth) • Translation (protrusion and retrusion of the mandible) • Grinding movements during mastication A Rotation. The axis for joint rotation runs transversely through both heads of the mandible. The two axes intersect at an angle of approximately 150 degrees (range of 110–180 degrees between individuals). During this movement the TMJ acts as a hinge joint (abduction/depression and adduction/elevation of the mandible). In humans, pure rotation in the TMJ usually occurs only during sleep with the mouth slightly open (aperture angle up to approximately 15 degrees, see Fig. 2.16B). When the mouth is opened past 15 degrees, rotation is combined with translation (gliding) of the mandibular head.
34
Balance side
D
B Translation. In this movement the mandible is advanced (protruded) and retracted (retruded). The axes for this movement are parallel to the median axes through the center of the mandibular heads. C Grinding movements in the left TMJ. In describing these lateral movements, a distinction is made between the “resting condyle” and the “swinging condyle.” The resting condyle on the left working side rotates about an almost vertical axis through the head of the mandible (also a rotational axis), whereas the swinging condyle on the right balance side swings forward and inward in a translational movement. The lateral excursion of the mandible is measured in degrees and is called the Bennett angle. During this movement the mandible moves in laterotrusion on the working side and in mediotrusion on the balance side. D Grinding movements in the right TMJ. Here, the right TMJ is the working side. The right resting condyle rotates about an almost vertical axis, and the left condyle on the balance side swings forward and inward.
Head
Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Articular tubercle Mandibular fossa Articular disk Head of mandible Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
A
Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head Articular disk Head of mandible Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
15°
Axis of rotation
B Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head Mandibular fossa Upper compartment Articular disk Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
>15°
C
Fig. 2.16 Movements of the TMJ Left lateral view. Each drawing shows the left TMJ (including the articular disk and capsule) and the lateral pterygoid muscle. Note: The gap between the heads of the lateral pterygoid is exaggerated. Each schematic diagram at right shows the corresponding axis of joint movement. The muscle, capsule, and disk form a functionally coordinated musculo-disco-capsular system and work closely together when the mouth is opened and closed.
A Mouth closed. When the mouth is in a closed position, the head of the mandible rests against the mandibular (glenoid) fossa of the temporal bone. B Mouth opened to 15 degrees. Up to 15 degrees of abduction, the head of the mandible remains in the mandibular fossa. C Mouth opened past 15 degrees. At this point the head of the mandible glides forward onto the articular tubercle. The joint axis that runs transversely through the mandibular head is shifted forward. The articular disk is pulled forward by the superior part of the lateral pterygoid muscle, and the head (condyle) of the mandible is drawn forward by the inferior part of that muscle.
35
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)
Foramen spinosum
Zygomatic bone Pterygoid process, medial and lateral plates Foramen ovale (conducts CN V3)
Zygomatic process of temporal bone
Articular tubercle
Spine of sphenoid bone Petrotympanic fissure Tympanosquamosal suture Styloid process
Mandibular (glenoid) fossa External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
Mastoid process
Stylomastoid foramen Jugular foramen
Fig. 2.17 Mandibular (glenoid) fossa of the TMJ Inferior view. The head of the mandible articulates with the articular disk in the mandibular (glenoid) fossa of the temporal bone. The mandibular fossa is a depression in the squamous part of the temporal bone. The articular tubercle is located on the anterior side of the mandibular fossa. The head of the mandible is markedly smaller than the mandibular fossa, allowing it to have an adequate range of movement (see p. 35). Unlike other articular surfaces, the mandibular fossa is covered by fibrocartilage rather than hyaline cartilage. As a result, it is not
Carotid canal
as clearly delineated on the skull as other articular surfaces. The external auditory canal lies just posterior to the mandibular fossa. Trauma to the mandible may damage the auditory canal. Note: The mandibular fossa is divided into two compartments (anterior and posterior), separated by the tympanosquamosal and petrotympanic fissures. The posterior compartment is nonarticulatory, and the chorda tympani nerve and inferior tympanic artery are able to pass through this space without being compressed. The glenoid lobe of the parotid gland may also project into the posterior compartment.
Head of mandible
Joint capsule
Pterygoid fovea
Neck of mandible
Coronoid process Neck of mandible
Lingula Mandibular foramen
A
B
Stylomandibular ligament
Mylohyoid groove
Fig. 2.18 Processes of the mandible A Anterior view. B Posterior view. The head of the mandible not only is markedly smaller than the articular fossa but also has a cylindrical shape. This shape increases the mobility of the mandibular head, as it allows rotational movements about a vertical axis.
36
Lateral ligament
Fig. 2.19 Ligaments of the left TMJ Lateral view. The TMJ is surrounded by a relatively lax capsule, which permits physiological dislocation during jaw opening. The joint is stabilized by three ligaments: lateral (temporomandibular), stylomandibular, and sphenomandibular. This lateral view demonstrates the strongest of these ligaments, the lateral ligament, which stretches over the capsule and is blended with it.
Head
Pterygoid process, lateral plate
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Articular tubercle
Pterygospinous ligament (variable)
Articular disk
Mandibular notch
Joint capsule
Sphenomandibular ligament
Head of mandible
Stylomandibular ligament
Stylomandibular ligament
Pterygoid process, medial plate Mandibular foramen
Fig. 2.20 Ligaments of the right TMJ Medial view. The sphenomandibular ligament can be identified in this view.
Articular tubercle
Fig. 2.21 Opened left TMJ Lateral view. The capsule extends posteriorly to the petrotympanic fissure (not shown here). Interposed between the mandibular head and fossa is the articular disk, which is attached to the joint capsule on all sides. Note: The articular disk (meniscus) divides the TMJ into upper and lower compartments. Gliding (translational) movement occcurs in the upper compartment, hinge (rotational) movement in the lower compartment. Auriculotemporal nerve
Mandibular fossa
Posterior division
Mandibular nerve (CN V3) Anterior division Posterior temporal nerve (from deep temporal nerve)
Masseteric nerve
Fig. 2.22 Dislocation of the TMJ The head of the mandible may slide past the articular tubercle when the mouth is opened, dislocating the TMJ. This may result from heavy yawning or a blow to the opened mandible. When the joint dislocates, the mandible becomes locked in a protruded position and can no longer be closed. This condition is easily diagnosed clinically and is reduced by pressing on the mandibular row of teeth.
Fig. 2.23 Sensory innervation of the TMJ capsule (after Schmidt) Superior view. The TMJ capsule is supplied by articular branches arising from three branches of the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3): • Auriculotemporal nerve (posterior division of CN V3) • Posterior deep temporal nerve (anterior division of CN V3) • Masseteric nerve (anterior division of CN V3) Note: While the masseteric and posterior deep temporal nerves are generally considered to be motor nerves, they also innervate the TMJ.
37
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of the Head: Origins & Insertions The bony origins and insertions of the muscles are indicated by color shading: origins (red) and insertions (blue).
Muscles of facial expression (CN VII)
Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (CN XI)
Occipitofrontalis, occipital belly
Sternocleidomastoid
Corrugator supercilii Orbicularis oculi
Trapezius
Orbital part Lacrimal part
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi Nuchal muscles, intrinsic back muscles (dorsal rami of cervical nerve)
Zygomaticus major Zygomaticus minor Levator anguli oris
Semispinalis capitis Nasalis
Transverse part Alar part
Obliquus capitis superior
Depressor septi nasi
Rectus capitis posterior major
Orbicularis oris
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Buccinator Mentalis
Muscles of mastication (CN V3)
Orbicularis oris
Splenius capitis Longissimus capitis
Masseter Depressor labii inferioris
Lateral pterygoid (see B and C)
Depressor anguli oris
Temporalis
Platysma
Medial pterygoid (see B and C)
A
Lateral pterygoid, superior head* Temporalis
Fig. 2.24 Origins and insertions on the skull A Left lateral view. B Inner surface of right hemimandible. C Inferior view of skull base.
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head
Buccinator
Medial pterygoid
Genioglossus Mylohyoid Geniohyoid B
38
Digastric, anterior belly *Primarily innervates articular disk.
Head
2. Muscles of the Skull & Face
Muscles of mastication (CN V3)
Masseter Medial pterygoid Lateral pterygoid Temporalis Pharyngeal muscles
Tensor veli palatini (CN V) Levator veli palatini (pharyngeal plexus) Stylopharyngeus (CN IX)
Styloglossus (CN XII) Stylohyoid Prevertebral muscles (ventral cervical nerve rami and cervical plexus)
Digastric, posterior belly (CN VII) Nuchal muscles, intrinsic back muscles (dorsal rami of cervical nerves)
Rectus capitis lateralis Longus capitis
Splenius capitis
Rectus capitis anterior
Longissimus capitis Obliquus capitis superior Rectus capitis posterior major
Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius (CN XI)
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Sternocleidomastoid
Semispinalis capitis
Trapezius C
39
Head
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Arteries of the Head: Overview
Superficial temporal artery
Ophthalmic artery
Posterior auricular artery
Angular artery
Ascending pharyngeal artery
Maxillary artery
Occipital artery
Internal carotid artery
Facial artery
Lingual artery
External carotid artery Superior thyroid artery Vertebral artery
Common carotid artery
Fig. 3.1 Arteries of the head Left lateral view. The common carotid artery divides into the internal carotid artery (purple) and the external carotid artery (gray) at the carotid bifurcation (at the level of the C4 vertebra, between the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone). The external carotid artery divides into eight major branches that supply the scalp, face, and structures of the head
40
Subclavian artery
and neck. These eight branches can be arranged into four groups: anterior (red), medial (blue), posterior (green), and terminal (yellow). The internal carotid artery does not branch before entering the skull. It gives off branches within the cranial cavity. The ophthalmic branch of the internal carotid artery provides branches that will anastomose with branches of the facial artery on the face (see Fig. 3.2).
Head
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Superficial temporal artery, frontal branch Supratrochlear artery Supraorbital artery Lateral palpebral arteries Medial palpebral arteries Superficial temporal artery
Dorsal nasal artery
Infraorbital artery
Angular artery
Superior and inferior labial arteries
Facial artery
Mental artery External carotid artery
Fig. 3.2 Branches of the carotid arteries The external carotid artery may be arranged into four groups of branches. The facial artery (red) communicates with certain branches of the ophthalmic artery, which arises from the internal carotid artery (purple).
External carotid artery
Internal carotid artery
Table 3.1 Branches of the external carotid artery
Facial artery Lingual artery Superior thyroid artery A
D
B
E
C
F
Fig. 3.3 Variants in external carotid artery branching A Typically (50%), the anterior branches (facial, lingual, and superior thyroid arteries) arise from the external carotid artery above the carotid bifurcation. B, C D–F
Variants: The superior thyroid artery arises at the level of the carotid bifurcation (20%) or from the common carotid artery (10%). Two or three branches combine to form a common trunk: linguofacial (18%), thyrolingual (2%), or thyrolinguofacial (1%).
Anterior branches (red)
Region supplied
Superior thyroid a.
Larynx, thyroid gland, pharynx
Lingual a.
Oral cavity, tongue
Facial a.
Superficial facial region, submandibular gland, neck
Medial branch (blue)
Region supplied
Ascending pharyngeal a.
Pharynx
Posterior branches (green)
Region supplied
Occipital a.
Occipital region
Posterior auricular a.
Ear, posterior scalp
Terminal branches (yellow)
Region supplied
Maxillary a.
Mandibular (via inferior alveolar branch) and maxillary dentition, masticatory muscles, posteromedial facial skeleton, meninges, nasal cavity and face (via infraorbital and mental arteries)
Superficial temporal a.
Temporal region, ear, parotid gland
41
Head
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
External Carotid Artery: Anterior, Medial & Posterior Branches
Supratrochlear artery* Dorsal nasal artery*
Transverse facial artery
Angular artery
Occipital branches Superficial temporal artery
Superior labial artery
Descending branch Posterior auricular artery Maxillary artery
Inferior labial artery
Occipital artery
Ascending palatine artery
Tonsillar branch Facial artery
Ascending pharyngeal artery Facial artery Lingual artery
Submental artery A
Glandular branches
Superior thyroid artery
External carotid artery Common carotid artery
* Branches of the ophthalmic artery
Auricular branch
Fig. 3.4 Anterior and posterior branches Left lateral view. Anterior branches (A): The facial artery has four cervical and four facial branches. The four cervical branches (ascending palatine, tonsillar, glandular, and submental arteries) arise in the neck before the facial artery crosses the mandible to reach the face. The four facial branches (inferior and superior labial, lateral nasal, and angular arteries) supply the superficial face. The facial branches anastomose with branches of the internal carotid artery. Due to the extensive arterial anastomoses, facial injuries tend to bleed profusely but also heal quickly. Posterior branches (B): The two posterior branches of the external carotid artery are the occipital artery and the posterior auricular artery.
42
Posterior auricular artery Posterior tympanic artery Parotid branch
External carotid artery B
Occipital artery
Head
Inferior tympanic artery
Posterior meningeal artery
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Deep lingual artery
Sublingual artery
Dorsal lingual branches Lingual artery Suprahyoid branch Ascending pharyngeal artery
Superior laryngeal artery
Pharyngeal branches
External carotid artery Superior thyroid artery
Lingual artery External carotid artery Internal carotid artery
Infrahyoid branch
Sternocleidomastoid branch
Superior thyroid artery
Lateral glandular branch
Superior laryngeal artery
Fig. 3.7 Lingual artery and its branches Left lateral view. The lingual artery is the second anterior branch of the external carotid artery. It has a relatively large caliber, providing the tongue and oral cavity with its rich blood supply. It also gives off branches to the tonsils. Table 3.2 Anterior, medial, and posterior branches Branch
Cricothyroid branch Anterior glandular branch
Common carotid artery
Branches and distribution
Anterior
Superior thyroid a.
Glandular branches: thyroid gland Superior laryngeal a.: larynx Sternocleidomastoid branch: sternocleidomastoid m.
Thyroid ima artery
Pharyngeal branches: pharynx Lingual a.
Dorsal lingual branches: base of tongue, epiglottis Suprahyoid branch: suprahyoid mm. Sublingual a.: sublingual gland, tongue, floor of oral cavity
Fig. 3.5 Anterior and medial branches Left lateral view. The superior thyroid artery is typically the first branch to arise from the external carotid artery. One of the anterior branches, it supplies the larynx (via the superior laryngeal branch) and thyroid gland. The ascending pharyngeal artery springs from the medial side of the external carotid artery, usually arising above the level of the superior thyroid artery.
Deep lingual a.: tongue Facial a.
Ascending palatine a.: pharyngeal wall, soft palate, pharyngotympanic tube, palatine tonsil Tonsillar a.: tonsils Glandular branch: submandibular gland Submental a.: anterior digastric and mylohyoid, submandibular gland Superior and inferior labial aa.: lips Lateral nasal branch: dorsum of nose
Internal carotid artery
Occipital artery
Facial artery
Ascending pharyngeal artery
Angular a.: nasal root Medial
Ascending pharyngeal a.
External carotid artery
Pharyngeal branches: pharyngeal wall Inferior tympanic a.: mucosa of middle ear Posterior meningeal a.: dura, posterior cranial fossa
A
B
C
D
Fig. 3.6 Origin of the ascending pharyngeal artery: typical case and variants (after Lippert and Pabst) A In typical cases (70 %) the ascending pharyngeal artery arises from the external carotid artery. B–D Variants: The ascending pharyngeal artery arises from B the occipital artery (20 %), C the internal carotid artery (8 %), or D the facial artery (2 %).
Posterior
Occipital a.
Occipital branches: scalp of occipital region Descending branch: posterior neck muscles
Posterior auricular branch
Stylomastoid a.: facial n. in facial canal, tympanic cavity Posterior tympanic a.: tympanic cavity Auricular branch: posterior side of auricle Occipital branch: occiput Parotid branch: parotid gland
Note: The two terminal branches are covered in Table 3.4.
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
External Carotid Artery: Maxillary Artery The maxillary artery is the largest of the two terminal branches of the external carotid artery (see p. 42). It supplies the maxilla and mandible
(including the teeth), the muscles of mastication, the palate, the nose, and the dural covering of the brain.
Infraorbital artery Sphenopalatine artery Deep temporal arteries Posterior superior alveolar artery Anterior and middle superior alveolar arteries
Pterygoid branch Middle meningeal artery Deep auricular artery Anterior tympanic artery Superficial temporal artery Maxillary artery
A
Posterior auricular artery Masseteric artery Buccal artery
Fig. 3.8 Maxillary artery Left lateral view. A Schematic. B Course of the maxillary artery. The maxillary artery can be divided into three parts: mandibular (blue), pterygoid (green), and pterygopalatine (yellow). See Table 3.3.
Facial artery Occipital artery Lingual artery
Mylohyoid branch
Mental branch
B
Maxillary artery
Temporomandibular joint capsule
Zygomatic process
Buccal nerve
Lateral pterygoid muscle A
Superior thyroid artery
Inferior alveolar artery
B Ramus of mandible
External carotid artery
C
Inferior alveolar nerve
Lingual nerve
Inferior alveolar nerve
Lingual nerve
Maxillary artery
Buccal nerve
Buccal nerve
Fig. 3.9 Variants of the maxillary artery Left lateral view.
44
D
Inferior alveolar nerve
Lingual nerve
E
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Table 3.3 Branches of the maxillary artery Branch
Course
Distribution
Mandibular part (blue): Also known as the bony part or 1st part, this portion runs medial to the neck of the mandible and gives off 5 major branches, all of which enter bone. Inferior alveolar a.
Gives off a lingual and a mylohyoid branch before entering the mandibular foramen to travel along the mandibular canal; it splits into 2 terminal branches (incisive and mental)
Mandibular molars and premolars with associated gingiva, mandible
• Lingual branch
Lingual mucous membrane
• Mylohyoid branch
Mylohyoid
• Incisive branch
Mandibular incisors
• Mental branch
Chin
Anterior tympanic a.
Runs through the petrotympanic fissure along with the chorda tympani
Middle ear
Deep auricular a.
Travels through the wall of the external acoustic meatus
Lateral tympanic membrane, skin of external acoustic meatus
• Branch to temporomandibular joint
Temporomandibular joint
Middle meningeal a.
Runs through the foramen spinosum to the middle cranial cavity
Bones of the cranial vault, dura of anterior and middle cranial fossae
Accessory meningeal a.
Runs through the foramen ovale to the middle cranial fossa
Medial and lateral pterygoid, tensor veli palatini, sphenoid bone, dura, trigeminal ganglion
Pterygoid part (green): Also known as the muscular part or 2nd part, this portion runs between the temporalis and lateral pterygoid. It gives off 5 major branches, all of which supply muscle. Masseteric a.
Runs through the mandibular incisure (notch)
Masseter, temporomandibular joint
Deep temporal aa.
Consist of anterior, middle, and posterior branches, which course deep to the temporalis
Temporalis
Lateral pterygoid a.
Runs directly to the lateral pterygoid muscle
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid a.
Runs directly to the medial pterygoid muscle
Medial pterygoid
Buccal a.
Accompanies the buccal n.
Buccal mucosa and skin, buccinator
Pterygopalatine part or 3rd part (yellow): This portion runs through the pterygomaxillary fissure to enter the pterygopalatine fossa. It gives off 6 major branches, which accompany the branches of the maxillary nerve (CN V2).* Posterior superior alveolar a.
Runs through the pterygomaxillary fissure; may arise from the infraorbital a.
Maxillary molars and premolars, with associated gingiva; maxillary sinus
Infraorbital a.
Runs through the inferior orbital fissure into the orbit, where it runs along the infraorbital groove and canal, exiting onto the face via the infraorbital foramen
Cheek, upper lip, nose, lower eyelid
• Anterior and middle superior alveolar aa.
Maxillary teeth and maxillary sinus
Greater palatine a.: runs via the greater (anterior) palatine canal; in the canal it gives off several lesser palatine aa.; continues through greater palatine foramen onto hard palate
Roof of hard palate, nasal cavity (inferior meatus), maxillary gingiva
• Lesser palatine aa.: run via the lesser palatine foramen
Soft palate
• Anastomosing branch: runs via the incisive canal; joins with the sphenopalatine a.
Nasal septum
Descending palatine a.
Sphenopalatine a.
Runs via the sphenopalatine foramen to the nasal cavity; gives off posterior lateral nasal branches, then travels to the nasal septum, where it terminates as posterior septal branches • Posterior lateral nasal aa.: anastomose with the ethmoidal aa. and nasal branches of the greater palatine a.
Nasal air sinuses (frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal)
• Posterior septal branches: anastomose with the ethmoidal arteries on the nasal septum
Nasal conchae and nasal septum
A. of the pterygoid canal
Runs through the pterygoid canal
Pharyngotympanic tube, tympanic cavity, upper pharynx
Pharyngeal a.
Runs through the palatovaginal canal
Nasopharynx, sphenoidal sinus, and pharyngotympanic tube; mucosa of nasal cavity
*All branches are named for the nerve they travel with except for the sphenopalatine artery, which travels with the nasopalatine nerve.
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
External Carotid Artery: Terminal Branches There are two terminal branches of the external carotid artery: the maxillary artery and the superficial temporal artery. The external carotid artery divides into the maxillary and superficial temporal arteries
within the substance of the parotid gland. The extent of the maxillary artery makes it difficult to visualize. Three clinically relevant branches have been included here in greater detail.
Infraorbital artery
Sphenopalatine artery Artery of pterygoid canal Descending palatine artery
Dental branches
Anterior superior alveolar artery
Lateral posterior nasal arteries
Posterior septal branches
Fig. 3.10 Infraorbital artery Left lateral view. The infraorbital artery arises from the pterygopalatine part of the maxillary artery (a terminal branch of the external carotid artery), and the supraorbital artery (not shown) arises from the internal carotid artery (via the ophthalmic branch). These vessels therefore provide a path for potential anastomosis between the internal and external carotid arteries on the face. Anastomotic branch with lacrimal artery
Frontal branch
Sphenopalatine artery Artery of pterygoid canal Descending palatine artery
Parietal branch
Lesser palatine artery Greater palatine artery
Fig. 3.11 Sphenopalatine artery Medial view of right nasal wall and right sphenopalatine artery. The sphenopalatine artery enters the nasal cavity through the sphenopalatine foramen. The anterior portion of the nasal septum contains a highly vascularized region (Kiesselbach’s area), which is supplied by both the posterior septal branches of the sphenopalatine artery (external carotid artery) and the anterior septal branches of the anterior ethmoidal artery (internal carotid artery via ophthalmic artery). When severe nasopharyngeal bleeding occurs, it may be necessary to ligate the maxillary artery in the pterygopalatine fossa.
Middle meningeal artery
Petrous branch
Fig. 3.12 Middle meningeal artery Medial view of right middle meningeal artery. The middle meningeal artery arises from the mandibular portion of the maxillary artery. It passes through the foramen spinosum into the middle cranial fossa. Despite its name, it supplies blood not just to the meninges, but also to the overlying calvaria. Rupture of the middle meningeal artery by head trauma results in an epidural hematoma.
46
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Fig. 3.13 Superficial temporal artery Left lateral view. The superficial temporal artery is the second of the two terminal branches of the external carotid artery. Particularly in elderly or cachectic patients, the often tortuous course of the frontal branch of this vessel can be easily traced across the temple. The superficial temporal artery may be involved in an inflammatory immune disease (temporal arteritis), which can be confirmed by biopsy of this vessel. The patients, usually elderly men, complain of severe headaches.
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Parietal bone branch
Frontal branch
Middle temporal artery
Zygomaticoorbital artery Transverse facial artery
Superficial temporal artery Maxillary artery External carotid artery
Table 3.4 Terminal branches of the external carotid artery Branch
Parts/Branches
Maxillary a. (see p. 45)
Mandibular (1st; bony) part
Pterygoid (2nd; muscular) part
Pterygopalatine (3rd) part
Superficial temporal a.
Distribution
Inferior alveolar a.
Mandibular teeth and gingiva, mandible
Anterior tympanic a.
Middle ear
Deep auricular a.
Temporomandibular joint and external auditory canal
Middle meningeal a.
Cranial vault, dura, anterior and middle cranial fossae
Accessory meningeal a.
Dura, trigeminal ganglion
Masseteric a.
Masseter, temporomandibular joint
Deep temporal branches
Temporalis
Medial pterygoid branches
Medial pterygoid
Lateral pterygoid branches
Lateral pterygoid
Buccal a.
Buccal mucosa and skin, buccinator
Posterior superior alveolar a.
Maxillary molars and gingiva, maxillary sinus
Infraorbital a.
Maxillary alveoli, maxillary dentition (via anterior and middle superior alveolar arteries)
Descending palatine a.
Nasal cavity (inferior meatus), roof of hard palate, maxillary gingiva, soft palate, nasal septum
Sphenopalatine a.
Lateral wall of nasal cavity, conchae, nasal septum
A. of the pterygoid canal
Pharyngotympanic tube, tympanic cavity, upper pharynx
Pharyngeal a.
Nasopharynx, sphenoidal sinus, and pharyngotympanic tube; mucosa of nasal cavity
Transverse facial a.
Soft tissues below zygomatic arch
Frontal branches
Scalp of forehead
Parietal branches
Scalp of vertex
Zygomatico-orbital a.
Lateral external orbital wall
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Internal Carotid Artery
Cerebral part
Cavernous part
Petrous part
Cervical part
A
Fig. 3.14 Subdivisions of the internal carotid artery A Medial view of the right internal carotid artery in its passage through the bones of the skull. B Anatomical segments of the internal carotid artery and their branches. The internal carotid artery is distributed chiefly to the brain but also supplies extracerebral regions of the head. It consists of four parts (listed from bottom to top): • • • •
Cervical part Petrous part Cavernous part Cerebral part
The petrous part of the internal carotid artery (traversing the carotid canal) and the cavernous part (traversing the cavernous sinus) have a role in supplying extracerebral structures of the head. They give off additional small branches that supply local structures and are usually named for the areas they supply. Of the branches not supplying the brain, of special importance is the ophthalmic artery, which arises from the cerebral part of the internal carotid artery. Note: The ophthalmic artery forms an anastomosis with the artery of the pterygoid canal derived from the maxillary artery.
48
Ophthalmic artery
Anterior choroidal artery Posterior communicating artery Superior hypophyseal artery
Cerebral part
Basal tentorial branch Marginal tentorial branch Inferior hypophyseal artery
>SBOKLRP M>OQ
Trigeminal ganglion branch
Neural branch
Meningeal branch
Petrous part Caroticotympanic arteries
Cavernous sinus branch Artery of pterygoid canal B
Cervical part
Head
Supratrochlear artery
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Supraorbital artery Lacrimal artery
Middle palpebral artery
Short posterior ciliary artery
Anterior ethmoidal artery
Long posterior ciliary artery
Posterior ethmoidal artery Anastomotic branch,* through lacrimal foramen in greater wing of sphenoid
Ophthalmic artery Optic canal (opened)
* See Fig. 3.12
Internal carotid artery Middle meningeal artery
A
Supraorbital artery Supratrochlear artery Superior palpebral arch
Middle palpebral artery
Lateral palpebral artery Inferior palpebral arch
Dorsal nasal artery
B
Posterior ethmoidal artery
Ophthalmic artery
Anterior ethmoidal artery
Sphenopalatine artery Kiesselbach’s area
Maxillary artery Internal carotid artery
Fig. 3.15 Ophthalmic artery A Superior view of the right orbit. B Anterior view of the facial branches of the right ophthalmic artery. The ophthalmic artery supplies blood to the eyeball itself and to the orbital structures. Some of its terminal branches are distributed to portions of the face (e.g., forehead, eyelids, and nose). Other terminal branches (anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries) contribute to the supply of the nasal septum (see Fig. 3.16). Note: Branches of the lateral palpebral artery and supraorbital artery may form an anastomosis with the frontal branch of the superficial temporal artery (territory of the external carotid artery). With atherosclerosis of the internal carotid artery, this anastomosis may become an important alternative route for blood to the brain. In addition, there are anastomoses between the dorsal nasal artery and the angular artery.
Fig. 3.16 Vascular supply of the nasal septum Left lateral view. The nasal septum is another region in which the internal carotid artery (anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries, green) meets the external carotid artery (sphenopalatine artery, yellow). A richly vascularized area on the anterior part of the nasal septum, called Kiesselbach’s area (blue), is the most common site of nosebleed. Because Kiesselbach’s area is an area of anastomosis, it may be necessary to ligate the sphenopalatine/maxillary artery and/or the ethmoidal arteries through an orbital approach, depending on the source of the bleeding. (See also Fig. 7.17.)
External carotid artery
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Veins of the Head: Overview
Supraorbital vein
Superior ophthalmic vein
Inferior ophthalmic vein
Superficial temporal vein
Maxillary vein
Angular vein Pterygoid plexus Posterior auricular vein
Deep facial vein
Occipital vein
Retromandibular vein
Posterior division of retromandibular vein Facial vein
Anterior division of retromandibular vein
Common facial vein
Deep cervical vein
Lingual vein
Internal jugular vein
Superior and middle thyroid veins Anterior jugular vein
Left brachiocephalic vein
Fig. 3.17 Veins of the head and neck Left lateral view. The principal vein of the head and neck is the internal jugular vein. This drains blood from both the exterior and the interior of the skull (including the brain) in addition to receiving venous blood from the neck. It receives blood from the common facial vein (formed by the union of the facial vein and the anterior division of the retromandibular vein), the lingual, superior thyroid, and middle thyroid veins,
50
External jugular vein
Suprascapular vein
Subclavian vein
and the inferior petrosal sinus. Enclosed in the carotid sheath, the internal jugular vein descends from the jugular foramen to its union with the subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein. The external jugular vein receives blood from the posterior division of the retromandibular vein and the posterior auricular vein. The occipital vein normally drains to the deep cervical veins.
Head
Superior trochlear vein Supraorbital vein
Superior ophthalmic vein
Cavernous sinus
Maxillary vein Infraorbital vein
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Superficial temporal vein
Dural sinuses
Sigmoid sinus Deep facial vein
Retromandibular vein
Pterygoid plexus
Posterior auricular vein
Facial vein
Posterior division of retromandibular vein
Anterior division of retromandibular vein
Occipital vein Lingual vein Anterior jugular vein
Internal jugular vein
Common facial vein
Fig. 3.18 Veins of the head: overview The superficial veins of the head communicate with each other and with the dural sinuses via the deep veins of the head (pterygoid plexus and cavernous sinus). The pterygoid plexus connects the facial vein and the
Extermal jugular vein
retromandibular vein (via the deep facial vein and maxillary vein, respectively). The cavernous sinus connects the facial vein to the sigmoid sinus (via the ophthalmic veins and the petrosal sinuses, respectively).
Table 3.5 Venous drainage of the head and neck Vein
Location
Tributaries
Region drained
Internal jugular v.
Within carotid sheath
Common facial v. — Facial v. — Retromandibular v., anterior division — Lingual v. — Superior and middle thyroid vv.
Skull, anterior and lateral face, oral cavity, neck
Sigmoid sinus and inferior petrosal sinuses
Interior of skull (including brain)
Retromandibular v., posterior division
Lateral skull
Posterior auricular v.
Occiput
External jugular v.
Anterior jugular v.
Within superficial cervical fascia
Anterior neck
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3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Veins of the Head: Deep Veins Parietal emissary vein
Inferior sagittal sinus
Superior sagittal sinus
Basilar vein
Straight sinus
Frontal vein
Superior petrosal sinus
Superior ophthalmic vein Angular vein
Occipital emissary vein
Inferior ophthalmic vein
Occipital vein Confluence of the sinuses
Cavernous sinus
Posterior auricular vein
Venous plexus of foramen ovale
Sigmoid sinus
Pterygoid plexus
Mastoid emissary vein
Inferior petrosal sinus
Condylar emissary vein
Maxillary vein
Deep cervical vein
Common facial vein Vertebral vein
External jugular vein
Fig. 3.19 Venous drainage of the head The superficial veins of the head have extensive connections with the deep veins of the head and the dural sinuses. The meninges and brain are drained by the dural sinuses, which lie within the skull. Emissary
Retromandibular vein Facial vein
Internal jugular vein
veins connect the superficial veins of the skull directly to the dural sinuses. In addition, the deep veins of the head (e.g., pterygoid plexus) are intermediaries between the superficial veins of the face and the dural venous sinuses.
Table 3.6 Venous anastomoses as portals of infection The extracranial veins of the head are connected to the deep veins and dural sinuses. Patients who sustain midfacial fractures may bleed profusely due to the extensive venous anastomoses. Because the veins are generally valveless, extracranial bacteria may migrate to the deep veins, causing infections (e.g., bacteria from boils on the upper lip or nose may enter the angular vein and travel to the cavernous sinus). Bacteria in the cavernous sinus may cause thrombosis. Extracranial vein
Connecting vein
Venous sinus
Angular v.
Superior ophthalmic v.
Cavernous sinus
Vv. of palatine tonsil
Pterygoid plexus, inferior ophthalmic v.
Superficial temporal v.
Parietal emissary v.
Superior sagittal sinus
Occipital v.
Occipital emissary v.
Transverse sinus, confluence of the sinuses
Mastoid emissary v.
Sigmoid sinus
Posterior auricular v. External vertebral venous plexus
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Condylar emissary v.
Head
Supratrochlear vein
Supraorbital vein
Deep Cavernous temporal veins sinus
3. Arteries & Veins of the Head & Neck
Superficial temporal vein Sphenoidal emissary veins
Superior ophthalmic vein
Superior and inferior petrosal sinuses
Angular vein
Sigmoid sinus
Facial vein Deep facial vein Pterygoid plexus Maxillary vein Retromandibular vein
Posterior division of retromandibular vein Internal jugular vein Anterior division of retromandibular vein Common facial vein Facial vein
Lingual vein
External palatine vein
Fig. 3.20 Deep veins of the head Left lateral view. The pterygoid plexus is a venous network situated behind the mandibular ramus and embedded in the pterygoid muscles. Because the veins of the face have no valves (small valves may be present but are generally nonfunctional), the movement of the pterygoid muscles forces blood from the pterygoid plexus into the jugular veins.
The pterygoid plexus is linked to the facial vein via the deep facial vein and to the retromandibular vein via the maxillary vein. The plexus is also linked to the cavernous sinus via the sphenoidal emissary vein. The cavernous sinus receives blood from the superior and inferior ophthalmic veins. Parietal emissary vein
Superior sagittal sinus Confluence of the sinuses Occipital emissary vein
Fig. 3.21 Veins of the occiput Posterior view. The dural sinuses are the series of venous channels that drain the brain (see p. 302). The superficial veins of the occiput communicate with the dural sinuses by way of the emissary veins. The emissary veins enter a similarly named foramen to communicate with the dural sinuses.
Venous plexus around the foramen magnum Venous plexus of the hypoglossal nerve canal External vertebral venous plexus
Transverse sinus
Mastoid emissary vein Condylar emissary vein Internal jugular vein Occipital vein
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Organization of the Nervous System Fig. 4.1 Nervous system A Anterior view. B Posterior view. The nervous system is a collection of neurons that can be divided anatomically into two groups:
Cerebrum
• Central nervous system (CNS, pink): Brain and spinal cord. • Peripheral nervous system (PNS, yellow): Nerves emerging from the CNS. These are divided into two types depending on their site of emergence: ◦ Cranial nerves: 12 pairs of nerves emerge from the brain (telencephalon, diencephalon, and brainstem only). These nerves may contain sensory and/or motor fibers. ◦ Spinal nerves: 31 pairs of nerves emerge from the spinal cord. Spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers that emerge from the spinal cord as separate roots and unite to form the mixed nerve. In certain regions, the spinal nerves may combine to form plexuses (e.g., cervical, brachial, or lumbosacral). The cranial nerves are discussed in this chapter. The spinal nerves and CNS are discussed in Chapter 13: Neuroanatomy. The innervation of the neck is discussed in Chapter 12: Neurovascular Topography of the Neck.
Cranial nerves
Brain
Cerebellum
Brachial plexus Spinal nerves Spinal cord Spinal cord Spinal nerve
Lumbosacral plexus Cauda equina
A
B
Afferent (sensory)
Efferent (motor)
Joints, skin, skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle
Somatosensory fibers
Somatic
Somatomotor fibers
CNS
Autonomic (visceral)
Viscerosensory fibers
Viscera, vessels
Fig. 4.2 Organization of the nervous system The nervous system is a vast network that can be divided according to two criteria: 1. Type of information: Afferent (sensory) cells and pathways receive information and transmit it to the CNS. Efferent (motor) cells and pathways convey information from the CNS.
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Visceromotor fibers
Glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
2. Destination/origin: The somatic division of the nervous system primarily mediates interaction with the external environment. These processes are often voluntary. The autonomic (visceral) nervous system primarily mediates regulation of the internal environment. These processes are frequently involuntary. The two criteria yield four types of nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the PNS.
Head
Presynaptic terminal
Cell body (soma)
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Dendrites
Cell bodies
Axons
Axon A Peripheral process (dendrite)
A
B
C
D Cell body
B
Axon
Presynaptic terminal
Fig. 4.3 Neurons and nerves A Neuron structure. B Convention of drawing neurons. Neurons are the specialized cells of the nervous system that convey information in the CNS and PNS. Neurons consist of a cell body (soma) with two types of projections: • Dendrites: Receptor segments that receive impulses from other neurons or cells. • Axons: Projecting segments that transmit impulses to other neurons or cells. The number and organization of the projections reflect the function of the neuron (see Fig. 4.4). Neurons convey impulses to each other at synapses: neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic terminal (bouton) of the axon are bound by receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the next neuron’s dendrite. The impulse can then be relayed along the axon.
Epineurium
Fibrofatty tissue
Nerve fiber (unmyelinated)
Fig. 4.4 Types of neurons Neurons are divided functionally into three main groups: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The structure of the neurons reflects their function. Sensory neurons: Collect sensory information and transport it to the CNS. These neurons tend to have long peripheral processes (dendrites) and long central processes (axons). • Bipolar neuron (A): Named for the two long processes (peripheral and central) on opposite sides of the cell body. (E.g., retinal cells.) • Pseudounipolar neuron (B): The dendrite and axon appear to arise from the same projection from the cell body. (E.g., primary afferent neurons.) Interneurons (C): Convey information between sensory and motor neurons within the CNS. This multipolar interneuron has numerous dendrites and a short axon. Motor neurons (D): Originate motor impulses and transmit them from the CNS. This multipolar motor neuron has numerous dendrites and a long axon. Nerve fiber (myelinated)
Blood vessels
Endoneurium Perineurium
A
Axon of second-order sensory neuron
Spinal ganglion (containing cell bodies of first-order sensory neuron)
Fig. 4.5 Neurons in the CNS and PNS A Nerve fibers. B Nerves/tracts and ganglia/nuclei. Bundles of axons travel together to synapse on the cell bodies of other neurons. In the PNS, these axon bundles are called nerves; in the CNS, they are called tracts. The axon bundles can be covered with myelin to increase the speed of impulse transmission. As myelin is composed primarily of fatty acids, myelinated areas appear white (white matter). The unmyelinated cell bodies of the neurons appear darker (gray matter). Cell bodies are considerably larger than cell processes. Clusters of cell bodies therefore produce characteristic bulges: in the PNS these are called ganglia; in the CNS they are called nuclei.
Dendrite (peripheral process)
Axon (central process)
Dorsal horn (containing cell bodies of second-order sensory neuron)
B
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Sensory Pathways Interneuron
Table 4.1 Sensory (afferent) pathways Sensory information is traditionally relayed from sensory organs to the cortex by a three-neuron pathway:
Third-order (tertiary) sensory neuron
1st order
Primary (first-order) neurons: Collect sensory data from the sensory organ and convey it to the CNS. These neurons are often pseudounipolar (with cell bodies located in sensory ganglia). Note: Although most neurons are activated by the release of neurotransmitters, first-order neurons may be activated by other inputs (e.g., photons [sight], vibrations [sound], olfactory stimuli [smell]). The axons of first-order neurons enter the CNS to synapse on second-order neurons.
2nd order
Secondary (second-order) neurons: Located in the CNS, these neurons receive impulses from first-order neurons in the PNS. The axons of second-order neurons ascend as tracts to synapse on third-order neurons in the thalamus.
3rd order
Tertiary (third-order) neurons: Located in the thalamus, these neurons project to the appropriate area of the sensory cortex.
Upper motor neuron
Thalamus
Second-order (secondary) sensory neuron First-order (primary) sensory neuron
Lower motor neuron
A
Fig. 4.6 Sensory and motor pathways: overview A Sensory (afferent) pathways. B Motor (efferent) pathways. The sensory (afferent) pathways detect and relay information from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex, generally via a three-neuron
B
pathway (see Table 4.1). The motor (efferent) pathways produce and transmit impulses from the cortex via a two-neuron (motor) pathway or a three-neuron (autonomic) pathway (see Fig. 4.8). The sensory and motor pathways are connected by interneurons.
Table 4.2 Sensory pathways in the spinal and cranial nerves Both the spinal and cranial nerves use the three-neuron sensory pathway. Neuron
Location of cell body (soma) Spinal nerve
Cranial nerve
1st order
Spinal ganglia of dorsal root: All 31 spinal nerve pairs have a dorsal sensory root and a ventral motor root. Only the dorsal root has the characteristic bulge of a sensory ganglion (motor cells are not pseudounipolar).
Sensory ganglia near brainstem: Of the 12 cranial nerves, only 7 are sensory (CN I, II, V, VII, VIII, IX, and X). These seven nerves are associated with eight sensory ganglia; two cranial nerves (CN V and VII) have a single sensory ganglion, while three (CN VIII, IX, and X) have two sensory ganglia each.
2nd order
Sensory nuclei in dorsal horn of the spinal cord: The dorsal horn is the posterior portion of the gray matter of the spinal cord. It contains exclusively sensory neurons. Axons ascend via white matter tracts to the thalamus.
Sensory nuclei in dorsolateral brainstem: The sensory nuclei are arranged as a longitudinal nuclear column in the dorsolateral portion of the brainstem. Axons ascend via white matter tracts to the thalamus.
3rd order Cortical
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Thalamus Sensory cortex
Head
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Primary sensory cortex
Third-order sensory neurons
Second-order sensory neurons
Thalamus
Central processes of first-order sensory neuron
Dorsal horn
Peripheral processes Dorsal root ganglion
Dorsal ramus
Trigeminal ganglion Dorsal rootlets Trigeminal nucleus
Dorsal root
Ventral ramus Ventral rootlets
Fig. 4.7 Sensory pathways: cranial and spinal nerves Left: Cranial nerves. Right: Spinal nerves. Sensory information is relayed to the sensory cortex via a three-step pathway. 1. First-order pseudounipolar neurons receive impulses from the periphery. They convey these impulses along their peripheral processes to their central process (axons) that synapse in the CNS. The cell bodies of first-order neurons are located in sensory ganglia.
First-order sensory neuron
Ventral root
2. Second-order neurons with cell bodies in the gray matter of the CNS receive impulses from first-order neurons. The axons of second-order neurons ascend as white matter tracts to the thalamus. 3. Third-order neurons with cell bodies in the thalamus receive impulses from ascending tracts. The axons of third-order neurons ascend to the sensory cortex.
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Motor Pathways Table 4.3 Motor (efferent) pathways
Upper motor neurons
Lower motor neuron
Preganglionic neuron
Ganglion
A
Fig. 4.8 Motor pathways A Two-neuron motor pathway. B Three-neuron (autonomic) motor pathway. The two major types of skeletal muscle (somatic and branchial, see pp. 60–61) are innervated by the classic two-neuron motor pathway (somatomotor and branchiomotor, respectively), with impulses originating in the cortex. Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and
Skeletal muscle is innervated by a traditional two-neuron motor pathway. Upper motor neuron
Upper motor neurons are located in the motor cortex. Their axons descend via white matter tracts to lower motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord.
Lower motor neuron
Lower motor neurons are located in the brainstem (cranial nerves) and spinal cord (spinal nerves). Their axons leave the CNS to synapse on target cells. Autonomic lower motor neurons synapse before they reach their target cells (see p. 62).
Postganglionic neuron B
glands are innervated by autonomic motor pathways that involve a third neuron, with impulses originating in the hypothalamus (see p. 62). Note: Outside of the CNS (spinal cord and brain), the ANS involves two neurons (one preganglionic and one postganglionic), whereas the branchial and somatic motor pathways have a single neuron (the lower motor neuron).
Table 4.4 Motor (efferent) pathways Neuron
Location of cell body (soma) Spinal nerve
Upper motor neuron
Cranial nerve
Motor cortex: The cell bodies of skeletal muscle upper motor neurons are located in the gray matter of the cortex. Their axons descend via white matter tracts.
Hypothalamus: The cell bodies of autonomic upper motor neurons are located in the hypothalamus. Their axons descend via white matter tracts. Lower motor neuron
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Motor nuclei in ventral horn of spinal cord: The ventral horn is the anterior portion of the gray matter of the spinal cord. It contains exclusively motor neurons. The axons of these neurons leave the CNS as the motor root of the spinal nerves. The motor root combines with the dorsal root outside the spinal cord to form the mixed spinal nerve. Note: Unlike the dorsal root, the motor root has no ganglion.
Motor nuclei in dorsomedial margin of brainstem: Of the 12 cranial nerves, all but 3 have motor nuclei. The motor nuclei are arranged in longitudinal nuclear columns. The axons of these neurons leave the CNS as the motor roots of the cranial nerves. Unlike the spinal nerves, the motor and sensory roots of the cranial nerves combine before exiting the CNS. Note: CN V is the only exception to this: its motor root combines with the sensory root of CN V3 as it passes through the foramen ovale.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Primary motor cortex
Upper motor neuron
Corticospinal fibers
Upper motor neuron
Corticonuclear fibers
Dorsal rootlets
Dorsal root ganglion
Dorsal ramus
Lower motor neuron
Lower motor neuron Ventral horn
Pons VII
XII
Spinal nerve
Medulla oblongata Decussation of pyramids
Ventral rootlets
Ventral root Meningeal branch
Fig. 4.9 Motor pathways: cranial and spinal nerves Left: Cranial nerves. Right: Spinal nerves. Motor information is relayed from the motor cortex via a two-step pathway. 1. Upper motor neurons: Neurons in the gray matter of the motor cortex project axons that descend via white matter tracts to the brain and spinal cord.
Ventral ramus
2. Lower motor neurons: Neurons in the motor nuclei of the brainstem (cranial nerves) or ventral horn of the spinal cord (spinal nerves) project axons that emerge from the CNS as the motor roots of the nerves. These axons synapse on target skeletal muscle cells. Note: Lower motor neurons in the autonomic nervous system synapse before reaching their targets (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands).
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Skeletal Muscle: Innervation & Embryonic Development Pharyngeal (branchial) arches
Table 4.5 Skeletal muscle: development and innervation Skeletal muscle has one of two embryonic origins: somites or branchial (pharyngeal) arches. Nerves migrate with muscle cells during embryonic development, explaining the pattern of adult innervation. Neural tube
Upper limb bud
Connecting stalk (with umbilical vessels)
Lower limb bud
Muscle
Somatic muscle
Branchial muscle
Derivation
Somites
Branchial (pharyngeal) arches
Germ layer
Mesoderm (paraxial mesenchyme)
Location
Throughout body (including head and neck)
Head and neck
Nerve fibers
Somatomotor fibers
Branchiomotor fibers
Nerves
Spinal and cranial nerves
Cranial nerves
Fig. 4.10 Five-week-old embryo
Neural crest
Neural groove
Amnion A Amniotic cavity
Neural tube
Myotome Sclerotome
Notocord
Somite
Ectoderm
Dermatome
Paired aorta
Mesoderm Endoderm
Neural tube
Dorsal horns of spinal cord
Dermatome
E
Surface ectoderm
Dorsal root
F
D Vertebra (sclerotome derivative)
Dorsal root (with ganglion)
Epaxial muscles (intrinsic back muscles)
Dorsal ramus (to epaxial muscles)
Ventral ramus (to hypaxial muscles)
Ventral horns of spinal cord
Yolk sac
C
B
Myotome
Aorta
Body cavity
Yolk sac A
Migrating sclerotome cells
Gut tube
Gut tube
Epidermis and dermis (dermatome derivative) G
H Hypaxial muscles (trunk and limbs)
Fig. 4.11 Somatic muscle: embryonic development Gastrulation occurs in week 3 of human embryonic development. It produces three germ layers in the embryonic disk: ectoderm (light gray), mesoderm (red), and endoderm (dark gray). Somatic muscle develops from the mesoderm. A Day 19: The three layers are visible in the embryonic disk. The amnion forms the amniotic cavity dorsally, and the endoderm encloses the yolk sac. B Day 20: Somites form, and the neural groove begins to close. C Day 22: Eight pairs of somites flank the closed neural tube (CNS precursor). The yolk sac elongates ventrally to form the gut tube and yolk sac. D Day 24: Each somite divides into a dermatome (cutaneous), myotome (muscular), and sclerotome (vertebral). This section does not cut the connecting stalk (derived from the yolk sac). E Day 28: Sclerotomes migrate to form the vertebral column
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around the notocord (primitive spinal cord). F Day 30: All 34 or 35 somite pairs have formed. The neural tube differentiates into a primitive spinal cord. Motor and sensory neurons differentiate in the ventral and dorsal horns of the spinal cord, respectively. G By day 40: The dorsal and ventral roots form the mixed spinal nerve. The dorsal branch supplies the epaxial muscles (future intrinsic back muscles); the ventral branch supplies the hypaxial muscles (ventral muscles, including all muscles except the intrinsic back musculature). H Week 8: The epaxial and hypaxial muscles have differentiated into the skeletal muscles of the trunk. Cells from the sclerotomes also migrate into the limbs. During this migration, the spinal nerves form plexuses (cervical, brachial, and lumbosacral), which innervate the muscles of the neck, upper limb, and lower limb, respectively.
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Cranial nerve
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN V (1st arch)
Aortic arch
CN VII (2nd arch) CN IX (3rd arch)
Skeletal element
Mesenchyme (musculature)
CN X (4th and 6th arches)
Ectodermal cleft Endodermal pouch A Pharyngeal gut
A Neural tube
Pharyngeal (branchial) arches
B
Fig. 4.12 Branchial muscle: embryonic development Branchial muscles are derived from five pharyngeal arches contained within four pharyngeal pouches. (Note: The 5th pharyngeal arch is only rudimentary.) These pouches emerge in week 4 of embryonic development and give rise to structures of the head and face. A Each pharyngeal arch consists of mesodermal cells (future branchial muscles) with an embedded nerve, artery, and skeletal element. The mesodermal mesenchyme is surrounded by an outer ectodermal layer and an inner endodermal layer. B The paired pharyngeal pouches surround the pharyngeal gut.
B
C
Fig. 4.13 Branchial derivatives Each of the four pharyngeal pouches contains a cranial nerve (A), which, during the course of development, migrates to its final position (B) with the branchial muscles derived from that arch (C).
Table 4.6 Skeletal muscle of the head The vast majority of the muscles of the head are derived from the pharyngeal arches (the extraocular muscles and extrinsic and intrinsic lingual muscles are somite derivatives). However, of the eight cranial nerves that innervate the skeletal muscle of the head, four convey somatomotor fibers to these somatic derivatives, and four convey branchiomotor fibers to the branchial arch derivatives. Muscle origin
Muscles
Prochordal mesenchyme
Somatic
Branchial
• Levator palpebrae superioris • Inferior oblique*
Cranial nerve
• Superior rectus* • Medial rectus* • Inferior rectus*
Oculomotor n. (CN III)
• Superior oblique*
Trochlear n. (CN IV)
• Lateral rectus*
Abducent n. (CN VI)
Occipital somites
• Extrinsic muscles of the tongue (except palatoglossus) • Intrinsic muscles of the tongue
Hypoglossal n. (CN XII)
1st branchial arch
• • • •
Trigeminal n., mandibular division (CN V3)
2nd branchial arch
• Muscles of facial expression • Stylohyoid • Digastric (posterior belly) and stapedius
Facial n. (CN VII)
3rd branchial arch
• Stylopharyngeus
Glossopharyngeal n. (CN IX)
4th and 6th branchial arches
• Pharyngeal muscles • Levator veli palatini • Muscule uvulae
Maxillomandibular mesenchyme
Temporalis** Masseter** Lateral pterygoid** Medial pterygoid**
• • • •
Mylohyoid Digastric (anterior belly) Tensor tympani Tensor veli palatini
• Palatoglossus • Laryngeal muscles
Vagus n. (CN X)
*Extraocular muscle (six total). **Muscle of mastication (four total).
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Autonomic Motor Pathways Table 4.7 Autonomic (efferent) pathways Viscera (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands) are innervated by a threeneuron motor pathway. Upper motor neuron
In the two-neuron pathway, the axon of an upper motor neuron descends from the hypothalamus to synapse on a lower motor neuron located in the brainstem or spinal cord.
Preganglionic neuron
Lower motor neurons are located in the brainstem nuclei (cranial nerves) or lateral horn of the spinal cord (spinal nerves). The axons of these secondary neurons emerge from the CNS and synapse before reaching the target cells.
Postganglionic neuron
The cell bodies of the tertiary (postganglionic) neurons form the autonomic ganglia. In general, sympathetic ganglia are located close to the CNS, and parasympathetic ganglia are located close to their target organs.
Upper motor neuron
Upper motor neuron
Parasympathetic ganglion
Sympathetic ganglion
B
A
Fig. 4.14 Autonomic pathways Unlike skeletal muscle, which is innervated by a two-neuron motor pathway, viscera (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands) are innervated by the three-neuron motor pathways of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two
parts: parasympathetic (A) and sympathetic (B). The parasympathetic ganglia are usually located close to their target structures (longer preganglionic and shorter postganglionic axons); the sympathetic ganglia are usually located close to the CNS (shorter preganglionic and longer postganglionic axons).
Table 4.8 Sympathetic pathways Neuron
Location of cell body (soma)
Upper motor neuron
Hypothalamus: The cell bodies of autonomic upper motor neurons are located in the hypothalamus. Their axons descend via white matter tracts.
Preganglionic neuron
Lateral horn of spinal cord (T1–L2): The lateral horn is the middle portion of the gray matter of the spinal cord, situated between the ventral and dorsal horns. It contains exclusively autonomic (sympathetic) neurons. The axons of these neurons leave the CNS as the motor root of the spinal nerves and enter the paravertebral ganglia via the white rami communicantes (myelinated).
Preganglionic neurons in paravertebral ganglia
All preganglionic sympathetic neurons enter the sympathetic chain. There they may synapse in a chain ganglion or ascend or descend to synapse. Preganglionic sympathetic neurons synapse in one of two places, yielding two types of sympathetic ganglia. Synapse in the paravertebral ganglia
Pass without synapsing through the parasympathetic ganglia. These fibers travel in the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral splanchnic nerves to synapse in the prevertebral ganglia.
Postganglionic neuron
Paravertebral ganglia: These ganglia form the sympathetic nerve trunks that flank the spinal cord. Postganglionic axons leave the sympathetic trunk via the gray rami communicantes (unmyelinated).
Prevertebral ganglia: Associated with peripheral plexuses, which spread along the abdominal aorta. There are three primary prevertebral ganglia: • Celiac ganglion • Superior mesenteric ganglion • Inferior mesenteric ganglion
Distribution of postganglionic fibers
Postganglionic fibers are distributed in two ways: 1. Spinal nerves: Postganglionic neurons may re-enter the spinal nerves via the gray rami communicantes. These sympathetic neurons induce constriction of blood vessels, sweat glands, and arrector pili (muscle fibers attached to hair follicles, “goose bumps”). 2. Arteries and ducts: Nerve plexuses may form along existing structures. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers may travel with arteries to target structures. Viscera are innervated by this method (e.g., sympathetic innervation concerning vasoconstriction, bronchial dilatation, glandular secretions, pupillary dilatation, smooth muscle contraction).
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Parasympathetic ganglia (in the head)
Sympathetic nervous system
Eye
Superior cervical ganglion
Parasympathetic nervous system
CN VII
CN III
Lacrimal and salivary glands
Parasympathetic ganglia (close to organs)
Sympathetic trunk
Cranial part: brainstem with parasympathetic nuclei
CN IX
Cranial vessels
CN X
Stellate ganglion* Heart T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Lung
Greater splanchnic nerve
Stomach Celiac ganglion
Liver
T7 T8
Pancreas
T9
Kidney
T 10 T 11
Intestine
T 12 L1
Superior mesenteric ganglion
L2
Inferior mesenteric ganglion
L3
Parts of the colon, rectum
L4 L5
Bladder Genitalia
A
Inferior hypogastric plexus
* Stellate ganglion = inferior cervical ganglion and T1 sympathetic ganglion
Pelvic splanchnic nerves
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Sacral part: sacral cord with parasympathetic nuclei B
Fig. 4.15 Autonomic nervous system A Sympathetic nervous system. B Parasympathetic nervous system. Table 4.9 Parasympathetic pathways Neuron
Location of cell body (soma)
Upper motor neuron
Hypothalamus: The cell bodies of autonomic upper motor neurons are located in the hypothalamus. Their axons descend via white matter tracts.
Preganglionic neuron
The parasympathetic nervous system is divided into two parts (cranial and sacral), based on the location of the preganglionic parasympathetic neurons. Brainstem cranial nerve nuclei: The axons of these secondary neurons leave the CNS as the motor root of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X.
Spinal cord (S2–S4): The axons of these secondary neurons leave the CNS (S2–S4) as the pelvic splanchnic nerves. These nerves travel in the dorsal rami of the S2–S4 spinal nerves and are distributed via the sympathetic plexuses to the pelvic viscera.
Postganglionic neuron
Cranial nerve parasympathetic ganglia: The parasympathetic cranial nerves of the head each have at least one ganglion: • CN III: Ciliary ganglion • CN VII: Pterygopalatine ganglion and submandibular ganglion • CN IX: Otic ganglion • CN X: Small unnamed ganglia close to target structures
Distribution of postganglionic fibers
Parasympathetic fibers course with other fiber types to their targets. In the head, the postganglionic fibers from the pterygopalatine ganglion (CN VII) and otic ganglion (CN IX) are distributed via branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). Postganglionic fibers from the ciliary ganglion (CN III) course with sympathetic and sensory fibers in the short ciliary nerves (preganglionic fibers travel with the somatomotor fibers of CN III). In the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, preganglionic parasympathetic fibers from CN X and the pelvic splanchnic nerves combine with postganglionic sympathetic fibers to form plexuses (e.g., cardiac, pulmonary, esophageal).
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Peripheral Nerves & Nerve Lesions
Brachial plexus (C5–T1)
Cervical spinal nerves (C1– C8)
Thoracic spinal nerves (T1–T12)
Lumbar spinal nerves (L1–L5)
Lumbosacral plexus (L1–S4) Sacral spinal nerves (S1–S5)
Fig. 4.16 Peripheral nerves Peripheral nerves emerge from the CNS (brain and spinal cord) at various levels. These nerves may convey afferent (sensory) and/or efferent (motor) neurons to regions of the body. The patterns of innervation can be understood through the embryonic migration of cell populations (see p. 60). The least invasive way of exploring nerve territories is by examining the sensory innervation of the skin. The patterns of cutaneous sensory innervation may be used to determine the level of nerve lesions (see Fig. 4.18). Cutaneous sensory innervation: With the exception of the face (see Fig. 4.17), the body receives cutaneous sensory innervation (touch, pain, and temperature) from branches of the spinal nerves. Sensory fibers emerge from the spinal cord as the dorsal root, which combines with the ventral (motor) root in the intervertebral foramen to form the mixed spinal nerve. Embryonic development (see p. 60): During development, each spinal nerve is associated with a somite pair on either side of the spinal cord. Each somite divides into a dermatome (cutaneous), myotome (muscular), and sclerotome (vertebral). As these cells migrate, the spinal nerves migrate with them. Due to migration patterns, the regions of the body can be divided into two groups: • Trunk: In the trunk, the spinal nerves course reasonably horizontally to innervate a narrow strip of bone, muscle, and skin corresponding to their spinal cord level (e.g., intercostal nerves). This is due to the segmental migration of the trunk muscles during development. In this region, the peripheral nerves are therefore the ventral and dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. They will give off direct cutaneous branches. • Limbs: In the limbs, the migration of the muscle cells causes the spinal nerves to form plexuses (cervical, brachial, and lumbosacral). These plexuses subsequently give off peripheral nerves, which innervate specific regions of the body (see Fig. 4.18). Peripheral nerves in the limbs may be derived from multiple spinal cord levels. Note: Motor lesions cause paralysis of the innervated muscle. Depending on the level of the lesion, this may or may not coincide with sensory loss.
Caudal Nuclear columns of CN V spinal nucleus
CN V1
Middle Cranial
CN V2 Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
CN V3
A
Fig. 4.17 Cutaneous sensory innervation of the face Unlike the rest of the skin, the face is derived from the pharyngeal arches. Like all structures derived from the pharyngeal arches, it receives innervation from cranial nerves. The trigeminal nerve (CN V) provides general sensory innervation (touch, pain, and temperature) to most of the face. If a nerve lesion occurs in the peripheral nerve (CN V1, CN V2, or CN V3), the pattern of general sensory loss will resemble
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Cervical plexus (ventral rami of spinal nerves)
B
B. If a nerve lesion occurs within the CNS (in the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve), the pattern of sensory loss will resemble A. The concentric pattern corresponds to the organization of the spinal nucleus: the higher (more cranial) portion of the nucleus innervates the periphery, and the lower (more caudal) portion innervates the center of the face.
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Sensory dorsal root
Spinal nerve in the intervertebral foramen
Peripheral nerve
Cutaneous nerve
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Maximum area supplied by a cutaneous nerve
Autonomous area of a cutaneous nerve Overlapping territories of two cutaneous nerves
A
Plexus
Greater occipital nerve
C2
Lesser occipital nerve
C3 C4 T2
C5
Axillary nerve T1
T6
Dorsal rami of spinal nerves
Radial nerve
C6 L1
Ulnar nerve
S5 C7
C8
Femoral nerve
L3 S1
Saphenous nerve
Tibial nerve
L5
B
Fig. 4.18 Cutaneous innervation and nerve lesions Cutaneous sensory innervation occurs via cutaneous branches of peripheral nerves (A). In the trunk, the peripheral nerves are the rami of the spinal nerves. In the limbs (neck, upper limb, and lower limb), the peripheral nerves are formed by nerve plexuses, in which the ventral rami fibers from multiple spinal cord levels combine (e.g., the femoral nerve contains fibers from L2–L4). Lesions can occur at the segmental (dark gray), peripheral (light gray), or cutaneous (white) level. Segmental (radicular) sensory innervation (B): The superficial skin area corresponding to a specific spinal cord root is called a dermatome. Lesions of the dorsal root of a spinal nerve or of the corresponding sensory nuclei in the spinal cord (dark gray area in A) will cause this pattern of sensory loss. For example, a herniated disk between the C4 and
C
C5 vertebrae may press against the spinal cord at the C6 level. This will cause sensory loss in the C6 dermatome (lateral forearm and hand). Peripheral sensory innervation (C): Lesions of a peripheral nerve (light gray area in A) will produce sensory loss in its cutaneous territories. (Note: These are not necessarily contiguous.) For example, chronic use of crutches may compress the radial nerve (which contains fibers from C5–T1). This will result in sensory loss in the territory of the radial nerve (i.e., posterior arm and forearm [dark red]). Contrast this to sensory loss of the C5–T1 dermatomes (i.e., no cutaneous sensation in entire arm). Cutaneous sensory innervation: Lesions of a cutaneous nerve (white area in A) will affect only the territory of that branch (see individual lines in C).
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Cranial Nerves: Overview Table 4.10 Cranial nerves Cranial nerve
CN I
Attachment to brain
Fiber type (Table 4.11) Afferent
CN II
Efferent
CN I: Olfactory n.
Telencephalon
CN II: Optic n.
Diencephalon
CN IV
CN III: Oculomotor n.
Mesencephalon
CN VI
CN III
CN V
CN IV: Trochlear n.
CN VII
CN V: Trigeminal n.
Pons
CN VIII
CN VI: Abducent n.
Pontomedullary junction
CN IX CN X
CN VII: Facial n.
CN XI
CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear n. CN XII
CN IX: Glossopharyngeal n.
Medulla oblongata
Fig. 4.19 Cranial nerves Whereas the 31 spinal nerve pairs emerge from the spinal cord, the 12 pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain at various levels (Table 4.10). They are numbered according to the order of their emergence. (Note: Cranial nerves I and II are not true peripheral nerves but are instead extensions of the telencephalon [CN I] and diencephalon [CN II].) Unlike the spinal nerves, which each have a dorsal sensory and a ventral motor root, the cranial nerves may contain afferent (sensory) and/or efferent (motor) fibers. The types of fibers (Table 4.11) correspond to the function of the nerve (Table 4.12).
CN X: Vagus n. CN XI: Accessory n. CN XII: Hypoglossal n.
Table 4.11 Cranial nerve fiber types The seven types of cranial nerve fibers are classified according to three criteria (reflected in the three-letter codes): 1. General (G) vs. Special (S), 2. Somatic (S) vs. Visceral (V), 3. Afferent (A) vs. Efferent (E). Each fiber type has an associated color used throughout this chapter. Afferent (sensory) fibers
General fibers
Special fibers
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Efferent (motor) fibers
GSA
General somatosensory
General sensation (touch, pain, and temperature) from somite derivatives (skin, skeletal muscle, and mucosa)
GSE
Somatomotor
Motor innervation to striated (skeletal) muscle derived from somites
GVA
General viscerosensory
General sensation from viscera (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands)
GVE
Parasympathetic
Motor innervation to viscera (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, etc.)
SSA
Special somatosensory
Sight, hearing, and balance
SVA
Special viscerosensory
Taste and smell
SVE
Branchiomotor
Fibers to striated (skeletal) muscle derived from the branchial arches
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Table 4.12 Cranial nerve function Cranial nerve
Passage through skull
Fiber A
Sensory territory (afferent) / Target organ (efferent)
E
CN I: Olfactory n. (p. 70)
Ethmoid bone (cribriform plate)
Smell: special viscerosensory fibers from olfactory mucosa of nasal cavity
CN II: Optic n. (p. 71)
Optic canal
Sight: special somatosensory fibers from retina
CN III: Oculomotor n. (pp. 72–73)
Superior orbital fissure
Somatomotor innervation: to levator palpebrae superioris and four extraocular mm. (superior, medial, and inferior rectus, and inferior oblique) Parasympathetic innervation: preganglionic fibers to ciliary ganglion; postganglionic fibers to intraocular mm. (ciliary mm. and pupillary sphincter)
CN IV: Trochlear n. (pp. 72–73)
Superior orbital fissure
Somatomotor innervation: to one extraocular m. (superior oblique)
CN V: Trigeminal n. (pp. 74–75)
CN V1 (pp. 76–77)
Superior orbital fissure
General somatic sensation: from orbit, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and face
CN V2 (pp. 78–79)
Foramen rotundum
General somatic sensation: from nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, superior nasopharynx, upper oral cavity, internal skull, and face
CN V3 (pp. 80–81)
Foramen ovale
General somatic sensation: from lower oral cavity, ear, internal skull, and face Branchiomotor innervation: to the eight mm. derived from the 1st branchial arch (including mm. of mastication)
CN VI: Abducent n. (pp. 72–73)
Superior orbital fissure
Somatomotor innervation: to one extraocular m. (lateral rectus)
CN VII: Facial n. (pp. 82–85)
Internal acoustic meatus
General somatic sensation: from external ear Taste: special viscerosensory fibers from tongue (anterior ⅔) and soft palate Parasympathetic innervation: preganglionic fibers to submandibular and pterygopalatine ganglia; postganglionic fibers to glands (e.g., lacrimal, submandibular, sublingual, palatine) and mucosa of nasal cavity, palate, and paranasal sinuses Branchiomotor innervation: to mm. derived from the 2nd branchial arch (including mm. of facial expression, stylohyoid, and stapedius)
CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear n. (pp. 86–87)
Internal acoustic meatus
Hearing and balance: special somatosensory fibers from cochlea (hearing) and vestibular apparatus (balance)
CN IX: Glossopharyngeal n. (pp. 88–89)
Jugular foramen
General somatic sensation: from oral cavity, pharynx, tongue (posterior ⅓), and middle ear Taste: special visceral sensation from tongue (posterior ⅓) General visceral sensation: from carotid body and sinus Parasympathetic innervation: preganglionic fibers to otic ganglion; postganglionic fibers to parotid gland and inferior labial glands Branchiomotor innervation: to the one m. derived from the 3rd branchial arch (stylopharyngeus)
CN X: Vagus n. (pp. 90–91)
Jugular foramen
General somatic sensation: from ear and internal skull Taste: special visceral sensation from epiglottis General visceral sensation: from aortic body, laryngopharynx and larynx, respiratory tract, and thoracoabdominal viscera Parasympathetic innervation: preganglionic fibers to small, unnamed ganglia near target organs or embedded in smooth muscle walls; postganglionic fibers to glands, mucosa, and smooth muscle of pharynx, larynx, and thoracic and abdominal viscera Branchiomotor innervation: to mm. derived from the 4th and 6th branchial arches; also distributes branchiomotor fibers from CN XI
CN XI: Accessory n. (p. 92)
Jugular foramen
CN XII: Hypoglossal n. (p. 93)
Hypoglossal canal
Somatomotor innervation: to trapezius and sternocleidomastoid Branchiomotor innervation: to laryngeal mm. (except cricothyroid) via pharyngeal plexus and CN X (Note: The branchiomotor fibers from the cranial root of CN XI are distributed by CN X [vagus n.].) Somatomotor innervation: to all intrinsic and extrinsic lingual mm. (except palatoglossus)
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Cranial Nerve Nuclei Fig. 4.20 Cranial nerve nuclei: topographic arrangement Cross sections through the spinal cord and brainstem, superior view. Yellow = Somatic sensation. Green = Visceral sensation. Blue = Visceromotor function. Red = Somatomotor function. The nuclei of the spinal and cranial nerves have a topographic arrangement based on embryonic migration of neuron populations. A Embryonic spinal cord: Initially, the developing spinal cord demonstrates a dorsoventral arrangement in which the sensory (afferent) neurons are dorsal and the motor (efferent) neurons are ventral. This pattern is continued into the adult spinal cord: the cell bodies of afferent neurons (generally secondary neurons) are located in the dorsal horn, and the cell bodies of efferent neurons (lower motor neurons and preganglionic autonomic neurons) are located in the ventral and lateral horns, respectively. B Early embryonic brainstem: Sensory neurons (in the alar plate) migrate laterally, whereas motor nuclei (in the basal plate) migrate medially. This produces a mediolateral arrangement of nuclear columns (functionally similar nuclei stacked longitudinally). C Adult brainstem: The four longitudinal nuclear columns have a mediolateral arrangement (from medial to lateral): somatic efferent, visceral efferent, visceral afferent, and somatic afferent.
Dorsal
Roof plate Alar plate
Basal plate Floor plate
Ventral
Nuclei
Cranial nerve
Somatic afferent nuclear column (yellow) General somatosensory: Three nuclei that are primarily associated with CN V but receive fibers from other nerves.
• Mesencephalic nucleus • Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus • Spinal nucleus
CN V (via trigeminal ganglion) CN IX (via superior ganglion) CN X (via superior ganglion) Possibly CN VII (via geniculate ganglion)
Special somatosensory: Six nuclei that are associated with CN VIII.* The nerve and nuclei are divided into a vestibular part (balance) and a cochlear part (hearing).
• Medial, lateral, superior, and inferior vestibular nuclei
CN VIII, vestibular root (via vestibular ganglion)
• Anterior and posterior cochlear nuclei
CN VIII, cochlear root (via spiral ganglia)
General and special viscerosensory: One nuclear complex in the brainstem that consists of a superior (taste) and inferior (general visceral sensation) part and is associated with three cranial nerves.**
• Nucleus of the solitary tract, inferior part
CN IX (via inferior ganglion)
• Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part
CN VII (via geniculate ganglion)
CN X (via inferior ganglion) CN IX (via inferior ganglion) CN X (via inferior ganglion)
Floor of the fourth ventricle (rhomboid fossa)
Visceral motor nuclear column (blue) Parasympathetic (general visceromotor): Four nuclei that each have an associated cranial nerve and one or more ganglia.
B
Medial
Nucleus of solitary tract, upper part
Dorsal vagal nucleus
Lateral
Nucleus of solitary tract, lower part Nuclei of vestibulocochlear nerve
Nucleus of hypoglossal nerve
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Nucleus ambiguus
Vagus nerve C
There is not a 1-to-1 relationship between cranial nerve fiber types and cranial nerve nuclei. Some nerves derive similar fibers from multiple nuclei (e.g., CN V and CN VIII). Other nuclei are associated with multiple nerves. Note: The five sensory cranial nerves have eight associated sensory ganglia (cell bodies of first-order sensory neurons). The three parasympathetic cranial nerves have four associated autonomic ganglia (cell bodies of postganglionic neurons).
Visceral afferent nuclear column (green) Central canal
A
Table 4.13 Cranial nerve nuclei
Olive
Hypoglossal nerve
• Edinger-Westphal nucleus
CN III (via ciliary ganglion)
• Superior salivatory nucleus
CN VII (via submandibular and pterygopalatine ganglia)
• Inferior salivatory nucleus
CN IX (via otic ganglion)
• Dorsal motor nucleus
CN X (via myriad unnamed ganglia near target organs)
Branchiomotor (special visceromotor): Three nuclei that innervate the muscles of the pharyngeal arches via four cranial nerves.
• Trigeminal motor nucleus
CN V
• Facial nucleus
CN VII
• Nucleus ambiguus
CN IX CN X (with fibers from CN XI)
Somatomotor nuclear column (red)
Five nuclei, each associated with a separate nerve. • Nucleus of the oculomotor n.
CN III
• Nucleus of the trochlear n.
CN IV
• Nucleus of the abducent n.
CN VI
• Nucleus of the accessory n.
CN XI
• Nucleus of the hypoglossal n.
CN XII
*There are no brainstem nuclei associated with CN II because it emerges from the diencephalon. **The special visceral afferent fibers in the olfactory nerve (CN I) project to the telencephalon.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Edinger-Westphal nucleus (CN III) Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (CN III) Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Nucleus of trochlear nerve (CN IV) Trigeminal motor nucleus (CN V)
CN V
Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Nucleus of abducent nerve (CN VI)
Cochlear nucleus of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Facial motor nucleus (CN VII)
Vestibular nuclei of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Nucleus of hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Superior salivatory nucleus (CN VII) Inferior salivatory nucleus (CN IX)
CN VII CN VIII
CN VI
CN IX CN X
CN XI
Nucleus ambiguus (CN IX, X, XI)
Nucleus of the solitary tract (CN VII, IX, X)
Dorsal motor nucleus (CN X)
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Nucleus of accessory nerve (CN XI)
A
CN IV
B
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve Visceral oculomotor nucleus
Olfactory tract
Nucleus of trochlear nerve Optic chiasm
Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Motor nucleus of trigeminal nerve Nucleus of abducent nerve
Superior salivatory nucleus
Dorsal vagal nucleus
Inferior salivatory nucleus Vestibulocochlear nerve
Nucleus of hypoglossal nerve
Nucleus ambiguus
Nucleus of solitary tract
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
General somatic efferent nuclei General visceral efferent nuclei Special visceral efferent nuclei General somatic afferent nuclei Special somatic afferent nuclei
Spinal nucleus of accessory nerve
General visceral afferent nuclei Special visceral afferent nuclei C
Fig. 4.21 Cranial nerve nuclei: location A,B Posterior view of brainstem (cerebellum removed). C Left lateral view of midsagittal section. Note: The cranial nerves are numbered and described according to the level of their emergence from the brainstem. This does not necessarily correspond to the level of the cranial nerve nuclei associated with the nerve.
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CN I & II: Olfactory & Optic Nerves Neither the olfactory nerve nor the optic nerve is a true peripheral nerve. They are extensions of the brain (telencephalon and diencephalon, respectively). They are therefore both sheathed in meninges (removed here) and contain CNS-specific cells (oligodendrocytes and microglia).
Fig. 4.22 Olfactory nerve (CN I) A Left lateral view of left nasal septum and right lateral nasal wall (the posterior part of the nasal septum is cut). B Inferior view of brain. (*Shaded structures are deep to the basal surface.) The olfactory nerve relays smell information (special visceral afferent) to the cortex via a classical three-neuron pathway. 1. First-order sensory neurons are located in the mucosa of the upper nasal septum and superior nasal concha (A). These bipolar neurons form 20 or so fiber bundles collectively called the olfactory nerves (CN I). As the “olfactory region” is limited by the extent of these fibers (2–4 cm2), the nasal conchae create turbulence, which ensures that air (and olfactory stimuli) passes over this area. The thin, unmyelinated olfactory fibers enter the anterior cranial fossa via the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. 2. Second-order sensory neurons are located in the olfactory bulb (B). Their axons course in the olfactory tract to the medial or lateral olfactory striae. These axons synapse in the amygdala, the prepiriform area, or neighboring areas (see p. 152). 3. Third-order neurons relay the information to the cerebral cortex.
Olfactory bulb (second-order sensory neurons)
Olfactory tract
Frontal sinus
Cribriform plate (ethmoid bone)
Olfactory fibers (CN I, first-order sensory neurons)
Superior concha Nasal septum (cut)
Nasal septum
Middle concha
A
The first-order neurons have a limited lifespan (several months) and are continuously replenished from a pool of precursor cells in the olfactory mucosa. The regenerative capacity of the olfactory mucosa diminishes with age. Injuries to the cribriform plate may damage the meningeal covering of the olfactory fibers, causing olfactory disturbances and cerebrospinal fluid leakage (“runny nose” after head trauma). See p. 153 for the mechanisms of smell.
Medial olfactory stria Lateral olfactory stria
Olfactory bulb (secondorder sensory neurons) Olfactory tract
Anterior perforated substance Semilunar gyrus Ambient gyrus
B
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Prepiriform area* Amygdala*
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Fig. 4.23 Optic nerve (CN II) A Inferior view of brain. B Left lateral view of opened orbit. C Left posterolateral view of brainstem. The optic nerve (special somatic afferent) relays sight information from the retina to the visual cortex (striate area) via a four-neuron pathway (see p. 134). First-order neurons (rods and cones) in the retina translate incoming photons into impulses, which are relayed to second-order bipolar neurons and third-order ganglion cells. These retinal ganglion cells combine to form the optic nerve (CN II). The optic nerve passes from the orbit into the middle cranial fossa via the optic canal (the optic canal is medial to the superior orbital fissure by which the other cranial nerves enter the orbit, B). Ninety percent of the third-order neurons in the optic nerve synapse in the lateral geniculate body (C), which then projects to the striate area. Ten percent of the third-order neurons synapse in the mesencephalon. This nongeniculate part of the visual pathway functions in unconscious and reflex action. See p. 133 for the mechanisms of sight.
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Optic nerve (CN II)
Optic chiasm Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body Medial geniculate body Optic radiation
Occipital pole
A
Optic nerve (CN II) passing through optic canal
Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body
Thalamus
Optic chiasm
Optic tract
B
Ophthalmic nerve (CN V1) passing through superior orbital fissure
Optic nerve (CN II)
Superior colliculus Optic chiasm
C
Mesencephalon
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CN III, IV & VI: Oculomotor, Trochlear & Abducent Nerves Cerebral peduncles of mesencephalon
Cerebral aqueduct
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Edinger-Westphal nucleus
Nucleus of trochlear nerve
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve
Pons
Tectum Edinger-Westphal nucleus
Central gray substance
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve
Red nucleus Substantia nigra
Cerebral peduncle
B
Abducent nerve (CN VI) Nucleus of abducent nerve
Medulla oblongata
Table 4.15 Trochlear nerve (CN IV) Nucleus and fiber distribution Somatomotor (red)
A
Fig. 4.24 Cranial nerves of the extraocular muscles A Anterior view of brainstem. B Superior view of cross section through the mesencephalon. CN III, IV, and VI are the three cranial nerves that collectively innervate the six extraocular muscles. (Note: CN III is also involved with the parasympathetic supply to the intraocular muscles.) CN III and IV arise from nuclei in the mesencephalon (midbrain, the highest level of the brainstem) and emerge at roughly the same level. CN VI arises from nuclei in the pons and emerges from the brainstem at the pontomedullary junction. Table 4.14 Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Nuclei, ganglion, and fiber distribution Somatomotor (red)
Nucleus of the oculomotor nerve (mesencephalon)
Lower motor neurons innervate: • Levator palpebrae superioris • Superior, medial, and inferior rectus muscles • Inferior oblique
Parasympathetic (blue)
Edinger-Westphal nucleus (mesencephalon)
Preganglionic neurons travel in the inferior division of CN III Postganglionic neurons in the ciliary ganglion innervate: Intraocular muscles (pupillary sphincter and ciliary muscle)
Course
CN III emerges from the mesencephalon, the highest level of the brainstem. It runs anteriorly through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus to enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. After passing through the common tendinous ring, CN III divides into a superior and an inferior division. Lesions
Lesions cause oculomotor palsy of various extents. Complete oculomotor palsy is marked by paralysis of all the innervated muscles, causing: • Ptosis (drooping of eyelid) = disabled levator palpebrae superioris • Inferolateral deviation of affected eye, causing diplopia (double vision) = disabled extraocular muscles • Mydriasis (pupil dilation) = disabled pupillary sphincter • Accommodation difficulties (difficulty focusing) = disabled ciliary muscle
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Nucleus of the trochlear nerve (mesencephalon)
Lower motor neurons innervate: • Superior oblique
Course
CN IV is the only cranial nerve to emerge from the dorsal side (posterior surface) of the brainstem. After emerging from the mesencephalon, it courses anteriorly around the cerebral peduncle. CN IV then enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, passing lateral to the common tendinous ring. It has the longest intradural course of the three extraocular motor nerves. Lesions
Lesions cause trochlear nerve palsy: • Superomedial deviation of the affected eye, causing diplopia = disabled superior oblique Note: Because CN IV crosses to the opposite side, lesions close to the nucleus result in trochlear nerve palsy on the opposite side (contralateral palsy). Lesions past the site where the nerve crosses the midline cause palsy on the same side (ipsilateral palsy).
Table 4.16 Abducent nerve (CN VI) Nucleus and fiber distribution Somatomotor (red)
Nucleus of the abducent nerve (pons)
Lower motor neurons innervate: • Lateral rectus
Course
CN VI follows a long extradural path. It emerges from the pontomedullary junction (inferior border of pons) and runs through the cavernous sinus in close proximity to the internal carotid artery. CN VI enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and courses through the common tendinous ring. Lesions
Lesions cause abducent nerve palsy: • Medial deviation of the affected eye, causing diplopia = disabled lateral rectus Note: The path of CN VI through the cavernous sinus exposes it to injury. Cavernous sinus thrombosis, aneurysms of the internal carotid artery, meningitis, and subdural hemorrhage may all compress the nerve, resulting in nerve palsy. Excessive fall in CSF pressure (e.g., due to lumbar puncture) may cause the brainstem to descend, exerting traction on the nerve.
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Short ciliary nerves
Levator palpebrae superioris
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Superior rectus
Trochlea
Ciliary ganglion
Superior oblique
Common tendinous ring
CN III Mesencephalon
Lateral rectus (cut) Pons
Pontomedullary junction CN VI
A
Inferior oblique
CN IV Internal carotid artery and plexus Lateral rectus (cut) Supraorbital nerve (cut)
CN III, inferior division
Sympathetic root (postganglionic fibers from superior cervical ganglion via internal carotid plexus)
Parasympathetic root (preganglionic fibers from CN III)
Trochlea
Levator palpebrae superioris
Superior oblique
Superior rectus
Medial rectus
Lacrimal gland
Inferior rectus
Lateral rectus
Frontal nerve (CN V1)
CN VI
CN IV
CN IV
Superior ophthalmic vein
Levator palpebrae superioris
Superior rectus Lacrimal nerve (CN V1)
Superior oblique
CN III
Optic nerve (CN II)
Optic nerve (CN II)
Medial rectus CN III Inferior rectus
B
Fig. 4.25 Nerves supplying the ocular muscles Right orbit. A Lateral view with temporal wall removed. B Superior view of opened orbit. C Anterior view. Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, lateral to the optic canal (CN IV then passes lateral to the common tendinous ring, and CN III and VI pass through it). All three nerves supply somatomotor innervation to the extraocular muscles. The ciliary ganglion communicates three types of fibers (parasympathetic, sympathetic, and sensory) to and from the intraocular muscles via the short ciliary nerves. (Only parasympathetics synapse in the ciliary ganglion. All other fibers pass through without synapsing.) The ciliary ganglion therefore has three roots: • Parasympathetic (motor) root: Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers travel with the inferior division of CN III to the ciliary ganglion. Only the parasympathetic fibers synapse in the ciliary ganglion (the other
C
Lateral rectus
CN VI
Inferior oblique
two fiber types pass through the ganglion without synapsing). • Sympathetic root: Postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion travel on the internal carotid artery to enter the superior orbital fissure, where they may course along the ophthalmic artery to enter the short ciliary nerves via the ciliary ganglion. • Sensory root: Sensory fibers (from the eyeball) travel to the nasociliary nerve (CN V1) via the ciliary ganglion. The short ciliary nerves therefore contain sensory fibers from the eyeball and postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers from the superior cervical and ciliary ganglion, respectively. Note: Sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion may also travel with the nasociliary nerve (CN V1) and reach the intraocular muscles via the long ciliary nerves.
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CN V: Trigeminal Nerve, Nuclei & Divisions
Trigeminal ganglion (sensory)
CN V1 (ophthalmic division)
B
CN V2 (maxillary division)
D
C
CN V3 (mandibular division)
A
E
Fig. 4.26 Trigeminal nerve divisions and distribution A Left lateral view of trigeminal divisions. B–D Somatosensory nerve territories. E Branchiomotor nerve territories. The trigeminal nerve is the major sensory nerve of the face. It has three major divisions (A) that convey general somatic sensation (touch, pain,
and proprioception) from the face (B) and select mucosa (C and D). The trigeminal nerve also contains branchiomotor fibers that innervate the eight muscles derived from the first branchial arch (E).
Table 4.17 Trigeminal nerve (CN V) divisions and distribution CN V consists of a large sensory root and a small motor root, which emerge from the brainstem separately in the middle cranial fossa at the level of the pons. Sensory root Fibers
General somatosensory (yellow): Convey general sensation (touch, pain, and temperature) from the sensory territories of CN V (see Fig. 4.26). The cell bodies of these first-order pseudounipolar neurons are primarily located in the trigeminal ganglion.
Course
The sensory root is formed by three divisions that unite as the trigeminal ganglion in the middle cranial fossa.
Nuclei
Afferent axons from all three divisions synapse on three brainstem nuclei located in the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata of the spinal cord.
Division
Distribution
CN V1 (ophthalmic division)
From orbit via superior orbital fissure (see p. 76)
CN V2 (maxillary division)
From pterygopalatine fossa via foramen rotundum (see p. 94)
CN V3 (mandibular division)
From inferior skull base via foramen ovale (see pp. 80, 94)
Nuclei
Sensation
Mesencephalic nucleus
Proprioception (see Table 4.18)
Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus
Touch
Spinal nucleus
Pain and temperature
• • • •
• • • •
Motor root
Masseter Temporalis Lateral pterygoid Medial pterygoid
Fibers
Branchiomotor (purple): Conveys motor fibers to the eight muscles derived from the 1st branchial (pharyngeal) arch:
Course
The motor root emerges separately from the pons and unites with CN V3 in the foramen ovale.
Nucleus
Motor nucleus (located in pons)
Tensor veli palatini Tensor tympani Mylohyoid Digastric, anterior belly
“Scaffolding”: CN V is used as scaffolding for the distribution of autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and taste fibers from other cranial nerves. Parasympathetic
All three branches of CN V are used to convey postganglionic parasympathetic fibers from parasympathetic ganglia. • CN VII: Preganglionic fibers from CN VII synapse in the pterygopalatine or the submandibular ganglion, associated with CN V2 and CN V3, respectively. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers then travel with the sensory branches of CN V to reach their targets. • CN IX: Preganglionic fibers synapse in the otic ganglion; postganglionic fibers are distributed along branches of CN V3.
Sympathetic
Postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion may also be distributed by the sensory branches of CN V.
Taste
Taste fibers from the presulcal tongue travel via the lingual nerve (CN V3) to the chorda tympani (CN VII) and nuclei of CN VII.
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Ophthalmic division (CN V1)
Mesencephalic nucleus
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Table 4.18 Trigeminal nerve nuclei and lesions Nuclei
Trigeminal ganglion
Somatosensory (yellow)
Maxillary division (CN V2)
Afferent neurons from the sensory territories of all three trigeminal divisions synapse in three brainstem nuclei named for their location.
Mandibular division (CN V3)
Nucleus
Location
Sensation
Mesencephalic nucleus
Mesencephalon
Proprioception (Note: The first-order sensory cell bodies of proprioceptive fibers associated with CN V have their cell bodies located in the mesencephalic nucleus.)
Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus
Pons
Touch
Spinal nucleus
Medulla oblongata
Pain and temperature
Trigeminal nerve (CN V) Motor nucleus Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus
Spinal nucleus
Note: These sensory nuclei contain the cell bodies of second-order neurons. The mesencephalic nucleus is an exception — it contains the cell bodies of first-order pseudounipolar neurons, which have migrated into the brain.
A
Mesencephalic nucleus
Fourth ventricle
Pons
Principal nucleus
Branchiomotor (purple)
Lower motor neurons are located in the motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. They innervate the eight muscles derived from the 1st branchial arch: • • • •
Motor nucleus
• • • •
Masseter Temporalis Lateral pterygoid Medial pterygoid
Tensor veli palatini Tensor tympani Mylohyoid Digastric, anterior belly
Lesions
Trigeminal nerve (CN V) B
Fig. 4.27 Trigeminal nerve nuclei A Anterior view of brainstem. B Superior view of cross section through the pons. Afferent neurons in the trigeminal nerve divisions convey general somatic sensation (touch, pain, and temperature) to the CNS. The neurons from all three divisions synapse in three brainstem nuclei named for their locations (see Table 4.18): • Mesencephalic nucleus • Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus • Spinal nucleus Efferent fibers arise from lower motor neurons in the motor nucleus. These fibers exit at the motor root of the trigeminal nerve and unite with the mandibular division (CN V3) in the foramen ovale. The branchiomotor fibers innervate the muscles of the first branchial arch.
Fig. 4.28 Trigeminal nerve lesions Lesions of the trigeminal nerve divisions (peripheral nerves) will produce sensory loss following the pattern in Fig. 4.26B and potentially motor paralysis. Lesions of the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal cord will produce sensory loss (pain and temperature) in the pattern shown here (Sölder lines). These concentric circles correspond to the somatotopic organization of the spinal cord nucleus: more cranial portions receive axons from the center of the face, and more caudal portions receive axons from the periphery.
Traumatic lesions of the trigeminal nerve may cause sensory loss in corresponding territories or paralysis to the target muscles. Note: The afferent fibers of the trigeminal nerve compose the afferent limb of the corneal reflex (reflex eyelid closure). • Trigeminal neuralgia is a disorder of CN V causing intense, crippling pain in the sensory territories.
Mesencephalic nucleus
Principal (pontine) sensory nucleus
Spinal nucleus B
Sölder lines
A
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CN V1: Trigeminal Nerve, Ophthalmic Division Fig. 4.29 Ophthalmic division (CN V1) of the trigeminal nerve Lateral view of the partially opened right orbit. The ophthalmic nerve divides into three major branches before reaching the superior orbital fissure: the lacrimal (L), frontal (F), and nasociliary (N) nerves. These nerves run roughly in the lateral, middle, and medial portions of the upper orbit, respectively. The lacrimal and frontal nerves enter the orbit superior to the common tendinous ring, and the nasociliary nerve enters through it. See Table 4.19 for labels.
Superior orbital fissure (opened)
F
Supratrochlear artery Cribriform plate with anterior ethmoidal artery N4
with posterior ethmoidal artery N3
N
CN IV A
Superior ophthamic vein
F2
N5
CN V1
Trigeminal ganglion CN V3
N1
N
Ciliary ganglion
F1 ,
medial and lateral branches with supraorbital artery
N4 N3
Short ciliary nerves with short posterior ciliary arteries
L
N2
CN II
CN VI
F
F1
N5
Superior rectus
Ophthalmic vein
L with lacrimal gland
Levator palpebrae superioris and superior rectus (cut)
Levator palpebrae superioris
Lacrimal gland and artery
Communicating branch with CN V2
Short ciliary nerves
F2 F2
Fig. 4.30 Ophthalmic nerve divisions in the orbit Superior view of orbit. (Removed: Bony roof, periorbita, and periorbital fat.) See Table 4.19 for labels. A Lacrimal, frontal, and nasociliary divisions. B Nasociliary nerve and ciliary ganglion. (Removed: Superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris.) The extraocular muscles receive somatomotor innervation from the oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), and abducent (CN VI) nerves. The intraocular muscles receive autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) innervation via the short and long ciliary nerves. Sympa-
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N2
M
CN V2
N5 with trochlea
N3
CN II in optic canal
F1
N4
N F
(cut)
Lacrimal gland and artery L
Inferior ophthalmic vein CN VI Ciliary ganglion N1
CN III
B
thetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion ascend on the internal carotid artery and travel in two manners: they may join the nasociliary nerve (CN V1), which distributes them as the long ciliary nerves, or they may course along the ophthalmic artery to enter the ciliary ganglion as the sympathetic root. The ciliary ganglion also receives parasympathetic fibers from CN III (via the parasympathetic root). The ganglion distributes these sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers via the short ciliary nerves. The short ciliary nerves contain sensory fibers, which enter the nasociliary nerve via the sensory root of the ciliary ganglion.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.19 Ophthalmic nerve (CN V1) The ophthalmic nerve (CN V1) is a sensory nerve* that conveys fibers from structures of the superior facial skeleton to the trigeminal ganglion. CN V1 gives off one branch in the middle cranial fossa before dividing into three major branches, which pass through the superior orbital fissure into the orbit. The lacrimal, frontal, and nasociliary nerves travel in the lateral, middle, and medial portions of the upper orbit, respectively. M
Meningeal n.
Sensory: Dura mater of the middle cranial fossa.
L
Lacrimal n.
The smallest of the three major branches, the lacrimal nerve runs in the superolateral orbit.
Opening
Superior orbital fissure (above the common tendinous ring).
Course
Runs (with the lacrimal artery) along the superior surface of the lateral rectus, through the lacrimal gland and orbital septum to the skin of the upper eyelid.
Innervation
Sensory: Upper eyelid (skin and conjunctiva) and lacrimal gland. Sensory and parasympathetic: Lacrimal gland. Postganglionic parasympathetic secretomotor fibers from the pterygopalatine ganglion of the facial nerve (CN VII) travel with the zygomatic and zygomaticotemporal nerves (CN V2). They enter the sensory lacrimal nerve (CN V1) via a communicating branch and are distributed to the gland. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers follow a similar path.
F
Frontal n.
The largest of the three major branches, the lacrimal nerve runs in the middle of the upper orbit.
Opening
Superior orbital fissure (above the common tendinous ring).
Course and branches
Runs along the superior surface of the levator palpebrae superioris, below the periosteum. At roughly the level of the posterior eyeball, the frontal nerve divides into two terminal branches:
Innervation
N
Nasociliary n.
F1
Supraorbital n.
Continues on the superior surface of the levator palpebrae superioris and passes through the supraorbital foramen (notch).
F2
Supratrochlear n.
Courses anteromedially with the supratrochlear artery toward the trochlea (tendon of superior oblique) and passes through the frontal notch.
Sensory: Upper eyelid (skin and conjunctiva) and the skin of the forehead (both branches). The supraorbital n. also receives fibers from frontal sinus mucosa; the supratrochlear n. communicates with the infratrochlear nerve. The nasociliary nerve runs in the middle and medial parts of the upper orbit.
Opening
Superior orbital fissure (via the common tendinous ring).
Course and branches
Runs medially (across the optic nerve [CN II]) and then anteriorly between the superior oblique and medial rectus. Gives off three branches (two sensory and one sympathetic) before dividing into two terminal branches (anterior ethmoid and infratrochlear nerves). N1 Sensory root of the ciliary ganglion
Innervation
Sensory: Fibers from the short ciliary nerves pass without synapsing through the ciliary ganglion and enter the nasociliary nerve via the sensory root.
N2
Long ciliary nn.
Sensory: Eye (e.g., cornea and sclera).
N3
Posterior ethmoid n.
Sensory: Ethmoid air cells and sphenoid sinus. Fibers run in the ethmoid bone (posterior ethmoid canal) to the nasociliary nerve.
N4
Anterior ethmoid n.
Sensory: Superficial nose and anterior nasal cavity. • Internal nasal n.: Mucosa of the anterior portions of the nasal septum (medial internal nasal n.) and lateral nasal wall (lateral internal nasal n.). • External nasal n.: Skin of the nose (courses under the nasalis muscle). Fibers from these two terminal branches ascend via the nasal bone, course posteriorly in the cranial cavity over the cribriform plate, and enter the orbit via the anterior ethmoid canal.
N5
Infratrochlear n.
Sensory: Medial aspect of the upper eyelid (skin and conjunctiva) and the lacrimal sac. Fibers enter the orbit near the trochlea (tendon of superior oblique) and course posteriorly to the nasociliary nerve.
Sensory: Ethmoid air cells, sphenoid sinus, anterior nasal cavity, superficial nose, upper eyelid, lacrimal sac, and eye.
*Note: Nerve courses are traditionally described proximal to distal (CNS to periphery). However, for sensory nerves, the sensory relay is in the opposite direction. It is more appropriate to talk of sensory nerves collecting fibers than to talk of them branching to supply a region.
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CN V2: Trigeminal Nerve, Maxillary Division Trigeminal ganglion
I
Communicating branch with CN V1
Z
CN V2
CN V1
CN V3
I I , anterior superior alveolar nerve I , middle superior alveolar nerve
M
Superior alveolar plexus
G
Pterygopalatine ganglion P
A
Cribriform plate
Frontal sinus
Anterior ethmoidal nerve (CN V1)
G1 G
Olfactory fibers (CN I)
CN V2
Medial nasal branches Medial posterior superior nasal nerves M
G2 entering incisive canal
B
Sphenoid sinus
Olfactory bulb
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Sphenopalatine foramen (opened)
G3
G2
Cribriform plate
Olfactory fibers (CN I) G3 ,
lateral posterior superior nasal nerves
External nasal branch Internal nasal branch
Anterior ethmoidal nerve (CN V1)
Lateral nasal branches
Pterygopalatine ganglion G4
G4 , lesser palatine nerve
C
G4 , greater palatine nerve
G4 , greater palatine nerve, posterior inferior nasal branches
Fig. 4.31 Maxillary division (CN V2) of the trigeminal nerve Right lateral view. See Table 4.20 for labels. A Opened right maxillary sinus. B Nasal septum in right nasal cavity. C Left lateral nasal wall.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.20 Maxillary nerve (CN V2) Like the ophthalmic nerve (CN V1), the maxillary nerve (CN V2 LVDVHQVRU\QHUYH WKDWFRQYH\VÀEHUVIURPVWUXFWXUHVRIWKHIDFLDOVNHOHWRQWRWKH trigeminal ganglion. CN V2JLYHVR̥RQHEUDQFKLQWKHPLGGOHFUDQLDOIRVVDEHIRUHHQWHULQJWKHIRUDPHQURWXQGXPWRWKHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHIRVVD,QWKH SWHU\JRSDODWLQHIRVVDWKHPD[LOODU\QHUYHGLYLGHVLQWREUDQFKHVHJ]\JRPDWLFSRVWHULRUVXSHULRUDOYHRODUDQGLQIUDRUELWDOQHUYHV DQGUHFHLYHV JDQJOLRQLFEUDQFKHVIURPWKHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQ7KLVJDQJOLRQKDVÀYHPDMRUEUDQFKHVZKLFKGLVWULEXWH&192ÀEHUV7KHVHVHQVRU\&192 ÀEHUVFRQYH\DXWRQRPLFÀEHUVIURPWKHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQ Direct branches of the maxillary n. (CN V2) M
Middle meningeal n.
6HQVRU\0HQLQJHVRIWKHPLGGOHFUDQLDOIRVVD
G
Ganglionic branches
*HQHUDOO\WZRJDQJOLRQLFEUDQFKHVVXVSHQGSDVVWKURXJK WKHpterygopalatine ganglionIURP&192VHHEHORZ
Z
Zygomatic n.
6HQVRU\6NLQRIWKHWHPSOHzygomaticotemporal nerve DQGFKHHNzygomaticofacial nerve )LEHUVHQWHUWKHRUELWYLD FDQDOVLQWKH]\JRPDWLFERQHDQGFRXUVHLQWKHODWHUDORUELWZDOOWR&192YLDWKHLQIHULRURUELWDOÀVVXUH
P Posterior superior alveolar n.
,
Infraorbital n.
6HQVRU\0D[LOODU\PRODUVZLWKDVVRFLDWHGJLQJLYDHDQGEXFFDOPXFRVD DQGPD[LOODU\VLQXV)LEHUVFRXUVHRQWKH LQIUDWHPSRUDOVXUIDFHRIWKHPD[LOOD7KHSRVWHULRUVXSHULRUDOYHRODUQHUYHFRQWULEXWHVWRWKHsuperior alveolar plexus DQWHULRUPLGGOHDQGVXSHULRUDOYHRODUQQ 6HQVRU\/RZHUH\HOLGVNLQDQGFRQMXQFWLYD PD[LOODU\VLQXVDQGPD[LOODU\WHHWKYLDDQWHULRUDQGPLGGOHVXSHULRU DOYHRODUEUDQFKHV M iddle superior alveolar nerve:6HQVRU\ÀEHUVIURPWKHPD[LOODU\SUHPRODUVZLWKDVVRFLDWHGJLQJLYDHEXFFDOPXFRVDDQG PD[LOODU\VLQXV A nterior superior alveolar nerve:6HQVRU\ÀEHUVIURPWKHPD[LOODU\LQFLVRUVDQGFDQLQHVZLWKDVVRFLDWHGJLQJLYDH OLQJXDOPXFRVDDQGPD[LOODU\VLQXV 1DVDOEUDQFK6HQVRU\ÀEHUVIURPDQWHULRUSRUWLRQVRIWKHQDVDOZDOOÁRRUDQG VHSWXP 7KHVHÀEHUVHQWHUWKHLQIUDRUELWDOFDQDODQGHPHUJHIURPWKHLQIUDRUELWDOJURRYH
Branches passing through the pterygopalatine ganglion:7KHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQLVDSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFJDQJOLRQRIWKHIDFLDOQHUYH&19,, ,W FRQYH\VÀUVWRUGHUVHQVRU\ÀEHUVWR&192IURPÀYHPDMRUEUDQFKHVVXSSO\LQJWKHRUELWQDVDOFDYLW\KDUGDQGVRIWSDODWHVDQGQDVRSKDU\Q[ G1
Orbital branches
6HQVRU\2UELWDOSHULRVWHXPYLDLQIHULRURUELWDOÀVVXUH DQGSDUDQDVDOVLQXVHVHWKPRLGDLUFHOOVDQGVSKHQRLGVLQXVYLD WKHSRVWHULRUHWKPRLGFDQDO
G2
Nasopalatine n.
6HQVRU\$QWHULRUKDUGSDODWHDQGWKHLQIHULRUQDVDOVHSWXP7KHOHIWDQGULJKWQDVRSDODWLQHQHUYHVDVFHQGLQWKHDQWHULRU DQGSRVWHULRULQFLVLYHIRUDPLQDUHVSHFWLYHO\ DQGFRQYHUJHLQWKHLQFLVLYHIRVVD7KH\WUDYHOSRVWHURVXSHULRUO\RQWKHQDVDO VHSWXPYRPHU WKURXJKWKHVSKHQRSDODWLQHIRUDPHQ
G3 Posterior superior nasal nn.
6HQVRU\3RVWHURVXSHULRUQDVDOFDYLW\Note:7KHDQWHULRUHWKPRLGQHUYH>&191@FRQYH\VÀEHUVIURPWKHDQWHURVXSHULRUSRUWLRQ Lateral posterior superior nasal nn.:3RVWHULRUHWKPRLGDLUFHOOVDQGPXFRVDLQWKHSRVWHULRURIWKHVXSHULRUDQGPLGGOH nasal conchae. M edial posterior superior nasal nn.:0XFRVDRIWKHSRVWHULRUQDVDOURRIDQGVHSWXP
G4
Palatine nn.
6HQVRU\+DUGDQGVRIWSDODWHV G reater palatine n.:+DUGSDODWHJLQJLYDHPXFRVDDQGJODQGV DQGVRIWSDODWHYLDJUHDWHUSDODWLQHFDQDO5HFHLYHV ÀEHUVIURPWKHLQIHULRUQDVDOFRQFKDDQGZDOOVRIWKHPLGGOHDQGLQIHULRUQDVDOPHDWXVHVWKURXJKWKHSHUSHQGLFXODU SODWHRIWKHHWKPRLGERQHSRVWHULRULQIHULRUQDVDOEUDQFKHV L esser palatine n.:6RIWSDODWHSDODWLQHWRQVLOVDQGXYXODYLDOHVVHUSDODWLQHFDQDO 7KHJUHDWHUDQGOHVVHUSDODWLQHQHUYHVFRQYHUJHLQWKHJUHDWHUSDODWLQHFDQDO
G5
Pharyngeal n.
6HQVRU\0XFRVDRIWKHVXSHULRUQDVRSKDU\Q[YLDSDODWRYDJLQDOSKDU\QJHDO FDQDO
$XWRQRPLFVFD̦ROGLQJ7KHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQLVD̦OLDWHGZLWKWKHVHQVRU\&1923RVWJDQJOLRQLFDXWRQRPLFÀEHUVDUHGLVWULEXWHGE\VHQVRU\ ÀEHUVRI&192. Pterygopalatine ganglion&19,,
Motor root:3UHJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVIURPWKHIDFLDOQHUYH&19,, WUDYHOLQWKHgreater petrosal nerve MRLQV ZLWKGHHSSHWURVDOQHUYHWRIRUPQHUYHRISWHU\JRLGFDQDO . Sympathetic root:3RVWJDQJOLRQLFV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVIURPWKHVXSHULRUFHUYLFDOJDQJOLRQDVFHQGYLDWKHLQWHUQDOFDURWLG SOH[XV DQGWUDYHOLQWKHdeep petrosal nerveMRLQVZLWKJUHDWHUSHWURVDOQHUYHWRIRUPQHUYHRISWHU\JRLGFDQDO . Sensory root:6HQVRU\ÀEHUVSDVVWKURXJKWKHJDQJOLRQIURPÀYHVHQVRU\EUDQFKHVVHHDERYH
L acrimal gland:3RVWJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFVHFUHWRPRWRUÀEHUVWRWKHODFULPDOJODQGOHDYHWKHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQRQWKH]\JRPDWLF nerve (CN V2 7KH\WUDYHOZLWKWKH]\JRPDWLFRWHPSRUDOQHUYHWRWKHODFULPDOQHUYH&191 YLDDFRPPXQLFDWLQJEUDQFK G lands of the oral cavity:3RVWJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVWRWKHJODQGVRIWKHSDODWLQHSKDU\QJHDODQGQDVDOPXFRVDUHDFKWKHLUWDUJHWVYLD FRUUHVSRQGLQJVHQVRU\EUDQFKHVRI&192. Blood vessels:3RVWJDQJOLRQLFV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVDUHGLVWULEXWHGE\&192. T aste &19,, :7DVWHÀEHUVVSHFLDOYLVFHUDOD̥HUHQW DVVRFLDWHGZLWK&19,,DVFHQGIURPWKHSDODWHWRWKHJUHDWHUSHWURVDOQHUYHDQGJHQLFXODWH JDQJOLRQRI&19,,YLDWKHSDODWLQHQHUYHV *Note:1HUYHFRXUVHVDUHWUDGLWLRQDOO\GHVFULEHGSUR[LPDOWRGLVWDO&16WRSHULSKHU\ +RZHYHUIRUVHQVRU\QHUYHVWKHVHQVRU\UHOD\LVLQWKHRSSRVLWH GLUHFWLRQ,WLVPRUHDSSURSULDWHWRWDONRIVHQVRU\QHUYHVFROOHFWLQJÀEHUVWKDQWRWDONRIWKHPEUDQFKLQJWRVXSSO\DUHJLRQ
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN V3: Trigeminal Nerve, Mandibular Division Trigeminal ganglion
Mandibular division
Foramen ovale
Deep temporal nerves
Recurrent meningeal nerve (nervus spinosus)
Infraorbital foramen
Middle meningeal artery
Lateral pterygoid muscle Buccal nerve (long buccal nerve)
Auriculotemporal nerve
Nerve to medial pterygoid Masseteric nerve
Mandibular canal
Medial pterygoid muscle
Inferior dental branches
Lingual nerve
Mental nerve Mental foramen Masseter muscle
A
Inferior alveolar nerve
CN V1 (mandibular nerve) Nerve of tensor tympani Foramen ovale
Nerve of medial pterygoid
Facial nerve Lesser petrosal nerve
Nerve of tensor veli palatini
Stylomastoid foramen Auriculotemporal nerve
Chorda tympani
Communicating branch to auriculotemporal nerve
Otic ganglion
Medial pterygoid muscle Lingual nerve
Inferior alveolar nerve B
80
Submandibular ganglion Nerve to mylohyoid
Fig. 4.32 Mandibular division (CN V3) of the trigeminal nerve Right lateral view. A Partially opened mandible with middle cranial fossa windowed. B Opened oral cavity (right half of mandible removed). The trunk of CN V3 gives off two branches (recurrent meningeal and medial pterygoid nerves) before splitting into an anterior and a posterior division (see Table 4.21). The nerve to the medial pterygoid conveys branchiomotor fibers to the otic ganglion; these fibers pass without synapsing to innervate the tensors tympani and veli palatini. The otic ganglion is the parasympathetic ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX). Preganglionic fibers enter via the lesser petrosal nerve (reconstituted from the tympanic plexus; see pp. 160–161). Postganglionic fibers leave with the auriculotemporal nerve (CN V3) to innervate the buccal gland. Taste fibers of CN VII travel in the lingual nerve (CN V3) to the chorda tympani (which they enter either directly or indirectly via the otic ganglion). These fibers ascend in the chorda tympani via the tympanic cavity to the facial nerve (CN VII; see p. 83).
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.21 Mandibular nerve (CN V3) The mandibular nerve (CN V3) is the mixed afferent-efferent branch of CN V, containing general sensory fibers and branchiomotor fibers to the eight muscles derived from the 1st pharyngeal arch. The large sensory and small motor roots of CN V leave the middle cranial fossa via the foramen ovale. In the infratemporal fossa, they unite to form the CN V3 trunk. The trunk gives off two branches before splitting into an anterior and a posterior division. Of the eight branchial arch muscles, three are supplied by the trunk, three by the anterior division, and two by the posterior division. Trunk: The trunk of CN V3 gives off one sensory and one motor branch. The motor branch conveys branchiomotor fibers to three of the eight muscles of the 1st pharyngeal arch. R Recurrent meningeal branch (nervus spinosum) MP
Medial pterygoid n.
Sensory: Dura of the middle cranial fossa (also anterior cranial fossa and calvarium). The nervus spinosum arises in the infratemporal fossa and re-enters the middle cranial fossa via the foramen spinosum. Branchiomotor: Directly to the medial pterygoid. Certain fibers enter the otic ganglion via the motor root and pass without synapsing to: • N. to tensor veli palatini: Tensor veli palatini. • N. to tensor tympani: Tensor tympani.
Anterior division: The anterior division of CN V3 contains predominantly efferent fibers (with one sensory branch, the buccal nerve.) The branchiomotor fibers innervate three of the eight muscles of the 1st pharyngeal arch. M
Masseter n.
Branchiomotor: Masseter. Sensory: Temporomandibular joint (articular branches).
T
Deep temporal nn.
Branchiomotor: Temporalis via two branches: • Anterior deep temporal n. • Posterior deep temporal n.
LP
Lateral pterygoid n.
Branchiomotor: Lateral pterygoid.
B
Buccal (long buccal) n.
Sensory: Cheek (skin and mucosa) and buccal gingivae of the molars.
Posterior division: The larger posterior division of CN V3 contains predominantly afferent fibers (with one motor branch, the mylohyoid nerve). The mylohyoid nerve arises from the inferior alveolar nerve and supplies the remaining two muscles of the 1st pharyngeal arch. A
Auriculotemporal n.
Sensory: Skin of the ear and temple. Fibers pass through the parotid gland, behind the temporomandibular joint, and into the infratemporal fossa. The nerve typically splits around the middle meningeal artery (a branch of the maxillary artery) before joining the posterior division. Distributes postganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the otic ganglion.
L
Lingual n.
Sensory: Mucosa of the oral cavity (presulcal tongue, oral floor, and gingival covering of lingual surface of mandibular teeth). In the infratemporal fossa, the lingual nerve combines with the chorda tympani (CN VII).
I
Inferior alveolar n.
Sensory: Mandibular teeth and chin: • Incisive branch: Incisors, canines, and 1st premolars (with associated labial gingivae). • Mental n.: Labial gingivae of the incisors and the skin of the lower lip and chin. The mental nerve enters the mental foramen and combines with the incisive branch in the mandibular canal. The inferior alveolar nerve exits the mandible via the mandibular foramen and combines to form the posterior division of CN V3. Note: 2nd premolars and mandibular molars are supplied by the inferior alveolar nerve before it splits into its terminal branches. Branchiomotor: Fibers branch just proximal to the mandibular foramen: • Mylohyoid n.: Mylohyoid and anterior belly of the digastric.
Autonomic scaffolding: The parasympathetic ganglia of CN VII (submandibular ganglion) and CN IX (otic ganglion) are functionally associated with CN V3. Submandibular ganglion (CN VII)
Otic ganglion (CN IX)
Parasympathetic root
Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the facial nerve (CN VII) travel to the ganglion in the chorda tympani, facial nerve, and lingual nerve (CN V3).
Sympathetic root
Sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion ascend (via the internal carotid plexus) and travel in a plexus on the facial artery.
Parasympathetic root
Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers enter from CN IX via the lesser petrosal nerve.
Sympathetic root
Postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion enter via a plexus on the middle meningeal artery.
• Parotid gland: Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the otic ganglion travel to the parotid gland via the auriculotemporal n. (CN V3). • Submandibular and sublingual glands: Postganglionic autonomic fibers to the submandibular and sublingual glands travel from the submandibular ganglion via glandular branches. • Taste (CN VII): Taste fibers (special viscerosensory fibers) to CN VII may travel via the lingual nerve (CN V3) to the chorda tympani (CN VII). Note: Nerve courses are traditionally described proximal to distal (CNS to periphery). However, for sensory nerves, the sensory relay is in the opposite direction. It is more appropriate to talk of sensory nerves collecting fibers than to talk of them branching to supply a region.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN VII: Facial Nerve, Nuclei & Internal Branches
Nucleus of the abducent nerve (CN VI)
Table 4.22 Facial nerve (CN VII)
Pons
Nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution Branchiomotor (purple)
Superior salivatory nucleus
Facial motor nucleus
Facial motor nucleus Nervus intermedius Geniculate ganglion Stylomastoid foramen Branches of the parotid plexus A
Lower motor neurons innervate all muscles of the 2nd branchial (pharyngeal) arch: • Muscles of facial expression • Stylohyoid • Digastric, posterior belly • Stapedius
Parasympathetic (blue)
Superior salivatory nucleus
Nucleus of solitary tract
Nucleus of the abducent nerve (CN VI)
Internal genu of facial nerve
Nucleus of solitary tract, superior part Superior salivatory nucleus Facial motor nucleus Facial nerve B
Fig. 4.33 Facial nerve (CN VII) A Anterior view of brainstem. B Superior view of cross section through pons. Fibers: The facial nerve provides branchiomotor innervation to the muscles of the second branchial arch and parasympathetic motor innervation to most salivary glands (via the pterygopalatine and submandibular ganglia). Taste fibers are conveyed via pseudounipolar sensory neurons with cell bodies in the geniculate ganglion. The facial nerve also receives general sensation from the external ear. Branches: The superficial branches of CN VII are primarily branchiomotor (only the posterior auricular nerve may contain sensory fibers as well as motor). Taste and preganglionic parasympathetic fibers travel in both the chorda tympani and greater petrosal nerves. These fibers converge in the external genu and enter the brainstem together as the nervus intermedius.
Preganglionic neurons synapse in the pterygopalatine or submandibular ganglion. Postganglionic neurons innervate: • Lacrimal gland • Submandibular and sublingual glands • Small glands of the oral and nasal cavities
Special visceral afferent (light green)
Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the geniculate ganglion relay taste sensation from the presulcal tongue and soft palate (via the chorda tympani and greater petrosal nerve).
General somatic afferent (not shown)
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the geniculate ganglion relay general sensation from the external ear (auricle and skin of the auditory canal) and lateral tympanic membrane. Course Emergence: Axons from the superior salivatory nucleus and the nucleus of the solitary tract form the nervus intermedius. These combine with the branchiomotor and somatosensory fibers to emerge from the brainstem as CN VII. Internal branches: CN VII enters the petrous bone via the internal acoustic meatus. Within the facial canal, it gives off one branchiomotor branch (nerve to the stapedius) and two nerves (greater petrosal nerve and chorda tympani) containing both parasympathetic and taste fibers. External branches: The remaining fibers emerge via the stylomastoid foramen. Three direct branches arise before the fibers enter the parotid gland (nerve to posterior digastric, nerve to stylohyoid, and posterior auricular nerve). In the gland, the branchiomotor fibers branch to form the parotid plexus, which innervates the muscles of the 2nd branchial arch. Lesions
CN VII is most easily injured in its distal portions (after emerging from the parotid gland). Nerve lesions of the parotid plexus cause muscle paralysis. Temporal bone fractures may injure the nerve within the facial canal, causing disturbances of taste, lacrimation, salivation, etc. (see Fig. 4.34).
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Fig. 4.34 Branches of the facial nerve The facial nerve enters the facial canal of the petrous bone via the internal acoustic meatus. Most branchiomotor fibers and all somatosensory fibers emerge via the stylomastoid foramen. Within the facial canal, CN VII gives off one branchiomotor branch and two nerves containing both parasympathetic and taste fibers (greater petrosal nerve and chorda tympani). Temporal bone fractures may injure the facial nerve at various levels:
1 Internal acoustic meatus CN VIII
2
Greater petrosal nerve 3 Nerve to the stapedius Chorda tympani
Stylomastoid foramen
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
1 Internal acoustic meatus: Lesions affect CN VII and the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII). Peripheral motor facial paralysis is accompanied by hearing loss and dizziness. 2 External genu of facial nerve: Peripheral motor facial paralysis is accompanied by disturbances of taste sensation, lacrimation, and salivation (greater petrosal nerve). 3 Motor paralysis is accompanied by disturbances of salivation and taste (chorda tympani). Paralysis of the stapedius causes hyperacusis (hypersensitivity to normal sounds). 4 Facial paralysis is accompanied by disturbances of taste and salivation (chorda tympani). 5 Facial paralysis is the only manifestation of a lesion at this level.
4
5
Posterior auricular nerve Nerves to the stylohyoid and posterior digastric
Parotid plexus
Fig. 4.35 Course of the facial nerve Right lateral view of right temporal bone (petrous part). Both the facial nerve and vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII, not shown) pass through the internal acoustic meatus on the posterior surface of the petrous bone. The facial nerve courses laterally in the bone to the external genu, which contains the geniculate ganglion (cell bodies of first-order pseudounipolar sensory neurons). At the genu (L. genu = knee), CN VII bends and descends in the facial canal. It gives off three branches between the geniculate ganglion and the stylomastoid foramen: • Greater petrosal nerve: Parasympathetic and taste (special visceral afferent) fibers branch from the geniculate ganglion in the greater petrosal canal. They emerge on the anterior surface of the petrous pyramid and continue across the surface of the foramen lacerum. The greater petrosal nerve combines with the deep petrosal nerve in the pterygoid canal (nerve of the pterygoid canal, vidian). The greater petrosal nerve contains the fibers that form the motor root of the pterygopalatine ganglion (the parasympathetic ganglion of CN VII). The pterygopalatine ganglion distributes autonomic fibers via the trigeminal nerve (primarily the maxillary division, CN V2). • Stapedial nerve: Branchiomotor fibers innervate the stapedius muscle. • Chorda tympani: The remaining parasympathetic and taste fibers leave the facial nerve as the chorda tympani. This nerve runs through the tympanic cavity and petrotympanic fissure to the infratemporal fossa, where it unites with the lingual nerve (CN V3).
Facial nerve (CN VII) in facial canal
Geniculate ganglion
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Hiatus of greater petrosal canal
Stapedial nerve and muscle
Trigeminal ganglion CN V1 CN V3
Greater petrosal nerve
CN V2
Tympanic cavity
Chorda tympani
Posterior auricular nerve
Stylomastoid foramen
Petrotympanic fissure
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Lingual nerve (CN V3)
Stylohyoid muscle with nerve Branchiomotor fibers to parotid plexus
Digastric muscle, posterior belly with nerve
The remaining fibers (branchiomotor with some general sensory) exit via the stylomastoid foramen.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN VII: Facial Nerve, External Branches & Ganglia Fig. 4.36 Innervation of the second branchial arch muscles Left lateral view. The branchiomotor fibers of CN VII innervate all the muscles derived from the second branchial arch. With the exception of the stapedial nerve (to the stapedius), all branchiomotor fibers in the facial nerve emerge from the facial canal via the stylomastoid foramen. Three branches arise before the parotid plexus: • Posterior auricular nerve (Note: This may also contain general somatosensory fibers.) • Nerve to the digastric (posterior belly) • Nerve to the stylohyoid The remaining branchiomotor fibers then enter the parotid gland where they divide into two trunks (temporofacial and cervicofacial) and five major branches, which innervate the muscles of facial expression: • • • • •
Temporal branches
Parotid plexus Zygomatic branches
Posterior auricular nerve
Buccal branches Marginal mandibular branch
Facial nerve Nerve to digastric (posterior belly) Cervical branch
Nerve to stylohyoid
Temporal Zygomatic Buccal Mandibular (marginal mandibular) Cervical
The branching of the plexus is variable.
Fig. 4.37 Facial paralysis A Upper motor neurons in the primary somatomotor cortex (precentral gyrus) descend to the cell bodies of lower motor neurons in the facial motor nucleus. The axons of these lower motor neurons innervate the muscles derived from the second branchial arch. The facial motor nucleus has a “bipartite” structure: its cranial (upper) part supplies the muscles of the calvaria and palpebral fissure, and its caudal (lower) part supplies the muscles of the lower face. The cranial part of the nucleus receives bilateral innervation (from upper motor neurons in both hemispheres). The caudal part receives contralateral innervation (from cortical neurons on the other side). B Central (supranuclear) paralysis: Loss of upper motor neurons (shown here for the left hemisphere) causes contralateral paralysis in the lower half of the face but no paralysis in the upper half. For example, the patient’s mouth will sag on the right (contralateral paralysis of lower muscles), but the ability to wrinkle the forehead and close the eyes is intact. C Peripheral (infranuclear) paralysis: Loss of lower motor neurons (shown here for right brainstem) causes complete ipsilateral paralysis. For example, the whole right side of the face is paralyzed. Depending on the site of the lesion, additional deficits may be present (decreased lacrimation or salivation, loss of taste sensation in the presulcal tongue).
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Precentral gyrus
Corticonuclear fibers
B
A
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Facial motor nucleus
C
Head
Maxillary division
Internal carotid artery with internal carotid plexus
Trigeminal nerve
Trigeminal Deep ganglion petrosal nerve Geniculate ganglion
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Lacrimal gland Via communicating branch to lacrimal nerve Postganglionic sympathetic fibers Nasal glands
Superior salivatory nucleus Facial nerve Nucleus of the solitary tract Mandibular division Greater petrosal nerve
Pterygopalatine ganglion Taste buds of soft palate Submandibular ganglion
Stylomastoid foramen
Pterygoid canal with nerve of pterygoid canal
Glandular branches Sublingual gland
Lingual nerve Chorda tympani
Fig. 4.38 Facial nerve ganglia $XWRQRPLFDQGWDVWHÀEHUVRIWHQWUDYHOZLWKVHQVRU\ÀEHUVIURPRWKHU QHUYHV WR UHDFK WKHLU WDUJHWV 3DUDV\PSDWKHWLF DQG WDVWH ÀEHUV OHDYH WKHIDFLDOQHUYHYLDWZREUDQFKHVWKHJUHDWHUSHWURVDOQHUYHDQGWKH FKRUGDW\PSDQL Greater petrosal nerve: 3UHJDQJOLRQLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLF DQG WDVWH ÀEHUV IURP WKH JHQLFXODWH JDQJOLRQ FRXUVH LQ WKH JUHDWHU SHWURVDO FDQDO 7KH\ DUH MRLQHG E\ WKH GHHS SHWURVDO QHUYH ZKLFK FRQYH\V SRVWJDQJOLRQLF V\PSDWKHWLF ÀEHUV IURP WKH VXSHULRU FHUYLFDO JDQJOLRQYLDWKHLQWHUQDOFDURWLGSOH[XV 7KHJUHDWHUDQGGHHSSHWURVDO QHUYHV FRPELQH WR IRUP WKH QHUYH RI WKH SWHU\JRLG FDQDO YLGLDQ ZKLFK FRQYH\V V\PSDWKHWLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLF DQG WDVWH ÀEHUV WR WKHSWHU\JRSDODWLQHJDQJOLRQRQO\SDUDV\PSDWKHWLFVZLOOV\QDSVHDW WKHJDQJOLRQDOORWKHUÀEHUW\SHVSDVVWKURXJKZLWKRXWV\QDSVLQJ %UDQFKHVRI&192WKHQGLVWULEXWHWKHÀEHUVWRWKHLUWDUJHWV ̑ L acrimal gland:$XWRQRPLFÀEHUVV\PSDWKHWLFDQGSDUDV\PSDWKHWLF UXQ ZLWK EUDQFKHV RI &1 92 ]\JRPDWLF DQG ]\JRPDWLFR WHPSRUDOQHUYHV WRDFRPPXQLFDWLQJEUDQFKZKLFKFRQYH\VWKHP WRWKHODFULPDOQHUYH&191 DQGWKXVWRWKHODFULPDOJODQG ̑ S mall glands of the nasal and oral cavities: $XWRQRPLF ÀEHUV UXQZLWKEUDQFKHVRI&192WRWKHVPDOOJODQGVLQWKHPXFRVDRI WKHQDVDOFDYLW\PD[LOODU\VLQXVHVDQGSDODWLQHWRQVLOV ̑ T aste:7DVWHÀEHUVUXQZLWKEUDQFKHVRI&192WRWKHVRIWSDODWH
Submandibular gland
Chorda tympani: 3UHJDQJOLRQLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLF DQG WDVWH ÀEHUV FRXUVHWKURXJKWKHFKRUGDW\PSDQL7KH\HPHUJHIURPWKHSHWURW\PSDQLFÀVVXUHDQGFRPELQHZLWKWKHOLQJXDOQHUYH&193 LQWKH LQIUDWHPSRUDOIRVVD7KH\DUHFRQYH\HGWRWKHVXEPDQGLEXODUJDQJOLRQE\WKHOLQJXDOQHUYHDQGIURPWKHUHSRVWJDQJOLRQLFEUDQFKHV WUDYHOWRWKHLUWDUJHWVYLDEUDQFKHVRI&193 ̑ Submandibular and sublingual glands:3RVWJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVUXQZLWKEUDQFKHVRI&193WRWKHJODQGV ̑ T aste buds of tongue:7KHWDVWHEXGVRQWKHSUHVXOFDOSRUWLRQRI WKHWRQJXHUHFHLYHWDVWHÀEHUVIURPWKHFKRUGDW\PSDQLYLDWKH OLQJXDOQHUYH&193 Note:7KHSRVWVXOFDOSRUWLRQRIWKHWRQJXH DQG WKH RURSKDU\Q[ UHFHLYH WDVWH ÀEHUV IURP &1 ,; 7KH URRW RI WKHWRQJXHDQGHSLJORWWLVUHFHLYHWDVWHÀEHUVIURP&1; Note:7KHlesser petrosal nerveUXQVLQWKHOHVVHUSHWURVDOFDQDOURXJKO\ SDUDOOHOWRWKHJUHDWHUSHWURVDOQHUYH7KHOHVVHUSHWURVDOQHUYHFRQYH\V SUHJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVIURPWKHW\PSDQLFSOH[XV&1,; WRWKHRWLFJDQJOLRQ7KHVHÀEHUVLQQHUYDWHWKHSDURWLGEXFFDODQGLQIHULRUODELDOJODQGVZLWKSRVWJDQJOLRQLFÀEHUVGLVWULEXWHGYLDEUDQFKHV RI&193
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN VIII: Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Vestibular ganglion, superior part
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Vestibular root
Anterior ampullary nerve
Utricular nerve
Cochlear root
Vestibular ganglion, inferior part
Lateral ampullary nerve
Spiral ganglia Posterior ampullary nerve Saccular nerve
Fig. 4.39 Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) The vestibulocochlear nerve consists of two parts. The vestibular root conveys afferent impulses from the vestibular apparatus (balance). The cochlear root conveys afferent impulses from the auditory apparatus (hearing).
Table 4.23 Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution Special somatic afferent (orange): Special somatic sensory neurons convey sensory fibers from the vestibular apparatus (balance) and auditory apparatus (hearing). Both parts of the nerve contain first-order bipolar sensory neurons. Neurons
Vestibular root
Cochlear root
Peripheral processes
In the sensory cells of the semicircular canals, the saccule, and the utricle.
In the hair cells of the organ of Corti.
Cell bodies
Vestibular ganglion • Inferior part: Peripheral processes from saccule and posterior semicircular canal. • Superior part: Peripheral processes from anterior and lateral semicircular canals and utricle.
Spiral ganglia. The peripheral processes from the neurons in these myriad ganglia radiate outward to receive sensory input from the spiral modiolus.
Central processes (axons)
To four vestibular nuclei in the medulla oblongata (floor of the rhomboid fossa). A few pass directly to the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
To two cochlear nuclei lateral to the vestibular nuclei.
Nuclei
Superior, lateral, medial, and inferior vestibular nuclei.
Anterior and posterior cochlear nuclei.
Lesions
Dizziness.
Hearing loss (ranging to deafness).
Course
The vestibular and cochlear roots unite in the internal acoustic meatus to form the vestibulocochlear nerve, which is covered by a common connective tissue sheath. The nerve emerges from the internal acoustic meatus on the medial surface of the petrous bone and enters the brainstem at the level of the pontomedullary junction, in particular at the cerebellopontine angle.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Superior vestibular nucleus
Flocculus of cerebellum
Medial vestibular nucleus
Lateral vestibular nucleus
Direct fibers to cerebellum Superior vestibular nucleus
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Vestibular root
Medial vestibular nucleus
Vestibular ganglion, superior and inferior parts
B
Lateral vestibular nucleus
Semicircular canals
Fig. 4.40 Vestibular root and nuclei A Anterior view of the medulla oblongata and pons. B Cross section through the upper medulla oblongata.
Inferior vestibular nucleus A
Posterior cochlear nucleus Anterior cochlear nucleus
Anterior cochlear nucleus
Posterior cochlear nucleus
B
Cochlear root A
Cochlea with spiral ganglia
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Fig. 4.42 Acoustic neuroma in the cerebellopontine angle Acoustic neuromas (more accurately, vestibular schwannomas) are benign tumors of the cerebellopontine angle arising from the Schwann cells of the vestibular root of CN VIII. As they grow, they compress and displace the adjacent structures and cause slowly progressive hearing loss and gait ataxia. Large tumors can impair the egress of CSF from the 4th ventricle, causing hydrocephalus and symptomatic intracranial hyper tension (vomiting, impairment of consciousness).
Fig. 4.41 Cochlear root and nuclei A Anterior view of the medulla oblongata and pons. B Cross section through the upper medulla oblongata.
Cerebellopontine angle Acoustic neuroma (vestibular schwannoma)
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN IX: Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Nucleus of the solitary tract, inferior part
Nucleus ambiguus
Nucleus ambiguus
B
Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part
Fig. 4.43 Glossopharyngeal nerve nuclei A Anterior view of brainstem. B Cross section through the medulla oblongata.
Nucleus of the solitary tract, inferior part
Table 4.24 Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Jugular foramen Tympanic nerve Inferior ganglion
Muscular branch
A
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution
Superior ganglion
Branchiomotor (purple)
Nucleus ambiguus
Carotid branch Pharyngeal branches
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Lower motor neurons innervate the muscles derived from the 3rd, 4th, and 6th branchial arches via CN IX, X, and XI. • CN IX innervates the derivative of the 3rd branchial arch (stylopharyngeus)
Parasympathetic (blue)
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Preganglionic neurons synapse in the otic ganglion. Postganglionic neurons innervate: • Parotid gland (Fig. 4.44A) • Buccal glands • Inferior labial glands
General somatic afferent (yellow)
Spinal nucleus of CN V
A
B
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the superior ganglion of CN IX innervate: • Nasopharynx, oropharynx, postsulcal tongue, palatine tonsils, and uvula (Fig. 4.44B,C). These fibers include the afferent limb of the gag reflex. • Tympanic cavity and pharyngotympanic tube (Fig. 4.44D).
Viscerosensory (green)
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the inferior ganglion relay taste and visceral sensation to the nucleus of the solitary tract. This nuclear complex consists of a superior part (taste) and inferior part (general visceral sensation). Nucleus of the solitary tract
Visceral sensation (Fig. 4.44F): General viscerosensory fibers from the carotid body (chemoreceptors) and carotid sinus (pressure receptors) synapse in the inferior part.
D
C
Taste (Fig. 4.44E): Special viscerosensory fibers from the postsulcal tongue synapse in the superior part.
Course
The glossopharyngeal nerve arises from the medulla oblongata and exits the skull by passing through the jugular foramen. It has two sensory ganglia with first-order pseudounipolar sensory cells: the superior ganglion (somatosensory) is within the cranial cavity, and the inferior ganglion (viscerosensory) is distal to the jugular foramen. E
Fig. 4.44 Distribution of CN IX fibers
88
F
Lesions
Isolated CN IX lesions are rare. Lesions tend to occur during basal skull fractures, which disrupt the jugular foramen. Such injuries would affect CN IX, X, and XI.
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Greater petrosal nerve Tubarian branch
Table 4.25 Glossopharyngeal nerve branches
Caroticotympanic nerve
Lesser petrosal nerve
Ty
Lesser petrosal nerve
Tympanic canaliculus with tympanic nerve Ty Superior and inferior ganglia CN IX
Tympanic plexus
A
CN IX
Tympanic n.
Somatosensory and preganglionic parasympathetic fibers branch at the inferior ganglion and travel through the tympanic canaliculus as the tympanic nerve. • Tympanic plexus: The tympanic nerve combines with postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion (via carotid plexus and caroticotympanic nerve) and branches to form the tympanic plexus. This plexus provides general somatosensory innervation to the tympanic cavity, pharyngotympanic tube, and mastoid air cells. • Lesser petrosal n.: The preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the tympanic plexus are reconstituted as the lesser petrosal nerve, which runs in the lesser petrosal canal to synapse in the otic ganglion. • Otic ganglion: The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers innervate the parotid, buccal, and inferior labial glands by traveling with branches of CN V3.
Carotid plexus on internal carotid artery
CN X Superior ganglion
Ty
L
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Inferior ganglion
To
C
General viscerosensory fibers from the carotid sinus (pressure receptors) and carotid body (chemoreceptors) ascend on the internal carotid artery to join CN IX or X on their way to the inferior part of the nucleus of the solitary tract. P
C
P
CN X, branch to carotid sinus CN X, pharyngeal branches Carotid body Carotid sinus
B
Fig. 4.45 Glossopharyngeal nerve branches A Left anterolateral view of opened tympanic cavity. B Left lateral view.
Pharyngeal branches
The pharyngeal plexus consists of general somatosensory fibers (from CN IX), sympathetic fibers (from the sympathetic trunk), and motor fibers (from CN X). • CN IX receives sensory fibers from the mucosa of the naso- and oropharynx via the pharyngeal plexus.
M
Pharyngeal plexus
Carotid branch
M
Muscular branch
The branchiomotor fibers in CN IX innervate the derivative of the 3rd branchial arch, the stylopharyngeus. To
Tonsillar branches
General somatosensory fibers from the palatine tonsils and mucosa of the oropharynx. L
Lingual branches
General somatosensory and special viscerosensory (taste) fibers from the postsulcal tongue.
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN X: Vagus Nerve
Table 4.26 Vagus nerve (CN X) 1XFOHLJDQJOLDDQGÀEHUGLVWULEXWLRQ Dorsal motor nucleus
%UDQFKLRPRWRU (purple)
Nucleus ambiguus
Nucleus ambiguus
Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part Nucleus of the solitary tract, inferior part Superior ganglion
3DUDV\PSDWKHWLF (blue)
Inferior ganglion Pharyngeal branch
Jugular foramen
Dorsal motor nucleus
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
A
Dorsal motor nucleus
Nucleus of the solitary tract, superior part Nucleus of the solitary tract, inferior part
3UHJDQJOLRQLFQHXURQVV\QDSVHLQVPDOOXQQDPHG ganglia close to target structures. 3RVWJDQJOLRQLFQHXURQVLQQHUYDWH 6 PRRWKPXVFOHVDQGJODQGVRIWKRUDFLFDQG abdominal viscera (Fig. 4.48G)
Superior laryngeal nerve
*HQHUDOVRPDWLFD̦HUHQW\HOORZ
6SLQDO nucleus of CN V
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the VXSHULRU MXJXODU JDQJOLRQ innervate: ' XUDRIWKHSRVWHULRUFUDQLDOIRVVDFig. 4.48F) ( [WHUQDODXGLWRU\FDQDODQGODWHUDOW\PSDQLF membrane (Fig. 4.48B,C) 0 XFRVDRIWKHRURSKDU\Q[DQGODU\QJRSKDU\Q[
9LVFHURVHQVRU\ (green)
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
First-order pseudounipolar cells in the LQIHULRUQRGRVH JDQJOLRQ UHOD\WDVWHDQGYLVFHUDOVHQVDWLRQWRWKHQXFOHXVRIWKHVROLWDU\WUDFW. 7KLVQXFOHDUFRPSOH[FRQVLVWVRIDVXSHULRUSDUWWDVWH DQGLQIHULRU part (general visceral sensation).
Nucleus ambiguus B
Lower motor neurons innervate the muscles derived from the 3rd, 4th, and 6th branchial arches via CN IX, X, and XI. CN X innervates the derivatives of the 4th and 6th branchial arches: 3 KDU\QJHDOPXVFOHVSKDU\QJHDOFRQVWULFWRUV 0 XVFOHVRIWKHVRIWSDODWHOHYDWRUYHOLSDODWLQL PXVFXOXVXYXODHSDODWRJORVVXVSDODWRSKDU\QJHXV ,QWULQVLFODU\QJHDOPXVFOHV
Olive
Fig. 4.46 Vagus nerve nuclei A $QWHULRU YLHZ RI PHGXOOD REORQJDWD B Cross section through the medulla oblongata. 7KHYDJXVQHUYHKDVWKHPRVWH[WHQVLYHGLVWULEXWLRQRIDOOWKHFUDQLDO nerves (L. vagus YDJDERQG 3DUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVGHVFHQGLQWRWKH WKRUD[DQGDEGRPHQ7KHVHÀEHUVIRUPDXWRQRPLFSOH[XVHVZLWKSRVWJDQJOLRQLFV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVIURPWKHV\PSDWKHWLFWUXQNDQGDEGRPLQDOJDQJOLD 7KHSOH[XVHVH[WHQGDORQJRUJDQVDQGEORRGYHVVHOVDQG provide motor innervation to the thoracic and abdominal viscera. GenHUDOYLVFHURVHQVRU\ÀEHUVDVFHQGYLD&1;WRWKHLQIHULRUSDUWRIWKHQXFOHXVRIWKHVROLWDU\WUDFW
Nucleus of the VROLWDU\ tract
Taste (Fig. 4.48D): Fibers from the epiglottis and the URRWRIWKHWRQJXHDUHFRQYH\HGWRWKHVXSHULRUSDUW of WKHQXFOHXVRIWKHVROLWDU\WUDFW Visceral sensation (Fig. 4.48G )LEHUVDUHUHOD\HGWRWKH LQIHULRUSDUWRIWKHQXFOHXVRIWKHVROLWDU\WUDFWIURP 0 XFRVDRIWKHODU\QJRSKDU\Q[DQGODU\Q[Fig. 4.48A) $ RUWLFDUFKSUHVVXUHUHFHSWRUV DQGSDUDDRUWLFERG\ (chemoreceptors) (Fig. 4.48E) 7 KRUDFLFDQGDEGRPLQDOYLVFHUDFig. 4.48G)
&RXUVH
The vagus nerve arises from the medulla oblongata and emerges IURPWKHVNXOOYLDWKHMXJXODUIRUDPHQ,WKDVWZRVHQVRU\JDQJOLDZLWK ÀUVWRUGHUSVHXGRXQLSRODUFHOOVWKHVXSHULRUMXJXODU JDQJOLRQVRPDWRVHQVRU\ LVZLWKLQWKHFUDQLDOFDYLW\DQGWKHLQIHULRUQRGRVH JDQJOLRQYLVFHURVHQVRU\ LVGLVWDOWRWKHMXJXODUIRUDPHQ /HVLRQV
7KHUHFXUUHQWODU\QJHDOQHUYHVXSSOLHVSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFLQQHUYDWLRQ WRWKHLQWULQVLFODU\QJHDOPXVFOHVH[FHSWWKHFULFRWK\URLG 7KLV LQFOXGHVWKHSRVWHULRUFULFRDU\WHQRLGWKHRQO\PXVFOHWKDWDEGXFWV the vocal cords. Unilateral lesions of this nerve cause hoarseness; ELODWHUDOGHVWUXFWLRQOHDGVWRUHVSLUDWRU\GLVWUHVVG\VSQHD
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.27 Vagus nerve branches
CN X Thyrohyoid membrane
Meningeal branches Pharyngeal branches
Superior laryngeal nerve
General somatosensory fibers from the dura of the posterior cranial fossa. Auricular branch
Internal laryngeal nerve
External laryngeal nerve
General somatosensory fibers from external ear (auricle, external acoustic canal, and part of lateral side of tympanic membrane). Pharyngeal branches
Cricothyroid muscle Right recurrent laryngeal nerve
The pharyngeal plexus consists of general somatosensory fibers (from CN IX), sympathetic fibers (from the sympathetic trunk), and motor fibers (from CN X). • CN X conveys branchiomotor fibers to the pharyngeal muscles.
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve
Carotid branch
General viscerosensory fibers from the carotid body (chemoreceptors) ascend on the internal carotid artery to join CN IX or X on their way to the inferior part of the nucleus of the solitary tract.
Subclavian artery Brachiocephalic trunk
Superior laryngeal n. Aortic arch
Combines with a sympathetic branch from the superior cervical ganglion and divides into: • Internal laryngeal n.: Sensory fibers from the mucosa of the laryngopharynx and larynx. • External laryngeal n.: Parasympathetic motor innervation to the cricothyroid.
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve Cervical cardiac branches
Recurrent laryngeal n.
The recurrent laryngeal nerve is asymmetrical: • Right recurrent laryngeal n.: Recurs behind the right subclavian artery. • Left recurrent laryngeal n.: Recurs behind the aortic arch. Ascends between the trachea and esophagus. The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply: • Motor innervation to the laryngeal muscles (except the cricothyroid). • Viscerosensory innervation to the laryngeal mucosa.
Anterior esophageal plexus
Branches to the thorax and abdomen
The vagus nerve also conveys parasympathetic and general viscerosensory fibers from the cardiac, pulmonary, esophageal, celiac, renal, hepatic, and gastric plexuses (Fig. 4.48G)
Fig. 4.47 Vagus nerve branches in the neck Anterior view.
B
C
A
D
E
F
G
Fig. 4.48 Distribution of the vagus nerve (CN X)
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
CN XI & XII: Accessory Spinal & Hypoglossal Nerves Table 4.28 Accessory nerve (CN XI) Nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution Branchiomotor (purple) Jugular foramen
Nucleus ambiguus
Vagus nerve (CN X) Corticobulbar fibers
To laryngeal muscles via pharyngeal plexus and recurrent laryngeal nerve
Nucleus ambiguus Foramen magnum
Cranial root
Accessory nerve (CN XI), external branch
Spinal root
Trapezius
A
Fig. 4.49 Accessory nerve A Posterior view of brainstem. B Right lateral view of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
General somatomotor (red)
Spinal nucleus of CN XI
Sternocleidomastoid
Spinal nucleus of accessory nerve
Lower motor neurons innervate the muscles derived from the 3rd, 4th, and 6th branchial arches via CN IX, X, and XI. • CN XI innervates the laryngeal muscles (except cricoarytenoid).
Lower motor neurons in the lateral part of the ventral horn of C2–C6 spinal cord segments innervate: • Trapezius (upper part). • Sternocleidomastoid.
Course
CN XI arises and courses in two parts that unite briefly distal to the jugular foramen:
B
(Note: For didactic reasons, the right muscles are displayed though they are innervated by the right cranial nerve nuclei.)
Cranial root: Branchiomotor fibers emerge from the medulla oblongata and pass through the jugular foramen. They briefly unite with the spinal root before joining CN X at the inferior ganglion. CN X distributes the branchiomotor fibers via the pharyngeal plexus and the external and recurrent laryngeal nerves. Spinal root: General somatomotor fibers emerge as rootlets from the spinal medulla. They unite and ascend through the foramen magnum. The spinal root then passes through the jugular foramen, courses briefly with the cranial root, and then descends to innervate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. Lesions
B
Trapezius paralysis: Unilateral lesions may occur during operations in the neck (e.g., lymph node biopsies), causing: • Drooping of the shoulder on the affected side. • Difficulty raising the arm above the horizontal.
A
Fig. 4.50 Accessory nerve lesions Accessory nerve lesions cause partial paralysis of the trapezius and complete (flaccid) paralysis of the sternocleidomastoid (see Table 4.28). Both lesions shown here are unilateral
92
The sternocleidomastoid is exclusively innervated by CN XI, and the lower portions of the trapezius are innervated by C3–C5. Accessory nerve lesions therefore cause complete (flaccid) sternocleidomastoid paralysis but only partial trapezius paralysis.
(right side). A Posterior view. Partial paralysis of the trapezius causes drooping of the shoulder on the affected side. B Right anterolateral view. Flaccid paralysis of the sternocleidomastoid causes torticollis (wry neck).
Sternocleidomastoid paralysis: • Unilateral lesions: Flaccid paralysis causes torticollis (wry neck, i.e., difficulty turning the head to the opposite side). • Bilateral lesions: Difficulty holding the head upright.
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Hypoglossal trigone (in rhomboid fossa)
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.29 Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Pyramid
Olive
Nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution General somatomotor (red)
Nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve
CN XII
Nucleus of CN XII
Foramen magnum
Lower motor neurons innervate: • Extrinsic lingual muscles (except palatoglossus). • Intrinsic lingual muscles.
Course Pyramid
Olive
Anterior condylar canal
A
Fig. 4.51 Hypoglossal nerve nuclei The nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve is located in the floor of the rhomboid fossa. Rootlets emerge between the pyramid and the olive.
B
C1 spinal nerve
A Cross section through the medulla oblongata. The proximity of the nuclei to the midline causes extensive lesions to involve both nuclei. B Anterior view of medulla oblongata.
The hypoglossal nerve emerges from the medulla oblongata as rootlets between the olive and pyramid. These rootlets combine into CN XII, which courses through the hypoglossal (anterior condylar) canal. CN XII enters the root of the tongue superior to the hyoid bone and lateral to the hyoglossus. • C1 motor fibers from the cervical plexus travel with the hypoglossal nerve: some branch to form the superior root of the ansa cervicalis (not shown), whereas others continue with CN XII to supply the geniohyoid and thyrohyoid muscles. Lesions
Precentral gyrus
Left and right genioglossus muscles
B Corticobulbar fibers
Paralyzed genioglossus
C Tongue Styloglossus muscle
CN X
C1
Nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve
Anterior condylar canal
CN XII
Upper motor neurons innervate the lower motor neurons in the contralateral nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve. Supranuclear lesions (central hypoglossal paralysis) will therefore cause the tongue to deviate away from the affected side. Nuclear or peripheral lesions will cause the tongue to deviate toward the affected side (Fig. 4.52C).
Genioglossus muscle
Fig. 4.52 Hypoglossal nerve A Course of the hypoglossal nerve. Upper motor neurons synapse on lower motor neurons on the contralateral nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve. Supranuclear lesions will therefore cause contralateral paralysis; peripheral lesions will cause ipsilateral paralysis (same side). B The functional genioglossus extends the tongue anteriorly. C Unilateral paralysis due to a peripheral lesion causes the tongue to deviate toward the affected side (dominance of the intact genioglossus).
Hyoglossus muscle
A
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4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Neurovascular Pathways through the Skull Base
Cribriform plate
Incisive canal
CN I, ethmoidal aa. and vv.
Nasopalatine n. and a., greater palatine a. Greater palatine foramen
Optic canal
Greater palatine n. and a.
CN II, ophthalmic a.
Lesser palatine foramina
Superior orbital fissure Superior and inferior ophthalmic v. Lacrimal n. Frontal n.
Lesser palatine n. and a.
CN IV CN VI
Foramen lacerum
CN III
Deep and greater petrosal nn. (across superior surface)
Nasociliary n.
Foramen spinosum
Foramen rotundum CN V2 Foramen ovale
Carotid canal
CN V3, lesser petrosal n. (CN IX)
Internal carotid a., internal carotid plexus
Carotid canal Internal carotid a. with sympathetic plexus
Petrotympanic fissure
A
Anterior tympanic a., chorda tympani
B
Foramen spinosum
Stylomastoid foramen
Middle meningeal a., recurrent meningeal branch of CN V3
Facial n., stylomastoid a.
Hiatus of canal for lesser petrosal n.
Jugular foramen
Lesser petrosal n., superior tympanic a.
Internal jugular v. –
See opposite
Hiatus of canal for greater petrosal n. Greater petrosal n. Internal acoustic meatus Labyrinthine a. and v. A
CN VII
B
CN VIII
Mastoid foramen Emissary v. Hypoglossal canal
Jugular foramen Sigmoid sinus CN IX CN X
A
CN XI
Inferior petrosal sinus Posterior meningeal a.
Foramen magnum Emissary vv.
Vertebral a.
Anterior and posterior spinal aa.
Spinal cord
Fig. 4.53 Passage of neurovascular structures through the skull base A Superior view of cranial cavity. B Inferior view of base of skull. This image and the corresponding table only address structures entering
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CN XI, spinal root
CN XII, venous plexus of hypoglossal canal (Posterior) condylar canal Condylar emissary v.
B
and exiting the skull. Many neurovascular structures pass through bony canals within the skull (to pterygopalatine fossa, infratemporal fossa, etc.).
Head
4. Innervation of the Head & Neck
Table 4.30 Openings in the skull base Cranial cavity
Opening
Transmitted structures Nerves
Arteries and veins
Internal view, base of the skull
Anterior cranial fossa
Cribriform plate
• CN I (olfactory fibers collected to form olfactory n.)
• Anterior and posterior ethmoidal aa. (from ophthalmic a.) • Ethmoidal vv. (to superior ophthalmic v.)
Middle cranial fossa
Optic canal
• CN II (optic n.)
• Ophthalmic a. (from internal carotid a.)
Superior orbital fissure
• • • •
• Superior and inferior ophthalmic vv. (to cavernous sinus) (Note: The inferior ophthalmic v. also drains through the inferior orbital fissure to the pterygoid plexus.)
Foramen rotundum*
• CN V2 (maxillary n.)
Foramen ovale
• CN V3 (mandibular n.) • Lesser petrosal n. (CN IX)
• Accessory meningeal a. (from mandibular part of maxillary a.)
Foramen spinosum
• CN V3, recurrent meningeal branch
• Middle meningeal a. (from mandibular part of maxillary a.)
Carotid canal
• Carotid plexus (postganglionic sympathetics from superior cervical ganglion)
• Internal carotid a.
Hiatus of canal for greater petrosal n.
• Greater petrosal n. (CN VII)
Hiatus of canal for lesser petrosal n.
• Lesser petrosal n. (CN IX)
• Superior tympanic a. (from middle meningeal a.)
Internal acoustic meatus
• CN VII (facial n.) • CN VIII (vestibulocochlear n.)
• Labyrinthine a. (from vertebral a.) • Labyrinthine vv. (to superior petrosal or transverse sinus)
Jugular foramen
• CN IX (glossopharyngeal n.) • CN X (vagus n.) • CN XI (accessory n., cranial root)
• Internal jugular v. (bulb) • Sigmoid sinus (to bulb of internal jugular v.) • Posterior meningeal a. (from ascending pharyngeal a.)
Hypoglossal canal
• CN XII (hypoglossal n.)
• Venous plexus of hypoglossal canal
Foramen magnum
• Medulla oblongata with meningeal coverings • CN XI (accessory n.)
• Vertebral aa. • Anterior and posterior spinal aa. (from vertebral a.) • Emissary vv.
Posterior cranial fossa
CN III (oculomotor n.) CN IV (trochlear n.) CN IV (abducent n.) CN V1 (ophthalmic n.) divisions (lacrimal, frontal, and nasociliary nn.)
External aspect, base of the skull (where different from internal aspect)
Incisive canal
• Nasopalatine n. (from CN V2)
• Branch of greater palatine a.
Greater palatine foramen
• Greater palatine n. (from CN V2)
• Greater palatine a. (from pterygopalatine part of maxillary a.)
Lesser palatine foramen
• Lesser palatine n. (from CN V2)
• Lesser palatine aa. (from pterygopalatine part of maxillary a. or as branch of greater palatine a. or descending palatine a.)
Foramen lacerum**
• Deep petrosal n. (from superior cervical ganglion via carotid plexus) • Greater petrosal n. (from CN VII)
Petrotympanic fissure
• Chorda tympani (from CN VII)
• Anterior tympanic a. (from mandibular part of maxillary a.)
Stylomastoid foramen
• Facial n. (CN VII)
• Stylomastoid a. (from posterior auricular a.)
(Posterior) condylar canal
• Condylar emissary v. (to sigmoid sinus)
Mastoid foramen
• Mastoid emissary v. (to sigmoid sinus)
*The external opening of the foramen rotundum is located in the pterygopalatine fossa, which is located deep on the lateral surface of the base of the skull and is not visible here. **Structures travel over the superior surface of the foramen lacerum, not through it (with the possible exception of lymphatic vessels and emissary veins).
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Anterior Face The bones and muscles of the skull are shown in isolation in Chapter 1 and Chapter 2, respectively. The arteries and veins are discussed in Chapter 3; the nerves are found in Chapter 4.
Supratrochlear nerve Supraorbital nerve, lateral branch Lacrimal nerve
Supraorbital nerve, medial branch Dorsal nasal artery
Facial nerve, temporal branches
Lateral nasal artery Auriculotemporal nerve
Angular artery and vein
Superficial temporal artery and vein Infraorbital artery and nerve (via infraorbital foramen)
Facial nerve, zygomatic branches
Transverse facial artery Facial nerve, buccal branches Parotid gland
Facial nerve, marginal mandibular branch Facial artery and vein
Fig. 5.1 Superficial neurovasculature of the anterior face Removed: Skin and fatty tissue. The muscles of facial expression have been partially removed on the left side to display underlying musculature and neurovascular structures. The muscles of facial expression receive motor innervation from the facial nerve (CN VII), which emerges laterally from the parotid gland. The muscles of mastication receive motor innervation from the mandibular division of the trigemi-
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Parotid duct
Masseter
Mental artery and nerve (via mental foramen)
nal nerve (CN V3). The face receives sensory innervation primarily from the terminal branches of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve (CN V), but also from the great auricular nerve, which arises from the cervical plexus (see Fig. 5.10). The face receives blood supply primarily from branches of the external carotid artery, though these do anastomose on the face with facial branches of the internal carotid artery (see Fig. 5.2).
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Supratrochlear artery Medial palpebral arteries, superior and inferior
5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Supraorbital artery
Lacrimal artery Dorsal nasal artery
Lateral palpebral arteries, superior and inferior
Angular artery
Infraorbital artery Maxillary artery (cut) Superior labial artery Mental artery
Superficial temporal artery Inferior labial artery Facial artery External carotid artery Submental artery
Fig. 5.2 Arterial anastomoses in the face Branches of the external carotid artery (e.g., facial, superficial temporal, and maxillary arteries) and the internal carotid artery (e.g., dorsal nasal, supraorbital, and lacrimal arteries) anastomose in certain facial regions to ensure blood flow to the face and head. Anastomoses occur between the angular artery and the dorsal nasal artery, as well as between the superficial temporal artery and the supraorbital artery.
This extensive vascular supply to the face causes head injuries to bleed profusely but also heal quickly. The anastomoses are also important in cases of reduced blood flow (e.g., atherosclerosis). Cerebral ischemia, which can result from atherosclerosis of the internal carotid artery, may be avoided if there is sufficient blood flow through the superficial temporal and facial arteries.
Supraorbital nerve (branch of CN V1)
Infraorbital nerve (branch of CN V2)
Mental nerve (branch of CN V3)
Fig. 5.3 Venous “danger zone” in the face The superficial veins of the face have extensive connections with the deep veins of the head (e.g., the pterygoid plexus) and dural sinuses (e.g., the cavernous sinus) (see p. 53). Veins in the triangular danger zone are, in general, valveless. There is therefore a particularly high risk of bacterial dissemination into the cranial cavity. For example, bacteria from a boil on the lip may enter the facial vein and cause meningitis by passing through venous communications with the cavernous sinus.
Fig. 5.4 Emergence of the trigeminal nerve The trigeminal nerve (CN V) is the major somatic sensory nerve of the head. Its three large sensory branches emerge from three foramina: • CN V1: Supraorbital nerve (through supraorbital foramen) • CN V2: Infraorbital nerve (through infraorbital foramen) • CN V3: Mental nerve (through mental foramen)
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Lateral Head: Superficial Layer
Superficial temporal artery, frontal branch
Superficial temporal artery and vein
Superficial temporal artery, parietal branch
Supraorbital nerve (branch of trigeminal nerve)
Supratrochlear nerve (branch of CN V1) Zygomaticoorbital artery Auriculotemporal nerve (branch of CN V3) Angular vein External nasal nerve (branch of CN V1) Transverse facial artery Infraorbital nerve (branch of CN V2)
Occipital artery
Parotid duct
Greater occipital nerve (C2)
Buccinator
Lesser occipital nerve (from cervical plexus [C2]) Sternocleidomastoid
Mental nerve (branch of CN V3)
Posterior auricular vein
Parotid gland Facial vein Masseter
Branches of parotid plexus of facial nerve
Fig. 5.5 Superficial neurovasculature of the lateral head Left lateral view. The arteries supplying the lateral head arise from branches of the external carotid artery (see Fig. 5.6). Blood drains primarily into the internal, external, and anterior jugular veins (see p. 52). The muscles of facial expression receive motor innervation from the
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External jugular vein
Great auricular nerve (from cervical plexus [C2–C3])
facial nerve (CN VII), which emerges laterally from the parotid gland (see p. 84). The muscles of mastication receive motor innervation from the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3, see p. 81). The sensory innervation of the face is shown in Fig. 5.7.
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Middle temporal artery
Zygomatico-orbital artery
Transverse facial artery Angular artery
Superficial temporal artery
Inferior alveolar artery
Maxillary artery
Superior labial artery
Occipital artery
Inferior labial artery
Facial artery External carotid artery
Mental artery Submental artery
Fig. 5.6 Superficial arteries of the head Left lateral view. The superficial face is supplied primarily by branches of the external carotid artery (e.g., facial, superficial temporal, and maxil-
Internal carotid artery
lary arteries). However, there is limited contribution from branches derived from the internal carotid artery in the region of the orbital rim.
Ophthalmic division (CN V1)
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Maxillary division (CN V2)
Mandibular division (CN V3) Transverse cervical nerve (cervical plexus [C2–C3]) Greater auricular nerve (cervical plexus [C2–C3])
Fig. 5.7 Sensory innervation of the lateral head and neck Left lateral view. The head receives sensory innervation primarily from the trigeminal nerve (orange), the cervical plexus (green and gray), and the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves (blue). Sensory supply to the face is primarily from the terminal branches of the three trigeminal nerve divisions. The occiput and nuchal region are supplied primarily
Greater occipital nerve (dorsal ramus of C2)
Spinal nerves (dorsal rami) Lesser occipital nerve (cervical plexus [C2]) Supraclavicular nerves (cervical plexus [C3–C4])
by dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. The ventral rami of the first four spinal nerves combine to form the cervical plexus. The cervical plexus gives off four cutaneous branches that supply the lateral head and neck (nerves listed with their associated spinal nerve fibers): lesser occipital (C2, occasionally C3), greater auricular (C2–C3), transverse cervical (C2–C3), and supraclavicular (C3–C4) nerves.
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Lateral Head: Intermediate Layer Accessory parotid gland
Superficial temporal artery and vein
Parotid gland
Parotid duct
Parotid gland, superficial part Parotid plexus Facial nerve (CN VII) Buccinator Masseter A
Facial artery and vein
Submandibular gland
Sternocleidomastoid
B
Fig. 5.8 Parotid bed Left lateral view. A Superficial dissection. B Deep dissection. The largest of the salivary glands, the parotid gland secretes saliva into the oral cavity via the parotid duct. The facial nerve divides into branches
Parotid gland, deep part
Sternocleidomastoid
within the parotid gland and is vulnerable during the surgical removal of parotid tumors. The best landmark for locating the nerve trunk is the tip of the cartilaginous auditory canal.
Temporal branches
Parotid plexus Zygomatic branches
Posterior auricular nerve
Buccal branches Marginal mandibular branch
Facial nerve Nerve to digastric (posterior belly) Cervical branch
Fig. 5.9 Branching of the facial nerve (CN VII) Left lateral view. The large branchiomotor branch of the facial nerve (CN VII) exits the skull through the stylomastoid foramen. It gives off three branches immediately: the posterior auricular nerve and the
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Nerve to stylohyoid
nerves to the digastric muscle (posterior belly) and stylohyoid. It then enters the parotid gland, where it divides into two trunks: temporofacial and cervicofacial. These trunks give off five major branches that course anteriorly: temporal, zygomatic, buccal, mandibular, and cervical.
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Superficial temporal artery, parietal and occipital branches
Temporofacial trunk Supraorbital nerve (branch of CN V1)
Supratrochlear nerve (branch of CN V1) Auriculotemporal nerve (branch of CN V3) Infratrochlear nerve (branch of CN V1) Temporal branches of parotid plexus (CN VII) External nasal nerve (branch of CN V1) Infraorbital nerve (branch of CN V2)
Occipital artery Greater occipital nerve (dorsal ramus of C2)
Zygomatic branches of parotid plexus (CN VII)
Posterior auricular nerve (CN VII)
Parotid duct Buccal branches of parotid plexus (CN VII)
Lesser occipital nerve (cervical plexus [C2]) Sternocleidomastoid
Mental nerve (branch of CN V3)
Nerve to the stylohyoid (CN VII) Nerve to the digastric, posterior belly (CN VII) Masseter Mandibular branch of parotid plexus (CN VII)
Cervicofacial Cervical trunk branch of parotid plexus (CN VII)
Fig. 5.10 Nerves of the intermediate layer Left lateral view. The parotid gland has been removed to demonstrate the structure of the parotid plexus of the facial nerve (see Fig. 5.9). The
Intraparotid plexus of the facial nerve (CN VII)
External jugular vein
Great auricular nerve (cervical plexus [C2–C3])
occiput receives sensory innervation from the greater occipital nerve, which arises from the dorsal primary ramus of C2, and the lesser occipital nerve, which arises from the cervical plexus (ventral rami of C2).
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Infratemporal Fossa: Contents The infratemporal fossa is located lateral to the lateral pterygoid plate of the sphenoid, medial to the ramus of the mandible, posterior to the maxilla, anterior to the styloid process (and the carotid sheath and its contents), and inferior to the greater wing of the sphenoid and a small part of the temporal bone. It is continuous with the pterygopalatine
fossa (through the pterygomaxillary fissure). The maxillary artery gives rise to its mandibular (bony, first part) and pterygoid (muscular, second part) branches in the infratemporal fossa. The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) divides into its terminal branches in the infratemporal fossa.
Temporalis muscle (cut)
Superficial temporal artery and vein
Deep temporal nerves (CN V3) Deep temporal arteries
Superior alveolar nerves, posterior superior alveolar branches (CN V2)
Auriculotemporal nerve (CN V3)
Maxillary artery
Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior and inferior heads
Buccal artery and nerve (CN V3) Medial pterygoid muscle, superficial and deep heads
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Lingual nerve (CN V3)
Ramus of mandible (cut)
Facial artery and vein
Inferior alveolar artery and nerve (CN V3)
Masseter (cut)
Sternocleidomastoid
Fig. 5.11 Infratemporal fossa, superficial dissection Left lateral view. Removed: Masseter, anterior portion of the mandibular ramus, and zygomatic arch. The pterygoid plexus normally is embedded between the medial and lateral pterygoids. It drains to the
maxillary vein, a tributary of the retromandibular vein. The inferior alveolar artery and nerve can be seen entering the mandibular canal (the accompanying vein has been removed).
Table 5.1 Muscles and vessels of the infratemporal fossa Muscle
Artery
Vein
Lateral and medial pterygoids
Maxillary artery • Mandibular branches • Pterygoid branches
Pterygoid plexus
Temporalis tendon
Maxillary vein Deep facial vein (deep portion) Emissary veins
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Superficial temporal artery and vein
Temporalis muscle (cut) Deep temporal nerves (CN V3)
Lateral pterygoid muscle (cut)
Infraorbital artery
Auriculotemporal nerve
Sphenopalatine artery
Trigeminal nerve, mandibular division (CN V3)
Posterior superior alveolar artery Buccal artery and nerve (CN V3)
Middle meningeal artery
Buccinator Medial pterygoid muscle, superficial head
Maxillary artery
Lingual nerve (CN V3)
Medial pterygoid muscle, deep head
Facial artery and vein
Facial nerve (CN VII) Inferior alveolar artery and nerve (CN V3)
Masseter (cut)
Fig. 5.12 Infratemporal fossa, deep dissection Left lateral view. Removed: Both heads of the lateral pterygoid muscle. The branches of the maxillary artery and mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) can be identified. Note: By careful dissection, it is possible to define the site where the auriculotemporal nerve
(branch of the mandibular division) splits around the middle meningeal artery before the artery enters the middle cranial fossa through the foramen spinosum (see p. 46). Branches of the third part of the maxillary artery can be observed in the pterygopalatine fossa, which is medial to the infratemporal fossa.
Table 5.2 Nerves in the infratemporal fossa CN V3
Trunk of CN V3 and direct branches: • Recurrent meningeal branch • Medial pterygoid n.
CN V2
Posterior superior alveolar n.
Other
Otic ganglion
Anterior division: • Masseteric n. • Deep temporal nn. • Buccal n. • Lateral pterygoid n.
Posterior division: • Auriculotemporal n. • Lingual n. • Inferior alveolar n. • Mylohyoid n.
Lesser petrosal n.
Chorda tympani (CN VII)
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5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Pterygopalatine Fossa
Frontal bone, zygomatic process
Greater wing of sphenoid bone, temporal surface
Temporal bone, squamous part
Ethmoid bone Sphenosquamous suture
Sphenopalatine foramen
Pterygopalatine fossa
Zygomatic bone
See detail in Fig. 5.14
Maxillary tuberosity
A
Pterygoid hamulus of medial pterygoid plate
Pterygoid process of lateral pterygoid plate
Fig. 5.13 Pterygopalatine fossa A Left lateral view of left infratemporal fossa and pterygopalatine fossa. B Inferior view of right infratemporal fossa and lateral approach to pterygopalatine fossa. The pterygopalatine fossa is a crossroads between the orbit, nasal cavity, oral cavity, nasopharynx, and middle cranial fossa. It is traversed by many nerves and vessels supplying these structures. The pterygopalatine fossa is continuous laterally with the infratemporal fossa through the pterygopalatine fissure. The lateral approach through the infratemporal fossa is used in surgical operations on tumors of the pterygopalatine fossa (e.g., nasopharyngeal fibroma).
Inferior orbital fissure
Lateral approach to pterygopalatine fossa
Greater wing of sphenoid bone, infratemporal surface
Choana Palatine bone, pyramidal process
Infratemporal crest
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Pterygoid process, lateral plate
B
Foramen spinosum
Foramen ovale
Table 5.3 Borders of the pterygopalatine fossa Border
Structure
Border
Structure
Superior
Sphenoid bone (greater wing) and junction with the inferior orbital fissure
Inferior
Greater palatine canal
Anterior
Maxilla
Posterior
Sphenoid, root of pterygoid process
Medial
Palatine bone (perpendicular plate)
Lateral
Pterygomaxillary fissure
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Fig. 5.14 Communications of the pterygopalatine fossa Left lateral view of left fossa (detail from Fig. 5.13A). The pterygopalatine fossa contains the pterygopalatine ganglion, the parasympathetic ganglion of CN VII that is affiliated with the maxillary nerve (CN V2, sensory). Sensory fibers from the face, maxillary dentition, nasal cavity, oral cavity, nasopharynx, and paranasal sinuses pass through the ganglion without synapsing and enter the middle cranial fossa as the maxillary nerve (CN V2). These sensory fibers also serve as “scaffolding” for the peripheral distribution of postganglionic autonomic parasympathetic fibers from the pterygopalatine ganglion and postganglionic sympathetic fibers derived from the internal carotid plexus. See Table 4.20 for a complete treatment of the maxillary nerve and pterygopalatine ganglion.
5. Neurovascular Topography of the Head
Inferior orbital fissure (to orbit) Sphenopalatine foramen (to nasal cavity) Greater palatine canal (to oral cavity)
Foramen rotundum (from middle cranial fossa) Pterygoid canal (from middle cranial fossa) Pterygopalatine fossa
Table 5.4 Communications of the pterygopalatine fossa Communication
Direction
Via
Transmitted structures
Middle cranial fossa
Posterosuperiorly
Foramen rotundum
• Maxillary n. (CN V2)
Middle cranial fossa
Posteriorly in anterior wall of foramen lacerum
Pterygoid canal
• N. of pterygoid canal, formed from: ◦ Greater petrosal n. (preganglionic parasympathetic fibers from CN VII) ◦ Deep petrosal n. (postganglionic sympathetic fibers from internal carotid plexus) • A. of pterygoid canal • Vv. of pterygoid canal
Orbit
Anterosuperiorly
Inferior orbital fissure
• Branches of maxillary n. (CN V2): ◦ Infraorbital n. ◦ Zygomatic n. • Infraorbital a. and vv. • Communicating vv. between inferior ophthalmic v. and pterygoid plexus of vv.
Nasal cavity
Medially
Sphenopalatine foramen
• Nasopalatine n. (CN V2), lateral and medial superior posterior nasal branches • Sphenopalatine a. and vv.
Oral cavity
Inferiorly
Greater palatine canal (foramen)
• Greater (descending) palatine n. (CN V2) and a. • Branches that emerge through lesser palatine canals: ◦ Lesser palatine nn. (CN V2) and aa.
Nasopharynx
Inferoposteriorly
Palatovaginal (pharyngeal) canal
• CN V2, pharyngeal branches, and pharyngeal a.
Infratemporal fossa
Laterally
Pterygomaxillary fissure
• Maxillary a., pterygoid (third) part • Posterior superior alveolar n., a., and v.
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Regions of the Head 6
Orbit & Eye Bones of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Communications of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Extraocular Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Cranial Nerves of the Extraocular Muscles: Oculomotor (CN III), Trochlear (CN IV) & Abducent (CN VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Neurovasculature of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Topography of the Orbit (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Topography of the Orbit (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Lacrimal Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Eyeball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Eye: Blood Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Eye: Lens & Cornea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Eye: Iris & Ocular Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Eye: Retina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Visual System (I): Overview & Geniculate Part . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Visual System (II): Lesions & Nongeniculate Part . . . . . . . . . 136 Visual System (III): Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Visual System (IV): Coordination of Eye Movement . . . . . . . 140
7
Nose & Nasal Cavity Nose: Nasal Skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Nose: Paranasal Sinuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Nasal Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Nasal Cavity: Neurovascular Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Nose & Paranasal Sinuses: Histology & Clinical Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Olfactory System (Smell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8
Temporal Bone & Ear Temporal Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Ear: Overview & External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 External Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Middle Ear (I): Tympanic Cavity & Pharyngotympanic Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Middle Ear (II): Auditory Ossicles & Tympanic Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Inner Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Arteries & Veins of the Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Auditory Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Auditory Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Vestibular Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Vestibular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9
Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions Oral Cavity: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Permanent Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Structure of the Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Incisors, Canines & Premolars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Molars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Deciduous Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Hard Palate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Mandible & Hyoid Bone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . 196 Muscles of Mastication: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Suprahyoid Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Lingual Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Lingual Mucosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Pharynx & Tonsils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Pharynx: Divisions & Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Muscles of the Soft Palate & Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Muscles of the Pharynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Pharynx: Topography & Innervation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Salivary Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Neurovasculature of the Tongue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Gustatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Bones of the Orbit
Frontal bone, supraorbital margin
Frontal bone, orbital surface Sphenoid bone, orbital surface of lesser wing Ethmoid bone, orbital plate (lamina papyracea)
Sphenoid bone, orbital surface of greater wing
Maxilla, frontal process Zygomatic bone, frontal process
Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone, orbital surface
Anterior cranial fossa
Lacrimal bone, orbital surface
Frontal bone, orbital surface
Palatine bone A
Maxilla, zygomatic process
Frontal bone, supraorbital margin
Maxilla, orbital surface
Nasion Nasal bone Sphenoid bone, lesser wing Ethmoid bone, orbital plate (lamina papyracea) B Frontal bone, orbital surface Zygomatic bone, orbital surface Maxilla, orbital surface (floor) Infraorbital canal Maxillary sinus
Maxilla, frontal process Palatine bone
Maxilla, orbital surface (floor)
Lacrimal bone, orbital surface
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing Sphenoid bone, greater wing Inferior orbital fissure
Pterygomaxillary fissure Palatine bone, pyramidal process
C
Fig. 6.1 Bones of the orbit Right orbit. A,D Anterior view. B,E Lateral view with lateral orbital wall removed. C,F Medial view with medial orbit wall removed. The orbit is formed by seven bones: the frontal, zygomatic, ethmoid, sphenoid, lacrimal, and palatine bones, and the maxilla. The neurovascular structures of the orbit communicate with the surrounding spaces via several major passages (see Table 6.1): the superior and inferior orbital
108
fissures, the optic canal, the anterior and posterior ethmoidal foramina, the infraorbital canal, and the nasolacrimal duct. The neurovascular structures of the orbit also communicate with the superficial face by passing through the orbital rim. Note: The exposed maxillary sinus can be seen in E. The maxillary hiatus contains the ostium by which the maxillary sinus opens into the nasal cavity superior to the inferior nasal concha.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Frontal incisure Supraorbital foramen
Posterior ethmoidal foramen Anterior ethmoidal foramen
Zygomaticoorbital foramen
Optic canal Nasal bone
Superior orbital fissure
Lacrimal bone Inferior orbital fissure Infraorbital groove
D
Infraorbital foramen
Lacrimal bone
Frontal sinus
Glabella Anterior ethmoidal foramen
Nasion Posterior lacrimal crest (lacrimal bone)
Posterior ethmoidal foramen
Anterior lacrimal crest (maxilla)
Optic canal
Fossa of lacrimal sac (with opening for nasolacrimal duct)
Superior orbital fissure (opened) Foramen rotundum Inferior orbital fissure Pterygomaxillary fissure E
Frontal sinus
Infraorbital canal Pterygopalatine fossa
Maxillary ostium
Maxillary sinus
Infraorbital foramen
Superior orbital fissure
Lacrimal fossa Zygomaticoorbital foramen
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Maxilla, orbital surface Infraorbital canal Inferior orbital fissure
Pterygomaxillary fissure
Maxillary sinus
F
109
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Communications of the Orbit
Fig. 6.2 Bones of the orbits and adjacent cavities The bones of the orbit also form portions of the walls of neighboring cavities. The following adjacent structures are visible in the diagram: • • • • •
Anterior cranial fossa Frontal sinus Middle cranial fossa Ethmoid air cells Maxillary sinus
Disease processes may originate in the orbit and spread to these cavities, or originate in these cavities and spread to the orbit.
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid bone
Anterior cranial fossa
Optic canal (leads to middle cranial fossa) Frontal bone, orbital surface
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone, orbital surface of lesser wing
Temporal bone Ethmoid air cells
Sphenoid bone, orbital surface of greater wing
Superior orbital fissure (leads to middle cranial fossa)
Zygomatic bone, orbital surface
Maxilla, orbital surface
Maxillary sinus
Inferior nasal concha
Frontal sinus
Vomer
Crista galli
Ethmoid air cells
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate
Optic canal Ethmoid bone, orbital plate (lamina papyracea)
Superior orbital fissure Superior nasal concha (ethmoid bone)
Middle nasal meatus
Inferior orbital fissure Infraorbital canal
Orbital floor (maxilla) Middle nasal concha (ethmoid bone) Inferior nasal concha and meatus
Maxillary sinus Palatine process of the maxilla
Fig. 6.3 Orbits and neighboring structures Coronal section through both orbits, viewed from the front. The walls separating the orbit from the ethmoid air cells (0.3 mm, lamina papyracea) and from the maxillary sinus (0.5 mm, orbital floor) are very thin. Thus, both of these walls are susceptible to fractures and provide
110
Vomer Alveolar process of maxilla
routes for the spread of tumors and inflammatory processes into or out of the orbit. The superior orbital fissure communicates with the middle cranial fossa, and so several structures that are not pictured here—the sphenoid sinus, pituitary gland, and optic chiasm—are also closely related to the orbit.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Table 6.1 Communications of the orbit Structure
Communicates
Via
Neurovascular structures in canal/fissure
Frontal sinus and anterior ethmoid air cells
Superiorly
Unnamed canaliculi
• Sensory filaments
Medially
Anterior ethmoidal canal
• Anterior ethmoidal a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Anterior ethmoidal v. (to superior ophthalmic v.) • Anterior ethmoidal n. (CN V1)
Sphenoid sinus and posterior ethmoid air cells
Medially
Posterior ethmoidal canal
• Posterior ethmoidal a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Posterior ethmoidal v. (to superior ophthalmic v.) • Posterior ethmoidal n. (CN V1)
Middle cranial fossa
Posteriorly
Superior orbital fissure
• Cranial nerves to the extraocular muscles (oculomotor n. [CN III], trochlear n. [CN IV], and abducent n. [CN VI]) • Ophthalmic n. (CN V1) and branches: ◦ Lacrimal n. ◦ Frontal n. (branches into supraorbital and supratrochlear nn.) ◦ Nasociliary n. • Superior (and occasionally inferior) ophthalmic v. (to cavernous sinus) • Recurrent meningeal branch of lacrimal a. (anastomoses with middle meningeal a.)
Posteriorly
Optic canal
• Optic n. (CN II) • Ophthalmic a. (from internal carotid a.)
Pterygopalatine fossa
Posteroinferiorly (medially)
Inferior orbital fissure*
Infratemporal fossa
Posteroinferiorly (laterally)
• • • • •
Nasal cavity
Inferomedially
Nasolacrimal canal
• Nasolacrimal duct
Maxillary sinus
Inferiorly
Unnamed canaliculi
• Sensory filaments
Face and temporal fossa
Anteriorly
Zygomaticofacial canal
• Zygomaticofacial n. (CN V2) • Anastomotic branch of lacrimal a. (to transverse facial and zygomaticoorbital aa.)
Zygomaticotemporal canal
• Zygomaticotemporal n. (CN V2) • Anastomotic branch of lacrimal a. (to deep temporal aa.)
Supraorbital foramen (notch)
• Supraorbital n., lateral branch (CN V1) • Supraorbital a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Supraorbital v. (to angular v.)
Frontal incisure
• Supratrochlear a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Supratrochlear n. (CN V1) • Supraorbital n., medial branch (CN V1)
Orbital rim, medial aspect
• Infratrochlear n. (CN V1) • Dorsal nasal a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Dorsal nasal v. (to angular v.)
Orbital rim, lateral aspect
• Lacrimal n. (CN V1) • Lacrimal a. (from ophthalmic a.) • Lacrimal v. (to superior ophthalmic v.)
Face
Anteriorly
Infraorbital a. (from maxillary a.) Infraorbital v. (to pterygoid plexus)* Infraorbital n. (CN V2) Zygomatic n. (CN V2) Inferior ophthalmic v. (variable, to cavernous sinus)
* The infraorbital a., v., and n. travel in the infraorbital canal on the lateral floor of the orbit and emerge at the inferior orbital fissure. The inferior orbital fissure is continuous inferiorly with the pterygomaxillary fissure, which is the boundary between the infratemporal and the pterygopalatine fossa. The infratemporal fossa lies on the lateral side of the pterygomaxillary fissure; the pterygopalatine fossa lies on the medial side.
111
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Extraocular Muscles
Inferior oblique
Tendon of superior oblique
Trochlea
Superior rectus
Superior oblique
Superior rectus
Superior oblique Inferior rectus Medial rectus Common tendinous ring
Lateral rectus
Lateral rectus
Inferior rectus
Optic canal (opened)
Fig. 6.4 Extraocular (extrinsic eye) muscles Right eye. A Superior view. B Anterior view. The eyeball is moved in the orbit by four rectus muscles (superior, medial, inferior, lateral) and two oblique muscles (superior and inferior). The four rectus muscles arise from a tendinous ring around the optic canal (common tendinous ring, common annular tendon) and insert on the sclera of the eyeball. The superior and inferior obliques arise from the body of the sphenoid and the medial orbital margin of the maxilla, respectively. The superior oblique passes through a tendinous loop (trochlea) attached to the
Superior orbital fissure (opened) Optic nerve (CN II)
Common tendinous ring
Internal carotid artery
Medial rectus
Superior oblique Superior rectus
Inferior oblique
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Inferior rectus
Foramen rotundum
Inferior orbital fissure
Clivus Foramen spinosum
Sphenoid bone
Sphenopalatine foramen
Fig. 6.5 Innervation of the extraocular muscles Right eye, lateral view with the lateral wall of the orbit removed. The extraocular muscles are supplied by cranial nerves III, IV, and VI (see Table 6.2). Note: Levator palpebrae superioris is also supplied by CN III. After emerging from the brainstem, these cranial nerves first
112
superomedial orbital margin (frontal bone); this redirects it at an acute angle to its insertion on the superior surface of the eyeball. The coordinated interaction of all six functionally competent extraocular muscles is necessary for directing both eyes toward the visual target. The brain then processes the two perceived retinal images in a way that provides binocular vision perception. Impaired function of one or more extraocular muscles causes deviation of the eye from its normal position, resulting in diplopia (double vision).
Lateral rectus
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Foramen ovale
B
Levator palpebrae superioris
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Medial rectus
Inferior oblique
Levator palpebrae superioris (cut)
Optic nerve (CN II) A
Maxillary sinus
traverse the cavernous sinus, where they are in close proximity to the internal carotid artery. From there they pass through the superior orbital fissure to enter the orbit and supply their respective muscles. The optic nerve (CN II) enters the orbit via the more medially located optic canal (see Fig. 6.1E).
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Fig. 6.6 Actions of the extraocular muscles Right eye, superior view with orbital roof removed. Primary actions (red), secondary actions (blue).
A
B
D
C
F
E
Table 6.2 Actions and innervation of the extraocular muscles Muscle
Primary action
Secondary action
Innervation
A Lateral rectus
Abduction
—
Abducent n. (CN VI)
B Medial rectus
Adduction
—
C Inferior rectus
Depression
Adduction and lateral rotation
D Inferior oblique
Elevation and abduction
Lateral rotation
E Superior rectus
Elevation
Adduction and medial rotation
Oculomotor n. (CN III), superior branch
F Superior oblique
Depression and abduction
Medial rotation
Trochlear n. (CN IV)
Inferior oblique
Oculomotor n. (CN III), inferior branch
B
Superior rectus
Lateral rectus
Inferior oblique
Medial rectus
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique
Lateral rectus
Inferior rectus
Up and to the right
Superior rectus
Superior oblique Up and to the left
Superior rectus
To the right
Lateral rectus
Down and to the right
Superior oblique
Inferior oblique To the left
Medial rectus
Inferior rectus
Fig. 6.7 The six cardinal directions of gaze In the clinical evaluation of ocular motility to diagnose oculomotor palsies, six cardinal directions of gaze are tested (see arrows). Note that different muscles may be activated in each eye for any particular direction of gaze. For example, gaze to the right is effected by the com-
A
Medial rectus
Lateral rectus
Down and to the left
Inferior rectus
Superior oblique
bined actions of the lateral rectus of the right eye and the medial rectus of the left eye. These two muscles, moreover, are supplied by different cranial nerves (VI and III, respectively). If one muscle is weak or paralyzed, deviation of the eye will be noted during certain ocular movements (see Fig. 6.8).
C
Fig. 6.8 Oculomotor palsies Palsy of the right side shown during attempted straight-ahead gaze. A Complete oculomotor palsy. B Trochlear palsy. C Abducent palsy. Oculomotor palsies may result from lesions involving the cranial nerve nucleus, the course of the nerve, or the eye muscle itself. Depending on the involved muscle, symptoms may include deviated position of the affected eye and diplopia. The patient attempts to compensate for this by adjusting the position of the head. A Complete oculomotor (CN III) palsy: Affects four extraocular muscles, two intraocular muscles (see p. 114), and the levator palpebrae superioris. Symptoms and affected muscle(s): Eyeball deviates toward lower outer quadrant = disabled superior, inferior, and medial recti and inferior oblique. Mydriasis (pupil dilation) = disabled pupillary sphincter. Loss of near accommodation = disabled ciliary muscle. Ptosis (drooping of eyelid) = disabled levator palpebrae superioris. The palpebral fissure cannot be opened during complete ptosis in which both the levator palpebrae superioris (CN III) and superior tarsus (sympathetic) muscles are paralyzed. Diplopia will therefore not be observed. B Trochlear nerve (CN IV) palsy: Eye deviates slightly superomedially, causing diplopia = disabled superior oblique. C Abducent nerve (CN VI) palsy: Eye deviates medially, causing diplopia = disabled lateral rectus.
113
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Cranial Nerves of the Extraocular Muscles: Oculomotor (CN III), Trochlear (CN IV) & Abducent (CN VI) Cerebral peduncles of mesencephalon Trochlear nerve Nucleus of trochlear nerve Pons
Oculomotor nerve Visceral oculomotor nucleus Nucleus of oculomotor nerve
Cerebral aqueduct
Tectum
Central gray substance Red nucleus Substantia nigra
Edinger-Westphal (visceral oculomotor) nucleus Nucleus of oculomotor nerve Cerebral peduncle
Abducent nerve Nucleus of abducent nerve
Medulla oblongata
Fig. 6.10 Topography of the oculomotor nucleus Cross section through the brainstem at the level of the oculomotor nucleus, superior view. Note: The visceral efferent, parasympathetic nuclear complex (Edinger-Westphal [visceral oculomotor] nucleus) can be distinguished from the somatic efferent nuclear complex (nucleus of the oculomotor nerve). Table 6.4 Trochlear nerve (CN IV): overview
Fig. 6.9 Emergence of the nerves from the brainstem Anterior view. All three nerves that supply the extraocular muscles emerge from the brainstem. The nuclei of the oculomotor nerve and trochlear nerve are located in the midbrain (mesencephalon), and the nucleus of the abducent nerve is located in the pons. Note: The oculomotor (CN III) is the only one of the three that contains somatic efferent and visceral efferent fibers and supplies multiple extraocular muscles.
Fibers: Somatic efferent fibers (red) Course: CN IV is the only cranial nerve to emerge from the dorsal side (posterior surface) of the brainstem. It is also the only cranial nerve in which all fibers cross to the opposite side. It enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, passing lateral to the common tendinous ring. It has the longest intradural course of the three extraocular motor nerves. Nuclei and distribution: • Somatic efferent fibers from the nucleus of the trochlear nerve emerge from the midbrain and supply motor innervation to the superior oblique.
Table 6.3 Oculomotor nerve (CN III): overview
Lesions: Trochlear nerve palsy: • Superomedial deviation of the affected eye, causing diplopia = disabled superior oblique Note: Because CN IV crosses to the opposite side, lesions close to the nucleus result in trochlear nerve palsy on the opposite side (contralateral palsy). Lesions past the site where the nerve crosses the midline cause palsy on the same side (ipsilateral palsy).
Fibers: Somatic efferent (red) and visceral efferent (blue) fibers Course: CN III runs anteriorly from the mesencephalon (midbrain, highest level of the brainstem) and travels through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus to enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. After passing through the common tendinous ring, CN III divides into a superior and an inferior division. Nuclei and distribution: • Somatic efferents (red): Efferents from the nucleus of the oculomotor nerve in the midbrain supply the levator palepebrae superioris and four extraocular muscles (the superior, medial, and inferior rectus muscles, and the inferior oblique). • Visceral efferents (blue): Parasympathetic preganglionic efferents from the Edinger-Westphal (visceral oculomotor) nucleus travel with the inferior division of CN III to synapse with neurons in the ciliary ganglion. The postganglionic neurons innervate the intraocular muscles (pupillary sphincter and ciliary muscle). Lesions: Oculomotor palsy of various extents. Complete oculomotor palsy is marked by paralysis of all the innervated muscles, causing: • Ptosis (drooping of eyelid) = disabled levator palpebrae superioris • Inferolateral deviation of affected eye causing diplopia (double vision) = disabled extraocular muscles • Mydriasis (pupil dilation) = disabled pupillary sphincter • Accommodation difficulties = disabled ciliary muscle
114
Table 6.5 Abducent nerve (CN VI): overview Fibers: Somatic efferent fibers (red) Course: CN VI follows a long extradural path. It emerges from the pons (midlevel brainstem) and runs through the cavernous sinus in close proximity to the internal carotid artery and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. Nuclei and distribution: • Somatic efferent fibers from the nucleus of the abducent nerve emerge from the inferior border of the pons (midlevel brainstem) and supply motor innervation to the lateral rectus. Lesions: Abducent nerve palsy: • Medial deviation of the affected eye, causing diplopia = disabled lateral rectus Note: The long extradural path of the CN VI exposes it to injury. Cavernous sinus thrombosis, aneurysms of the internal carotid artery, meningitis, or subdural hemorrhage may all compress the nerve, resulting in nerve palsy. Excessive fall in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure (e.g., due to lumbar puncture) may cause the brainstem to descend, exerting traction on the nerve.
Regions of the Head
Sympathetic fibers from cervical plexus (sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
CN III, superior division
Levator palpebrae superioris
Superior rectus
6. Orbit & Eye
Superior oblique
Trochlea
Ciliary ganglion
Common tendinous ring
Mesencephalon
Lateral rectus (cut)
Pons
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Medulla oblongata
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
A
Internal carotid plexus
Lateral rectus (cut)
Short ciliary nerves CN III, inferior division
Medial rectus
Inferior rectus
Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers from CN III (motor root of ciliary ganglion)
Inferior oblique
Supraorbital nerve (CN V1)
Levator palpebrae superioris Superior oblique
Superior rectus
Medial rectus
Lacrimal gland
Lacrimal nerve (CN V1)
Inferior rectus
Lateral rectus
Frontal nerve (CN V1)
Trochlear nerve (CN IV) Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Superior ophthalmic vein
Levator palpebrae superioris
Superior rectus
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Superior oblique Optic nerve (CN II) Medial rectus
Optic nerve (CN II)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Internal carotid artery
B
Fig. 6.11 Nerves supplying the ocular muscles Right orbit. A Lateral view with lateral wall removed. B Superior view of opened orbit. C Anterior view. Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, lateral to the optic canal (CN IV then passes lateral to the common tendinous ring, and CN III and VI pass through it). All three nerves supply somatic efferent fibers (somatomotor innervation) to the extraocular muscles. In addition, CN III carries parasympathetic motor innervation for the intraocular muscles. Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers travel with the inferior division of CN III, forming the parasympathetic (motor) root of the ciliary gan-
Inferior rectus
C
Lateral rectus
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Inferior oblique
glion. Two other fiber types pass through the ciliary ganglion without synapsing: sympathetic and sensory. Sympathetic (postganglionic) fibers from the superior cervical ganglion travel on the internal carotid artery to enter the superior orbital fissure, where they run with the nasociliary nerve (CN V1) or enter the ciliary ganglion by coursing along the ophthalmic artery. Sensory fibers from the eyeball travel to the nasociliary nerve (CN V1) via the sensory root of the ciliary ganglion. The sensory, sympathetic, and parasympathetic fibers in the ciliary ganglion are relayed in the short ciliary nerves. Note: Sympathetic fibers also reach the intraocular muscles via the long ciliary nerves.
115
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Neurovasculature of the Orbit Episcleral space
Orbital roof
Bulbar fascia (Tenon’s capsule)
Periorbita
Levator palpebrae superioris
Periorbital fat
Ophthalmic artery Superior orbital septum
Superior rectus
Eyeball
Optic nerve (CN II) with dural sheath Inferior rectus
Inferior orbital septum
Central retinal artery
Inferior oblique Sclera Infraorbital nerve (CN V2)
Orbital floor
Fig. 6.12 Upper, middle, and lower levels of the orbit Right orbit. Sagittal section viewed from the medial side. The orbit is lined with periosteum (periorbita) and filled with periorbital fat, which is bounded anteriorly by the orbital septa and toward the eyeball by a mobile sheath of connective tissue (bulbar fascia, Tenon’s capsule). The narrow space between the bulbar fascia and sclera is called the episcleral space. Embedded in the periorbital fat are the eyeball, optic
Table 6.6
Maxillary sinus
nerve, lacrimal gland, extraocular muscles, and associated neurovascular structures. Topographically, the orbit is divided into three levels: • Upper level: orbital roof to levator palpebrae superioris • Middle level: superior rectus to optic nerve • Lower level: optic nerve to orbital floor
Neurovascular contents of the orbit
Orbital level
Arteries and veins
Nerves
Upper level
• • • •
• Lacrimal n. (CN V1) • Frontal n. (CN V1) and terminal branches: ◦ Supraorbital n. ◦ Supratrochlear n. • Trochlear n. (CN IV)
Middle level
• Ophthalmic a. (from internal carotid a.) and branches: ◦ Central retinal a. ◦ Posterior ciliary aa. • Superior ophthalmic v. (to cavernous sinus)
• Nasociliary n. (CN V1) • Abducent n. (CN VI) • Oculomotor n. (CN III), superior branch and fibers from inferior branch (to ciliary ganglion) • Optic n. (CN II) • Ciliary ganglion and roots: ◦ Parasympathetic root (presynaptic autonomic fibers from CN III) ◦ Sympathetic root (postsynaptic fibers from superior cervical ganglion) ◦ Sensory root (sensory fibers from eyeball to nasociliary n.) • Short ciliary nn. (fibers from/to ciliary ganglion)
Lower level
• Infraorbital a. (terminal branch of maxillary a.) • Inferior ophthalmic v. (to cavernous sinus)
• Infraorbital n. (CN V2) • Oculomotor n. (CN III), inferior branch
116
Lacrimal a. (from ophthalmic a.) Lacrimal v. (to superior ophthalmic v.) Supraorbital a. (terminal branch of ophthalmic a.) Supraorbital v. (forms angular v. with supratrochlear vv.)
Regions of the Head
Supratrochlear artery
Dorsal nasal vein
Dorsal nasal artery Supraorbital artery
Medial palpebral artery
Lacrimal vein Cavernous sinus
Lacrimal artery
Anterior ethmoidal artery
Supraorbital vein Supratrochlear vein Angular vein
Superior ophthalmic vein
Long posterior ciliary arteries
Short posterior ciliary arteries
6. Orbit & Eye
Ophthalmic artery
Posterior ethmoidal artery Optic nerve (CN II) Optic canal (opened) Internal carotid artery
Ophthalmic vein
Inferior ophthalmic vein
Infraorbital vein
Facial vein
Fig. 6.14 Veins of the orbit Superior orbital fissure
Middle meningeal artery
Right orbit, lateral view with the lateral orbital wall removed and the Anastomotic branch through lacrimal foramen maxillary sinus opened. The veins of the orbit communicate with the (sphenoid bone) veins of the superficial and deep facial region and with the cavernous sinus (potential spread of infectious pathogens, see Fig. 3.20).
Fig. 6.13 Branches of the ophthalmic artery Superior view of opened right orbit. While running below CN II in the optic canal, the ophthalmic artery gives off the central retinal artery, which pierces and travels with CN II. The ophthalmic artery then exits the canal and branches to supply the intraorbital structures (including the eyeball).
Internal carotid artery with internal carotid plexus
CN III
Communicating branch between lacrimal (CN V1) and zygomatic (CN V2) nerves Frontal CN III, nerve superior (CN V1) branch
Lacrimal nerve (CN V1) Supraorbital nerve (CN V1) Lacrimal gland Infratrochlear nerve (CN V1) Long ciliary nerves
CN IV
Nasociliary nerve (CN V1)
CN V1
Short ciliary nerves (from ciliary ganglion)
CN V
Ciliary ganglion
Trigeminal ganglion
CN V3
CN VI
Parasympathetic (motor) root of ciliary ganglion (from CN III)
CN V2 CN II CN III, inferior branch
Zygomatic nerve (CN V2) conveying parasympathetic fibers from pterygopalatine ganglion
Fig. 6.15 Innervation of the orbit Lateral view of opened right orbit. The extraocular muscles receive motor innervation from three cranial nerves: oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), and abducent (CN VI). The ciliary ganglion distributes parasympathetic fibers to the intraocular muscles via the short ciliary nerves. Parasympathetic fibers reach the ganglion via the inferior branch of CN III. Sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion travel along the internal carotid artery to the superior orbital fissure. In the orbit, sympathetic fibers run with the nasociliary nerve (CN V1) and/or ophthal-
Sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion (from superior cervical ganglion)
Sensory root of ciliary ganglion (to nasociliary nerve)
mic artery and pass through the ciliary ganglion (the nasociliary nerve also gives off direct sensory branches, the long ciliary nerves, which may carry postganglionic sympathetic fibers). Sensory fibers from the eyeball pass through the ciliary ganglion to the nasociliary nerve (CN V1). Note: Parasympathetic fibers to the lacrimal gland are distributed by the lacrimal nerve (CN V1), which communicates with the zygomatic nerve (CN V2) via a communicating branch from the zygomaticotemporal nerve. The zygomatic nerve conveys the postganglionic fibers from the pterygopalatine ganglion (the preganglionic fibers arise from CN VII).
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Topography of the Orbit (I)
Fig. 6.16 Intracavernous course of the cranial nerves that enter to the orbit Anterior and middle cranial fossae on the right side, superior view. The lateral and superior walls of the cavernous sinus have been opened. The trigeminal ganglion has been retracted slightly laterally, the orbital roof has been removed, and the periorbita has been fenestrated. All three of the cranial nerves that supply the ocular muscles (oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, and abducent nerve) enter the cavernous sinus, where they come into close relationship with the first and second divisions of the trigeminal nerve and with the internal carotid artery. While the third and fourth cranial nerves course in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus with the ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve, the abducent nerve runs directly through the cavernous sinus in close proximity to the internal carotid artery. Because of this relationship, the abducent nerve may be damaged as a result of sinus thrombosis or an intracavernous aneurysm of the internal carotid artery.
Periorbita (periosteum of the orbit) Medial branch Lateral branch
Supraorbital nerve
Supratrochlear nerve Periorbital fat
Frontal nerve (CN V1)
Anterior cranial fossa
Ophthalmic artery Internal carotid artery Optic chiasm (CN II) Trochlear nerve (CN IV) Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Cavernous sinus
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Trigeminal ganglion
Superior orbital fissure
Fig. 6.17 Neurovasculature in the optic canal and superior orbital fissure Right orbit, anterior view with most of the orbital contents removed. Optic canal: optic nerve (CN II) and ophthalmic artery. Superior orbital fissure (inside common tendinous ring): abducent (CN VI), nasociliary (CN V1), and oculomotor (CN III) nerves. Superior orbital fissure (outside common tendinous ring): superior and inferior ophthalmic veins, frontal (CN V1), lacrimal (CN V1), and trochlear (CN IV) nerves. Inferior orbital fissure (contents not shown): zygomatic (CN V2) nerve and branches of CN V2, infraorbital artery, vein, and nerve in infraorbital canal.
Frontal nerve (CN V1)
Trigeminal nerve (CN V), sensory root
Levator palpebrae superioris
Middle cranial fossa
Superior rectus Superior oblique
Lacrimal nerve (CN V1) Superior ophthalmic vein
Optic nerve (CN II) Common tendinous ring
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Ophthalmic artery
Oculomotor nerve (CN III), superior branch
Superior orbital fissure
Nasociliary nerve (CN V1)
Medial rectus
Lateral rectus Inferior orbital fissure
Oculomotor nerve (CN III), inferior branch Abducent nerve (CN VI)
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Trigeminal nerve (CN V), motor root
Infraorbital groove and canal
Inferior ophthalmic vein
Inferior rectus
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Trochlea Infratrochlear nerve Cribriform plate Anterior ethmoidal artery and nerve Supratrochlear artery Posterior ethmoidal artery and nerve
Medial branch Lateral branch
Supraorbital nerve
Supratrochlear nerve Levator palpebrae superioris Lacrimal gland Lacrimal artery and nerve (CN V1)
Supraorbital nerve
Superior rectus
Supraorbital artery
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Nasociliary nerve (CN V1) Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Superior ophthalmic vein Frontal nerve (CN V1)
Ophthalmic artery Optic nerve (CN II) Internal carotid artery Optic chiasm
Fig. 6.18 Topography of the right orbit: contents of the upper level Superior view. The bony roof of the orbit, the periorbita, and the retro-orbital fat have been removed.
Infundibulum Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Medial rectus Superior oblique Superior ophthalmic vein Anterior ethmoidal artery and nerve
Levator palpebrae superioris Superior rectus
Posterior ethmoidal artery and nerve
Lacrimal gland
Nasociliary nerve
Lacrimal artery and nerve
Short ciliary nerves Long ciliary nerves
Eyeball
Lateral rectus
CN IV Ophthalmic artery Short posterior ciliary arteries CN II CN III
Inferior ophthalmic vein CN VI Ciliary ganglion
Fig. 6.19 Topography of the right orbit: contents of the middle level Superior view. The levator palpebrae superioris and the superior rectus have been divided and reflected backward, and all fatty tissue has been removed to better expose the optic nerve. Note: The ciliary ganglion is approximately 2 mm in diameter and lies lateral to the optic nerve approximately 2 cm behind the eyeball. The ciliary ganglion relays parasympathetic fibers to the eye and intraocular muscles via the short ciliary nerves. The short ciliary nerves also contain sensory and sympathetic fibers (see Fig. 6.15).
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Topography of the Orbit (II)
Site of emergence of lacrimal artery and nerve
Dorsal nasal artery and vein, with infratrochlear nerve
Supraorbital artery and nerve
Supratrochlear artery, vein, and nerve
Depressor supercilii
Procerus
Orbicularis oculi, palpebral part
Superior palpebral branches of supraorbital nerve
Orbicularis oculi, orbital part
Orbital septum
A
Infraorbital nerve and artery
Levator palpebrae superioris
Facial artery and vein
Supraorbital artery and nerve
Medial palpebral ligament
Angular artery and vein
Supratrochlear nerve
Superior oblique
Trochlea
Superior tarsal muscle
Infratrochlear nerve
Orbital septum
Dorsal nasal artery and vein
Lacrimal gland, orbital part
Lacrimal sac
Lacrimal gland, palpebral part
Angular artery and vein
Lateral palpebral ligament Superior tarsus
B
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Nasalis
Inferior tarsus
Infraorbital nerve and artery
Facial artery
Lateral nasal artery
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
Inferior palpebral branches of infraorbital nerve
Fig. 6.20 Superficial and deep neurovascular structures of the orbital region Right eye, anterior view. A Superficial layer. The orbital septum on the right side has been exposed by removal of the orbicularis oculi. B Deep layer. Anterior orbital structures have been exposed by partial removal of the orbital septum. The regions supplied by the internal carotid artery (supraorbital artery) and external carotid artery (infraorbital artery, facial artery) meet in this region. The extensive anastomosis between the angular vein (extracranial) and superior ophthalmic veins (intracranial) creates a portal of entry by which microorganisms may reach the cavernous sinus (risk of sinus thrombosis, meningitis, see p. 53). It is sometimes necessary to ligate this anastomosis in the orbital region, as in patients with extensive infections of the external facial region. Note the passage of the supra- and infraorbital nerves (branches of CN V1 and CN V2) through the accordingly named foramina. The sensory function of these two trigeminal nerve divisions can be tested at these nerve exit points.
Regions of the Head
Lateral canthus of eyelids
Fig. 6.21 Surface anatomy of the eye Right eye, anterior view. The measurements indicate the width of the normal palpebral fissure. It is important to know these measurements because there are a number of diseases in which they are altered. For example, the palpebral fissure may be widened in peripheral facial paralysis or narrowed in ptosis (= drooping of the eyelid) due to oculomotor palsy.
Eyebrow
Upper eyelid 3 mm
2 mm 9 mm (6–10)
Palpebral fissure Orbital roof
6. Orbit & Eye
Medial canthus of eyelids
28–30 mm
Lower eyelid
Periorbita
Levator palpebrae superioris
Superior orbital septum
Superior rectus Superior conjunctival fornix
Orbicularis oculi, orbital part
Superior tarsal muscle Superior tarsus with tarsal glands Lens
Upper eyelid
Superior fornix
Cornea Iris Ciliary body
Ocular conjunctiva
Inferior tarsus Ciliary and sebaceous glands Palpebral fissure
Retina
Palpebral (tarsal) conjunctiva
Sclera Inferior tarsal muscle Lower eyelid
Inferior orbital septum
Fornical conjunctiva
Orbicularis oculi, palpebral part
Inferior fornix
Infraorbital nerve A
B
Fig. 6.22 Structure of the eyelids and conjunctiva A Sagittal section through the anterior orbital cavity. B Anatomy of the conjunctiva. The eyelid consists clinically of an outer and an inner layer with the following components:
tiva (tunica conjunctiva) is a vascularized, thin, glistening mucous membrane that is subdivided into the palpebral conjunctiva (green), fornical conjunctiva (red), and ocular conjunctiva (yellow). The ocular conjunctiva borders directly on the corneal surface and combines with it to form the conjunctival sac, whose functions include:
• Outer layer: palpebral skin, sweat glands, ciliary glands (= modified sweat glands, Moll glands), sebaceous glands (Zeis glands), and two striated muscles, the orbicularis oculi and levator palpebrae (upper eyelid only), innervated by the facial nerve and the oculomotor nerve, respectively. • Inner layer: the tarsus (fibrous tissue plate), the superior and inferior tarsal muscles (of Müller; smooth muscle innervated by sympathetic fibers), the tarsal or palpebral conjunctiva, and the tarsal glands (meibomian glands).
• facilitating ocular movements, • enabling painless motion of the palpebral conjunctiva and ocular conjunctiva relative to each other (lubricated by lacrimal fluid), and • protecting against infectious pathogens (collections of lymphocytes along the fornices).
Regular blinking (20 to 30 times per minute) keeps the eyes from drying out by evenly distributing the lacrimal fluid and glandular secretions. Mechanical irritants (e.g., grains of sand) evoke the blink reflex, which also serves to protect the cornea and conjunctiva. The conjunc-
The superior and inferior fornices are the sites where the conjunctiva is reflected from the upper and lower eyelid, respectively, onto the eyeball. They are convenient sites for the instillation of ophthalmic medications. Inflammation of the conjunctiva is common and causes a dilation of the conjunctival vessels resulting in “pink eye.” Conversely, a deficiency of red blood cells (anemia) may lessen the prominence of vascular markings in the conjunctiva. This is why the conjunctiva should be routinely inspected in every clinical examination.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Lacrimal Apparatus Supraorbital foramen
Frontal incisure (notch)
Levator palpebrae superioris
Orbital septum
Periorbital fat Lacrimal caruncle
Lacrimal gland, orbital part
Superior and inferior lacrimal canaliculi
Lacrimal gland, palpebral part
Medial palpebral ligament
Upper eyelid Lacrimal sac Superior and inferior puncta
Lower eyelid
Nasolacrimal duct Nasolacrimal canal
Infraorbital foramen
Fig. 6.23 Lacrimal apparatus Right eye, anterior view. The orbital septum has been partially removed, and the tendon of insertion of the levator palpebrae superioris has been divided. The hazelnut-sized lacrimal gland is located in the lacrimal fossa of the frontal bone and produces most of the lacrimal fluid. Smaller accessory lacrimal glands (Krause or Wolfring glands) are also present. The tendon of levator palpebrae subdivides the lacrimal gland, which normally is not visible or palpable, into an orbital lobe (two thirds of gland) and a palpebral lobe (one third). The sympathetic fibers innervating the lacrimal gland originate from the superior cervical ganglion and travel along arteries to reach the lacrimal gland. Parasympathetic fibers reach the lacrimal gland via the lacrimal nerve (CN V1). The lacrimal nerve communicates with the zygomatic nerve (CN V2), which re-
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Inferior nasal concha
lays postganglionic parasympathetic fibers from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The preganglionic parasympathetic fibers that synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion travel as the greater petrosal nerve, which arises from the genu of the facial nerve (CN VII) (see Fig. 4.38). The lacrimal apparatus can be understood by tracing the flow of lacrimal fluid obliquely downward from the superolateral margin of the orbit (by the lacrimal gland) to the inferomedial margin (see Fig. 6.25). From the superior and inferior puncta, the lacrimal fluid enters the superior and inferior lacrimal canaliculi, which direct the fluid into the lacrimal sac. Finally, it drains through the nasolacrimal duct to an outlet below the inferior concha of the nose. “Watery eyes” are a typical cold symptom caused by obstruction of the inferior opening of the nasolacrimal duct.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Temporal
Nasal
Goblet cells
Superior and inferior puncta Superior and inferior lacrimal canaliculi
Lacrimal sac
Orbicularis oculi
Fig. 6.24 Distribution of goblet cells in the conjunctiva Goblet cells are mucus-secreting cells with an epithelial covering. Their secretions (mucins) are an important constituent of the lacrimal fluid. Mucins are also secreted by the main lacrimal gland.
Fig. 6.25 Mechanical propulsion of the lacrimal fluid During closure of the eyelids, contraction of the orbicularis oculi proceeds in a temporal-to-nasal direction. The successive contraction of these muscle fibers propels the lacrimal fluid toward the lacrimal passages. Note: Facial paralysis prevents closure of the eyelids, causing the eye to dry out.
Superior lacrimal canaliculi
Lipid layer, approx. 0.1 μm
Meibomian glands
Prevents rapid evaporation Irrigation tube Aqueous layer, approx. 8 μm
Lacrimal gland
A
B
Inferior lacrimal canaliculus
Irrigating fluid, smoothes surface irregularities Mucin layer, approx. 0.8 μm
Conjunctival goblet cells
Gel-like consistency stabilizes the tear film
Fig. 6.26 Structure of the tear film The tear film is a complex fluid with several morphologically distinct layers, whose components are produced by individual glands. The outer lipid layer, produced by the meibomian glands, protects the aqueous middle layer of the tear film from evaporating.
C
Common lacrimal canaliculus
D
Lacrimal sac
Fig. 6.27 Obstructions to lacrimal drainage Sites of obstruction in the lacrimal drainage system can be located by irrigating the system with a special fluid. A No obstruction to lacrimal drainage. B,C Stenosis in the inferior or common lacrimal canaliculus. The stenosis causes a damming back of lacrimal fluid behind the obstructed site. In B the fluid refluxes through the inferior lacrimal canaliculus, and in C it flows through the superior lacrimal canaliculus. D Stenosis below the level of the lacrimal sac (postlacrimal sac stenosis). When the entire lacrimal sac has filled with fluid, the fluid begins to reflux into the superior lacrimal canaliculus. In such cases, the lacrimal fluid often has a purulent, gelatinous appearance.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Eyeball
Iris
Lens
Cornea Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber
Chamber angle
Canal of Schlemm
Corneoscleral limbus
Pigment epithelium of the ciliary body
Ciliary body, ciliary muscle
Ocular conjunctiva
Zonular fibers
Hyaloid fossa
Ora serrata
Vitreous body
Lateral rectus
Medial rectus
Retina Choroid
Layers of the eyeball
Optic disk Sclera Lamina cribrosa Central retinal artery (from ophthalmic artery)
Fovea centralis Optic nerve (CN II)
Fig. 6.28 Eyeball Right eye, superior view of transverse section. Most of the eyeball is composed of three concentric layers surrounding vitreous humor: the sclera, the choroid, and the retina. Posterior portion of the eyeball: The sclera is the posterior portion of the outer coat of the eyeball. It is a firm layer of connective tissue that gives attachment to the tendons of all the extraocular muscles. The middle layer of the eye, the choroid, is the most highly vascularized region in the body and serves to regulate the temperature of the eye and to supply blood to the outer layers of the retina. The inner layer of the eye, the retina, includes an inner layer of photosensitive cells (sensory retina) and an outer layer of retinal pigment epithelium. The axons of the optic nerve (CN II) pierce the lamina cribrosa of the sclera at the optic disk. The fovea centralis is a depressed area in the central retina approximately 4 mm temporal to the optic disk. Incident light is normally focused on the fovea centralis, the site of greatest visual acuity.
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Anterior portion: The anterior portion of the eyeball has a different structure that is continuous with the posterior portion. The outer fibrous coat is the cornea, the “window of the eye,” which bulges forward. At the corneoscleral limbus, the cornea is continuous with the less convex sclera. In the angle of the anterior chamber, the sclera forms the trabecular meshwork, which is connected to the canal of Schlemm. Beneath the sclera is the vascular coat of the eye, also called the uveal tract. It consists of three parts: the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. The iris shields the eye from excessive light and covers the lens. Its root is continuous with the ciliary body, which contains the ciliary muscle for visual accommodation (alters the refractive power of the lens). The epithelium of the ciliary body produces the aqueous humor. The ciliary body is continuous at the ora serrata with the choroid. The outer layer of the retina (pigment epithelium) is continued forward as the pigment epithelium of the ciliary body and the epithelium of the iris.
Regions of the Head
Attachment to ora serrata (vitreous base of Salzmann)
Cornea
6. Orbit & Eye
Attachment to posterior lens capsule (Wieger ligament) Hannover space Garnier space
Meridian
Petit space Berger space
Equator
Hyaloid canal Attachment to optic disk (Martegiani ring)
Vitreous body
Optic nerve (CN II)
Fovea centralis Optic nerve (CN II)
Fig. 6.29 Reference lines and points on the eye The line marking the greatest circumference of the eyeball is the equator. Lines perpendicular to the equator are called meridians.
Myopia (nearsightedness) Incident light rays
Normal (emmetropic) eye
Fig. 6.30 Vitreous body (vitreous humor) Right eye, transverse section viewed from above. Sites where the vitreous body is attached to other ocular structures are shown in red, and adjacent spaces are shown in green. The vitreous body stabilizes the eyeball and protects against retinal detachment. Devoid of nerves and vessels, it consists of 98% water and 2% hyaluronic acid and collagen. The “hyaloid canal” is an embryological remnant of the hyaloid artery. For the treatment of some diseases, the vitreous body may be surgically removed (vitrectomy) and the resulting cavity filled with physiological saline solution.
Hyperopia (farsightedness)
Eyeball
Cornea
Retina
Superior rectus
Lens
Medial rectus
Fig. 6.31 Light refraction In a normal (emmetropic) eye, parallel rays from a distant light source are refracted by the cornea and lens to a focal point on the retinal surface. • In myopia (nearsightedness), the rays are focused to a point in front of the retina. • In hyperopia (farsightedness), the rays are focused behind the retina.
Superior oblique
Lateral rectus
23°
Optical axis
Orbital axes
Fig. 6.32 Optical axis and orbital axis Superior view of both eyes showing the medial, lateral, and superior recti and the superior oblique. The optical axis deviates from the orbital axis by 23 degrees. Because of this disparity, the point of maximum visual acuity, the fovea centralis, is lateral to the “blind spot” of the optic disk.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Eye: Blood Supply
Lesser arterial circle of iris
Cornea
Scleral venous sinus
Iris
Anterior conjunctival artery
Greater arterial circle of iris
Lens
Anterior ciliary arteries
Retina Sclera
Arterial circle of Zinn (and von Haller)
Choroid (choroidocapillary layer)
Short posterior ciliary arteries Pial vascular plexus
Vorticose vein
Long posterior ciliary arteries
Central retinal artery and vein Optic nerve
Fig. 6.33 Blood supply of the eye Horizontal section through the right eye at the level of the optic nerve, viewed from above. All of the arteries that supply the eye arise from the ophthalmic artery, a branch of the internal carotid artery. Its ocular branches are: • Central retinal artery to the retina • Short posterior ciliary arteries to the choroid
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• Long posterior ciliary arteries to the ciliary body and iris, where they supply the greater and lesser arterial circles of the iris (see Fig. 6.43) • Anterior ciliary arteries, which arise from the vessels of the rectus muscles of the eye and anastomose with the posterior ciliary vessels Blood is drained from the eyeball by four to eight vorticose veins, which pierce the sclera behind the equator and open into the superior or inferior ophthalmic vein.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Vessels to optic nerve
Fig. 6.34 Arteries of the optic nerve (CN II) Lateral view. The central retinal artery, the first branch of the ophthalmic artery, enters the optic nerve from below approximately 1 cm behind the eyeball and courses with it to the retina while giving off multiple small branches. The posterior ciliary artery also gives off several small branches that supply the optic nerve. The distal part of the optic nerve receives its arterial blood supply from an arterial ring (circle of Zinn and von Haller) formed by anastomoses among the side branches of the short posterior ciliary arteries and central retinal artery.
Long posterior ciliary arteries Short posterior ciliary arteries Circle of Zinn (and von Haller)
Ophthalmic artery
Posterior ciliary artery
Nasal
Central retinal artery
Temporal
Fovea centralis
Physiological cup Optic disk (blind spot) Sites of entry and emergence of central retinal artery and vein Branch of central retinal vein Branch of central retinal artery A
Fig. 6.35 Ophthalmoscopic examination of the optic fundus A Examination technique (direct ophthalmoscopy). B Normal appearance of the optic fundus. In direct ophthalmoscopy, the following structures of the optic fundus can be directly evaluated at approximately 16 x magnification: • • • •
The condition of the retina The blood vessels (particularly the central retinal artery) The optic disk (where the optic nerve emerges from the eyeball) The macula lutea and fovea centralis
Because the retina is transparent, the color of the optic fundus is determined chiefly by the pigment epithelium and the blood vessels of the choroid. It is uniformly pale red in light-skinned persons and is considerably browner in dark-skinned persons. Abnormal detachment of the retina is usually associated with a loss of retinal transparency, and the
Macula lutea (yellow spot) B
retina assumes a yellowish white color. The central retinal artery and vein can be distinguished from each other by their color and caliber: arteries have a brighter red color and a smaller caliber than the veins. This provides a means for the early detection of vascular changes (e.g., stenosis, wall thickening, microaneurysms), such as those occurring in diabetes mellitus (diabetic retinopathy) or hypertension. The optic disk normally has sharp margins, a yellow-orange color, and a central depression, the physiological cup. The disk is subject to changes in pathological conditions such as elevated intracranial pressure (papilledema with ill-defined disk margins). On examination of the macula lutea, which is 3 to 4 mm temporal to the optic disk, it can be seen that numerous branches of the central retinal artery radiate toward the macula but do not reach its center, the fovea centralis (the fovea receives its blood supply from the choroid). A common age-related disease of the macula lutea is macular degeneration, which may gradually lead to blindness.
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6. Orbit & Eye
Eye: Lens & Cornea
Fig. 6.36 Position of the lens and cornea Histological section through the cornea, lens, and suspensory apparatus of the lens. The normal lens is clear, transparent, and only 4 mm thick. It is suspended in the hyaloid fossa of the vitreous body. The lens is attached by rows of fibrils (zonular fibers) to the ciliary muscle, whose contractions alter the shape and focal length of the lens. Thus, the lens is a dynamic structure that can change its shape in response to visual requirements. The anterior chamber of the eye is situated in front of the lens, and the posterior chamber is located between the iris and the anterior epithelium of the lens. The lens, like the vitreous body, is devoid of nerves and blood vessels and is composed of elongated epithelial cells (lens fibers).
Anterior chamber
Cornea
Posterior chamber
Iris Canal of Schlemm
Scleral spur Ocular conjunctiva Ciliary muscle Sclera
Pars plana
Pars plicata
Ciliary body
Zonular fibers
Lens
Pupil
Epithelium of ciliary body
Trabecular meshwork
Iris
Lens Pupil
Ciliary body, pars plicata Ciliary body, pars plana
Fig. 6.37 Lens and ciliary body Posterior view. The curvature of the lens is regulated by the muscle fibers of the annular ciliary body. The ciliary body lies between the ora serrata and the root of the iris and consists of a relatively flat part (pars plana) and a part that is raised into folds (pars plicata). The latter part is ridged by approximately 70 to 80 radially oriented ciliary processes, which surround the lens like a halo when viewed from behind. The ciliary processes contain large capillaries, and their epithelium secretes the aqueous humor. Very fine zonular fibers extend from the basal layer of the ciliary processes to the equator of the lens. These fibers and the spaces between them constitute the suspensory apparatus of the lens, called the zonule. Most of the ciliary body is occupied by
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Sclera Choroid Retina, optical part
Zonular fibers Ciliary processes
Ciliary muscle
the ciliary muscle, a smooth muscle composed of meridional, radial, and circular fibers. It arises mainly from the scleral spur (a reinforcing ring of sclera just below the canal of Schlemm), and it attaches to structures including the Bruch membrane of the choroid and the inner surface of the sclera. When the
Ora serrata
ciliary muscle contracts, it pulls the choroid forward and relaxes the zonular fibers. As these fibers become lax, the intrinsic resilience of the lens causes it to assume the more convex relaxed shape that is necessary for near vision. This is the basic mechanism of visual accommodation.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Ciliary muscle relaxed, zonular fibers tense, lens flattened Equator
Light rays in distant accommodation
Lens
Lens capsule
Anterior pole
Posterior pole Light rays in near accommodation
A
B
Axis
Fig. 6.38 Reference lines and dynamics of the lens A Principal reference lines of the lens: The lens has an anterior and posterior pole, an axis passing between the poles, and an equator. The lens has a biconvex shape with a greater radius of curvature posteriorly (16 mm) than anteriorly (10 mm). Its function is to transmit light rays and make fine adjustments in refraction. Its refractive power ranges from 10 to 20 diopters, depending on the state of accommodation. The cornea has a considerably higher refractive power of 43 diopters.
Embryonic nucleus
B Light refraction and dynamics of the lens: • Upper half of diagram: fine adjustment of the eye for far vision. Parallel light rays arrive from a distant source, and the lens is flattened. • Lower half of diagram: For near vision (accommodation to objects less than 5 m from the eye), the lens assumes a more rounded shape. This is effected by contraction of the ciliary muscle (parasympathetic innervation from the oculomotor nerve), causing the zonular fibers to relax and allowing the lens to assume a more rounded shape because of its intrinsic resilience.
Stratified nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
External view of lens capsule
Fetal nucleus
Ciliary muscle contracted, zonular fibers lax, lens more rounded
Basement membrane Bowman membrane
Cortex Epithelium Capsule Stroma
A
Infantile nucleus
Adult nucleus
B
Fig. 6.39 Growth of the lens and zones of discontinuity A Anterior view. B Lateral view. The lens continues to grow throughout life, doing so in a manner opposite to that of other epithelial structures (i.e., the youngest cells are at the surface of the lens, whereas the oldest cells are deeper). Due to the constant proliferation of epithelial cells, which are all firmly incorporated in the lens capsule, the tissue of the lens becomes increasingly dense with age. A slit-lamp examination will demonstrate zones of varying cell density (zones of discontinuity). The zone of highest cell density, the embryonic nucleus, is at the center of the lens. With further growth, it becomes surrounded by the fetal nucleus. The infantile nucleus develops after birth, and finally the adult nucleus begins to form during the third decade of life. These zones are the basis for the morphological classification of cataracts, a structural alteration in the lens, causing opacity, that is more or less normal in old age (present in 10% of all 80-year-olds).
Descemet membrane Endothelium
Fig. 6.40 Structure of the cornea The cornea is covered externally by stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium whose basal lamina borders on the anterior limiting lamina (Bowman membrane). The stroma (substantia propria) makes up approximately 90% of the corneal thickness and is bounded on its deep surface by the posterior limiting lamina (Descemet membrane). Beneath is a single layer of corneal endothelium. The cornea does have a nerve supply (for corneal reflexes), but it is not vascularized and therefore has an immunologically privileged status: normally, a corneal transplant can be performed without fear of a host rejection response.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Eye: Iris & Ocular Chambers
Cornea
Iris
Anterior chamber
Pupillary sphincter Pupillary dilator
Chamber angle
Canal of Schlemm
Ciliary muscle
Ocular conjunctiva
Ciliary body
Zonular fibers Posterior chamber
Pupil
Fig. 6.41 Iris and chambers of the eye Transverse section through the anterior segment of the eye, superior view. The iris, the choroid, and the ciliary body at the periphery of the iris are part of the uveal tract. In the iris, the pigments are formed that determine eye color. The iris is an optical diaphragm with a central aperture, the pupil, placed in front of the lens. The pupil is 1 to 8 mm in diameter; it constricts on contraction of the pupillary sphincter (parasympathetic innervation via the oculomotor nerve and ciliary ganglion)
Sclera
Lens
and dilates on contraction of the pupillary dilator (sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical ganglion via the internal carotid plexus). Together, the iris and lens separate the anterior chamber of the eye from the posterior chamber. The posterior chamber behind the iris is bounded posteriorly by the vitreous body, centrally by the lens, and laterally by the ciliary body. The anterior chamber is bounded anteriorly by the cornea and posteriorly by the iris and lens.
Table 6.7 Changes in pupil size: causes
A
B
Fig. 6.42 Pupil size A Normal pupil size. B Maximum constriction (miosis). C Maximum dilation (mydriasis). The regulation of pupil size is aided by the two intraocular muscles, the pupillary sphincter and pupillary dilator. The pupillary sphincter (parasympathetic innervation) narrows the pupil, and the pupillary dilator (sympathetic inner vation) enlarges the pupil. Pupil size is normally adjusted in response to incident light and serves mainly to optimize visual acuity.
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C
Normally, the pupils are circular in shape and equal in size (3 to 5 mm). Various influences may cause the pupil size to vary over a range from 1.5 mm (miosis) to 8 mm (mydriasis). A greater than 1 mm discrepancy of pupil size between the right and left eyes is called anisocoria. Mild anisocoria is physiological in some individuals. Pupillary reflexes such as convergence and the consensual light response are described on p. 138.
Pupil constriction (parasympathetic)
Pupil dilation (sympathetic)
Light
Darkness
Sleep, fatigue
Pain, excitement
Miotic agents: • Parasympathomimetics (e.g., tear gas, VX and sarin, Alzheimer’s drugs such as rivastigmine) • Sympatholytics (e.g., antihypertensives)
Mydriatic agents: • Parasympatholytics (e.g., atropine) • Sympathomimetics (e.g., epinephrine)
Horner syndrome (also causes ptosis and narrowing of palpebral fissure)
Oculomotor palsy
General anesthesia, morphine
Migraine attack, glaucoma attack
Regions of the Head
Cornea
Pupillary sphincter
Pupillary dilator
Lesser arterial circle of iris Iris stroma
Greater arterial circle of iris
Trabecular meshwork with Fontana spaces
Two layers of pigmented iris epithelium
6. Orbit & Eye
Fig. 6.43 Structure of the iris The basic structural framework of the iris is the vascularized stroma, which is bounded on its deep surface by two layers of pigmented iris epithelium. The loose, collagen-containing stroma of the iris contains outer and inner vascular circles (greater and lesser arterial circles), which are interconnected by small anastomotic arteries. The pupillary sphincter is an annular muscle located in the stroma bordering the pupil. The radially disposed pupillary dilator is not located in the stroma; rather, it is composed of numerous myofibrils in the iris epithelium (myoepithelium). The stroma of the iris is permeated by pigmented connective tissue cells (melanocytes). When heavily pigmented, these melanocytes of the anterior border zone of the stroma render the iris brown or “black.” Otherwise, the characteristics of the underlying stroma and epithelium determine eye color, in a manner that is not fully understood.
Anterior chamber
Cornea
Canal of Schlemm Conjunctiva
Scleral spur Episcleral veins
A
Sclera Zonular fibers Ciliary body
Chamber angle
Posterior chamber
Iris
Lens
Fig. 6.44 Normal drainage of aqueous humor The aqueous humor (approximately 0.3 mL per eye) is an important determinant of the intraocular pressure. It is produced by the nonpigmented ciliary epithelium of the ciliary processes in the posterior chamber (approximately 0.15 mL/hour) and passes through the pupil into the anterior chamber of the eye. The aqueous humor seeps through the spaces of the trabecular meshwork (Fontana spaces) in the chamber angle and enters the canal of Schlemm (venous sinus of the sclera), through which it drains to the episcleral veins. The draining aqueous humor flows toward the chamber angle along a pressure gradient (intraocular pressure = 15 mm Hg, pressure in the episcleral veins = 9 mm Hg) and must surmount a physiological resistance at two sites: • Pupillary resistance (between the iris and lens) • Trabecular resistance (narrow spaces in the trabecular meshwork)
B
Fig. 6.45 Obstruction of aqueous drainage and glaucoma Normal function of the optical system requires normal intraocular pressure (15 mm Hg in adults). This maintains a smooth curvature of the corneal surface and helps keep the photoreceptor cells in contact with the pigment epithelium. Obstruction of the normal drainage of aqueous humor causes an increase in intraocular pressure. This constricts the optic nerve at the lamina cribrosa, where it emerges from the eyeball through the sclera. Such constriction eventually leads to blindness. There are two types of glaucoma: A Acute (closed-angle) glaucoma: The chamber angle is obstructed by iris tissue. Aqueous fluid cannot drain into the anterior chamber and pushes portions of the iris upward, blocking the chamber angle. This type of glaucoma often develops quickly. B Chronic (open-angle) glaucoma: The chamber angle is open, but drainage through the trabecular meshwork is impaired. Ninety percent of all glaucomas are primary chronic open-angle glaucomas. This is increasingly prevalent after 40 years of age. Treatment options include parasympathomimetics (to induce sustained contraction of the ciliary muscle and pupillary sphincter), prostaglandin analogues (to improve aqueous drainage), and beta-adrenergic agonists (to decrease production of aqueous humor).
Approximately 85% of the aqueous humor flows through the trabecular meshwork into the canal of Schlemm. Only 15% drains through the uveoscleral vascular system into the vortical veins (uveoscleral drainage route).
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Eye: Retina
Nonvisual retina
Optic part of retina
Macula lutea
Fig. 6.46 Overview of the retina The retina is the third, innermost layer of the eyeball. It consists mainly of a photosensitive optic part and a smaller, nonphotosensitive forward prolongation called the nonvisual retina. The optic part of the retina (yellow) varies in thickness. It overlies the pigment epithelium of the uveal tract and is pressed against it by the intraocular pressure. The optic part of the retina ends at a jagged margin, the ora serrata, which is where the nonvisual retina begins. The site on the retina where visual acuity is highest is the fovea centralis, a small depression at the center of a yellowish area, the macula lutea. The optic part of the retina is particularly thin at this site; it is thickest at the point where the optic nerve emerges from the eyeball at the lamina cribrosa.
Sclera Uveal tract Fovea centralis
Optic nerve (CN II)
Optic disk Ora serrata
Cornea
Ocular conjunctiva Iris
Ciliary body
Ora serrata
Iridial part of retina Ciliary part of retina
Neural layer
Nonvisual retina
Pigmented layer Sclera
Optic part of retina
Fig. 6.47 Parts of the retina The posterior surface of the iris bears a double layer of pigment epithelium, the iridial part of the retina. Just peripheral to it is the ciliary part of the retina, also formed by a double layer of epithelium (one of which is pigmented) and covering the posterior surface of the ciliary body. The iridial and ciliary parts of the retina together constitute the
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nonvisual retina —the portion of the retina that is not sensitive to light. The nonvisual retina ends at a jagged line, the ora serrata, where the light-sensitive optic part of the retina begins. Consistent with the development of the retina from the embryonic optic cup, two layers can be distinguished within the optic part: • An outer layer nearer the sclera: the pigmented layer, consisting of a single layer of pigmented retinal epithelium. • An inner layer nearer the vitreous body: the neural layer, comprising a system of receptor cells, interneurons, and ganglion cells.
Regions of the Head
Inner limiting membrane Incident light
Blood vessels
10. Inner limiting membrane
7. Inner plexiform layer
Amacrine cells
6. Nuclei of bipolar cells (inner nuclear layer)
Second neurons (bipolar cells)
5. Outer plexiform layer
Horizontal cell
Outer limiting membrane
4. Nuclei of photoreceptor cells (outer nuclear layer) 3. Outer limiting membrane
Pigment epithelium
2. Processes of photoreceptor cells
First neurons (photoreceptors)
Müller cells Bruch membrane
A
9. Nerve fiber layer 8. Nuclei of ganglion cells
Third neurons (ganglion cells)
Excitation
6. Orbit & Eye
Choroid
B
Fig. 6.48 Structure of the retina A Retinal neurons of the visual pathway. B Anatomical layers of the retina. Light passes through all the layers of the retina to be received by the photoreceptors on the outermost surface of the retina. Sensory information is then transmitted via three retinal neurons of the visual pathway to the optic disk: • First neurons (pink): Photoreceptor cells (light-sensitive sensory cells) that transform light stimuli (photons) into electrochemical signals. The two types of photoreceptors are rods and cones, named for the shape of their receptor segment. The retina contains 100 million to 125 million rods, which are responsible for twilight and night vision, but only about 6 million to 7 million cones. Different cones are specialized for the perception of red, green, and blue. The processes and nuclei of the first neurons compose anatomical layers 2 to 4 (see B). • Second neurons (yellow): Bipolar cells that receive impulses from the photoreceptors and relay them to the ganglion cells. These neurons compose anatomical layers 5 to 7.
Bruch membrane
Choroid
Second neurons (bipolar cells)
First neurons (photoreceptors)
1. Pigment epithelium
• Third neurons (green): Retinal ganglion cells whose axons converge at the optic disk to form the optic nerve (CN II) and reach the lateral geniculate and superior colliculus. These neurons compose anatomical layers 8 to 10. There are approximately 1 million retinal ganglion axons per eye. Support cells: Müller cells (blue) are glial cells that span the neural layer radially from the inner to the outer limiting membranes, creating a supporting framework for the neurons. In addition to the vertical connections, horizontal and amacrine cells (gray) function as interneurons that establish lateral connections. Impulses transmitted by the receptor cells are thereby processed and organized within the retina (signal convergence). Pigment epithelium: The outer layer of the retina (the pigment epithelium, brown) is attached to the Bruch membrane, which contains elastic fibers and collagen fibrils and mediates the exchange of substances between the adjacent choroid (choriocapillaris) and the photoreceptor cells. Note: The photoreceptors are in contact with the pigment epithelium but are not attached to it. The retina may become detached (if untreated, this leads to blindness).
Fovea centralis
Optic disk
Ganglion cells Inner nuclear layer
Lamina cribrosa Central retinal artery
Third neurons (ganglion cells)
Meninges
Outer nuclear layer
Subarachnoid space
Fig. 6.49 Optic disk (“blind spot”) and lamina cribrosa The unmyelinated axons of the third neurons (retinal ganglion cells) pass to a collecting point at the posterior pole of the eye. There they unite to form the optic nerve and leave the retina through numerous perforations in the sclera (lamina cribrosa). (Note: The optic disk has no photoreceptors and is therefore the physiological blind spot.) In the optic nerve, these axons are myelinated by oligodendrocytes. The optic nerve (CN II) is an extension of the diencephalon and therefore has all the coverings of the brain (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater). It is surrounded by a subarachnoid space that contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and communicates with the subarachnoid spaces of the brain and spinal cord.
Pigment epithelium Blood vessels
Bruch membrane
Choroid
Fig. 6.50 Macula lutea and fovea centralis Temporal to the optic disk is the macula lutea. At its center is a funnelshaped depression approximately 1.5 mm in diameter, the fovea centralis, which is the site of maximum visual acuity. At this site the inner retinal layers are heaped toward the margin of the depression, so that the cells of the photoreceptors (just cones, no rods) are directly exposed to the incident light. This arrangement significantly reduces scattering of the light rays.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Visual System (I): Overview & Geniculate Part
Optic nerve
Lateral ventricle
Optic tract
Optic nerve
Lateral geniculate body Optic radiation for lower visual field
Incident light
Third neuron: ganglion cells Second neuron: bipolar cells Impulse conduction
Striate area
A
Optic chiasm
Anterior temporal lobe
Optic radiation for upper visual field
Fig. 6.51 Overview of the visual pathway Left lateral view. The visual pathway extends from the eye, an anterior prolongation of the diencephalon, back to the occipital pole. Thus, it encompasses almost the entire longitudinal axis of the brain. The principal stations are as follows: Retina: The first three neurons of the visual pathway (B): • First neuron: photoreceptor rods and cones, located on the deep retinal surface opposite the direction of the incoming light (“inversion of the retina”). • Second neuron: bipolar cells. • Third neuron: ganglion cells whose axons are collected to form the optic nerve. Optic nerve (CN II), optic chiasm, and optic tract: This neural portion of the visual pathway is part of the central nervous system and is surrounded by meninges. Thus, the optic nerve is actually a tract rather than a true nerve. The optic nerves join below the base of the diencephalon to form the optic chiasm, which then divides into the two optic tracts. Each of these tracts divides in turn into a lateral and medial root.
B
First neuron: photoreceptor rods and cones
C
Stria of Gennari
Lateral geniculate body: Ninety percent of the axons of the third neuron (= 90 % of the optic nerve fibers) terminate in the lateral geniculate body on neurons that project to the striate area (visual cortex, see below). This is the geniculate part of the visual pathway. It is concerned with conscious visual perception and is conveyed by the lateral root of the optic tract. The remaining 10% of the third-neuron axons in the visual pathway do not terminate in the lateral geniculate body. This is the nongeniculate part of the visual pathway (medial root, see Fig. 6.56), and its signals are not consciously perceived. Optic radiation and visual cortex (striate area): The optic radiation begins in the lateral geniculate body, forms a band that winds around the inferior and posterior horns of the lateral ventricles, and terminates in the visual cortex or striate area (= Brodmann area 17). Located in the occipital lobe, the visual cortex can be grossly identified by a prominent stripe of white matter in the otherwise gray cerebral cortex (the stria of Gennari, see C). This white stripe runs parallel to the brain surface and is shown in the inset, where the gray matter of the visual cortex is shaded light red.
Nasal visual field of right eye Left half of visual field Right half of visual field
Temporal visual field of right eye Temporal retina Nasal retina
Fig. 6.52 Representation of each visual field in the contralateral visual cortex Superior view. The light rays in the nasal part of each visual field are projected to the temporal half of the retina, and those from the temporal part are projected to the nasal half. Because of this arrangement, the left half of the visual field projects to the visual cortex of the right occipital pole, and the right half projects to the visual cortex of the left occipital pole. For clarity, each visual field in the diagram is divided into two halves. Note: The axonal fibers from the nasal half of each retina cross to the opposite side at the optic chiasm and then travel with the uncrossed fibers from the temporal half of each retina.
Optic nerve (CN II) Optic chiasm Optic tract Lateral geniculate body Visual cortex (striate area)
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Regions of the Head
Macular visual field
6. Orbit & Eye
Blind spot
Visual field
Fovea centralis Representation of visual field as determined by perimetry
Temporal crescent 1
Blind spot 2
Fig. 6.54 Informal visual field examination with the confrontation test The visual field examination is an essential step in the examination of lesions of the visual pathway (see Fig. 6.55). The confrontation test is an informal test in which the examiner (with an intact visual field) and the patient sit face-toface, cover one eye, and each fixes their gaze on the other’s open eye, creating identical visual axes. The examiner then moves his or her index finger from the outer edge of the visual field toward the center until the patient signals that he or she can see the finger. With this test the examiner can make a gross assessment as to the presence and approximate location of a possible visual field defect. The precise location and extent of a visual field defect can be determined by perimetry, in which points of light replace the examiner’s finger. The results of the test are entered in charts that resemble the small diagrams in Fig. 6.53.
3
4 5 6
7
Optic nerve
8
Optic chiasm Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body
Fig. 6.53 Geniculate part of visual pathway: topographic organization The visual field is divided into four quadrants: upper temporal, upper nasal, lower nasal, and lower temporal. The lower nasal quadrant is indented by the nose. The representation of this subdivision is continued into the visual cortex. Note: Only the left visual hemifield (blue) is shown here (compare to Fig. 6.52). 1 Visual hemifield: Each visual hemifield is divided into three zones (indicated by color shading): • Fovea centralis: The smallest and darkest zone is at the center of the visual field. It corresponds to the fovea centralis, the point of maximum visual acuity on the retina. The fovea centralis has a high receptor density; accordingly, a great many axons pass centrally from its receptors. It is therefore represented by a disproportionately large area in the visual cortex. • Macular visual field: The largest zone in the visual hemisphere; it also contains the blind spot. • Temporal crescent: The temporal, monocular part of the visual field. This corresponds to more peripheral portions of the retina that contain fewer receptors and therefore fewer axons, resulting in a smaller representational area in the visual cortex. 2 Retinal projection: All light that reaches the retina must pass through the narrow pupil, which functions like the aperture of a
9
camera. Up/down and nasal/temporal are therefore reversed when the image is projected on the retina. 3,4 Optic nerve: In the distal part of the optic nerve, the fibers that represent the macular visual field initially occupy a lateral position (3), then move increasingly toward the center of the nerve (4). 5 Optic chiasm: While traversing the optic chiasm, the fibers of the nasal retina of the optic nerve cross the midline to the opposite side. 6 Start of the optic tract: Fibers from the corresponding halves of the retinas unite (e.g., right halves of the left and right retinas in the right optic tract). The impulses from the left visual field (right retinal half) will therefore terminate in the right striate area. 7 End of the optic tract: Fibers are collected to form a wedge before entering the lateral geniculate body. 8 Lateral geniculate body: Macular fibers occupy almost half of the wedge. After the fibers are relayed to the fourth neuron, they project to the posterior end of the occipital pole (= visual cortex). 9 Visual cortex: There exists a point-to-point (retinotopic) correlation between the number of axons in the retina and the number of axons in the visual cortex (e.g., the central part of the visual field is represented by the largest area in the visual cortex, due to the large number of axons concentrated in the fovea centralis). The central lower half of the visual field is represented by a large area on the occipital pole above the calcarine sulcus; the central upper half of the visual field is represented below the sulcus.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Visual System (II): Lesions & Nongeniculate Part
Temporal
Nasal
Right visual field
Left visual field
Nasal
Temporal
1
1
2
2
3
3 1 2
4
4
3 5
6
5
5
4
7
7
6
7
Fig. 6.55 Visual field defects and lesions of the visual pathway Circles represent the perceived visual disturbances (scotomas, or areas of darkness) in the left and right eyes. These characteristic visual field defects (anopias) result from lesions at specific sites along the visual pathway. Lesion sites are illustrated in the left visual pathway as red wedges. The nature of the visual field defect often points to the location of the lesion. Note: Lesions past the optic chiasm will all be homonymous (same visual field in both eyes). 1 Unilateral optic nerve lesion: Blindness (amaurosis) in the affected eye. 2 Lesion of optic chiasm: Bitemporal hemianopia (think of a horse wearing blinders). Only fibers from the nasal portions of the retina (representing the temporal visual field) cross in the optic chiasm. 3 Unilateral optic tract lesion: Contralateral homonymous hemianopia. The lesion interrupts fibers from the temporal portion of the retina on the ipsilateral side and nasal portions of the retina on the contralateral side. The patient therefore has visual impairment of the same visual hemisphere in both eyes.
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6
4 Unilateral lesion of the optic radiation in the anterior temporal lobe: Contralateral upper quadrantanopia (“pie in the sky” deficit). Lesions in the anterior temporal lobe affect only those fibers winding under the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle (see Fig. 6.51). These fibers represent only the upper half of the visual field (in this case the nasal portion). 5 Unilateral lesion of the optic radiation in the parietal lobe: Contralateral lower quadrantanopia. Fibers from the lower half of the visual field course superior to the lateral ventricle in the parietal lobe. 6 Occipital lobe lesion: Homonymous hemianopia. The lesion affects the optic radiations from both the upper and lower visual fields. However, as the optic radiation fans out widely before entering the visual cortex, foveal vision is often spared. These lesions are most commonly due to intracerebral hemorrhage; the visual field defects vary considerably with the size of the hemorrhage. 7 Occipital pole lesion (confined to cortical area): Homonymous hemianopic central scotoma. The cortical areas of the occipital pole represent the macula.
Regions of the Head
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
6. Orbit & Eye
Visual cortex (striate area)
Pulvinar of thalamus
Superior colliculus
Optic radiation Pretectal area Lateral geniculate body
Terminal nuclei
Reticular formation
Fig. 6.56 Nongeniculate part of the visual pathway Approximately 10% of the axons of the optic nerve do not terminate on neurons in the lateral geniculate body for projection to the visual cortex. They continue along the medial root of the optic tract, forming the nongeniculate part of the visual pathway. The information from these fibers is not processed at a conscious level but plays an important role in the unconscious regulation of various vision-related processes and in visually mediated reflexes (e.g., the afferent limb of the pupillary light reflex). Axons from the nongeniculate part of the visual pathway terminate in the following regions: • Axons to the superior colliculus transmit kinetic information that is necessary for tracking moving objects by unconscious eye and head movements (retinotectal system). • Axons to the pretectal area transmit afferents for pupillary responses and accommodation reflexes (retinopretectal system). Subdivision
Afferent fibers
Efferent fibers
Optic nerve (CN II)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Pupillary reflex Vestibuloocular reflex
Facial nerve (CN VII) Corneal reflex
• •
•
•
into specific nuclei has not yet been accomplished in humans, and so the term “area” is used. Axons to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus influence circadian rhythms. Axons to the thalamic nuclei (optic tract) in the tegmentum of the mesencephalon and to the vestibular nuclei transmit afferent fibers for optokinetic nystagmus (= jerky, physiological eye movements during the tracking of fast-moving objects). This has also been called the “accessory visual system.” Axons to the pulvinar of the thalamus form the visual association cortex for oculomotor function (neurons are relayed in the superior colliculus). Axons to the parvocellular nucleus of the reticular formation function during arousal.
Fig. 6.57 Brainstem reflexes Brainstem reflexes are important in the examination of comatose patients. Loss of all brainstem reflexes is considered evidence of brain death. Three of these reflexes are described below: Pupillary reflex: The pupillary reflex relies on the nongeniculate parts of the visual pathway (see Fig. 6.59). The afferent fibers for this reflex come from the optic nerve, which is an extension of the diencephalon. The efferents for the pupillary reflex come from the accessory nucleus of the oculomotor nerve (CN III), which is located in the brainstem. Loss of the pupillary reflex may signify a lesion of the diencephalon (interbrain) or mesencephalon (midbrain). Vestibulo-ocular reflex: Irrigating the ear canal with cold water in a normal individual evokes nystagmus that beats toward the opposite side (afferent fibers are conveyed in the vestibulocochlear nerve [CN VIII], efferent fibers in the oculomotor nerve [CN III]). When the vestibulo-ocular reflex is absent in a comatose patient, it is considered a poor sign because this reflex is the most reliable clinical test of brainstem function. Corneal reflex: This reflex is not mediated by the visual pathway. The afferent fibers for the reflex (elicited by stimulation of the cornea, as by touching it with a sterile cotton wisp) are conveyed in the trigeminal nerve (CN V) and the efferent fibers (contraction of the orbicularis oculi in response to corneal irritation) in the facial nerve (CN VII). The relay center for the corneal reflex is located in the pontine region of the brainstem.
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Visual System (III): Reflexes
Ciliaris Pupillary sphincter Medial rectus Short ciliary nerves
Ciliary ganglion
Optic nerve Optic tract
Oculomotor nerve
Perlia’s nucleus
Lateral geniculate body
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (medial rectus)
Pretectal area
Area 19 (secondary visual cortex)
Edinger-Westphal nuclei
Area 17 (primary visual cortex) Area 18
Fig. 6.58 Pathways for convergence and accommodation When the distance between the eyes and an object decreases, three processes must occur in order to produce a sharp, three-dimensional visual impression (the first two are simultaneous): 1. Convergence (red): The visual axes of the eyes move closer together. The two medial rectus muscles contract to move the ocular axis medially. This keeps the image of the approaching object on the fovea centralis. 2. Accommodation: The lenses adjust their focal length. The curvature of the lens is increased to keep the image of the object sharply focused on the retina. The ciliary muscle contracts, which relaxes the tension on the lenticular fibers. The intrinsic pressure of the lens then causes it to assume a more rounded shape. (Note: The lens is flattened by the contraction of the lenticular fibers, which are attached to the ciliary muscle.) 3. Pupillary constriction: The pupil is constricted by the pupillary sphincter to increase visual acuity. Convergence and accommodation may be conscious (fixing the gaze on a near object) or unconscious (fixing the gaze on an approaching automobile). Pathways: The pathways can be broken into three components: 1. Geniculate visual pathway (purple): Axons of the first neurons (photoreceptors) and second neurons (bipolar cells) relay sensory information to the third neurons (retinal ganglion cells), which course in the optic nerve (CN II) to the lateral geniculate body. There they syn-
138
apse with the fourth neuron, whose axons project to the primary visual cortex (area 17). 2. Visual cortexes to cranial nerve nuclei: Interneurons (black) connect the primary (area 17) and secondary (area 19) visual cortexes. Synaptic relays (red) connect area 19 to the pretectal area and ultimately Perlia’s nucleus (yellow), located between the two EdingerWestphal (visceral oculomotor) nuclei (green). 3. Cranial nerves: At Perlia’s nucleus, the pathway for convergence diverges with the pathways for accommodation and pupillary constriction: • Convergence: Neurons relay impulses to the somatomotor nucleus of the oculomotor nerve, whose axons pass directly to the medial rectus muscle via the oculomotor nerve (CN III). • Accommodation and pupillary constriction: Neurons relay impulses to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, whose preganglionic parasympathetic axons project to the ciliary ganglion. After synapsing in the ciliary ganglion, the postganglionic axons pass either to the ciliary muscle (accommodation) or the pupillary sphincter (pupillary constriction) via the short ciliary nerves. Note: The pupillary sphincter light response is abolished in tertiary syphilis, while accommodation (ciliary muscle) and convergence (medial rectus) are preserved. This phenomenon, called an Argyll Robertson pupil, indicates that the connections to the ciliary and pupillary sphincter muscles are mediated by different tracts, although the anatomy of these tracts is not yet fully understood.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Pupillary sphincter
Short ciliary nerves Ciliary ganglion Optic nerve Oculomotor nerve (parasympathetic portion)
Optic tract
Lateral geniculate body
Visceral oculomotor (Edinger-Westphal) nuclei
Medial geniculate body
Fig. 6.59 Pupillary light reflex The pupillary light reflex enables the eye to adapt to varying levels of brightness. When a large amount of light enters the eye (e.g., beam of a headlight), the pupil constricts to protect the photoreceptors in the retina; when the light fades, the pupil dilates. This reflexive pathway takes place without conscious input via the nongeniculate part of the visual pathway. The reflex can be broken into components: 1. Afferent limb: The first (photoreceptor) and second (bipolar) neurons relay sensory information to the third (retinal ganglion) neurons, which combine to form the optic nerve (CN II). Most third neurons (purple) synapse at the lateral geniculate body (geniculate part of the visual pathway). The third neurons responsible for the light reflex (blue) synapse at the pretectal area in the medial root of the optic tract (nongeniculate part of the visual pathway). Fourth neurons from the pretectal area pass to the parasympathetic Edinger-Westphal nuclei. Note: Because both nuclei are innervated, a consensual light response can occur (contraction of one pupil will cause contraction of the other). 2. Efferent limb: Fifth neurons from the Edinger-Westphal nuclei (preganglionic parasympathetic neurons) synapse in the ciliary ganglion. Sixth neurons (postganglionic parasympathetic neurons) pass to the pupillary sphincter via the short ciliary nerves. Loss of light response: Because fourth neurons from the pretectal area pass to both Edinger-Westphal nuclei, a consensual light response can occur (contraction of one pupil will cause contraction of the other). The light response must therefore be tested both directly and indirectly:
Pretectal area
• Direct light response: Tested by covering both eyes of the conscious, cooperative patient and then uncovering one eye. After a short latency period, the pupil of the light-exposed eye will contract. • Indirect light response: Tested by placing the examiner’s hand on the bridge of the patient’s nose, shading one eye from the beam of a flashlight while shining it into the other eye. The object is to test whether shining the light into one eye will cause the pupil of the shaded eye to contract as well (consensual light response). Lesions can occur all along the pathway for the pupillary light reflex. The direct and indirect light responses can be used to determine the level: • Unilateral optic nerve lesion: This produces blindness on the affected side. If the patient is unconscious or uncooperative, the light responses can determine the lesion, as the afferent limb of the pupillary light reflex is lost. Affected side: No direct light response and no consensual light response on the opposite side. Unaffected side: Direct light response and consensual light response on the opposite (affected) side. Because the efferent limb of the reflex is not mediated by the optic nerve, the functional afferent limb can bypass the impaired afferent limb. • Lesion of the parasympathetic Edinger-Westphal nucleus or the ciliary ganglion: The efferent limb of the pupillary light reflex is lost. Affected side: No direct or indirect pupillary light response on the opposite side. Unaffected side: Direct light response, no indirect light response on the opposite (affected) side. • Lesion of the optic radiation or visual cortex (geniculate part of the visual pathway): Intact pupillary reflex (direct and indirect light response on both sides).
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Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Visual System (IV): Coordination of Eye Movement
Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus (riMLF)
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve Nucleus of trochlear nerve
Mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF)
Medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF)
Paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF)
Nucleus of abducent nerve
Nucleus prepositus hypoglossi
riMLF A
III
IV
PPRF
B
Fig. 6.60 Oculomotor nuclei and connections in the brainstem A Midsagittal section viewed from left side. B Circuit diagram showing the supranuclear organization of eye movements. The extraocular muscles receive motor innervation from the oculomotor (CN III), trochlear (CN IV), and abducent (CN VI) nerves. The concerted movement of the extraocular muscles allows for shifting of gaze, the swift movement of the visual axis toward the intended target. These rapid, precise, “ballistic” eye movements are called saccades. They are preprogrammed and, once initiated, cannot be altered until the end of the saccadic movement. The nuclei of CN III, IV, and VI (red) are involved in these saccadic movements. They are interconnected for this purpose by the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF, blue). Because these complex movements involve all the extraocular muscles and their associated nerves, the activity of the nuclei must be coordinated at a higher, or supranuclear, level. For example, gazing to the right requires four concerted movements:
140
• • • •
PPRF
VI
Contract right lateral rectus (CN VI nucleus activated) Relax right medial rectus (CN III nucleus inhibited) Relax left lateral rectus (CN VI nucleus inhibited) Contract left medial rectus (CN III nucleus activated)
These conjugate eye movements are coordinated by premotor nuclei (purple) in the mesencephalic reticular formation (green). Horizontal gaze movements are programmed in the nuclear region of the paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF). Vertical gaze movements are programmed in the rostral interstitial nucleus of the medial longitudinal fasciculus (riMLF). Both gaze centers establish bilateral connections with the nuclei of CN III, IV, and VI. The tonic signals for maintaining the new eye position originate from the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi.
Regions of the Head
6. Orbit & Eye
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (CN III) Nucleus of trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Corticonuclear fibers
Cerebral aqueduct Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Corticospinal tract
Nucleus of abducent nerve (CN VI)
Right
Left
Internuclear ophthalmoplegia (red arrows: abducting nystagmus)
Gaze to the right
Convergence A Anterior view. Left Medial rectus (not activated)
Right
Lateral rectus (intact)
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve
Fig. 6.61 Course of the MLF in the brainstem Midsagittal section viewed from the left side. The MLF runs anterior to the cerebral aqueduct on both sides and continues from the mesencephalon to the cervical spinal cord. It transmits fibers for the coordination of conjugate eye movements. A lesion of the MLF results in internuclear ophthalmoplegia (see Fig. 6.62).
Fig. 6.62 Internuclear ophthalmoplegia The MLF interconnects the oculomotor nuclei and also connects them with the opposite side. When this “information highway” is interrupted, internuclear ophthalmoplegia develops. This type of lesion most commonly occurs between the nuclei of the abducent and the oculomotor nerves. It may be unilateral or bilateral. Typical causes are multiple sclerosis and diminished blood flow. The lesion is manifested by the loss of conjugate eye movements. With a lesion of the left MLF, as shown here, the left medial rectus muscle is no longer activated during gaze to the right. The eye cannot be moved inward on the side of the lesion (loss of the medial rectus), and the opposite eye goes into an abducting nystagmus (lateral rectus is intact and innervated by the abducent nerve). Reflex movements such as convergence are not impaired, as there is no peripheral or nuclear lesion, and this reaction is not mediated by the MLF.
Nucleus of trochlear nerve
Area 8 (frontal gaze center) Lesion
Nucleus of abducent nerve
B Superior view.
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Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Nose: Nasal Skeleton
Nasomaxillary suture
Major alar cartilage, lateral crus
Glabella Nasion
Major alar cartilage, medial crus
Nasal bone Frontal process of maxilla
Naris
Lateral nasal cartilage
Nasal ala
Septal cartilage
Major alar cartilage
Anterior nasal spine Minor alar cartilages
Fig. 7.1 Skeleton of the external nose Left lateral view. The skeleton of the nose is composed of bone, cartilage, and connective tissue. Its upper portion is bony and frequently involved in midfacial fractures, whereas its lower, distal portion is cartilaginous and therefore more elastic and less susceptible to injury. The proximal lower portion of the nostrils (alae) is composed of connective tissue with small embedded pieces of cartilage. The lateral nasal cartilage is a winglike lateral expansion of the cartilaginous part of the nasal septum rather than a separate piece of cartilage.
Frontal bone
Ethmoid bone
Sphenoid bone
Fig. 7.2 Nasal cartilage Inferior view. Viewed from below, each of the major alar cartilages is seen to consist of a medial and lateral crus. This view also displays the two nares, which open into the nasal cavities. The right and left nasal cavities are separated by the nasal septum, whose inferior cartilaginous portion is just visible in the diagram.
Frontal bone
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate
Sphenoid bone
Nasal bone
Nasal bone Occipital bone
Lacrimal bone
Occipital bone
Septal cartilage
Vomer Inferior nasal concha Incisive canal
Major alar cartilage Palatine bone Maxilla
Fig. 7.3 Bones of the lateral wall of the right nasal cavity Left lateral view. The lateral wall of the right nasal cavity is formed by six bones: the maxilla, nasal bone, ethmoid bone, inferior nasal concha, palatine bone, and sphenoid bone. Of the nasal concha, only the inferior is a separate bone; the middle and superior conchae are parts of the ethmoid bone.
142
Palatine bone Maxilla
Fig. 7.4 Bones of the nasal septum Parasagittal section. The nasal septum is formed by six bones. The ethmoid and vomer bones are the major components of the septum. The sphenoid bone, palatine bone, maxilla, and nasal bone (roof of the septum) contribute only small bony projections to the nasal septum.
Regions of the Head
Anterior cranial fossa
Cribriform plate
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Superior meatus
Frontal sinus Crista galli
Sphenoid bone, lesser wing
Frontal bone
Middle cranial fossa
Nasal bone
Hypophyseal fossa
Lacrimal bone Sphenoid sinus
Frontal process of maxilla
Superior concha (ethmoid bone) Body of sphenoid bone
Anterior nasal aperture
Pterygoid process, medial plate Choana (posterior nasal aperture) Middle meatus Pterygoid process, lateral plate Inferior concha (independent bone) Palatine process of maxilla
Palatine bone, horizontal plate Inferior meatus
Middle concha (ethmoid bone)
Fig. 7.5 Lateral wall of the right nasal cavity Medial view. Air enters the bony nasal cavity through the anterior nasal aperture and travels through the three nasal passages: the superior meatus, middle meatus, and inferior meatus, which are the spaces infero-
Anterior cranial fossa
lateral to the superior, middle, and inferior conchae, respectively. Air leaves the nose through the choanae (posterior nasal apertures), entering the nasopharynx.
Cribriform plate
Crista galli Sphenoid sinus
Frontal sinus Nasal bone
Hypophyseal fossa
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate
Sphenoid crest Vomer
Septal cartilage
Choana
Major alar cartilage, medial crus
Posterior process Nasal crest
Palatine bone, horizontal plate
Incisive canal
Oral cavity
Palatine process of maxilla
Fig. 7.6 Nasal septum Parasagittal section viewed from the left side. The left lateral wall of the nasal cavity has been removed with the adjacent bones. The nasal septum consists of an anterior septal cartilage and a posterior bony part composed of several bones. The posterior process of the carti-
laginous septum extends deep into the bony septum. Deviations of the nasal septum are common and may involve the cartilaginous part of the septum, the bony part, or both. Cases in which the septal deviation is sufficient to cause obstruction of nasal breathing can be surgically corrected.
143
Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Nose: Paranasal Sinuses
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid air cells
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid air cells
Age 20 Age 12 Age 8 Age 1
Age 4
Age 4
Age 1
Age 8 Age 12 Age 20 Age 60+ Maxillary sinus
A
B
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoid sinus
Fig. 7.7 Projection of the paranasal sinuses onto the skull A Anterior view. B Lateral view. The paranasal sinuses are air-filled cavities that reduce the weight of the skull. They are subject to inflammation that may cause pain over the affected sinus (e.g., frontal headache due to frontal sinusitis). Knowing the location and sensory supply of the sinuses is helpful in making the correct diagnosis.
Anterior cranial fossa
Cribriform plate
Fig. 7.8 Pneumatization of the maxillary and frontal sinuses Anterior view. The frontal and maxillary sinuses develop gradually during the course of cranial growth (pneumatization), unlike the ethmoid air cells, which are already pneumatized at birth. As a result, sinusitis in children is most likely to involve the ethmoid air cells (with risk of orbital penetration: red, swollen eye).
Orifices of posterior ethmoid air cells
Sphenoethmoidal recess
Frontal sinus
Superior nasal concha (cut)
Crista galli Frontal bone
Hypophyseal fossa
Nasal bone
Sphenoid sinus
Frontonasal duct Sphenopalatine foramen
Ethmoid bulla
Sphenoid bone
Lacrimal bone Uncinate process Frontal process of maxilla Semilunar hiatus Inferior nasal concha (cut)
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Opening of nasolacrimal canal Palatine process of maxilla A
Oral cavity
Maxillary hiatus
Palatine bone, perpendicular plate
Fig. 7.9 Lateral wall of the right nasal cavity Left lateral view of midline section with nasal conchae removed to display the openings of the nasolacrimal duct and paranasal sinuses. A Opened nasal wall. B Drainage of the paranasal sinuses. See Table 7.1.
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Cut edge of middle nasal concha (ethmoid bone)
B
Regions of the Head
Anterior cranial fossa
Cribriform plate
Crista galli
Frontal sinus
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate Superior meatus and concha
Ethmoid bone, orbital plate
Nasal septum
Nasal cavity
Orbit Middle meatus and concha
Middle ethmoid air cells
Ostium of maxillary sinus
Maxilla
Uncinate process
Inferior meatus
Maxillary sinus
Inferior concha
Vomer
Fig. 7.10 Bony structure of the paranasal sinuses Anterior view. The central structure of the paranasal sinuses is the ethmoid bone (red). Its cribriform plate forms a portion of the anterior skull base. The frontal and maxillary sinuses are grouped around the ethmoid bone. The inferior, middle, and superior meatuses of the nasal cavity are bounded by the accordingly named conchae. The bony ostium of the maxillary sinus opens into the middle meatus, lateral to the middle concha. Below the middle concha and above the maxillary sinus ostium is the ethmoid bulla, which con-
Table 7.1 Drainage of the paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal duct Structure
Nasal passage
Nasolacrimal duct (red) via nasolacrimal canal
Inferior meatus
Frontal sinus (yellow) via frontonasal duct
Middle meatus
Palatine process of maxilla
tains the middle ethmoid air cells. At its anterior margin is a bony hook, the uncinate process, which bounds the maxillary sinus ostium anteriorly. The middle concha is a useful landmark in surgical procedures on the maxillary sinus and anterior ethmoid. The lateral wall separating the ethmoid bone from the orbit is the paper-thin orbital plate (= lamina papyracea). Inflammatory processes and tumors may penetrate this thin plate in either direction. Note: The maxilla forms the floor of the orbit and roof of the maxillary sinus. In addition, roots of the maxillary dentition may project into the maxillary sinus.
Maxillary sinus Mucosal folds on the middle turbinate
Septum Cavernous sinus
Sphenoid sinus Pituitary gland
Internal carotid artery
Fig. 7.11 Nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses Transverse section viewed from above. The mucosal surface anatomy has been left intact to show how narrow the nasal passages are. Even relatively mild swelling of the mucosa may obstruct the nasal cavity, impeding aeration of the paranasal sinuses. The pituitary gland, located behind the sphenoid sinus in the hypophyseal fossa, is accessible via transnasal surgical procedures.
Frontal sinus Orbit Nasal cavity Ethmoid air cells Middle concha
Nasal septum Maxillary sinus
Maxillary sinus (orange)
Inferior concha
Anterior and middle ethmoid air cells (green) Posterior ethmoid air cells (green)
Superior meatus
Sphenoid sinus (blue)
Sphenoethmoid recess
Fig. 7.12 Osteomeatal unit (complex) Coronal section. The osteomeatal unit (complex) is that part of the middle meatus into which the frontal and maxillary sinuses drain along with the anterior and middle ethmoid air cells. When the mucosa (ciliated respiratory epithelium) in the ethmoid air cells (green) becomes swollen due to inflammation (sinusitis), it blocks the flow of secretions from the frontal sinus (yellow) and maxillary sinus
(orange) in the osteomeatal unit (red). Because of this blockage, microorganisms also become trapped in the other sinuses, where they may incite an inflammation. Thus, whereas the anatomical focus of the disease lies in the ethmoid air cells, inflammatory symptoms are also manifested in the frontal and maxillary sinuses. In patients with chronic sinusitis, the narrow sites can be surgically widened to establish an effective drainage route.
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Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Nasal Cavity
Crista galli
Ethmoid air cells
Orbit Vitreous body
Ethmoid bulla
Sclera
Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone
Middle nasal concha
Infraorbital nerve
Maxilla
Maxillary sinus
Cartilaginous nasal septum
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer
Inferior nasal meatus Root of maxillary tooth
Palatine process of the maxilla
Alveolar process
Tongue
A
Oral cavity
Anterior ethmoid air cells Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone
Lens Vitreous body
Medial rectus
Orbit
Lateral rectus Optic nerve Posterior ethmoid air cells
Temporalis
Sphenoid sinus
Internal carotid artery
Telencephalon, temporal lobe
Dorsum sellae
B
Fig. 7.13 Overview of the nose and paranasal sinuses A Coronal section, anterior view. B Transverse section, superior view. The nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses are arranged in pairs. The left and right nasal cavities are separated by the nasal septum and have an approximately triangular shape. Below the base of the triangle is the oral cavity. Note the relations of the infraorbital nerve and maxillary dentition to the maxillary sinus. The following paired paranasal sinuses are shown in the drawings:
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• • • •
Frontal sinus Ethmoid air cells (ethmoid sinus*) Maxillary sinus Sphenoid sinus
The interior of each sinus is lined with ciliated respiratory epithelium (see p. 150). * The term ethmoid sinus has been dropped from the latest anatomical nomenclature, although it is still widely used by medical practitioners.
Regions of the Head
Sphenoid sinus
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Hypophyseal (pituitary) fossa Dorsum sellae
Frontal sinus
Clivus Pharyngeal tonsil
Nasal septum
Choana Torus tubarius Pharyngeal orifice of pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Incisive canal
Dens of axis Maxilla
Hard palate
Incisive foramen
Atlas (anterior arch)
Soft palate, palatine septum
Upper lip
A
Sphenoid sinus
Superior nasal concha
Sphenoethmoid recess
Middle nasal concha
Superior meatus Middle meatus
Pharyngeal tonsil Torus tubarius
Inferior nasal concha
Salpingopharyngeal fold
Limen nasi Nasal vestibule B
Inferior meatus
Pharyngeal recess
Pharyngeal orifice of pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Pharyngeal tonsil
Basilar part of occipital bone Middle nasal concha
Pharyngeal recess
Vomer
Choana (“posterior naris”)
Inferior nasal concha Soft palate
Palatopharyngeal arch Uvula
Tongue base with lingual tonsil C
Palatine tonsil Epiglottis
Fig. 7.14 Mucosa of the nasal cavity A Mucosa of the nasal septum, parasagittal section viewed from the left side. B Mucosa of the right lateral nasal wall, viewed from the left side. C Posterior view through the choanae into the nasal cavity. Although the medial wall of the nasal cavity is smooth, its lateral wall is raised into folds by the three conchae (superior, middle, and inferior concha), which increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, enabling it to warm and humidify the inspired air more efficiently. They also create turbulence, mixing olfactory stimulants (see p. 148 for olfactory nerve). The choanae (posterior nasal apertures) (C) are the posterior openings by which the nasal cavity communicates with the nasopharynx. Note the close proximity of the choanae to the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube and pharyngeal tonsil.
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Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Nasal Cavity: Neurovascular Supply
Olfactory bulb
Cribriform plate
Olfactory tract (CN I)
Anterior ethmoidal artery (from ophthalmic artery)
Sphenoid sinus Basilar artery Medial superior posterior nasal branches (from CN V2)
Olfactory fibers (from CN V1) Anterior septal branches (from CN V1)
Posterior septal branches (from sphenopalatine artery)
Medial nasal branches (from CN V1)
Torus tubarius
Kiesselbach’s area
Choana
Septal branches of superior labial artery Incisive canal (with nasopalatine nerve and greater palatine artery)
Nasopalatine nerve (from CN V2) Incisive foramen
Fig. 7.15 Neurovasculature of the nasal septum Parasagittal section, left lateral view. The nasal septum is supplied anterosuperiorly by CN V1 and posteroinferiorly by CN V2. It receives blood primarily from branches of the ophthalmic and maxillary arteries, with contribution from the facial artery (septal branches of the superior labial artery).
Olfactory bulb (CN I) and olfactory fibers
Superior nasal concha
Posterior ethmoidal artery (from ophthalmic artery)
Posterosuperior nasal branches
Anterior ethmoidal artery (from ophthalmic artery) Middle nasal concha
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Posteroinferior nasal branches and lateral posterior nasal arteries (descending palatine artery)
Descending palatine artery and nerve Greater and lesser palatine nerves
Inferior nasal concha Incisive canal (with nasopalatine nerve and greater palatine artery ) Greater palatine artery and nerve
Fig. 7.16 Neurovasculature of the lateral nasal wall Left medial view of right lateral nasal wall. The pterygopalatine ganglion (located in the pterygopalatine fossa but exposed here) is an important relay in the parasympathetic nervous system. The CN V2 nerve fibers passing through it pass to the small nasal glands of the nasal con-
148
Lesser palatine artery and nerve
Uvula
chae, along with palatine glands. The anterosuperior portion of the lateral nasal wall is supplied by branches of the ophthalmic artery and CN V1. Note: Olfactory fibers (CN I) pass through the cribriform plate to the olfactory mucosa at the level of the superior concha.
Regions of the Head
Note: The ophthalmic artery arises from the internal carotid artery and travels with the optic nerve (CN II), entering the orbit via the optic canal. Within the orbit it gives off the ethmoidal branches, which enter the nasal cavity via the ethmoid bone.
Fig. 7.17 Arteries of the nasal septum Left lateral view. The vessels of the nasal septum arise from branches of the external and internal carotid arteries. The anterior part of the septum contains a highly vascularized area called Kiesselbach’s area, which is supplied by vessels from both major arteries. This area is the most common site of significant nosebleed due to anastomoses.
Posterior ethmoidal artery
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Ophthalmic artery
Sphenopalatine artery via sphenopalatine foramen
Anterior ethmoidal artery Anterior septal branches
Maxillary artery Internal carotid artery
Kiesselbach’s area Nasal branch of greater palatine artery
Posterior septal branches
Septal branch of superior labial artery (facial artery) Frontal sinus
External carotid artery
Greater palatine artery
Cribriform plate
Descending palatine artery
Olfactory bulb (CN I)
Anterior ethmoidal nerve (CN V1)
Fig. 7.18 Nerves of the nasal septum Left mesial view of lateral septum. The nasal septum receives its general sensory innervation from branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). The anterosuperior part of the septum is supplied by branches of the ophthalmic division (CN V1) and the rest by branches of the maxillary division (CN V2). Bundles of olfactory nerve fibers (CN I) arise from receptors in the olfactory mucosa on the superior part of the septum, pass through the cribriform plate, and enter the olfactory bulb.
Olfactory fibers (CN I)
CN V2
Medial nasal branches (CN V1)
CN V1 Trigeminal ganglion (CN V) CN V3 Pterygopalatine ganglion in pterygopalatine fossa
Medial superior posterior nasal branches (CN V2) Vomer
Nasopalatine nerve (CN V2)
Posterior ethmoidal artery Anterior ethmoidal artery
Anterior ethmoidal nerve (CN V1)
Ophthalmic artery
Sphenopalatine Zygomatic foramen (opened) process of maxilla
Cribriform plate
Middle nasal concha
Sphenopalatine artery Descending palatine artery (gives rise to greater and lesser palatine arteries)
Lateral superior posterior nasal branches (CN V2)
External nasal branch
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Maxillary artery
Posteroinferior nasal branches (from desending palatine nerve)
Internal carotid artery Alar branches of lateral nasal artery
External carotid artery Greater palatine artery
Lateral posterior nasal arteries
Fig. 7.19 Arteries of the right lateral nasal wall Left mesial view of lateral nasal wall. The nasal wall is supplied primarily by branches of the ophthalmic artery (anterosuperiorly) and maxillary artery (posteroinferiorly), with contributions from the facial artery (alar branches of the lateral nasal artery).
Sphenoid sinus
Lesser palatine nerves
Lateral nasal branches Internal nasal branches
Inferior nasal concha
Greater palatine nerve
Fig. 7.20 Nerves of the right lateral nasal wall Left mesial view of lateral nasal wall. The nasal wall derives its sensory innervation from branches of the ophthalmic division (CN V1) and the maxillary division (CN V2). Receptor neurons in the olfactory mucosa send their axons in the olfactory nerve (CN I) to the olfactory bulb.
149
Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Nose & Paranasal Sinuses: Histology & Clinical Anatomy
Middle nasal concha
Kinociliabearing epithelial cells
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium (“respiratory epithelium”)
Semilunar hiatus
Goblet cells
Uncinate process Nasal septum, vomer
Maxillary sinus Inferior nasal concha with decongested mucosa
Congested mucosa of the inferior concha
Fig. 7.21 Functional states of the nasal mucosa Coronal section, anterior view. The function of the nasal mucosa is to warm and humidify the inspired air and mix olfactory stimulants. This is accomplished by an increase of blood flow through the mucosa, placing it in a congested (swollen) state. The mucous membranes are not simultaneously congested on both sides, but undergo a normal cycle of congestion and decongestion that lasts approximately six hours (the right side is decongested in the drawing). Examination of the nasal cavity can be facilitated by first administering a decongestant to shrink the mucosa.
Frontal sinus
Fibrous lamina propria
Ethmoid sinus
Fig. 7.22 Histology of the nasal mucosa The surface of the pseudostratified respiratory epithelium of the nasal mucosa consists of kinocilia-bearing cells and goblet cells, which secrete their mucus into a watery film on the epithelial surface. Serous and seromucous glands are embedded in the connective tissue and also release secretions into the superficial fluid film. The directional fluid flow produced by the cilia is an important component of the nonspecific immune response. If coordinated beating of the cilia is impaired, the patient will suffer chronic recurring infections of the respiratory tract.
Ostium
Sphenoid sinus
Posterior wall of frontal sinus
Choanae
Nasopharynx Maxillary sinus
Fig. 7.23 Normal drainage of secretions from the paranasal sinus Left lateral view. The beating cilia propel the mucous blanket over the cilia and through the choana into the nasopharynx, where it is swallowed.
150
A
Medial wall of maxillary sinus
Ostium
B
Ethmoid infundibulum
Fig. 7.24 Ciliary beating and fluid flow in the right maxillary and frontal sinuses Schematic coronal sections of the right maxillary sinus (A) and frontal sinus (B), anterior view. Beating of the cilia produces a flow of fluid in the paranasal sinuses that is always directed toward the sinus ostium. This clears the sinus of particles and microorganisms that are trapped in the mucous layer. If the ostium is obstructed due to swelling of the mucosa, inflammation may develop in the affected sinus (sinusitis). This occurs most commonly in the osteomeatal complex of the middle meatus.
Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Trocar
Endoscope
I
Fig. 7.26 Endoscopy of the maxillary sinus Anterior view. The maxillary sinus is not accessible to direct inspection and must therefore be examined with an endoscope. To enter the maxillary sinus, the examiner pierces the thin bony wall below the inferior concha with a trocar and advances the endoscope through the opening. The scope can then be angled and rotated to inspect all of the mucosal surfaces.
A
Anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries
II
Ophthalmic artery
Kiesselbach’s area
Sphenopalatine artery Maxillary artery Internal carotid artery External carotid artery
A
Middle concha
Pharyngeal tonsil
Choana
Posterior margin of septum
Pharyngeal orifice of eustachian tube
Inferior concha
Ophthalmic artery
Angular artery
Orbit
Soft palate
Base of tongue
Facial artery B
Anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries
Uvula
Fig. 7.25 Anterior and posterior rhinoscopy A Anterior rhinoscopy is a procedure for inspection of the nasal cavity. Two different positions (I, II) are used to ensure that all of the anterior nasal cavity is examined. B In posterior rhinoscopy, the choanae and pharyngeal tonsil are accessible to clinical examination. The rhinoscope can be angled and rotated to demonstrate the structures shown in the composite image. Today the rhinoscope is frequently replaced by an endoscope.
B
Infraorbital foramen
Fig. 7.27 Sites of potential arterial ligation for the treatment of severe nosebleed If a severe nosebleed cannot be controlled with ordinary intranasal packing, it may be necessary to ligate relatively large arterial vessels. The following arteries may be ligated due to the rich aterial anastomoses in the blood supply to the nasal cavity: • Maxillary artery or sphenopalatine artery (A) • Both ethmoidal arteries in the orbit (B)
151
Regions of the Head
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Olfactory System (Smell)
Medullary stria of thalamus Longitudinal striae
Interpeduncular nucleus
Medial olfactory stria
Habenular nuclei Tegmental nucleus
Olfactory bulb
Uncus, with amygdala below
Olfactory fibers
Olfactory bulb
Reticular formation Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus Lateral olfactory stria A
Olfactory mucosa
• Some of the axons of the olfactory tract run in the lateral olfactory stria to the olfactory centers: the amygdala, semilunar gyrus, and ambient gyrus. The prepiriform area (Brodmann area 28) is considered to be the primary olfactory cortex in the strict sense. It contains the third neurons of the olfactory pathway. Note: The prepiriform area is shaded in B, lying at the junction of the basal side of the frontal lobe and the medial side of the temporal lobe. • Other axons of the olfactory tract run in the medial olfactory stria to nuclei in the septal (subcallosal) area, which is part of the limbic system, and to the olfactory tubercle, a small elevation in the anterior perforated substance. • Yet other axons of the olfactory tract terminate in the anterior olfactory nucleus, where the fibers that cross to the opposite side branch off and are relayed. This nucleus is located in the olfactory trigone, which lies between the two olfactory striae and in front of the anterior perforated substance.
152
Prepiriform area
Medial olfactory stria
Prepiriform area
Fig. 7.28 Olfactory system: olfactory mucosa and central connections Olfactory tract viewed in midsagittal section (A) and from below (B). The olfactory mucosa is located in the roof of the nasal cavity. The olfactory cells (= primary sensory cells) are bipolar neurons. Their peripheral receptor-bearing processes terminate in the epithelium of the nasal mucosa, and their central processes pass to the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb, where the second neurons of the olfactory pathway (mitral and tufted cells) are located, is considered an extension of the telencephalon. The axons of these second neurons pass centrally as the olfactory tract. In front of the anterior perforated substance, the olfactory tract widens to form the olfactory trigone and splits into the lateral and medial olfactory striae.
Olfactory tract
Olfactory trigone
Lateral olfactory stria
Amygdala (deep to brain surface)
Ambient gyrus B
Semilunar gyrus
Diagonal stria
Anterior perforated substance
Note: None of these three tracts are routed through the thalamus. Thus, the olfactory system is the only sensory system that is not relayed in the thalamus before reaching the cortex. There is, however, an indirect route from the primary olfactory cortex to the neocortex passing through the thalamus and terminating in the basal forebrain. The olfactory signals are further analyzed in these basal portions of the forebrain (not shown). The olfactory system is linked to other brain areas well beyond the primary olfactory cortical areas, with the result that olfactory stimuli can evoke complex emotional and behavioral responses. Noxious smells induce nausea, and appetizing smells evoke watering of the mouth. Presumably these sensations are processed by the hypothalamus, thalamus, and limbic system via connections established mainly by the medial forebrain bundle and the medullary striae of the thalamus. The medial forebrain bundle distributes axons to the following structures: • • • •
Hypothalamic nuclei Reticular formation Salivatory nuclei Dorsal vagal nucleus
The axons that run in the medullary striae of the thalamus terminate in the habenular nuclei. This tract also continues to the brainstem, where it stimulates salivation in response to smell.
Regions of the Head
Olfactory fibers
7. Nose & Nasal Cavity
Olfactory bulb
Connective tissue
Cribriform plate
Basal cells Light cells
Submucosa
Dark cells
Basal cell
Olfactory cell
Supporting cell Olfactory cilia
A
Bowman gland
Fig. 7.29 Olfactory mucosa and vomeronasal (Jacobson’s) organ (VNO) The olfactory mucosa occupies an area of approximately 2 cm2 on the roof of each nasal cavity, and 107 primary sensory cells are concentrated in each of these areas (A). At the molecular level, the olfactory receptor proteins are located in the cilia of the sensory cells (B). Each sensory cell has only one specialized receptor protein that mediates signal transduction when an odorant molecule binds to it. Although humans are microsmatic, having a sense of smell that is feeble compared with other mammals, the olfactory receptor proteins still make up 2 % of the human genome. This underscores the importance of olfac tion in humans. The primary olfactory sensory cells have a life span of approximately 60 days and regenerate from the basal cells (lifelong division of neurons). The bundled central processes (axons) from hundreds of olfactory cells form olfactory fibers (A) that pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and terminate in the olfactory bulb, which lies above the cribriform plate. The VNO (C) is located on both sides of the anterior nasal septum. It is an accessory olfactory organ and is generally considered vestigial in adult humans. However, it responds to steroids and evokes subconscious reactions in subjects (possibly influences the choice of a mate). Mate selection in many animal species is known to be mediated by olfactory impulses that are perceived in the VNO.
Axons Submucous gland Submucosa
Olfactory cells Bowman gland
Microvilli Cilia with receptor proteins
B
C
Mucus–water film
To/from opposite side Olfactory tract
Anterior olfactory nucleus
Olfactory bulb
Granule cell
Mitral cell
Apical dendrite Olfactory glomerulus
Periglomerular cells
Fig. 7.30 Synaptic patterns in an olfactory bulb Specialized neurons in the olfactory bulb, called mitral cells, form apical dendrites that receive synaptic contact from the axons of thousands of primary sensory cells. The dendrite plus the synapses make up the olfactory glomeruli. Axons from sensory cells with the same receptor protein form glomeruli with only one or a small number of mitral cells. The basal axons of the mitral cells form the olfactory tract. The axons that run in the olfactory tract project primarily to the olfactory cortex but are also distributed to other nuclei in the central nervous system. The axon collaterals of the mitral cells pass to granule cells: both granule cells and periglomerular cells inhibit the activity of the mitral cells, causing less sensory information to reach higher centers. These inhibitory processes are believed to heighten olfactory contrast, which aids in the more accurate perception of smells. The tufted cells, which also project to the primary olfactory cortex, are not shown.
Olfactory fibers
153
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Temporal Bone
Parietal bone
Fig. 8.1 Temporal bone in the skull Left lateral view. The temporal bone is a major component of the base of the skull. It forms the capsule for the auditory and vestibular apparatus and bears the articular fossa of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ).
Temporal bone Occipital bone
Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone, greater wing Petrous pyramid
Mandibular fossa Squamous part
Styloid process
Squamous part
Tympanic part Tympanic part
B
A
Fig. 8.2 Parts of the left temporal bone A Left lateral view. B Inferior view. The temporal bone develops from four centers that fuse to form a single bone: • The squamous part, or temporal squama (light green), bears the articular fossa of the TMJ (mandibular fossa).
Chorda tympani
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Sigmoid sinus
Tympanic membrane Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Internal carotid artery Internal jugular vein
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Petromastoid part
Petromastoid part
Mastoid process
• The petromastoid part, or petrous bone (pale green), contains the auditory and vestibular apparatus. • The tympanic part (darker green) forms large portions of the external auditory canal. • The styloid part (styloid process) develops from cartilage derived from the second branchial arch. It is a site of muscle attachment.
Mastoid air cells
Fig. 8.3 Clinically important relations in the temporal bone Left lateral view with projected structures. The petrous part of the temporal bone contains the tympanic cavity of the middle ear (see Fig. 8.15). The middle ear communicates with the nasopharynx via the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube. During chronic suppurative otitis media, an inflammation of the middle ear, pathogenic bacteria from the nasopharynx may spread to the tympanic cavity and then to surrounding structures. Bacterial spread upward (through the roof of the tympanic cavity into the middle cranial fossa) may incite meningitis or a cerebral abscess of the temporal lobe. Invasion of the mastoid air cells may cause mastoiditis; invasion of the sigmoid sinus may cause sinus thrombosis. Passage into the facial nerve canal may cause facial paralysis. Bacteria may even pass through the mastoid air cells and into the overlying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spaces.
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Postglenoid tubercle
Zygomatic process
Temporal surface
External acoustic opening Articular tubercle
Mastoid foramen
Mandibular fossa (TMJ)
External acoustic meatus
Petrotympanic fissure
Tympanomastoid fissure Styloid process
A
Zygomatic process
Petrous pyramid
Mastoid process Articular tubercle Groove for middle meningeal artery
Mandibular fossa Arcuate eminence
Carotid canal
External acoustic opening
Styloid process
Groove for superior petrosal sinus
Mastoid process
Jugular fossa (forms jugular foramen with occipital bone)
Petrous ridge
Mastoid (digastric) notch
Stylomastoid foramen Occipital groove
Zygomatic process
Mastoid foramen
B
Internal acoustic meatus Mastoid foramen
Petrous apex Carotid canal Bony canal for pharyngotympanic tube
C
Groove for sigmoid sinus
Styloid process
Fig. 8.4 Left temporal bone A Lateral view. The mandibular fossa articulates with the head of the mandible via an articular disk (TMJ). The external acoustic meatus is the opening of the external auditory canal, which communicates with the tympanic cavity (middle ear) within the petrous part via the intervening tympanic membrane. The mastoid part contains a mastoid foramen that conducts an emissary vein from the scalp to the sigmoid sinus (see C). The chorda tympani and anterior tympanic DUWHU\SDVVWKURXJKWKHPHGLDOSDUWRIWKHSHWURW\PSDQLFÀVVXUHWR enter the tympanic cavity. B Inferior view. The facial nerve (CN VII) emerges from the base of the skull via the stylomastoid foramen. The jugular fossa of the tem-
poral bone combines with the jugular process of the occipital bone to form the jugular foramen (containing the jugular bulb proximal to the internal jugular vein). C Medial view. The internal acoustic meatus conveys the facial (CN VII) and vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerves, along with the labyrinthine artery and vein. Note: The arcuate eminence marks the position of the anterior semicircular canal. A bony canal within the petrous part of the temporal bone connects the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube to the nasopharynx (see Fig. 8.5). The petrous pyramid separates the posterior and middle cranial fossa.
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Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Ear: Overview & External Ear
External acoustic meatus
Arcuate eminence
Posterior semicircular canal
Lateral semicircular canal
Anterior semicircular canal Vestibule Vestibular root Cochlear root
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Petrous apex Cochlea Malleus, head Temporal bone, petrous part Stapes Tensor tympani Tympanic cavity
Incus
External auditory canal
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Tympanic membrane
Styloid process
Mastoid process
External ear
A
Inner ear
Fig. 8.5 Auditory and vestibular apparatus in situ A Coronal section through the right ear, anterior view. B Auditory apparatus: external ear (yellow), middle ear (blue), and inner ear (green). The auditory and vestibular apparatus are located deep in the petrous part of the temporal bone. The auditory apparatus consists of the external ear, middle ear, and inner ear. Sound waves are captured by the auricle and travel through the external auditory canal to the tympanic membrane (the lateral boundary of the middle ear). The sound waves set the tympanic membrane into motion, and these mechanical vibrations are transmitted by the chain of auditory ossicles in the middle ear to the oval window, which leads into the inner ear. The ossicular chain induces vibrations in the membrane covering the oval window, and these in turn cause a fluid column in the inner ear to vibrate, setting receptor cells in motion. The transformation of sound waves into electrical impulses takes place in the inner ear, which is the actual organ of hearing. The external ear and middle ear, on the other hand, constitute the sound conduction apparatus. The organ of balance is the vestibular apparatus, which is also located in the auditory apparatus. It contains the semicircular canals for the perception of angular acceleration (rotational head movements) and the saccule and utricle for the perception of linear acceleration. Diseases of the vestibular apparatus produce dizziness (vertigo).
156
Middle ear
B
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Crura of antihelix
Scaphoid fossa
Posterior auricular artery
Triangular fossa
Parietal branch Frontal branch
Cymba conchae External auditory canal
Helix
Superficial temporal artery
Tragus Intertragic incisure Antihelix
Antitragus Concha
Perforating branches
Anterior auricular arteries
Earlobe
Transverse facial artery
Fig. 8.6 Right auricle The auricle of the ear encloses a cartilaginous framework (auricular cartilage) that forms a funnel-shaped receptor for acoustic vibrations.
Maxillary artery Posterior auricular artery A
External carotid artery
Auricularis superior Helicis major Helicis minor
Auricularis posterior
External auditory canal
Antitragus
Tragus
Perforating branches Auricularis posterior
Anastomotic arcades
A
Posterior auricular artery Auricularis superior
Obliquus auriculae
Auricularis anterior
Transversus auriculae
External auditory canal
Insertions of auricularis posterior
B
Fig. 8.7 Cartilage and muscles of the auricle A Lateral view of the external surface. B Medial view of the posterior surface of the right ear. The skin (removed here) is closely applied to the elastic cartilage of the auricle (light blue). The muscles of the ear are classified as muscles of facial expression and, like the other members of this group, are supplied by the facial nerve (CN VII). Prominent in other mammals, the auricular muscles are vestigial in humans, with no significant function.
B
External carotid artery
Fig. 8.8 Arterial supply of the auricle Lateral view (A) and posterior view (B) of right auricle. The proximal and medial portions of the laterally directed anterior surface of the ear are supplied by the anterior auricular arteries, which arise from the superficial temporal artery. The other parts of the auricle are supplied by branches of the posterior auricular artery, which arises from the external carotid artery. These vessels are linked by extensive anastomoses, so operations on the external ear are unlikely to compromise the auricular blood supply. The copious blood flow through the auricle contributes to temperature regulation: dilation of the vessels helps dissipate heat through the skin. The lack of insulating fat predisposes the ear to frostbite, which is particularly common in the upper third of the auricle. The auricular arteries have corresponding veins that drain to the superficial temporal vein.
157
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
External Ear
Posterior zone
Anterior zone
External auditory canal
Superficial parotid lymph nodes
Mastoid lymph nodes (retroauricular)
Parotid fascia
Lower zone
Deep parotid lymph nodes Internal jugular vein
Fig. 8.9 Auricle and external auditory canal: lymphatic drainage Right ear, oblique lateral view. The lymphatic drainage of the ear is divided into three zones, all of which drain directly or indirectly into the deep cervical lymph nodes along the internal jugular vein. The lower zone drains directly into the deep cervical lymph nodes. The anterior zone first drains into the parotid lymph nodes, the posterior zone into the mastoid lymph nodes.
Parotid gland
Deep cervical lymph nodes
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Trigeminal nerve (CN V) via auriculotemporal nerve
Trigeminal nerve (CN V) via auriculotemporal nerve
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Facial nerve (CN VII)
A
Cervical plexus via lesser occipital and great auricular nerves
Fig. 8.10 Sensory innervation of the auricle Right ear, lateral view (A) and posterior view (B). The auricular region has a complex nerve supply because, developmentally, it is located at the boundary between the cranial nerves (pharyngeal arch nerves) and branches of the cervical plexus. Three cranial nerves contribute to the innervation of the auricle: • Trigeminal nerve (CN V) • Facial nerve (CN VII; the skin area that receives sensory innervation from the facial nerve is not precisely known) • Vagus nerve (CN X)
158
B
Cervical plexus via lesser occipital and great auricular nerves
Two branches of the cervical plexus are involved: • Lesser occipital nerve (C 2) • Great auricular nerve (C 2, C 3) Note: Because the vagus nerve contributes to the innervation of the external auditory canal (auricular branch, see below), mechanical cleaning of the ear canal (by inserting an aural speculum or by irrigating the ear) may evoke coughing and nausea. The auricular branch of the vagus nerve passes through the mastoid canaliculus and through a space between the mastoid process and the tympanic part of the temporal bone (tympanomastoid fissure, see p. 155) to the external ear and external auditory canal.
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Temporal bone, tympanic part
Malleus Sebaceous and cerumen glands
Incus Lateral ligament of malleus
Bony part of external auditory canal
Stapes Handle (manubrium)
Cartilaginous part of external auditory canal
Tympanic membrane
Fig. 8.11 External auditory canal, tympanic membrane, and tympanic cavity Right ear, coronal section, anterior view. The tympanic membrane (eardrum) separates the external auditory canal from the tympanic cavity of the middle ear. The external auditory canal is an S-shaped tunnel that is approximately 3 cm long with an average diameter of 0.6 cm. The outer third of the ear canal is cartilaginous. The inner two thirds of the canal are osseous, the wall being formed by the tympanic part
of the temporal bone. The cartilaginous part in particular bears numerous sebaceous and cerumen glands beneath the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The cerumen glands produce a watery secretion that combines with the sebum and sloughed epithelial cells to form a protective barrier (cerumen, “earwax”) that screens out foreign bodies and keeps the epithelium from drying out. If the cerumen absorbs water (e.g., after swimming), it may obstruct the ear canal (cerumen impaction), temporarily causing a partial loss of hearing.
Tympanic membrane
Malleolar prominence
Tympanic incisure
Posterior malleolar fold
Pars flaccida Anterior malleolar fold
Incus Stapes A
B
IV
I
Umbo
Head of mandible
Tympanic bone
C
Fig. 8.12 Curvature of the external auditory canal Right ear, anterior view (A) and transverse section (B). The external auditory canal is most curved in its cartilaginous portion. When the tympanic membrane is inspected with an otoscope, the auricle should be pulled backward and upward in order to straighten the cartilaginous part of the ear canal so that the speculum of the otoscope can be introduced (C). Note the proximity of the cartilaginous anterior wall of the external auditory canal to the TMJ. This allows the examiner to palpate movements of the mandibular head by inserting the small finger into the outer part of the ear canal.
Pars tensa Malleolar stria
III
II
Cone of light
Fig. 8.13 Tympanic membrane Right tympanic membrane, lateral view. The healthy tympanic membrane has a pearly gray color and an oval shape with an average surface area of approximately 75 mm2. It consists of a lax portion, the pars flaccida (Shrapnell membrane), and a larger taut portion, the pars tensa, which is drawn inward at its center to form the umbo (“navel”). The umbo marks the lower tip of the handle (manubrium) of the malleus, which is attached to the tympanic membrane all along its length. It is visible through the pars tensa as a light-colored streak (malleolar stria). The tympanic membrane is divided into four quadrants in a clockwise direction: anterosuperior (I), anteroinferior (II), posteroinferior (III), posterosuperior (IV). The boundary lines of the quadrants are the malleolar stria and a line intersecting it perpendicularly at the umbo. The quadrants of the tympanic membrane are clinically important because they are used in describing the location of lesions. A triangular area of reflected light can be seen in the anteroinferior quadrant of a normal tympanic membrane. The location of this “cone of light” is helpful in evaluating the tension of the tympanic membrane.
159
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Middle Ear (I): Tympanic Cavity & Pharyngotympanic Tube
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Tympanic cavity Internal carotid artery
Malleus
Cochlea
Incus Anterior semicircular canal
Facial nerve Cochlear nerve
External auditory canal
Vestibular nerve
Lateral semicircular canal
Vestibule Cochlear aqueduct
Mastoid air cells
Endolymphatic sac
Auricle
Posterior semicircular canal
Sigmoid sinus
Aditus (inlet) to mastoid antrum Malleus Incus Chorda tympani (CN VII) Tensor tympani Auriculotemporal nerve (CN V3)
Lesser petrosal nerve (from tympanic plexus) Facial nerve (CN VII) Prominence of lateral semicircular canal Prominence of facial canal Stapes
Tendon of insertion of stapedius
Auricular branch of posterior auricular nerve (CN VII)
Tympanic membrane
Auricular branch via mastoid canaliculus (CN X)
External auditory canal
Fig. 8.15 Walls of the tympanic cavity Anterior view with the anterior wall removed. The tympanic cavity is a slightly oblique space that is bounded by six walls: • Lateral (membranous) wall: boundary with the external ear; formed largely by the tympanic membrane. • Medial (labyrinthine) wall: boundary with the inner ear; formed largely by the promontory, or the bony eminence, overlying the basal turn of the cochlea. • Inferior (jugular) wall: forms the floor of the tympanic cavity and borders on the bulb of the jugular vein.
160
Fig. 8.14 Middle ear and associated structures Right petrous bone, superior view. The middle ear (light blue) is located within the petrous part of the temporal bone between the external ear (yellow) and inner ear (green). The tympanic cavity of the middle ear contains the chain of auditory ossicles, of which the malleus (hammer) and incus (anvil) are visible here. The tympanic cavity communicates anteriorly with the nasopharynx via the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube and posteriorly with the mastoid air cells. Infections can spread from the nasopharynx to the mastoid air cells by this route.
Promontory Tympanic plexus
Tympanic nerve (from CN IX) via tympanic canaliculus
• Posterior (mastoid) wall: borders on the air cells of the mastoid process, communicating with the cells through the aditus (inlet) of the mastoid antrum. • Superior (tegmental) wall: forms the roof of the tympanic cavity. • Anterior (carotid) wall (removed here): includes the opening to the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube and borders on the carotid canal. The lateral side of the tympanic membrane is innervated by three cranial nerves: CN V (auriculotemporal nerve [branch of CN V3]), CN VII (posterior auricular nerve; pathway uncertain), and CN X (auricular branch). The medial side of the tympanic membrane is innervated by CN IX (tympanic branch).
Regions of the Head
Anterior semicircular canal
Roof of tympanic cavity (tegmen tympani)
Geniculate ganglion
Posterior semicircular canal
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Facial nerve (CN VII) Opening for tendon of tensor tympani
Lateral semicircular canal
Greater petrosal nerve Lesser petrosal nerve
Oval window (fenestra vestibuli)
Semicanal of tensor tympani
Facial nerve canal
Internal carotid artery
Sigmoid sinus
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Promontory
Internal carotid artery with internal carotid plexus
Posterior wall of tympanic cavity
Anterior wall of tympanic cavity
Mastoid air cells Chorda tympani
Floor of tympanic cavity Facial nerve (CN VII)
Round window (fenestra cochleae)
Tympanic plexus
Fig. 8.16 Nerves in the petrous bone Oblique sagittal section showing the medial wall of the tympanic cavity (see Fig. 8.15). The tympanic nerve branches from CN IX as it passes through the jugular foramen, and conveys sensory and preganglionic paraV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVLQWRWKHW\PSDQLFFDYLW\E\SDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHW\PSDQLF FDQDOLFXOXV 7KH ÀEHUV IURP WKH W\PSDQLF SOH[XV SURYLGH VHQVRU\ innervation to the tympanic cavity (including the medial surface of the tympanic membrane), mastoid air cells, and part of the pharyngotympanic tube. Note: The lateral surface of the tympanic membrane receives sensory innervation from branches of CN V3, CN VII, and CN X (see Fig. 8.15). 7KH SUHJDQJOLRQLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLF ÀEHUV RI WKH W\PSDQLF QHUYH DUH UHIRUPHGIURPWKHW\PSDQLFSOH[XVDVWKHOHVVHUSHWURVDOQHUYH7KHVH À EHUV V\QDSVH LQ WKH RWLF JDQJOLRQ WKH SRVWJDQJOLRQLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVWUDYHOZLWKWKHDXULFXORWHPSRUDOQHUYHDEUDQFKRI&193) to supply the parotid gland.
Internal jugular vein
Tympanic nerve (CN IX) entering tympanic canaliculus
,Q WKH IDFLDO FDQDO WKH IDFLDO QHUYH &1 9,, JLYHV R̥ D QXPEHU RI branches: the greater petrosal nerve, the nerve to the stapedius, the chorda tympani, and an auricular branch. The greater petrosal nerve DQGWKHFKRUGDW\PSDQLERWKFDUU\WDVWHÀEHUVDQGSUHJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLF ÀEHUV 7KH JUHDWHU SHWURVDO QHUYH MRLQV ZLWK WKH GHHS petrosal nerve (postganglionic sympathetic) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal (vidian nerve). The preganglionic parasympathetic À EHUV LQ WKH QHUYH RI WKH SWHU\JRLG FDQDO V\QDSVH DW WKH SWHU\JRSDODWLQH JDQJOLRQ 7KH SRVWJDQJOLRQLF SDUDV\PSDWKHWLF ÀEHUV DUH WKHQ GLVWULEXWHG E\ EUDQFKHV RI WKH PD[LOODU\ QHUYH WR WKH ODFULPDO JODQG palatine glands, superior labial glands, and mucosa of the paranasal VLQXVHVDQGQDVDOFDYLW\7KHSUHJDQJOLRQLFSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVRI the chorda tympani synapse at the submandibular ganglion, and the SRVWJDQJOLRQLFÀEHUVDUHGLVWULEXWHGWRWKHVXEPDQGLEXODUDQGVXEOLQgual glands.
Internal carotid artery Pharyngotympanic tube, bony part
Sphenoid sinus
Tympanic membrane
Superior meatus
Pharyngeal tonsil
Middle meatus
Levator veli palatini Pharyngotympanic tube, cartilaginous part
Inferior meatus
Pharyngeal orifice of pharyngotympanic tube Pharyngotympanic tube, membranous lamina Tensor veli palatini
Fig. 8.17 Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Medial view of right nasal cavity. The pharyngotympanic tube creates DQRSHQFKDQQHOEHWZHHQWKHPLGGOHHDUDQGQDVRSKDU\Q[$LUSDVVLQJ through the tube serves to equalize the air pressure on the two sides of the tympanic membrane. This equalization is essential for maintaining normal tympanic membrane mobility, necessary for normal hearing. One third of the tube is bony (in the petrous bone). The cartilaginous WZR WKLUGV FRQWLQXH WRZDUG WKH QDVRSKDU\Q[ H[SDQGLQJ WR IRUP D
Salpingopharyngeus
KRRNKDPXOXV WKDWLVDWWDFKHGWRDPHPEUDQRXVODPLQD7KHÀEHUVRI WKHWHQVRUYHOLSDODWLQLDULVHIURPWKLVODPLQDZKHQWKH\WHQVHWKHVRIW SDODWH GXULQJ VZDOORZLQJ WKHVH ÀEHUV RSHQ WKH SKDU\QJRW\PSDQLF tube. The tube is also opened by the salpingopharyngeus and levator veli palatini. The tube is lined with ciliated respiratory epithelium: the FLOLD EHDW WRZDUG WKH SKDU\Q[ LQKLELWLQJ WKH SDVVDJH RI PLFURRUJDQisms into the middle ear.
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Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Middle Ear (II): Auditory Ossicles & Tympanic Cavity
Head of malleus
Articular surface for incus
Neck
Neck Lateral process
Lateral process
Malleus Incus Stapes
Handle A
Anterior process
B
Body of incus
Tympanic membrane
Tympanic cavity
Body Articular surface for malleus
Short process
C
A Short process Long process
D
Pyramidal eminence
Oval window with annular stapedial ligament
Stapedius tendon
Lenticular process
Head of stapes
B
C
Neck
Posterior crus
Malleus
Anterior crus
E
Incudomalleolar joint F
Base
Incus
Axis of movement
Oval window
Head of malleus Neck of malleus
Short process
Anterior process
Body of incus Incudostapedial joint
Handle
Posterior crus
G
Anterior crus Base of stapes
Fig. 8.18 Auditory ossicles Auditory ossicles of the left ear. The ossicular chain (G) of the middle ear establishes an articular connection between the tympanic membrane and the oval window. It consists of three small bones: • Malleus (“hammer”): A Posterior view. B Anterior view. • Incus (“anvil”): C Medial view. D Anterolateral view. • Stapes (“stirrup”): E Superior view. F Medial view. Note the synovial joint articulations between the malleus and incus (incudomalleolar joint) and the incus and stapes (incudostapedial joint).
162
Oval window with annular stapedial ligament
D
Stapes
Fig. 8.19 Function of the ossicular chain Anterior view. A Sound waves (periodic pressure fluctuations in the air) set the tympanic membrane into vibration. The ossicular chain transmits the vibrations of the tympanic membrane (and thus the sound waves) to the oval window, which in turn communicates them to an aqueous medium (perilymph). Although sound waves encounter very little resistance in air, they encounter considerably higher impedance when they reach the fluid interface of the inner ear. The sound waves must therefore be amplified (“impedance matching”). The difference in surface area between the tympanic membrane and oval window increases the sound pressure by a factor of 17. This is augmented by the 1.3-fold mechanical advantage of the lever action of the ossicular chain. Thus, in passing from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear, the sound pressure is amplified by a factor of 22. If the ossicular chain fails to transform the sound pressure between the tympanic membrane and stapes base (footplate), the patient will experience conductive hearing loss of magnitude approximately 20 dB. B, C Sound waves impinging on the tympanic membrane induce motion in the ossicular chain, causing a tilting movement of the stapes (B normal position, C tilted position). The movements of the stapes base against the membrane of the oval window (stapedial membrane) induce corresponding waves in the fluid column in the inner ear. D The movements of the ossicular chain are essentially rocking movements (the dashed line indicates the axis of the movements, the arrows indicate their direction). Two muscles affect the mobility of the ossicular chain: the tensor tympani and the stapedius (see Fig. 8.20).
Regions of the Head
Posterior ligament of incus
Incus
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Superior ligament of incus and superior ligament of malleus Incudomalleolar joint
Annular stapedial ligament
Malleus Tendon of tensor tympani
Stapedial footplate
Tensor tympani
Incudostapedial joint
Internal carotid artery
Pyramidal eminence
Petrotympanic fissure
Stapedius with nerve to the stapedius (CN VII)
Anterior ligament of malleus
Stylomastoid artery
Chorda tympani (CN VII)
Facial nerve
Posterior tympanic artery
Chorda tympani (CN VII)
Tympanic membrane, lateral surface
Fig. 8.20 Ossicular chain in the tympanic cavity Lateral view of the right ear. The joints and their stabilizing ligaments can be seen with the two muscles of the middle ear—the stapedius and tensor tympani. The stapedius (innervated by the stapedial branch of the facial nerve) inserts on the stapes. When it contracts, it stiffens the sound conduction apparatus and dampens sound transmission to the inner ear. This filtering function is believed to be particularly important at high sound frequencies (“high-pass filter”). When sound is transmitted into the middle ear through a probe placed in the external ear canal,
Anterior process of malleus
one can measure the action of the stapedius (stapedius reflex test) by measuring the change in acoustic impedance (i.e., the amplification of the sound waves). Contraction of the tensor tympani (innervated by the trigeminal nerve via the medial pterygoid nerve) stiffens the tympanic membrane, thereby reducing the transmission of sound. Both muscles undergo a reflex contraction in response to loud acoustic stimuli. Note: The chorda tympani passes through the middle ear without a bony covering (making it susceptible to injury during otological surgery).
Incus
Superior malleolar fold Chorda tympani Stapedius tendon Malleolar stria Umbo
Anterior tympanic artery
Epitympanum
Malleus Lateral ligament of malleus Superior recess of tympanic membrane Malleolar prominence Tympanic membrane
Fig. 8.21 Mucosal lining of the tympanic cavity Posterolateral view with the tympanic membrane partially removed. The tympanic cavity and the structures it contains (ossicular chain, tendons, nerves) are covered with mucosa. The epithelium consists mainly of a simple squamous type, with areas of ciliated columnar cells and goblet cells. Because the tympanic cavity communicates directly with the respiratory tract (nasopharynx) through the pharyngotympanic tube, it can also be interpreted as a specialized paranasal sinus. Like the sinuses, it is susceptible to frequent infections (otitis media).
Incus
Stapes
Tendon of tensor tympani
Malleus External auditory canal Tympanic membrane
Mesotympanum Hypotympanum Pharyngotympanic tube
Fig. 8.22 Clinically important levels of the tympanic cavity The tympanic cavity is divided into three levels in relation to the tympanic membrane: • Epitympanum (epitympanic recess, attic) above the tympanic membrane • Mesotympanum medial to the tympanic membrane • Hypotympanum (hypotympanic recess) below the tympanic membrane The epitympanum communicates with the mastoid air cells, and the hypotympanum communicates with the pharyngotympanic tube.
163
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Inner Ear
Posterior semicircular duct
Lateral semicircular duct
Anterior semicircular duct
Anterior semicircular canal
Internal acoustic meatus
Temporal bone, petrous part
Dura mater Endolymphatic sac
Cochlea
Ampullary crests
45°
Endolymphatic duct
Lateral semicircular canal
90°
Utricle Macula of utricle Oval window
45°
Macula of saccule
Stapes
Saccule
Round window
A
Anterior semicircular canal
Posterior semicircular canal
Facial nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve
Cochlea Posterior semicircular canal
Ductus reuniens
Anterior semicircular canal
Cochlear aqueduct Scala tympani
Helicotrema
Scala vestibuli
Temporal bone, squamous part
Cochlear duct
Vestibule
Fig. 8.23 Inner ear The inner ear, embedded within the petrous part of the temporal bone, is formed by a membranous labyrinth, which floats within a similarly shaped bony labyrinth, loosely attached by connective tissue fibers. Membranous labyrinth (blue): The membranous labyrinth is filled with endolymph. This endolymphatic space (blue) communicates with the endolymphatic sac, an epidural pouch on the posterior surface of the petrous bone via the endolymphatic duct. Note: The auditory and vestibular endolymphatic spaces are connected by the ductus reuniens. Bony labyrinth (beige): The bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph. This perilymphatic space (beige) is connected to the subarachnoid space by the cochlear aqueduct (perilymphatic duct), which ends at the posterior surface of the petrous part of the temporal bone, inferior to the internal acoustic meatus. The inner ear contains the auditory apparatus (hearing) and the vestibular apparatus (balance). Auditory apparatus (see pp. 170–171): The sensory epithelium of the auditory apparatus (organ of Corti) is found in the cochlea. The cochlea consists of the membranous cochlear duct and bony cochlear labyrinth. Vestibular apparatus (see pp. 174–175): The sensory epithelium of the vestibular apparatus is found in the saccule, the utricle, and the three membranous semicircular ducts. The saccule and utricle are enclosed in the bony vestibule, and the ducts are enclosed in bony semicircular canals.
164
Cochlea Canthomeatal plane
30°
Lateral semicircular canal B Mastoid process
External acoustic meatus
Fig. 8.24 Projection of the inner ear onto the bony skull A Superior view of the petrous part of the temporal bone. B Right lateral view of the squamous part of the temporal bone. The apex of the cochlea is directed anteriorly and laterally—not upward as one might intuitively expect. The bony semicircular canals are oriented at an approximately 45-degree angle to the cardinal body planes (coronal, transverse, and sagittal). It is important to know this arrangement when interpreting thin-slice CT scans of the petrous bone. Note: The location of the semicircular canals is of clinical importance in thermal function tests of the vestibular apparatus. The lateral (horizontal) semicircular canal is directed 30 degrees forward and upward. If the head of the supine patient is elevated by 30 degrees, the horizontal semicircular canal will assume a vertical alignment. Because warm fluids tend to rise, irrigating the auditory canal with warm (44° C) or cool (30° C) water (relative to the normal body temperature) can induce a thermal current in the endolymph of the semicircular canal, causing the patient to manifest vestibular nystagmus (jerky eye movements, vestibulo-ocular reflex). Because head movements always stimulate both vestibular apparatuses, caloric testing is the only method of separately testing the function of each vestibular apparatus (important in the diagnosis of unexplained vertigo).
Regions of the Head
Anterior semicircular duct
Anterior ampullary nerve
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), vestibular part Facial nerve (CN VII)
Vestibular aqueduct
Vestibular ganglion, inferior part
Dura mater
Cochlear communicating branch
Endolymphatic sac
Nervus intermedius (CN VII)
Lateral ampullary nerve
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), cochlear part
Common crus
Saccular nerve
Utricular nerve
Posterior ampullary nerve
Lateral semicircular duct
Modiolus Spiral ganglion of cochlea
Posterior semicircular duct Posterior ampulla
Oval window
Round window
Fig. 8.25 Innervation of the membranous labyrinth 5LJKW HDU DQWHULRU YLHZ $̥HUHQW LPSXOVHV IURP WKH YHVWLEXODU DQG DXGLWRU\PHPEUDQRXVODE\ULQWKVDUHUHOD\HGYLDGHQWULWLFSURFHVVHVWR FHOOERGLHVLQWKHvestibularDQGspiral gangliaUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHFHQWUDO SURFHVVHVRIWKHYHVWLEXODUDQGVSLUDOJDQJOLDIRUPWKHYHVWLEXODUDQG F RFKOHDU SDUWV RI WKH YHVWLEXORFRFKOHDU QHUYH &1 9,,, UHVSHFWLYHO\ &19,,,UHOD\VD̥HUHQWLPSXOVHVWRWKHEUDLQVWHPWKURXJKWKHLQWHUQDO DFRXVWLF PHDWXV DQG FHUHEHOORSRQWLQH DQJOH Vestibular ganglion: 7KH
Greater petrosal nerve
Geniculate ganglion
Transverse crest Facial nerve
FHOOERGLHVRID̥HUHQWQHXURQVELSRODUJDQJOLRQFHOOV LQWKHVXSHULRU SDUWRIWKHYHVWLEXODUJDQJOLRQUHFHLYHD̥HUHQWLPSXOVHVIURPWKHDQ WHULRUDQGODWHUDOVHPLFLUFXODUFDQDOVDQGWKHVDFFXOHFHOOERGLHVLQWKH LQIHULRUSDUWUHFHLYHD̥HUHQWLPSXOVHVIURPWKHSRVWHULRUVHPLFLUFXODU FDQDODQGXWULFOHSpiral ganglia:/RFDWHGLQWKHFHQWUDOERQ\FRUHRIWKH FRFKOHDPRGLROXV WKHFHOOERGLHVRIELSRODUJDQJOLRQFHOOVLQWKHVSLUDO JDQJOLDUHFHLYHD̥HUHQWLPSXOVHVIURPWKHDXGLWRU\DSSDUDWXVYLDWKHLU GHQWULWLFSURFHVVHV
Fig. 8.26 Cranial nerves in the right internal acoustic meatus 3RVWHULRUREOLTXHYLHZRIWKHIXQGXVRIWKHLQWHUQDODFRXVWLFPHDWXV7KH DSSUR[LPDWHO\FPORQJLQWHUQDODXGLWRU\FDQDOEHJLQVDWWKHLQWHUQDO DFRXVWLFPHDWXVRQWKHSRVWHULRUZDOORIWKHSHWURXVERQH,WFRQWDLQV 9HVWLEXORFRFKOHDU QHUYH &1 9,,, ZLWK LWV FRFKOHDU DQG YHVWLEXODU SDUWV )DFLDOQHUYH&19,, DORQJZLWKLWVSDUDV\PSDWKHWLFDQGWDVWHÀEHUV QHUYXVLQWHUPHGLXV /DE\ULQWKLQHDUWHU\DQGYHLQQRWVKRZQ
Nervus intermedius
*LYHQ WKH FORVH SUR[LPLW\ RI WKH YHVWLEXORFRFKOHDU QHUYH DQG IDFLDO QHUYHLQWKHERQ\FDQDODWXPRURIWKHYHVWLEXORFRFKOHDUQHUYHacoustic neuroma PD\H[HUWSUHVVXUHRQWKHIDFLDOQHUYHOHDGLQJWRSHULSK HUDOIDFLDOSDUDO\VLV$FRXVWLFQHXURPDLVDEHQLJQWXPRUWKDWRULJLQDWHV IURPWKH6FKZDQQFHOOVRIYHVWLEXODUÀEHUVVRLWZRXOGEHPRUHDFFX UDWH WR FDOO LW D vestibular schwannoma 7XPRU JURZWK DOZD\V EHJLQV LQWKHLQWHUQDODXGLWRU\FDQDODVWKHWXPRUHQODUJHVLWPD\JURZLQWR WKHFHUHEHOORSRQWLQHDQJOH $FXWHXQLODWHUDOLQQHUHDUG\VIXQFWLRQZLWK KHDULQJ ORVV VXGGHQ VHQVRULQHXUDO KHDULQJ ORVV RIWHQ DFFRPSDQLHG E\WLQQLWXVW\SLFDOO\UHÁHFWVDQXQGHUO\LQJYDVFXODUGLVWXUEDQFHYDVR VSDVPRIWKHODE\ULQWKLQHDUWHU\FDXVLQJGHFUHDVHGEORRGÁRZ
Internal carotid artery
Cochlear nerve Vestibular nerve
Vestibular ganglion, superior part
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Posterior SacculoUtriculoampullary nerve ampullary nerve ampullary nerve
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Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Arteries & Veins of the Ear The structures of the external and middle ear are supplied primarily by branches of the external carotid artery. (Note: The caroticotympanic arteries arise from the internal carotid artery.) The inner ear is supplied by the labyrinthine artery, which arises from the basilar artery. Venous drainage of the auricle is to the superficial temporal vein (via auricular veins), whereas drainage of the external ear is to the external jugular and maxillary veins and the pterygoid plexus. The veins of the tympanic cavity drain to the pterygoid plexus and superior petrosal sinus; the inner ear drains to the labyrinthine vein, which empties into the superior petrosal or transverse sinuses.
Table 8.1 Arteries of the ear Artery
Origin
Distribution
Caroticotympanic aa.
Internal carotid a.
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube and anterior wall of tympanic cavity
Stylomastoid a.
Posterior auricular a. or occipital a.
Tympanic cavity, mastoid air cells and antrum, stapedius muscle, stapes
Inferior tympanic a.
Ascending pharyngeal a.
Medial wall of tympanic cavity, promontory
Deep auricular a.
Maxillary a.
External surface of tympanic membrane
Posterior tympanic a.
Stylomastoid a.
Chorda tympani, tympanic membrane, malleus
Superior tympanic a.
Middle meningeal a.
Tensor tympani, roof of tympanic cavity, stapes
Anterior tympanic a.
Maxillary a.
Tympanic membrane, mastoid antrum, malleus, incus
Tubal a.
Ascending pharyngeal a.
Pharyngotympanic tube and anterior tympanic cavity
Tympanic branches
A. of pterygoid canal
Tympanic cavity and pharyngotympanic tube
(Superficial) petrosal a.
Middle meningeal a.
Facial n. in facial canal and tympanic cavity
Note: The arteries supplying the tympanic cavity and its contents form a rich arterial anastomotic network within the middle ear. The venous drainage of the middle ear is primarily into the pterygoid plexus of veins located in the infratemporal fossa or into dural venous sinuses. Subarcuate artery
Ascending branch of superficial petrosal artery Labyrinthine artery
Descending branch of superficial petrosal artery
Facial nerve (CN VII) Superficial petrosal artery with greater petrosal nerve Superior tympanic artery with lesser petrosal nerve
Anterior crural artery
Internal carotid artery
Posterior crural artery Stylomastoid artery, posterior tympanic branch Branches to stapedius (stapedial branch)
Incudostapedial joint (incus removed)
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Tensor tympani with superior tympanic artery
Facial nerve (CN VII) Stylomastoid artery
Tendon of tensor tympani (cut) Caroticotympanic arteries Mastoid artery
Posterior tympanic artery (from stylomastoid artery)
Deep auricular artery
Fig. 8.27 Arteries of the tympanic cavity and mastoid air cells Right petrous bone, anterior view. The malleus, incus, chorda tympani, and anterior tympanic artery have been removed (see Fig. 8.28).
166
Inferior tympanic artery
Tubal artery
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Tegmen tympani Incus
Mastoid antrum
Superior tympanic artery (from middle meningeal artery) Facial nerve (CN VII)
Tensor tympani
Stapedial branch
Anterior tympanic artery
Incudostapedial joint (stapes removed)
Handle of malleus
Chorda tympani (CN VII) Posterior tympanic artery
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Stylomastoid artery
Deep auricular artery
Tympanic membrane
Fig. 8.28 Arteries of the ossicular chain and tympanic membrane Medial view of the right tympanic membrane. This region receives most of its blood supply from the anterior tympanic artery. With inflam-
Vestibular artery
Inferior tympanic artery
mation of the tympanic membrane, the arteries may become so dilated that their course in the tympanic membrane can be seen, as illustrated here.
Vestibular ganglion, superior part
Vestibular nerve (CN VIII) Facial nerve (CN VII)
Vein of vestibular aqueduct
Labyrinthine artery and veins
Nervus intermedius (CN VII) Cochlear nerve (CN VIII) Common cochlear artery Cochlear veins Vestibulocochlear artery Cochlear artery proper
Vein of round window Vein of cochlear aqueduct
Fig. 8.29 Arteries and veins of the inner ear Right anterior view. The labyrinth receives its arterial blood supply from the labyrinthine (internal auditory) artery, which generally arises
directly from the basilar artery, but may arise from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery. Venous blood drains to the labyrinthine vein and into the inferior petrosal sinus or the transverse sinuses.
167
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN VIII)
Superior vestibular nucleus
Medial vestibular nucleus
Lateral vestibular nucleus
A
Fig. 8.30 Nuclei of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Cross sections through the upper medulla oblongata. A Vestibular nuclei. Four nuclear complexes are distinguished: • • • •
Superior vestibular nucleus (of Bechterew) Lateral vestibular nucleus (of Deiters) Medial vestibular nucleus (of Schwalbe) Inferior vestibular nucleus (of Roller): does not appear in a cross section at this level
Most of the axons from the vestibular ganglion terminate in these four nuclei, but a smaller number pass directly through the inferior cerebellar peduncle into the cerebellum. The vestibular nuclei appear as eminences on the floor of the rhomboid fossa. B Cochlear nuclei. Two nuclear complexes are distinguished:
Posterior cochlear nucleus Anterior cochlear nucleus
• Anterior cochlear nucleus • Posterior cochlear nucleus Both nuclei are located lateral to the vestibular nuclei. Note: The nuclei of CN VIII extend from the pons into the medulla oblongata.
B
Table 8.2 Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII): overview Fibers: Special somatic afferent fibers (yellow) Structure and function: CN VIII consists anatomically and functionally of two components: • Vestibular root: Transmits impulses from the vestibular apparatus. • Cochlear root: Transmits impulses from the auditory apparatus. These roots are surrounded by a common connective tissue sheath. They pass from the inner ear through the internal acoustic meatus to the cerebellopontine angle, where they enter the brain. Nuclei and distribution: • Vestibular root: The vestibular ganglion contains bipolar ganglion cells whose central processes pass to the four vestibular nuclei on the floor of the rhomboid fossa of the medulla oblongata. Their peripheral processes begin at the sensory cells of the semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle. • Cochlear root: The spiral ganglion contains bipolar ganglion cells whose central processes pass to the two cochlear nuclei, which are lateral to the vestibular nuclei in the rhomboid fossa. Their peripheral processes begin at the hair cells of the organ of Corti. Lesions: Every thorough physical examination should include a rapid assessment of both nerve components (hearing and balance tests). • Vestibular root lesion: Dizziness. • Cochlear root lesion: Hearing loss (ranging to deafness).
168
Cerebellopontine angle Acoustic neuroma (vestibular schwannoma)
Fig. 8.31 Acoustic neuroma in the cerebellopontine angle Acoustic neuromas (more accurately, vestibular schwannomas) are benign tumors of the cerebellopontine angle arising from the Schwann cells of the vestibular root of CN VIII. As they grow, they compress and displace the adjacent structures and cause slowly progressive hearing loss and gait ataxia. Large tumors can impair the egress of CSF from the fourth ventricle, causing hydrocephalus and symptomatic intracranial hypertension (vomiting, impairment of consciousness).
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Vestibular ganglion, superior part Vestibular root of CN VIII
Anterior ampullary nerve Lateral ampullary nerve
Cochlear root of CN VIII
Utricular nerve
Vestibular ganglion, inferior part Saccular nerve
Spiral ganglia Posterior ampullary nerve
Fig. 8.32 Vestibular ganglion and cochlear ganglion (spiral ganglia) The vestibular root and cochlear root still exist as separate structures in the petrous part of the temporal bone.
Flocculus of cerebellum Direct fibers to cerebellum
Anterior cochlear nucleus Posterior cochlear nucleus
Superior vestibular nucleus
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) Vestibular root
Medial vestibular nucleus
Vestibular ganglion
Lateral vestibular nucleus
Semicircular canals
Inferior vestibular nucleus A
Utricle and saccule
Fig. 8.33 Nuclei of the vestibulocochlear nerve in the brainstem Anterior view of the medulla oblongata and pons. A Vestibular part: The vestibular ganglion contains bipolar sensory cells whose peripheral (dendritic) processes pass to the semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle. Their axons travel as the vestibular root to the four vestibular nuclei on the floor of the rhomboid fossa. The vestibular organ processes information concerning orientation in space. An acute lesion of the vestibular organ is manifested clinically by dizziness (vertigo).
Cochlear root B
Cochlea with spiral ganglia
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
B Cochlear part: The spiral ganglia form a band of nerve cells that follows the course of the bony core of the cochlea. It contains bipolar sensory cells whose peripheral (dendritic) processes pass to the hair cells of the organ of Corti. Their central processes unite on the floor of the internal auditory canal to form the cochlear root and are distributed to the two nuclei that are posterior to the vestibular nuclei.
169
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Auditory Apparatus
Modiolus
Greater petrosal nerve
Lesser petrosal nerve
Scala vestibuli
Helicotrema
Cochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Tympanic cavity
A
Spiral ligament
Bony spiral lamina B
Petrous bone
Tectorial membrane
Spiral ganglion
Chorda tympani (CN VII)
Internal acoustic meatus
Stria vascularis
Cochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Facial nerve (CN VII) Vestibular nerve (CN VIII)
Cochlear duct
Limbus of spiral lamina
Geniculate ganglion
Cochlea
Vestibular (Reissner) membrane
Organ of Corti
Scala tympani
Basilar membrane
Semicircular canals Vestibular (Reissner) membrane
Scala vestibuli
Spiral ligament
Nuel space Inner hair cell
Spiral limbus
Cochlear duct
Bony spiral lamina
Stria vascularis Tectorial membrane Outer hair cells
Spiral ganglion
Basilar membrane
Fig. 8.34 Location and structure of the cochlea A Cross section through the cochlea in the petrous bone. B The three compartments of the cochlear canal. C Cochlear turn with sensory apparatus. The bony canal of the cochlea (spiral canal) is approximately 30 to 35 mm long in the adult. It makes two and a half turns around its bony axis, the modiolus, which is permeated by branched cavities and contains the spiral ganJOLRQSHULNDU\DRIWKHD̥HUHQWQHXURQV 7KH base of the cochlea is directed toward the internal acoustic meatus (A). A cross section through the cochlear canal displays three membranous compartments arranged in three levels (B). The upper and lower compartments, the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, each contain perilymph; the middle level, the cochlear duct (scala media), contains endolymph. The perilymphatic spaces are interconnected at the apex by the helicotrema, and the endolymphatic space ends blindly at the apex. The cochlear duct, which is triangular in cross section, is separated from the scala vestibuli by the vestibular (Reissner) membrane and from the scala tympani by the basilar membrane. The basilar membrane represents a bony projection of the modiolus (spiral lamina) and
Internal spiral sulcus
Corti tunnel
Bony wall
Scala tympani
C
widens steadily from the base of the cochlea to the apex. High frequencies (up to 20,000 Hz) are perceived by the narrow portions of the basilar membrane, whereas low frequencies (down to about 200 Hz) are perceived by its broader portions (tonotopic organization). The basilar membrane and bony spiral lamina WKXVIRUPWKHÁRRURIWKHFRFKOHDUGXFWXSRQ which the actual organ of hearing, the organ of Corti, is located. This organ consists of a system of sensory cells and supporting cells FRYHUHG E\ DQ DFHOOXODU JHODWLQRXV ÁDS WKH tectorial membrane. The sensory cells (inner and outer hair cells) are the receptors of the organ of Corti (C). These cells bear approximately 50 to 100 stereocilia, and on their apical surface synapse on their basal side with the HQGLQJVRID̥HUHQWDQGH̥HUHQWQHXURQV7KH\
have the ability to transform mechanical energy into electrochemical potentials. A magniÀHGFURVVVHFWLRQDOYLHZRIDFRFKOHDUWXUQC) also reveals the stria vascularis, a layer of vascularized epithelium in which the endolymph LV IRUPHG 7KLV HQGRO\PSK ÀOOV WKH PHPEUDnous labyrinth (appearing here as the cochlear duct, which is part of the labyrinth). The organ of Corti is located on the basilar membrane. It transforms the energy of the acoustic traveling wave into electrical impulses, which are then carried to the brain by the cochlear nerve. The principal cell of signal transduction is the inner hair cell. The function of the basilar membrane is to transmit acoustic waves to the inner hair cell, which transforms them into impulses that are received and relayed by the cochlear ganglion.
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Regions of the Head
Malleus
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Incus
Stapes
Oval window
Scala vestibuli
Traveling wave
Stapes Annular stapedial ligament Oval window Round window
Round window
Basilar membrane
Basilar membrane
Tympanic membrane
A
Fig. 8.35 Sound conduction during hearing A Sound conduction from the middle ear to the inner ear: Sound waves in the air deflect the tympanic membrane, whose vibrations are conducted by the ossicular chain to the oval window. The sound pressure induces motion of the oval window membrane, whose vibrations are, in turn, transmitted through the perilymph to the basilar membrane of the inner ear (see B). The round window equalizes pressures between the middle and inner ear.
Inner hair cells
Tectorial membrane
Scala tympani
B
B Formation of a traveling wave in the cochlea: The sound wave begins at the oval window and travels up the scala vestibuli to the apex of the cochlea (“traveling wave”). The amplitude of the traveling wave gradually increases as a function of the sound frequency and reaches a maximum value at particular sites (shown greatly exaggerated in the drawing). These are the sites where the receptors of the organ of Corti are stimulated and signal transduction occurs. To understand this process, one must first grasp the structure of the organ of Corti (the actual organ of hearing), which is depicted in Fig. 8.36.
Shearing of the stereocilia
Stereocilia
Membrane deflection
A
Afferent cochlear nerve fibers
Outer hair cells
Basilar membrane
Fig. 8.36 Organ of Corti at rest (A) and deflected by a traveling wave (B) The traveling wave is generated by vibrations of the oval window membrane. At each site that is associated with a particular sound frequency, the traveling wave causes a maximum deflection of the basilar membrane and thus of the tectorial membrane, setting up shearing movements between the two membranes. These shearing movements cause
B
the stereocilia on the outer hair cells to bend. In response, the hair cells actively change their length, thereby increasing the local amplitude of the traveling wave. This additionally bends the stereocilia of the inner hair cells, stimulating the release of glutamate at their basal pole. The release of this substance generates an excitatory potential on the afferent nerve fibers, which is transmitted to the brain.
171
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Auditory Pathway
Lateral sulcus Transverse temporal gyri
Area 41, transverse temporal gyri
Acoustic radiation
Nucleus of medial geniculate body Inferior collicular nucleus Commissure of inferior colliculi
Transverse temporal gyri
Lateral lemniscus 200 Hz
Posterior cochlear nucleus
Nuclei of lateral lemniscus
20,000 Hz (20 kHz) Medullary striae
Corti organ
Superior olivary nucleus
Spiral ganglion
Nucleus of trapezoid body
Fig. 8.37 Afferent auditory pathway of the left ear The receptors of the auditory pathway are the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti. Because they lack neural processes, they are called secondary sensory cells. They are located in the cochlear duct of the basilar membrane and are studded with stereocilia, which are exposed to shearing forces from the tectorial membrane in response to a traveling wave. This causes bowing of the stereocilia (see Fig. 8.36). These bowing movements act as a stimulus to evoke cascades of neural signals. Dendritic processes of the bipolar neurons in the spiral ganglion pick up the stimulus. The bipolar neurons then transmit impulses via their axons, which are collected to form the cochlear nerve, to the anterior and posterior cochlear nuclei. In these nuclei the signals are relayed to the second neuron of the auditory pathway. Information from the cochlear nuclei is then transmitted via four to six nuclei to the primary auditory cortex, where the auditory information is consciously perceived (analogous to the visual cortex). The primary auditory cortex is located in the transverse temporal gyri (Heschl gyri, Brodmann area 41). The auditory pathway thus contains the following key stations:
172
Cochlear duct
Anterior cochlear nucleus
• • • • • • • •
Inner hair cells
Cochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Inner hair cells in the organ of Corti Spiral ganglion Anterior and posterior cochlear nuclei Nucleus of the trapezoid body and superior olivary nucleus Nucleus of the lateral lemniscus Inferior collicular nucleus Nucleus of the medial geniculate body Primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe (transverse temporal gyri = Heschl gyri or Brodmann area 41)
The individual parts of the cochlea are correlated with specific areas in the auditory cortex and its relay stations. This is known as the tonotopic organization of the auditory pathway. This organizational principle is similar to that in the visual pathway. Binaural processing of the auditory information (= stereo hearing) first occurs at the level of the superior olivary nucleus. At all further stages of the auditory pathway there are also interconnections between the right and left sides of the auditory pathway (for clarity, these are not shown here). A cochlea that has ceased to function can sometimes be replaced with a cochlear implant.
Regions of the Head
Cochlear nerve (CN VIII)
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Facial nucleus
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Cochlear nucleus
Superior olive with superior olivary nucleus
Facial nucleus
Cochlea Stapes Tympanic membrane Stapedial nerve Stapedius muscle
Fig. 8.38 The stapedius reflex When the volume of an acoustic signal reaches a certain threshold, the stapedius reflex triggers a contraction of the stapedius muscle. This reflex can be utilized to test hearing without the patient’s cooperation (“objective” auditory testing). The test is done by introducing a sonic probe into the ear canal and presenting a test noise to the tympanic membrane. When the noise volume reaches a certain threshold, it
evokes the stapedius reflex, and the tympanic membrane stiffens. The change in the resistance of the tympanic membrane is then measured and recorded. The afferent limb of this reflex is in the cochlear nerve. Information is conveyed to the facial nucleus on each side by way of the superior olivary nucleus. The efferent limb of this reflex is formed by branchiomotor (visceromotor) fibers of the facial nerve.
Inner hair cell
Outer hair cell
Lateral olivocochlear bundle
Medial olivocochlear bundle Lateral neuron Medial neuron
Type I ganglion cell Type II ganglion cell Superior olive
Cochlear nerve
Fig. 8.39 Efferent fibers from the olive to the Corti organ Besides the afferent fibers from the organ of Corti, which form the vestibulocochlear nerve, there are also efferent fibers (red) that pass to the organ of Corti in the inner ear and are concerned with the active preprocessing of sound (“cochlear amplifier”) and acoustic protection. The efferent fibers arise from neurons that are located in either the lateral or medial part of the superior olive and project from there to the cochlea (lateral or medial olivocochlear bundle). The fibers of the
lateral neurons pass uncrossed to the dendrites of the inner hair cells, whereas the fibers of the medial neurons cross to the opposite side and terminate at the base of the outer hair cells, whose activity they influence. When stimulated, the outer hair cells can actively amplify the traveling wave. This increases the sensitivity of the inner hair cells (the actual receptor cells). The activity of the efferents from the olive can be recorded as otoacoustic emissions (OAE). This test can be used to screen for hearing abnormalities in newborns.
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Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Vestibular Apparatus
Fig. 8.40 Structure of the vestibular apparatus The vestibular apparatus is the organ of balance. It consists of the membranous semicircular ducts, which contain sensory ridges (ampullary crests) in their dilated portions (ampullae), and of the saccule and utricle with their macular organs. The sensory organs in the semicircular ducts respond to angular acceleration; the macular organs, which have an approximately vertical and horizontal orientation, respond to horizontal (utricular macula) and vertical (saccular macula) linear acceleration, as well as to gravitational forces.
Fig. 8.41 Structure of the ampulla and ampullary crest Cross section through the ampulla of a semicircular canal. Each canal has a bulbous expansion at one end (ampulla) that is traversed by a connective tissue ridge with sensory epithelium (ampullary crest). Extending above the ampullary crest is a gelatinous cupula, which is attached to the roof of the ampulla. Each of the sensory cells of the ampullary crest (approximately 7000 in all) bears on its apical pole one long kinocilium and approximately 80 shorter stereocilia, which project into the cupula. When the head is rotated in the plane of a particular semicircular canal, the inertial lag of the endolymph causes a deflection of the cupula, which in turn causes a bowing of the stereocilia. The sensory cells are either depolarized (excitation) or hyperpolarized (inhibition), depending on the direction of ciliary displacement.
Fig. 8.42 Structure of the utricular and saccular maculae The maculae are thickened oval areas in the epithelial lining of the utricle and saccule, each averaging 2 mm in diameter and containing arrays of sensory and supporting cells. Like the sensory cells of the ampullary crest, the sensory cells of the macular organs bear specialized stereocilia, which project into an otolithic membrane. The latter consists of a gelatinous layer, similar to the cupula, but it has calcium carbonate crystals or otoliths (statoliths) embedded in its surface. With their high specific gravity, these crystals exert traction on the gelatinous mass in response to linear acceleration, and this induces shearing movements of the cilia. The sensory cells are either depolarized or hyperpolarized by the movement, depending on the orientation of the cilia. There are two distinct categories of vestibular hair cells (type I and type II); type I cells (light red) are goblet shaped.
174
Ampullary crest with anterior ampullary nerve
Anterior semicircular canal
Vestibular ganglion, superior part
Anterior semicircular duct
Vestibular ganglion, inferior part
Ampullary crest with lateral ampullary nerve
Utricle Endolymphatic sac
Utricular macula with utricular nerve Saccular macula with saccular nerve
Lateral semicircular duct
Saccule
Posterior semicircular duct
Endolymphatic duct
Ampullary crest with posterior ampullary nerve
Semicircular canal
Ductus reuniens
Ampulla Cupula Cilia of sensory cells Supporting cell Sensory cell
Ampullary crest
Otoliths
Otolithic membrane
Stereocilia of type II hair cells Stereocilia of type I hair cells Type II hair cell Type I hair cell
Basement membrane Supporting cell
Afferent nerve fiber
Regions of the Head
Fig. 8.43 Stimulus transduction in the vestibular sensory cells Each of the sensory cells of the maculae and ampullary crest bears on its apical surface one long kinocilium and approximately 80 stereocilia of graduated lengths, forming an array that resembles a pipe organ. This arrangement results in a polar differentiation of the sensory cells. The cilia are straight while in a resting state. When the stereocilia are deflected toward the kinocilium, the sensory cell depolarizes, and the frequency of action potentials (discharge rate of impulses) is increased (right side of diagram). When the stereocilia are deflected away from the kinocilium, the cell hyperpolarizes, and the discharge rate is decreased (left side of diagram). This mechanism regulates the release of the transmitter glutamate at the basal pole of the sensory cell, thereby controlling the activation of the afferent nerve fiber (depolarization stimulates glutamate release, and hyperpolarization inhibits it). In this way the brain receives information on the magnitude and direction of movements and changes of position.
Kinocilium
Stereocilia
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Sensory cell
Time
Afferent nerve fiber
Anterior ampulla Lateral ampulla Macula of utricle Macula of saccule
Posterior ampulla Cochlear duct
Fig. 8.44 Specialized orientations of the stereocilia in the vestibular apparatus (ampullary crest and maculae) Because the stimulation of the sensory cells by deflection of the stereocilia away from or toward the kinocilium is what initiates signal transduction, the spatial orientation of the cilia must be specialized to ensure that every position in space and every movement of the head stimulates or inhibits certain receptors. The ciliary arrangement shown here ensures that every direction in space will correlate with the maximum sensitivity of a particular receptor field. The arrows indicate the polarity of the cilia (i.e., each of the arrowheads points in the direction of the kinocilium in that particular field). Note that the sensory cells show an opposite, reciprocal arrangement in the sensory fields of the utricle and saccule.
Fig. 8.45 Interaction of contralateral semicircular canals during head rotation When the head rotates to the right (red arrow), the endolymph flows to the left because of its inertial mass (solid blue arrow, taking the head as the reference point). Owing to the alignment of the stereocilia, the left and right semicircular canals are stimulated in opposite fashion. On the right side, the stereocilia are deflected toward the kinocilium (dotted arrow; the discharge rate increases). On the left side, the stereocilia are deflected away from the kinocilium (dotted arrow; the discharge rate decreases). This arrangement heightens the sensitivity to stimuli by increasing the stimulus contrast between the two sides. In other words, the difference between the decreased firing rate on one side and the increased firing rate on the other side enhances the perception of the kinetic stimulus.
175
Regions of the Head
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Vestibular System
Nucleus of posterior commissure (Darkschewitsch nucleus) Interstitial nucleus (Cajal nucleus)
Red nucleus
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (CN III) Nucleus of trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Globose nucleus
Uncinate fasciculus
Fastigial nucleus
Vestibular nuclei
Nucleus of abducent nerve (CN VI)
Vestibulocerebellar fibers
Flocculonodular lobe
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Vestibular ganglion (CN VIII)
Ampullary crest
Reticular formation Dorsal motor nucleus (CN X)
Utricle
Nucleus of accessory nerve (CN XI)
Saccule
Medial longitudinal fasciculus Lateral vestibulospinal tract Reticulospinal tract To sacral cord To cervical cord
Fig. 8.46 Central connections of the vestibular nerve (CN VIII) Three systems are involved in the regulation of human balance: • Vestibular system • Proprioceptive system • Visual system The peripheral receptors of the vestibular system are located in the membranous labyrinth, which consists of the utricle and saccule and the ampullae of the three semicircular ducts. The maculae of the utricle and saccule respond to linear acceleration, and the semicircular duct organs in the ampullary crests respond to angular (rotational) acceleration. Like the hair cells of the inner ear, the receptors of the vestibular system are secondary sensory cells. The basal portions of the secondary sensory cells are surrounded by dendritic processes of bipo-
176
lar neurons. Their perikarya are located in the vestibular ganglion. The axons from these neurons form the vestibular nerve and terminate in the four vestibular nuclei. Besides input from the vestibular apparatus, these nuclei also receive sensory input (see Fig. 8.47). The vestibular nuclei show a topographical organization (see Fig. 8.48) and distribute their efferent fibers to three targets: • Motor neurons in the spinal cord via the lateral vestibulospinal tract. These motor neurons help to maintain an upright stance, mainly by increasing the tone of extensor muscles. • Flocculonodular lobe of the cerebellum (archicerebellum) via vestibulocerebellar fibers. • Ipsilateral and contralateral oculomotor nuclei via the ascending part of the medial longitudinal fasciculus.
Regions of the Head
Hypothalamus
Cortex
8. Temporal Bone & Ear
Thalamus Brainstem
Medial rectus
Fig. 8.47 Role of the vestibular nuclei in the maintenance of balance The vestibular nuclei receive afferent input from the vestibular system, proprioceptive system (position sense, muscles, and joints), and visual system. They then distribute efferent fibers to nuclei that control the motor systems important for balance. These nuclei are located in the: • Spinal cord (motor support) • Cerebellum (fine control of motor function) • Brainstem (oculomotor nuclei for oculomotor function) Efferents from the vestibular nuclei are also distributed to the following regions:
Eye
• Thalamus and cortex (spatial sense) • Hypothalamus (autonomic regulation: vomiting in response to vertigo)
Labyrinth
Vestibular nuclei
Cerebellum
Note: Acute failure of the vestibular system is manifested by rotary vertigo.
Spinal cord
Proprioception
Nucleus of trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Nucleus of oculomotor nerve (CN III) Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Nucleus of abducent nerve (CN VI)
Cerebellum
Inferior cerebellar peduncle Vestibulocerebellar fibers
Superior vestibular nucleus
Vestibular nerve (CN VIII)
Lateral vestibular nucleus Inferior vestibular nucleus Medial vestibular nucleus Medial longitudinal fasciculus
Lateral vestibulospinal tract
Fig. 8.48 Vestibular nuclei: topographic organization and central connections Four nuclei are distinguished:
• Afferent fibers from the ampullary crests of the semicircular canals terminate in the superior vestibular nucleus, the upper part of the inferior vestibular nucleus, and the lateral vestibular nucleus.
• • • •
The efferent fibers from the lateral vestibular nucleus pass to the lateral vestibulospinal tract. This tract extends to the sacral part of the spinal cord, its axons terminating on motor neurons. Functionally, it is concerned with keeping the body upright, chiefly by increasing the tone of the extensor muscles. The vestibulocerebellar fibers from the other three nuclei act through the cerebellum to modulate muscular tone. All four vestibular nuclei distribute ipsilateral and contralateral axons via the medial longitudinal fasciculus to the three motor nuclei of the nerves to the extraocular muscles (i.e., the nuclei of the oculomotor [CN III], trochlear [CN IV], and abducent [CN VI] nerves).
Superior vestibular nucleus (of Bechterew) Lateral vestibular nucleus (of Deiters) Medial vestibular nucleus (of Schwalbe) Inferior vestibular nucleus (of Roller)
The vestibular system has a topographic organization: • Afferent fibers of the saccular macula terminate in the inferior vestibular nucleus and lateral vestibular nucleus. • Afferent fibers of the utricular macula terminate in the medial part of the inferior vestibular nucleus, the lateral part of the medial vestibular nucleus, and the lateral vestibular nucleus.
177
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Oral Cavity: Overview
Philtrum Nasolabial crease
Upper lip
Oral fissure
Angle of mouth
Lower lip
Fig. 9.1 Lips and labial creases Anterior view. The upper and lower lips meet at the angle of the mouth. The oral fissure opens into the oral cavity. Changes in the lips noted on visual inspection may yield important diagnostic clues: Blue lips (cyanosis) suggest a disease of the heart, lung, or both, and deep nasolabial creases may reflect chronic diseases of the digestive tract.
Fig. 9.2 Oral cavity Anterior view. The dental arches (with the alveolar processes of the maxilla and mandible) subdivide the oral cavity into two parts: • Oral vestibule: portion outside the dental arches, bounded on one side by the lips/cheek and on the other by the dental arches. • Oral cavity proper: region within the dental arches, bounded posteriorly by the palatoglossal arch. The oral cavity is lined by oral mucosa, which is divided into lining, masticatory, and gingival mucosa. The mucosal lining consists of nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium that is moistened by secretions from the salivary glands. The keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium of the skin blends with the nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium of the oral cavity at the vermilion border of the lip. The masticatory mucosa is orthokeratinized to withstand masticatory stress. The gingiva that supports the teeth is keratinized.
Upper lip Frenulum of upper lip Oral vestibule
Hard palate
Palatoglossal arch
Soft palate
Palatopharyngeal arch
Uvula Palatine tonsil
Faucial isthmus
Dorsum of tongue
Oral cavity proper
Oral vestibule
Frenulum of lower lip Lower lip
Nasal septum
Hard palate
Torus tubarius
Airway
Oral cavity proper
Foodway
Soft palate
Superior labial vestibule
Uvula Nasopharynx
Upper lip Lower lip
Oropharynx
Tongue Hyoid bone
Mandible Mylohyoid A
Geniohyoid
Fig. 9.3 Organization and boundaries of the oral cavity Midsagittal section, left lateral view. The oral cavity is located below the nasal cavity and anterior to the pharynx. The inferior boundary of the oral cavity proper is formed by mylohyoid muscle. The roof of the oral cavity is formed by the hard palate in its anterior two thirds and
178
Laryngopharynx
Epiglottis B
by the soft palate (velum) in its posterior third. The uvula hangs from the soft palate between the oral cavity and pharynx. The midportion of the pharynx (oropharynx) is the area in which the airway and foodway intersect (B).
Regions of the Head
Fig. 9.4 Maxillary and mandibular arches A Maxilla. Inferior view. B Mandible. Superior view. There are three basic types of teeth — incisiform (incisors), caniniform (canines), and molariform (premolars and molars) — that perform cutting, piercing, and grinding actions, respectively. Each half of the maxilla and mandible contains the following sets of teeth: • Anterior teeth: two incisors and one canine tooth. • Posterior (postcanine) teeth: two premolars and three molars.
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Incisive fossa
Incisors
Interalveolar septum
Canine
Premolars
Incisive suture
Median palatine suture
Each tooth is given an identification code to describe the specific location of dental lesions such as caries (see p. 180).
Molars
Greater palatine foramen
A Transverse palatine suture
Posterior nasal spine
Lesser palatine foramen
Head (condyle) of mandible Pterygoid fovea
Coronoid process
Molars
Angle of mandible
Mental (genial) spines
Premolars
Interalveolar septum
Canine Incisors
B
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Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Permanent Teeth
1
2
3
4
5
6
32 31
7
9
8
10
11
12 13
14
15
16
17 18
30
29
28
27
26
25
Fig. 9.5 Coding the permanent teeth In the United States, the permanent teeth are numbered sequentially, not assigned to quadrants. Progressing in a clockwise fashion (from the perspective of the viewer), the teeth of the upper arc are numbered
24
23
22
21
20
19
1 to 16, and those of the lower are considered 17 to 32. Note: The third upper molar (wisdom tooth) on the patient’s right is considered 1.
Labial
Mesial Distal
Buccal
Lingual
Palatal
Buccal
Distal
Mesial Labial A
Fig. 9.6 Designation of tooth surfaces A Inferior view of the maxillary dental arch. B Superior view of the mandibular dental arch. The mesial and distal tooth surfaces are those closest to and farthest from the midline, respectively. The term labial is
180
B
used for incisors and canine teeth, and buccal is used for premolar and molar teeth. Palatal denotes the inside surface of maxillary teeth, and lingual denotes the inside surface of mandibular teeth. These designations are used to describe the precise location of small carious lesions.
Regions of the Head
Maxillary sinus
Nasal septum
Orbit
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Articular tubercle
Mandibular (glenoid) fossa Condylar process 1
16
17 32 Third molar (wisdom tooth)
Mandibular angle
31
Mandibular canal
30 29
28
27
26
25
Fig. 9.7 Dental panoramic tomogram The dental panoramic tomogram (DPT) is a survey radiograph that allows a preliminary assessment of the temporomandibular joints, maxillary sinuses, maxilla, mandible, and dental status (carious lesions, location of the wisdom teeth). It is based on the principle of conventional tomography in which the x-ray tube and film are moved about the plane of interest to blur out the shadows of structures outside the sectional plane. The plane of interest in the DPT is shaped like a parabola, conforming to the shape of the jaws. In the case shown here, all four wisdom teeth (third molars) should be extracted: teeth 1, 16, and
Bite guide of scanner
17 are not fully erupted, and tooth 32 is horizontally impacted (cannot erupt). If the DPT raises suspicion of caries or root disease, it should be followed with spot radiographs so that specific regions of interest can be evaluated at higher resolution. (Tomogram courtesy of Prof. Dr. U. J. Rother, director of the Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Center for Dentistry and Oromaxillofacial Surgery, Eppendorf University Medical Center, Hamburg, Germany.) Note: The upper incisors are broader than the lower incisors, leading to a “cusp-and-fissure” type of occlusion (see p. 183).
181
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Structure of the Teeth
Neck (cementoenamel junction)
Cusp of tooth
Enamel
Crown
Crown Root
Dentine
Pulp chamber
A Neck
Fig. 9.8 Parts of the tooth A Individual tooth (mandibular molar). B Cross section of a tooth (mandibular incisor). The teeth consist of an enamel-covered crown that meets the cementum-covered roots at the neck (cervical margin). The body of the tooth is primarily dentine.
Gingival margin Cementum
Periodontal ligament Root Alveolar bone Apex of root Apical foramen B
Table 9.1 Structures of the tooth Protective coverings: These hard, avascular layers of tissue protect the underlying body of the tooth. They meet at the cervical margin (neck, cementoenamel junction).
Enamel: Hard, translucent covering of the crown of the tooth. Maximum thickness (2.5 mm) occurs over the cusps. The enamel covering meets the cementum at the neck (cervical margin, cementoenamel junction). Failure to do so exposes the underlying dentine, which has extremely sensitive pain responses.
Body of the tooth: The tooth is primarily composed of dentine, which is supported by the vascularized dental pulp.
Dentine: Tough tissue composing the majority of the body of the tooth. It consists of extensive networks of tubules (intratubular dentine) surrounded by peritubular dentine. The tubules connect the underlying dental pulp to the overlying tissue. Exposed dentine is extremely sensitive due to extensive innervation via the dental pulp.
Cementum: Bonelike covering of the dental roots, lacking neurovascular structures.
Dental pulp: Located in the pulp chamber, the dental pulp is a well-vascularized layer of loose connective tissue. Neurovascular structures enter the apical foramen at the apex of the root. The dental pulp receives sympathetic innervation from the superior cervical ganglion and sensory innervation from the trigeminal ganglion (CN V). Periodontium: The tooth is anchored and supported by the periodontium, which consists of several tissue types. Note: The cementum is also considered part of the periodontium.
Periodontal ligament: Dense connective tissue fibers that connect the cementum of the roots in the osseous socket to the alveolar bone. Alveolar bone (alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible): The portion of the maxilla or mandible in which the dental roots are embedded are considered the alveolar processes (the more proximal portion of the bones are considered the body). Gingiva: The attached gingivae bind the alveolar periosteum to the teeth; the free gingiva composes the 1 mm tissue radius surrounding the neck of the tooth. A mucosogingival line marks the boundary between the keratinized gingivae of the mandibular arch and the nonkeratinized lingual mucosa. The palatal mucosa is masticatory (orthokeratinized), so no visual distinction can be made with the gingiva of the maxillary arch. Third molars (wisdom teeth) often erupt through the mucosogingival line. The oral mucosa cannot support the tooth, and food can become trapped in the regions lacking attached gingiva.
182
Regions of the Head
Fig. 9.9 Periodontium The tooth is anchored in the alveolus by a special type of syndesmosis (gomphosis). The periodontium, the all-encompassing term for the tissues that collectively invest and support the tooth, consists of: • • • •
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Gingiva
Cementum Periodontal ligament Alveolar wall of alveolar bone Gingiva
Sharpey fibers
The Sharpey fibers are collagenous fibers that pass obliquely downward from the alveolar bone and insert into the cementum of the tooth. This downward obliquity of the fibers transforms masticatory pressures on the dental arch into tensile stresses acting on the fibers and anchored bone (pressure would otherwise lead to bone atrophy).
Fig. 9.10 Connective tissue fibers in the gingiva Many of the tough collagenous fiber bundles in the connective tissue core of the gingiva above the alveolar bone are arranged in a screwlike pattern around the tooth, further strengthening its attachment.
Alveolar wall
Cementum A
B
Decussating interdental fibers Interdental papilla Circular fibers
Premolars
Molars
Canine Incisors Occlusal planes
A
B
Fig. 9.11 Occlusal plane and dental arches A Occlusal plane. The maxilla and mandible present a symmetrical arrangement of teeth. The occlusal plane (formed when the mouth is closed) often forms a superiorly open arch (von Spee curve, red). B Cusp-and-fissure dentition. With the mouth closed (occlusal position), the maxillary teeth are apposed to their mandibular counterparts. They are offset relative to one another so that the cusps of
C
one tooth fit into the fissures of the two opposing teeth (cusp-andfissure dentition, blue). Because of this arrangement, every tooth comes into contact with two opposing teeth. This offset results from the slightly greater width of the maxillary incisors. C Dental arches. The teeth of the maxilla (green) and mandible (blue) are arranged in superior and inferior arches. The superior dental arch forms a semi-ellipse, and the inferior arch is shaped like a parabola.
183
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Incisors, Canines & Premolars Central incisors
Root (flattened mesiodistally)
Incisal edge Labial
Distal
Palatal
Labial
A
Distal
Palatal
B
Labial
Distal
C
Fig. 9.12 Incisors A Central maxillary incisor (9). B Lateral maxillary incisor (10). C Mandibular incisors (23–26).
Table 9.2 Incisors and canines Tooth
Crown
Surfaces
Root(s)
Incisors: The incisors have a sharp-edged crown for biting off bits of food. The palatal surface often bears a blind pit (foramen cecum), a site of predilection for dental caries. The maxillary incisors are considerably larger than the mandibular incisors. This results in cusp-and-fissure dentition (see Fig. 9.11).
Maxillary
Central incisor (8, 9); see Fig. 9.12A Lateral incisor (7, 10); see Fig. 9.12B
Mandibular
Roughly trapezoidal in the labial view; contains an incisal edge with 3 tubercles (mamelons)
Central incisor (25, 24); see Fig. 9.12C
Labial: Convex Palatal: Concavoconvex
1 rounded root
Labial: Convex Lingual: Concavoconvex
1 root, slightly flattened
Lateral incisor (26, 23) see Fig. 9.12C Canines: These teeth (also known as cuspids or eyeteeth) are developed for piercing and gripping food. The crown is thicker mesially than distally and has greater curvature (arrow, Fig. 9.13A).
Maxillary (upper) canine (6, 11); see Fig. 9.13A
Roughly trapezoidal with 1 labial cusp
Mandibular (lower) canine (27, 22); see Fig. 9.13B
Labial: Convex Lingual: Concavoconvex
Labial
Distal
Palatal
Fig. 9.13 Canines (cuspids) A Maxillary canine (11). B Mandibular canine (22).
184
1 root, the longest of the teeth (note: mandibular canines are occasionally bifid)
Labial cusp
Labial cusp A
Labial: Convex Palatal: Concavoconvex
Occlusal
B
Labial
Distal
Lingual
Regions of the Head
Buccal root
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Palatal root
Longitudinal groove
Mesiodistal fissure Palatal cusp
Buccal cusp A
Buccal
Distal
Occlusal
Buccal cusp
B
Buccal
Distal
Occlusal Buccal cusp
Mesial occlusal pit
Mesiodistal fissure
Distal occlusal pit
C
Buccal
Distal
Occlusal
D
Buccal
Distal
Occlusal
Fig. 9.14 Premolars (bicuspids) A First maxillary premolar (12). B Second maxillary premolar (13). C First mandibular premolar (21). D Second mandibular premolar (20).
Table 9.3 Premolars The premolars represent a transitional form between the incisors and molars. Like the molars, they have cusps and fissures, indicating that their primary function is the grinding of food rather than biting or tearing. Tooth
Maxillary
1st premolar (5, 12); see Fig. 9.14A
Crown
Surfaces
Root(s)
2 cusps (1 buccal, 1 palatal, separated by a mesodistal fissure)
Buccal, distal, palatal/lingual, and mesial: All convex, slightly flattened. The mesial surface often bears a small pit that is difficult to clean and vulnerable to caries.
The only premolar with 2 roots (1 buccal, 1 palatal)
2nd premolar (4, 13); see Fig. 9.14B
Mandibular
1st premolar (28, 21); see Fig. 9.14C
2 cusps (1 tall buccal cusp connected to 1 smaller lingual cusp); the ridge between the cusps creates a mesial and a distal occlusal pit
2nd premolar (29, 20); see Fig. 9.14D
3 cusps (1 tall buccal cusp separated from 2 smaller lingual cusps by a mesiodistal fissure)
Occlusal: The occlusal surfaces of the maxillary premolars tend to be more oval (less circular or square) than the mandibular premolars.
1 root divided by a longitudinal groove and containing 2 root canals 1 root (occasionally bifid)
1 root
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Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Molars
Table 9.4 Molars Most of the molars have three roots to withstand the greater masticatory pressures in the molar region. Because the molars crush and grind food, they have a crown with a plateau. The fissures between the cusps are a frequent site of caries formation in adolescents. Note: The roots of the third molars (wisdom teeth, which erupt after 16 years of age, if at all) are commonly fused together, particularly in the upper third molar. The mandibular third molars erupt anterosuperiorly, and the maxillary third molars erupt posteroinferiorly. Impactions are therefore most common in mandibular wisdom teeth. Tooth
Maxillary
Mandibular
186
Crown
Surfaces
Root(s)
1st molar (3, 14); see Fig. 9.15A
4 cusps (1 at each corner of its occlusal surface); a ridge connects the mesiopalatal and distobuccal cusps
Buccal, distal, palatal/lingual, and mesial: All convex, slightly flattened.
3 roots (2 buccal and 1 palatal)
2nd molar (2, 15); see Fig. 9.16A
4 cusps (though the distopalatal cusp is often small or absent)
Occlusal: Rhomboid
3 roots (2 buccal and 1 palatal), occasionally fused
3rd molar (wisdom tooth, 1, 16); see Fig. 9.17A
3 cusps (no distopalatal)
1st molar (30, 19); see Fig. 9.15B
5 cusps (3 buccal and 2 lingual), all of which are separated by fissures
2nd molar (31, 18); see Fig. 9.16B
4 cusps (2 buccal and 2 lingual)
3rd molar (wisdom tooth, 32, 17); see Fig. 9.17B
May resemble either the 1st or 2nd molar
3 roots (2 buccal and 1 palatal), often fused
Buccal, distal, palatal/lingual, and mesial: All convex, slightly flattened.
2 roots (1 mesial and 1 distal); widely spaced 2 roots (1 mesial and 1 distal)
Occlusal: Rectangular 2 roots, often fused
Regions of the Head
Distobuccal cusp
Palatal root
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Palatal root
Mesiopalatal cusp
Distopalatal cusp
A
Buccal
Distal
Palatal
Occlusal
A
Buccal
Distal
Palatal
Occlusal
B
Buccal
Distal
Lingual
Occlusal
B
Buccal
Distal
Lingual
Occlusal
Fig. 9.15 First molars A Maxillary first molar (14). B Mandibular first molar (19). Note: The term lingual is used for the mandibular teeth, the term palatal for the maxillary.
Fig. 9.16 Second molars A Maxillary second molar (15). B Mandibular second molar (18).
Palatal root (fused with buccal roots)
A
Buccal
Distal
Palatal
Occlusal
B
Buccal
Distal
Lingual
Occlusal
Fig. 9.17 Third molars (wisdom teeth) A Maxillary third molar (16). B Mandibular third molar (17).
187
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Deciduous Teeth
Birth
6 months
1 year
A
B
C
D
E 2½ years
Fig. 9.18 Deciduous teeth Left side. The deciduous dentition (baby teeth) consists of only 20 teeth. Each of the four quadrants contains the following teeth: A Central incisor (first incisor). B Lateral incisor (second incisor). C Canine (cuspid). D First molar (6-yr molar). E Second molar (12-yr molar).
4 years
To distinguish the deciduous teeth from the permanent teeth, they are coded with letters. The upper arch is labeled A to J, the lower is labeled K to T. 6 years
Table 9.5 Eruption of the teeth The eruptions of the deciduous and permanent teeth are called the first and second dentitions, respectively. Types of teeth are ordered by the time of eruption; individual teeth are listed from left to right (viewer’s perspective). Type of tooth
Tooth
8 years
Time of eruption
First dentition (deciduous teeth)
Central incisor
E, F
P, O
6–8 months
Lateral incisor
D, G
Q, N
8–12 months
First molar
B, I
S, L
12–16 months
Canine
C, H
R, M
15–20 months
Second molar
A, J
T, K
20–40 months 12 years
Second dentition (permanent teeth)
First molar
3, 14
30, 19
6–8 years (“6-yr molar”)
Central incisor
8, 9
25, 24
6–9 years
Lateral incisor
7, 10
26, 23
7–10 years
First premolar
5, 12
28, 21
9–13 years
Canine
6, 11
27, 22
9–14 years
Second premolar
4, 13
29, 20
11–14 years
Second molar
2, 15
31, 18
10–14 years (“12-yr molar”)
Third molar
1, 16
32, 17
16–30 years (“wisdom tooth”)
188
10 years
Fig. 9.19 Eruption pattern of the deciduous and permanent teeth Left maxillary teeth. Deciduous teeth (black), permanent teeth (red). Eruption times can be used to diagnose growth delays in children.
Regions of the Head
A B T
C
S
R
D Q
E P
O
N
M
Infraorbital foramen
I J
H
G
F
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
L
K Anterior nasal spine
Fig. 9.20 Coding the deciduous teeth The upper right molar is considered A. The lettering then proceeds clockwise along the upper arc and back across the lower.
Fig. 9.21 Dentition of a 6-year-old child Anterior (A,B) and left lateral (C,D) views of maxillary (A,C) and mandibular (B,D) teeth. The anterior bony plate over the roots of the deciduous teeth has been removed to display the underlying permanent tooth buds (blue). At 6 years of age, all the deciduous teeth have erupted and are still present, along with the first permanent tooth, the first molar.
Second permanent premolar
Intermaxillary suture
First permanent premolar
Second deciduous molar
Permanent canine
First deciduous molar Permanent lateral incisor
A
Permanent central incisor
Deciduous lateral incisor
Deciduous canine
Deciduous canine Deciduous Deciduous central incisor lateral incisor
First deciduous molar
Second deciduous molar First permanent molar Second permanent molar Second permanent premolar
B
First permanent premolar Mental foramen
Permanent central incisor
Permanent lateral incisor
Permanent canine
Permanent canine Second permanent molar Second permanent premolar
Permanent lateral incisor First permanent premolar Deciduous central incisor
C
Deciduous Deciduous lateral incisor canine
First deciduous molar
Second deciduous molar
First permanent molar
Second deciduous molar First deciduous molar
First permanent molar
Deciduous canine Deciduous lateral incisor Permanent central incisor Second permanent molar
Permanent lateral incisor
D
Second permanent premolar Permanent canine
First permanent premolar
189
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Hard Palate
Alveolar process of maxilla Palatine process of maxilla (floor of nasal cavity)
Floor of maxillary sinus (palatine and alveolar processes)
Palatine bone, horizontal plate
Palatine bone, perpendicular plate Palatine bone, pyramidal process
A
Fig. 9.22 Hard palate in the skull base Inferior view.
Maxilla, zygomatic process
Lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone Medial pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone
Incisive fossa Maxilla, alveolar process
Maxilla, palatine process (roof of oral cavity) Choanae
Fig. 9.23 Bones of the hard palate A,C Superior view. The upper part of the PD[LOOD LV UHPRYHG 7KH ÁRRU RI WKH QDVDO cavity (A) and the roof of the oral cavity (B) are formed by the union of the palatine processes of two maxillary bones with the horizontal plates of two palatine bones. Cleft palate results from a failed fusion of the palatine processes at the median palatine suture. B,D Inferior view. The nasal cavity communicates with the nasopharynx via the choanae, which begin at the posterior border of the hard palate. The two nasal cavities communicate with the oral cavity via the incisive canals (D), which combine and emerge at the incisive foramen (E). C,E Oblique posterior view. This view illustrates the close anatomical relationship between the oral and nasal cavities. Note: The pyramidal process of the palatine bone is integrated into the lateral plate of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone. The palatine margin of the vomer articulates with the hard palate along the nasal crest.
Palatine bone, horizontal plate
Sphenoid bone
Palatine bone, pyramidal process Vomer
B
Maxilla, zygomatic process
Middle nasal concha (ethmoid bone) Inferior nasal concha
Choana Sphenoid bone, lateral pterygoid plate
Vomer
Palatine bone, pyramidal process C
Maxilla, alveolar process
Palatine bone, horizontal plate Maxilla, palatine process Incisive fossa (opening of incisive canal)
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Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Anterior nasal spine (cut)
Incisive canal
Maxillary sinus
Nasal crest (cut)
Palatine process of maxilla Palatine bone, perpendicular plate
Transverse palatine suture Greater palatine canal
Palatine bone, pyramidal process
Pterygoid process, medial plate (sphenoid bone)
Pterygoid process, lateral plate (sphenoid bone)
Palatine bone, posterior nasal spine
D
Incisive foramen (opening of incisive canal)
Palatine process of maxilla
Transverse palatine suture
Median (intermaxillary) palatine suture
Greater palatine foramen
Lesser palatine foramen
Inferior orbital fissure
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Pyramidal process of palatine bone
Pterygoid fossa
Choana Posterior nasal spine
Pterygoid process, lateral plate Vomer
E
Anterior clinoid process
Foramen ovale
Septum of sphenoid sinus
Optic canal
Superior orbital fissure
Ostium of sphenoid sinus
Middle concha
Pterygoid fossa
Ethmoid bone, perpendicular plate
Inferior orbital fissure
Inferior concha
Choana
Pterygoid process, lateral plate
Vomer Median palatine suture F
Pterygoid canal
Pterygoid process, medial plate Incisive foramen
Palatine process of maxilla
191
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Mandible & Hyoid Bone
Head (condyle) of mandible
Condylar process Coronoid process
Oblique line
Ramus of mandible
Head (condyle) of mandible Alveolar part of mandible Body of mandible
Alveoli (tooth sockets)
Coronoid process
Mental protuberance
A
Lingula
Mandibular notch Coronoid process
Mandibular foramen Mylohyoid groove
Head (condyle) of mandible Pterygoid fovea
Mylohyoid line
Condylar process Mandibular foramen
Superior and inferior genial (mental) spines
B Submandibular fossa
Digastric fossa
Ramus of mandible Alveolar part Mental tubercle
C
Angle
Mental foramen
Oblique line
Fig. 9.24 Mandible A Anterior view. B Posterior view. C Oblique left lateral view. The mandibular teeth are embedded in the alveolar processes of the mandible that run along the superior border of the body of the mandible. The vertical ramus joins the body of the mandible at the mandibular angle. The ramus contains a coronoid process (site of attachment of the temporalis) and a condylar process that are separated by the mandibular notch. The convex surface of the condylar process (the head of
192
the mandible) articulates via an articular disk with the mandibular (glenoid) fossa of the temporal bone at the temporomandibular joint (see p. 194). The depression on the anteromedial side of the condylar process (pterygoid fovea) is a site of attachment of the lateral pterygoid. The inferior alveolar nerve (a branch of CN V3) enters the mandibular foramen and runs through the mandibular canal in the body of the mandible, exiting the mental foramen as the mental nerve.
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
A
B
C
Fig. 9.25 Age-related changes in the mandible The structure of the mandible is greatly influenced by the alveolar processes of the teeth. Because the angle of the mandible adapts to changes in the alveolar process, the angle between the body and ramus also varies with age-related changes in the dentition. The angle measures approximately 150 degrees at birth, and approximately 120 to 130 degrees in adults, decreasing to 140 degrees in the edentulous mandible of old age. A At birth the mandible is without teeth, and the alveolar part has not yet formed. B In children the mandible bears the deciduous teeth. The alveolar part is still relatively poorly developed because the deciduous teeth are considerably smaller than the permanent teeth.
Lesser horn
A
D
C In adults the mandible bears the permanent teeth, and the alveolar part of the bone is fully developed. D Old age is characterized by an edentulous mandible with resorption of the alveolar process. Note: The resorption of the alveolar process with advanced age leads to a change in the position of the mental foramen (which is normally located below the second premolar tooth, as in C). This change must be taken into account in surgery or dissections involving the mental nerve.
Greater horn
Body
Lesser horn
B
Greater horn
Body
Lesser horn
Greater horn
C
Fig. 9.26 Hyoid bone A Anterior view. B Posterior view. C Oblique left lateral view. The hyoid bone is suspended by muscles and ligaments between the oral
floor and the larynx. The greater horn and body of the hyoid bone are palpable in the neck. The physiological movement of the hyoid bone can be palpated during swallowing.
193
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ)
Zygomatic process of temporal bone
Articular tubercle Mandibular fossa of TMJ
Petrotympanic fissure
Postglenoid tubercle
Styloid process
External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
Mastoid process
Atlantooccipital joint
Fig. 9.27 Mandibular fossa of the TMJ Inferior view of skull base. The head (condyle) of the mandible articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone via an articular disk. The mandibular fossa is a depression in the squamous part of the temporal bone, bounded by an articular tubercle and a postglenoid
tubercle. Unlike other articular surfaces, the mandibular fossa is covered by fibrocartilage, not hyaline cartilage. As a result, it is not as clearly delineated on the skull (compare to the atlanto-occipital joints). The external auditory canal lies just posterior to the mandibular fossa. Trauma to the mandible may damage the auditory canal.
Head (condyle) of mandible
Joint capsule
Pterygoid fovea
Neck of mandible
Coronoid process Neck of mandible
Lingula Mandibular foramen
A
B
Stylomandibular ligament
Mylohyoid groove
Fig. 9.28 Head of the mandible in the TMJ A Anterior view. B Posterior view. The head (condyle) of the mandible is markedly smaller than the mandibular fossa and has a cylindrical shape. Both factors increase the mobility of the mandibular head, allowing rotational movements about a vertical axis.
194
Lateral ligament
Fig. 9.29 Ligaments of the lateral TMJ Left lateral view. The TMJ is surrounded by a relatively lax capsule that permits physiological dislocation during jaw opening. The joint is stabilized by three ligaments: lateral, stylomandibular, and sphenomandibular (see also Fig. 9.30). The strongest of these ligaments is the lateral ligament, which stretches over and blends with the joint capsule.
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Articular tubercle
Pterygoid process, lateral plate
Articular disk Pterygospinous ligament
Postglenoid tubercle
Mandibular notch
Joint capsule
Sphenomandibular ligament
Head (condyle) of mandible
Stylomandibular ligament
Stylomandibular ligament
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Fig. 9.30 Ligaments of the medial TMJ Left medial view. Note the sphenomandibular ligament. The variable pterygospinous ligament is also present.
Fig. 9.31 Opened TMJ Left lateral view. The TMJ capsule begins at the articular tubercle and extends posteriorly to the petrotympanic fissure (see Fig. 9.27). Interposed between the mandibular head and fossa is the fibrocartilaginous articular disk, which is attached to the joint capsule on all sides.
Posterior division Auriculotemporal nerve
Mandibular nerve (CN V3) Anterior division Deep temporal nerve, posterior branch Masseteric nerve
Fig. 9.32 Dislocation of the TMJ The head of the mandible may slide past the articular tubercle when the mouth is opened, dislocating the TMJ. This may result from heavy yawning or a blow to the opened mandible. When the joint dislocates, the mandible becomes locked in a protruded position and can no longer be closed. This condition is easily diagnosed clinically and is reduced by pressing on the mandibular row of teeth.
Fig. 9.33 Sensory innervation of the TMJ capsule Superior view. The TMJ capsule is supplied by articular branches arising from three nerves from the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3): • Auriculotemporal nerve • Deep temporal nerve, posterior branch • Masseteric nerve
195
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ): Biomechanics
Retrusion
Transverse axis through head of mandible (axis of rotation)
150°
A
Head of mandible
B
Median plane
Protrusion
Axis of rotation
Axis of rotation
Resting condyle Swinging condyle
Balance side (mediotrusion)
Working side (laterotrusion) Working side
C
Bennett angle
Fig. 9.34 Movements of the mandible in the TMJ Superior view. Most of the movements in the TMJ are complex motions that have three main components: • Rotation (opening and closing the mouth) • Translation (protrusion and retrusion of the mandible) • Grinding movements during mastication A Rotation. The axis for joint rotation runs transversely through both heads of the mandible. The two axes intersect at an angle of approximately 150 degrees (range of 110 to 180 degrees between individuals). During this movement the TMJ acts as a hinge joint (abduction/depression and adduction/elevation of the mandible). In humans, pure rotation in the TMJ usually occurs only during sleep with the mouth slightly open (aperture angle up to approximately 15 degrees). When the mouth is opened past 15 degrees, rotation is combined with translation (gliding) of the mandibular head.
196
Balance side
D
B Translation. In this movement the mandible is advanced (protruded) and retracted (retruded). The axes for this movement are parallel to the median axes through the center of the mandibular heads. C Grinding movements in the left TMJ. In describing these lateral movements, a distinction is made between the “resting condyle” and the “swinging condyle.” The resting condyle on the left working side rotates about an almost vertical axis through the head of the mandible (also a rotational axis), whereas the swinging condyle on the right balance side swings forward and inward in a translational movement. The lateral excursion of the mandible is measured in degrees and is called the Bennett angle. During this movement the mandible moves in laterotrusion on the working side and in mediotrusion on the balance side. D Grinding movements in the right TMJ. Here, the right TMJ is the working side. The right resting condyle rotates about an almost vertical axis, and the left condyle on the balance side swings forward and inward.
Regions of the Head
Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Articular tubercle Mandibular fossa Articular disk Head of mandible Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
A
Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head Articular disk Head of mandible Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
15°
Axis of rotation
B Lateral pterygoid muscle, superior head
Mandibular fossa Articular disk Joint capsule Lateral pterygoid muscle, inferior head
>15°
C
Fig. 9.35 Movements of the TMJ Left lateral view. Each drawing shows the left TMJ, including the articular disk and capsule and the lateral pterygoid muscle. Each schematic diagram at right shows the corresponding axis of joint movement. The muscle, capsule, and disk form a functionally coordinated musculodisco-capsular system and work closely together when the mouth is opened and closed. Note: The space between the muscle heads is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
A Mouth closed. When the mouth is in a closed position, the head of the mandible rests against the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone with the intervening articular disk. B Mouth opened to 15 degrees. Up to 15 degrees of abduction, the head of the mandible remains in the mandibular fossa. C Mouth opened past 15 degrees. At this point the head of the mandible glides forward onto the articular tubercle. The joint axis that runs transversely through the mandibular head is shifted forward. The articular disk is pulled forward by the superior part of the lateral pterygoid muscle, and the head of the mandible is drawn forward by the inferior part of that muscle.
197
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Muscles of Mastication: Overview The muscles of mastication are derived from the first branchial arch and are located at various depths in the parotid and infratemporal regions of the face. They attach to the mandible and receive their motor
innervation from the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3). The muscles of the oral floor (mylohyoid and geniohyoid) are found on pp. 178, 203.
Table 9.6 Masseter and temporalis muscles Muscle
Masseter
Origin
Insertion
Innervation*
Action
① Superficial head
Zygomatic bone (maxillary process) and zygomatic arch (lateral aspect of anterior ⅔)
Mandibular angle and ramus (lower posterior lateral surface)
Masseteric n. (anterior division of CN V3)
Elevates mandible; also assists in protraction, retraction, and side-to-side motion
Middle head
Zygomatic arch (medial aspect of anterior ⅔)
Mandibular ramus (central part)
Zygomatic arch (deep surface of posterior ⅓)
Mandibular ramus (upper portion) and lateral side of coronoid process
Temporal fascia
Coronoid process of mandible (apex and medial and anterior surfaces)
Deep temporal nn. (anterior division of CN V3)
Vertical (anterior) fibers: Elevate mandible Horizontal (posterior) fibers: Retract (retrude) mandible Unilateral: Lateral movement of mandible (chewing)
②
Temporalis
Deep head
③ Superficial head ④
Deep head
Temporal fossa (inferior temporal line)
*The muscles of mastication are innervated by motor branches of the mandibular nerve (CN V3), the 3rd division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V).
⑤
④ ③
①
⑥
⑦ ②
⑧
Fig. 9.36 Masseter
Fig. 9.37 Temporalis
Fig. 9.38 Pterygoids
Table 9.7 Lateral and medial pterygoid muscles Muscle
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid
198
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Mandibular n. (CN V3) via lateral pterygoid n. (from anterior division of CN V3)
Bilateral: Protrudes mandible (pulls articular disk forward) Unilateral: Lateral movements of mandible (chewing)
Mandibular n. (CN V3) via medial pterygoid n. (from trunk of CN V3)
Raises (adducts) mandible
⑤
Superior head
Greater wing of sphenoid bone (infratemporal crest)
Mandible (pterygoid fovea) and temporomandibular joint (articular disk)
⑥
Inferior head
Lateral pterygoid plate (lateral surface)
Mandible (pterygoid fovea and condylar process)
⑦
Superficial head
Maxilla (maxillary tuberosity) and palatine bone (pyramidal process)
Pterygoid tuberosity on medial surface of the mandibular angle
⑧
Deep head
Medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate and pterygoid fossa
Regions of the Head
Zygomatic arch
Frontal bone
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Parietal bone
Masseter, deep head
Temporalis
Superior temporal line
External acoustic meatus Mastoid process Zygomatic arch
Joint capsule
Temporalis
Styloid process A
Masseter, superficial head
Lateral ligament Superior temporal line
Fig. 9.39 Temporalis and masseter Left lateral view. A Superficial dissection. B Deep dissection. The masseter and zygomatic arch have been partially removed to show the full extent of the temporalis. The temporalis is the most powerful muscle of mastication, doing approximately half the work. It works with the masseter (consisting of a superficial and a deep part) to elevate the mandible and close the mouth. Note: A small portion of the lateral pterygoid is visible in B.
Joint capsule Lateral ligament Lateral pterygoid B
Coronoid process
Masseter
199
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Muscles of Mastication: Deep Muscles
Lateral pterygoid, superior head (cut)
Temporalis (cut)
Articular disk
Lateral pterygoid, superior and inferior heads
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head (cut) Medial pterygoid, deep head
Medial pterygoid, superficial and deep heads
Lateral plate, pterygoid process (sphenoid bone)
Masseter (cut) B
A
Fig. 9.40 Lateral and medial pterygoid muscles Left lateral views. A The coronoid process of the mandible has been removed here along with the lower part of the temporalis so that both pterygoid muscles can be seen. B Here the temporalis has been completely removed, and the superior and inferior heads of the lateral pterygoid have been windowed. The lateral pterygoid initiates mouth opening, which is then continued by the digastric and the suprahyoid muscles, along with gravity.
Medial pterygoid, superficial head
With the temporomandibular joint opened, we can see that fibers from the lateral pterygoid blend with the articular disk. The lateral pterygoid functions as the guide muscle of the temporomandibular joint. Because both its superior and inferior heads are active during all movements, its actions are more complex than those of the other muscles of mastication. The medial pterygoid runs almost perpendicular to the lateral pterygoid and contributes to the formation of a muscular sling, along with the masseter, that partially encompasses the mandible (see Fig. 9.41).
Mandibular fossa, articular surface
Temporalis
Lateral pterygoid, superior head
Articular disk Head of mandible, articular surface
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head, in pterygoid fovea
Masseter, deep part
Coronoid process (with temporalis)
Medial pterygoid, deep head
Fig. 9.41 Masticatory muscular sling Oblique posterior view. The masseter and medial pterygoid form a muscular sling in which the mandible is suspended. By combining the actions of both muscles into a functional unit, this sling enables powerful closure of the jaws.
200
Masseter, superficial part Mandibular angle
Pterygoid process, medial plate
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Superior sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri
Frontal lobe
Inferior sagittal sinus
Temporal fascia Temporal lobe
Dura mater
Ethmoid air cells
Optic nerve (CN II)
Sphenoid sinus
Temporalis, superficial and deep heads
Zygomatic arch
Lateral pterygoid, superior head
Pterygoid process, lateral plate Nasopharynx
Masseter, deep head
Parotid gland
Lateral pterygoid, inferior head Medial pterygoid, deep and superficial heads
Oropharynx
Masseter, superficial head
Tongue
Inferior alveolar nerve (CN V3) in mandibular canal
Mandible
Lingual septum Hyoglossus
Submandibular gland
Platysma
Geniohyoid muscle
Digastric muscle, anterior belly
Mylohyoid muscle
Fig. 9.42 Muscles of mastication, coronal section at the level of the sphenoid sinus Posterior view.
201
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Suprahyoid Muscles The suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles attach to the hyoid bone inferiorly and superiorly, respectively. The infrahyoid muscles depress the
hyoid during phonation and swallowing. They are discussed with the suprahyoid muscles and larynx in the neck (see p. 255).
②
④
1b
③ ③
④
1a
1a
② 1b
A
Mylohyoid raphe
B
Fig. 9.43 Suprahyoid muscles: schematic A Left lateral view. B Superior view.
Table 9.8 Suprahyoid muscles Muscle
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Mylohyoid n. (from CN V3)
Elevates hyoid bone (during swallowing); assists in depressing mandible
Suprahyoid muscles: The suprahyoid muscles are also considered accessory muscles of mastication.
Digastric
1a
Anterior belly
Mandible (digastric fossa)
1b
Posterior belly
Temporal bone (mastoid notch, medial to mastoid process)
Hyoid bone (body)
Via an intermediate tendon with a fibrous loop
Facial n. (CN VII)
②
Stylohyoid
Temporal bone (styloid process)
Via a split tendon
③
Mylohyoid
Mandible (mylohyoid line)
Via median tendon of insertion (mylohyoid raphe)
Mylohyoid n. (from CN V3)
Tightens and elevates oral floor; draws hyoid bone forward (during swallowing); assists in opening mandible and moving it side to side (mastication)
④
Geniohyoid
Mandible (inferior genial [mental] spine)
Body of hyoid bone
Ventral ramus of C1
Draws hyoid bone forward (during swallowing); assists in opening mandible
202
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Styloid process Mastoid process Digastric (posterior belly) Hyoglossus Mylohyoid
Stylohyoid Digastric (intermediate tendon)
Digastric (anterior belly)
Connective tissue sling Infrahyoid muscles (sternohyoid, thyrohyoid, and omohyoid)
Hyoid bone
A
Sublingual fold
Sublingual papilla
Oral mucosa
Genioglossus (cut)
Geniohyoid
Mylohyoid
Hyoid bone B
Hyoglossus Stylohyoid
Fig. 9.44 Suprahyoid muscles A Left lateral view. B Superior view.
203
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Lingual Muscles There are two sets of lingual muscles: extrinsic and intrinsic. The extrinsic muscles, which are attached to specific bony sites outside the tongue, move the tongue as a whole. The intrinsic muscles, which have
no attachments to skeletal structures, alter the shape of the tongue. With the exception of the palatoglossus, the lingual muscles are supplied by the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII).
Table 9.9 Muscles of the tongue Muscle
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Inferior fibers: Hyoid body (anterosuperior surface)
Hypoglossal n. (CN XII)
Protrusion of the tongue
Extrinsic lingual muscles
Genioglossus
Mandible (superior genial [mental] spine via an intermediate tendon); more posteriorly the two genioglossi are separated by the lingual septum
Bilaterally: Makes dorsum concave Unilaterally: Deviation to opposite side
Intermediate fibers: Posterior tongue Superior fibers: Ventral surface of tongue (mix with intrinsic muscles)
Hyoglossus
Hyoid bone (greater cornu and anterior body)
Lateral tongue, between styloglossus and inferior longitudinal muscle
Depresses the tongue
Styloglossus
Styloid process of temporal bone (anterolateral aspect of apex) and stylomandibular ligament
Longitudinal part: Dorsolateral tongue (mix with inferior longitudinal muscle)
Superior and posterior movement of the tongue
Oblique part: Mix with fibers of the hyoglossus Palatoglossus
Palatine aponeurosis (oral surface)
Lateral tongue to dorsum and fibers of the transverse muscle
Vagus n. (CN X) via the pharyngeal plexus
Elevates the root of the tongue; closes the oropharyngeal isthmus by contracting the palatoglossal arch
Superior longitudinal muscle
Thin layer of muscle inferior to the dorsal mucosa; fibers run anterolaterally from the epiglottis and median lingual septum
Hypoglossal n. (CN XII)
Shortens tongue; makes dorsum concave (pulls apex and lateral margin upward)
Inferior longitudinal muscle
Thin layer of muscle superior to the genioglossus and hyoglossus; fibers run anteriorly from the root to the apex of the tongue
Shortens tongue; makes dorsum convex (pulls apex down)
Transverse muscle
Fibers run laterally from the lingual septum to the lateral tongue
Narrows tongue; elongates tongue
Vertical muscle
In the anterior tongue, fibers run inferiorly from the dorsum of the tongue to its ventral surface
Widens and flattens tongue
Intrinsic lingual muscles
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Dorsum of tongue Palatoglossus (cut)
Styloid process
Apex of tongue
Stylomandibular ligament Stylopharyngeus Styloglossus Middle pharyngeal constrictor Hyoglossus
Mandible
Hyoid bone A
Genioglossus
Geniohyoid
Lingual aponeurosis
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Fig. 9.45 Extrinsic and intrinsic lingual muscles A Left lateral view. B Anterior view of coronal section.
Lingual mucosa
Superior longitudinal muscle Vertical muscle of tongue
Lingual septum
Transverse muscle of tongue
Inferior longitudinal muscle Hyoglossus Genioglossus
Sublingual gland Mylohyoid
B Geniohyoid
Fig. 9.46 Unilateral hypoglossal nerve palsy Active protrusion of the tongue with an intact hypoglossal nerve (A) and with a unilateral hypoglossal nerve lesion (B). When the hypoglossal nerve is damaged on one side, the genioglossus muscle is paralyzed on the affected side. As a result, the healthy (innervated) genioglossus on the opposite side dominates the tongue across the midline toward the affected side. When the tongue is protruded, therefore, it deviates toward the paralyzed side.
Anterior belly of digastric
Paralyzed genioglossus on affected side
A
Apex of tongue
B
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9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Lingual Mucosa
Palatopharyngeal arch
Epiglottis
Fig. 9.47 Surface anatomy of the lingual mucosa Superior view. The tongue is endowed with a very powerful muscular body, making possible its motor functions in mastication, swallowing, and speaking. However, its equally important sensory functions LQFOXGLQJ WDVWH DQG ÀQH WDFWLOH GLVFULPLQDWLRQ DUH PDGH SRVVLEOH E\ the specialized mucosal coat covering the dorsum of the tongue. The SDUWVRIWKHWRQJXHFDQEHGLVFXVVHGDVDURRWDYHQWUDOLQIHULRU VXUface, an apex, and a dorsal surface. The V-shaped furrow on the dorsum VXOFXVWHUPLQDOLV GLYLGHVWKHGRUVDOVXUIDFHLQWRDQRUDOSRUWLRQFRPSULVLQJWKHDQWHULRUWZRWKLUGV DQGDSKDU\QJHDOSRUWLRQFRPSULVLQJ WKHSRVWHULRURQHWKLUG
Lingual tonsil
Foramen cecum Palatine tonsil Palatoglossal arch
Posterior (pharyngeal) part
Sulcus terminalis
Dorsum
See detail in Fig. 9.48A
Anterior (oral) part
Median furrow
Apex
Filiform papillae
Vallate papilla
Fungiform papilla Papilla Nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium Lingual aponeurosis
Sulcus Wall of papilla Taste buds
Lingual muscles
Excretory duct of a serous gland Keratinized squamous epithelium on tips of papillae
A
B
Foliate papillae
Tip of papilla (partially covered by keratinized epithelium)
Taste buds
Connective tissue core
C
Serous glands (von Ebner glands)
Excretory duct of gland
D
Fig. 9.48 Papillae of the tongue The mucosa of the anterior dorsum is composed of numerous papillae (A DQGWKHFRQQHFWLYHWLVVXHEHWZHHQWKHPXFRVDOVXUIDFHDQGPXVculature contains many small salivary glands. The papillae are divided into four morphologically distinct types (see Table 9.10
Serous gland
E
&LUFXPYDOODWHB (QFLUFOHGDQGFRQWDLQLQJWDVWHEXGV )XQJLIRUP C 0XVKURRPVKDSHG DQG FRQWDLQLQJ PHFKDQLFDO DQG thermal receptors and taste buds. )LOLIRUPD 7KUHDGVKDSHGDQGVHQVLWLYHWRWDFWLOHVWLPXOLWKHRQO\ OLQJXDOSDSLOODHZLWKRXWWDVWHEXGV )ROLDWHE &RQWDLQLQJWDVWHEXGV
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9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Table 9.10 Regions and structures of the tongue Region
Structures
Anterior (oral, presulcal) portion of the tongue
The anterior ⅔ of the tongue contains the apex and the majority of the dorsum. It is tethered to the oral floor by the lingual frenulum. • Mucosa: ◦ Dorsal lingual mucosa: This portion (with no underlying submucosa) contains numerous papillae. ◦ Ventral mucosa: Covered with the same smooth (nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelial) mucosa that lines the oral floor and gums. • Innervation: The anterior portion is derived from the first (mandibular) arch and is therefore innervated by the lingual nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve (CN V3).
Median furrow (midline septum): The furrow running anteriorly down the midline of the tongue; this corresponds to the position of the lingual septum. Note: Muscle fibers do not cross the lingual septum. Papillae (Fig. 9.48A): The dorsal mucosa, which has no submucosa, is covered with nipplelike projections (papillae) that increase the surface area of the tongue. There are four types, all of which occur in the presulcal but not postsulcal portion of the tongue. • Circumvallate (Fig. 9.48B): Encircled by a wall and containing abundant taste buds. • Fungiform (Fig. 9.48C): Mushroom-shaped papillae located on the lateral margin of the posterior oral portion near the palatoglossal arches. These have mechanical receptors, thermal receptors, and taste buds. • Filiform (Fig. 9.48D): Thread-shaped papillae that are sensitive to tactile stimuli. These are the only papillae that do not contain taste buds. • Foliate (Fig. 9.48E): Located near the sulcus terminalis, these contain numerous taste buds.
Sulcus terminalis
The sulcus terminalis is the V-shaped furrow that divides the tongue functionally and anatomically into an anterior and a posterior portion.
Foramen cecum: The embryonic remnant of the passage of the thyroid gland that migrates from the dorsum of the tongue during development. The foramen cecum is located at the convergence of the sulci terminalis.
Posterior (pharyngeal, postsulcal) portion of the tongue
The base of the tongue is located posterior to the palatoglossal arches and sulcus terminalis. • Mucosa: The same mucosa that lines the palatine tonsils, pharyngeal walls, and epiglottis. The pharyngeal portion of the tongue does not contain papillae. • Innervation: The posterior portion is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).
Lingual tonsils: The submucosa of the posterior portion contains embedded lymph nodes known as the lingual tonsils, which create the uneven surface of the posterior portion. Oropharynx: The region posterior to the palatoglossal arch. The oropharynx, which contains the palatine tonsils, communicates with the oral cavity via the oropharyngeal isthmus (defined by the palatoglossal arches).
Glossoepiglottic folds and epiglottic valleculae: The (nonkeratinized, stratified squamous) mucosal covering of the posterior tongue and pharyngeal walls is reflected onto the anterior aspect of the epiglottis, forming one median and two lateral glossoepiglottic folds. The median glossoepiglottic fold is flanked by two depressions, the epiglottic valleculae.
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Pharynx & Tonsils
Fig. 9.49 Waldeyer’s ring Posterior view of the opened pharynx. Waldeyer’s ring is composed of immunocompetent lymphatic tissue (tonsils and lymph follicles). The tonsils are “immunological sentinels” surrounding the passageways from the mouth and nasal cavity to the pharynx. The lymph follicles are distributed over all of the epithelium, showing marked regional variations. Waldeyer’s ring consists of the following structures: • Unpaired pharyngeal tonsil on the roof of the pharynx • Paired palatine tonsils in the oropharynx • Lingual tonsil, the lymph nodes embedded in the postsulcal portion of the tongue • Paired tubal tonsils (tonsillae tubariae), which may be thought of as lateral extensions of the pharyngeal tonsil • Paired lateral bands in the salpingopharyngeal fold
Roof of pharynx (sphenoid and occipital bones)
Pharyngeal tonsil Nasal conchae
Tubal tonsil
Soft palate Uvula Palatine tonsil
Lymphatic tissue of lateral bands (salpingopharyngeal fold)
Palatopharyngeal arch Lingual tonsil (postsulcal portion of tongue) Epiglottis
Soft palate
Palatine tonsil
Palatoglossal arch Tonsillar fossa Uvula
Palatopharyngeal arch
Palatoglossal arch
Palatine tonsil
A
Fig. 9.50 Palatine tonsils: location and abnormal enlargement Anterior view of the oral cavity. The palatine tonsils occupy a shallow recess on each side, the tonsillar fossa, which is located between the anterior and posterior pillars (palatoglossal arch and palatopharyngeal arch). The palatine tonsil is examined clinically by placing a tongue
208
Tonsillar fossa
Enlarged palatine tonsil
B
C
depressor on the anterior pillar and displacing the tonsil from its fossa while a second instrument depresses the tongue (B). Severe enlargement of the palatine tonsil (due to viral or bacterial infection, as in tonsillitis) may significantly narrow the outlet of the oral cavity, causing difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia, C).
Regions of the Head
Choana
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Sphenoid sinus Roof of pharynx (sphenoid and occipital bones)
Nasal septum
Pharyngeal tonsil
Torus tubarius
Pharyngeal orifice of pharyngotympanic tube
Choana
Pharyngeal recess Anterior arch of axis (C1)
Enlarged pharyngeal tonsil
Dens of axis (C2)
Soft palate
Salpingopharyngeal fold Uvula A
B
evoke a heightened immune response in the lymphatic tissue, causing “adenoids” or “polyps.”) The enlarged pharyngeal tonsil blocks the choanae, obstructing the nasal airway and forcing the child to breathe through the mouth. Because the mouth is then constantly open during respiration at rest, an experienced examiner can quickly diagnose the adenoidal condition by visual inspection.
Fig. 9.51 Pharyngeal tonsil: location and abnormal enlargement Sagittal section through the roof of the pharynx. Located on the roof of the pharynx, the unpaired pharyngeal tonsil can be examined by means of posterior rhinoscopy. It is particularly well developed in (small) children and begins to regress at 6 or 7 years of age. An enlarged pharyngeal tonsil is very common in preschool-aged children (B). (Chronic recurrent nasopharyngeal infections at this age often
Epithelium
Lymphocytes
Respiratory epithelium
Crypts
Nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
Crypts Secondary follicles Connective tissue capsule
A
Lymph follicles
B
Secondary follicles
Fig. 9.52 Histology of the lymphatic tissue of the oral cavity and pharynx Because of the close anatomical relationship between the epithelium and lymphatic tissue, the lymphatic tissue of Waldeyer’s ring is also designated lymphoepithelial tissue. A Lymphoepithelial tissue. Lymphatic tissue, both organized and diffusely distributed, is found in the lamina propria of all mucous membranes and is known as mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT). The epithelium acquires a looser texture, with abundant lymphocytes and macrophages. Besides the well-defined tonsils, smaller collections of lymph follicles may be found in the lateral
C
Remnants of sloughed epithelial cells
bands (salpingopharyngeal folds). They extend almost vertically from the lateral wall to the posterior wall of the oropharynx and nasopharynx. B Pharyngeal tonsil. The mucosal surface of the pharyngeal tonsil is raised into ridges that greatly increase its surface area. The ridges and intervening crypts are lined by ciliated respiratory epithelium. C Palatine tonsil. The surface area of the palatine tonsil is increased by deep depressions in the mucosal surface (creating an active surface area as large as 300 cm2). The mucosa is covered by nonkeratinized, stratified squamous epithelium.
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Pharynx: Divisions & Contents Sphenoid bone Sigmoid sinus Pharyngeal tonsil
Middle nasal turbinate
Pharyngeal recess
Nasal septum
Choanae
Inferior nasal turbinate
Stylohyoid Digastric muscle, posterior belly
Salpingopharyngeal fold
Masseter
Soft palate
Faucial (oropharyngeal) isthmus, posterior border
Uvula
Medial pterygoid Palatine tonsil
Palatopharyngeal arch
Aryepiglottic fold
Root of tongue
Laryngeal inlet
Epiglottis
Cuneiform tubercle Corniculate tubercle
Piriform recess
Pharyngeal raphe (cut)
Thyroid gland
Trachea Esophagus
A
Fig. 9.53 Pharyngeal mucosa and musculature Posterior view. A Mucosal lining. B Internal musculature. The muscular posterior wall of the pharynx has been divided along the mid-
line (pharyngeal raphe) and spread open to demonstrate its mucosal anatomy.
Table 9.11 Levels of the pharynx The anterior portion of the muscular pharyngeal tube communicates with three cavities (nasal, oral, and laryngeal). The three anterior openings divide the pharynx into three parts with corresponding vertebral levels. Region
Level
Description
Communications
Nasopharynx (Epipharynx)
C1
Upper portion, lying between the roof (formed by sphenoid and occipital bones) and the soft palate
Nasal cavity
Via choanae
Tympanic cavity
Via pharyngotympanic tube
Oropharynx (Mesopharynx)
C2–C3
Middle portion, lying between the uvula and the epiglottis
Oral cavity
Via oropharyngeal isthmus (formed by the palatoglossal arch)
Laryngopharynx (Hypopharynx)
C4–C6
Lower portion, lying between the epiglottis and the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage
Larynx
Via laryngeal inlet
Esophagus
Via cricopharyngeus (pharyngeal sphincter)
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Levator veli palatini
Tensor veli palatini
Styloid process Stylohyoid Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Digastric, posterior belly Masseter, superficial and deep heads
Salpingopharyngeus Pharyngeal elevators
Uvular muscle
Palatopharyngeus
Medial pterygoid Angle of mandible
Stylopharyngeus
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Oblique arytenoid
Transverse arytenoid Inferior pharyngeal constrictor Posterior cricoarytenoid
Circular muscle fibers of esophagus
B
Fig. 9.54 Posterior rhinoscopy The nasopharynx can be visually inspected by posterior rhinoscopy.
Pharyngeal tonsil
A Technique of holding the tongue blade and mirror. The angulation of the mirror is continually adjusted to permit complete inspection of the nasopharynx. B Composite posterior rhinoscopic image acquired at various mirror DQJOHV 7KH SKDU\QJRW\PSDQLF DXGLWRU\ WXEH RULÀFH DQG SKDU\QJHDOWRQVLOFDQEHLGHQWLÀHG
Pharyngotympanic tube orifice Nasal septum
A
B
Uvula
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Muscles of the Soft Palate & Pharynx The soft palate is the aponeurotic and muscular region hanging from the hard palate at the posterior portion of the oral cavity. It separates the nasopharynx from the oropharynx. During swallowing, it can be tensed to further restrict the communication between the cavities. The palatoglossus restricts the communication between the oral cavity and phar-
ynx. The pharyngeal muscles elevate and constrict the pharynx (see Table 9.12, Table 9.13, and Fig. 9.56). Though several muscles originate on the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, only the tensor veli SDODWLQLSOD\VDVLJQLÀFDQWUROHLQLWVRSHQLQJ
Roof of pharynx (sphenoid and occipital bones)
Pharyngeal tonsil Cartilaginous part of pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Levator veli palatini Salpingopharyngeus
Tubal orifice Tensor veli palatini
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Medial plate of pterygoid process (sphenoid bone)
Uvular muscle Palatopharyngeus A
Pterygoid hamulus
Masticatory mucosa lining hard palate
Palatine bone (posterior portion of hard palate)
Palatine aponeurosis
Pterygoid hamulus
Musculus uvulae
Lateral plate of pterygoid process (sphenoid bone)
Uvula
Tensor veli palatini Soft palate
Levator veli palatini Pharyngeal tubercle (occipital bone)
Carotid canal
B
Fig. 9.55 Muscles of the soft palate and pharyngotympanic tube A Posterior view. B Inferior view.
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Table 9.12 Muscles of the soft palate and pharyngeal elevators Muscle
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Tensor veli palatini
Sphenoid bone (scaphoid fossa of pterygoid process and medial aspect of the spine); it is connected to the anterolateral membranous wall of the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Palatine aponeurosis and palatine bone (horizontal plate) via a tendon that is redirected medially by the pterygoid hamulus
N. to medial pterygoid (CN V3)
Bilaterally: Tenses anterior portion of the soft palate and flattens its arch, separating the nasopharynx from the oropharynx. Opens pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube. Unilaterally: Deviates soft palate laterally.
Levator veli palatini
Vaginal process and petrous part of temporal bone (via a tendon, anterior to the carotid canal); it is connected to the inferior portion of the cartilaginous pharyngotympanic tube
Palatine aponeurosis (the two levators combine to form a muscular sling)
Vagus n. (CN X) via pharyngeal plexus
Bilaterally: Pulls the posterior portion of the soft palate superoposteriorly, separating the nasopharynx from the oropharynx.
Musculus uvulae
Palatine bone (posterior nasal spine) and palatine aponeurosis (superior surface)
Mucosa of the uvula
Pulls the uvula posterosuperiorly, separating the nasopharynx from the oropharynx.
Palatoglossus (palatoglossal arch)
Palatine aponeurosis (oral surface)
Lateral tongue to dorsum or intrinsic transverse muscle
Pulls the root of the tongue superiorly and approximates the palatoglossal arch, separating the oral cavity from the oropharynx.
Palatopharyngeus (palatopharyngeal arch)
Palatine aponeurosis (superior surface) and posterior border of palatine bone
Thyroid cartilage (posterior border) or lateral pharynx
Bilaterally: Elevates the pharynx anteromedially.
Salpingopharyngeus
Cartilaginous pharyngotympanic tube (inferior surface)
Along salpingopharyngeal fold to palatopharyngeus
Bilaterally: Elevates the pharynx; may also open the pharyngotympanic tube.
Stylopharyngeus
Styloid process (medial surface of base)
Lateral pharynx, mixing with pharyngeal constrictors, palatopharyngeus, and thyroid cartilage (posterior border)
Glossopharyngeal n. (CN IX)
Bilaterally: Elevates the pharynx and larynx.
Table 9.13 Pharyngeal constrictors Muscle
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Pterygopharyngeus
Pterygoid hamulus (occasionally to the medial pterygoid plate)
Vagus n. (CN X) via pharyngeal plexus
Constricts the upper pharynx
Buccopharyngeus
Pterygomandibular raphe
Mylopharyngeus
Mylohyoid line of mandible
Glossopharyngeus
Lateral tongue
Occipital bone (pharyngeal tubercle of basilar part, via median pharyngeal raphe)
Chondropharyngeus
Hyoid (lesser cornu) and stylohyoid ligament
Ceratopharyngeus
Hyoid (greater cornu)
Thyropharyngeus
Thyroid lamina and hyoid bone (inferior cornu)
Cricopharyngeus
Cricoid cartilage (lateral margin)
Constricts the middle pharynx
Constricts the lower pharynx
Recurrent laryngeal n. (CN X) and/or external laryngeal n.
Sphincter at intersection of laryngopharynx and esophagus
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Muscles of the Pharynx
Levator veli palatini
Tensor veli palatini
Pharyngobasilar fascia
Superior pharyngeal constrictor Stylohyoid Buccinator Styloglossus Digastric muscle, posterior belly Stylopharyngeus Hyoglossus
Mylohyoid
Middle pharyngeal constrictor Thyrohyoid membrane
Digastric muscle, anterior belly
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Sternohyoid Thyrohyoid Straight part Cricothyroid Oblique part Tensor veli palatini
Levator veli palatini Esophagus Trachea
1st gap A
Pterygopharyngeal part Buccopharyngeal part Mylopharyngeal part
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Glossopharyngeal part Chondropharyngeal part
2nd gap
Ceratopharyngeal part
Hyoid bone
Thyropharyngeal part
3rd gap
Cricothyroid
B
214
Straight part Oblique part Trachea
Cricopharyngeal part 4th gap Esophagus
Table 9.14 Pharyngeal gaps Gap
Transmitted structures
1st gap
Pharyngotympanic tube
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Levator veli palatini 2nd gap
Stylopharyngeus (inserts on larynx) Glossopharyngeal n. (CN IX)
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
3rd gap
Internal laryngeal n. Superior laryngeal a. and v.
4th gap
Recurrent laryngeal n. Inferior laryngeal a.
Regions of the Head
Pharyngobasilar fascia
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Masseter muscle, deep part
Digastric muscle, posterior belly
Masseter muscle, superficial part
Stylohyoid
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Fig. 9.56 Pharyngeal musculature Left lateral (A) and posterior (C) view of the pharyngeal muscles. B Left lateral view of pharyngeal constrictors. The pharynx is a muscular tube composed of three pharyngeal constrictors (Table 9.13) and three longitudinal pharyngeal elevators (Table 9.12). The striated muscles of the pharynx attach to the skull base and pharyngeal raphe and are continuous with the esophagus at the level of the cricoid cartilage (C6 vertebral body). The cricopharyngeus is continuous across the midline and acts as a pharyngeal sphincter. When the constrictors are relaxed, it is constricted and vice versa. It therefore has a separate innervation (recurrent laryngeal nerve and/or external laryngeal nerve, and generally not pharyngeal plexus).
Medial pterygoid
Stylopharyngeus Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Hyoid bone, greater horn
Thyropharyngeus (inferior pharyngeal constrictor)
Pharyngeal raphe
Thyroid gland Cricopharyngeus (inferior pharyngeal constrictor)
Oblique part
Killian triangle (dehiscence)
Fundiform part
Laimer triangle
C
Fundiform part of cricopharyngeus
Esophagus A
Vomer
Foramen ovale
Medial plate of pterygoid process
Foramen lacerum Body of sphenoid bone
Carotid canal
Cricopharyngeus
B
Zenker diverticulum
Fig. 9.58 Development of diverticula A Posterior view. B Left lateral view. The cricopharyngeal part of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor is divided into an oblique and a fundiform part. Between them is an area of muscular weakness known as the Killian triangle (or dehiscence). This weak spot may allow the mucosa of the hypopharynx to bulge outward through the fundiform part (B), producing a saclike protrusion (Zenker or pharyngoesophageal diverticulum). The collection of food residues may gradually expand the sac, increasing the risk of obstructing the esophageal lumen. Zenker diverticula are most common in middle-aged and elderly individuals. Symptoms include the regurgitation of trapped food residues. In older patients who are not optimal surgical candidates, treatment consists of dividing the fundiform part of the inferior constrictor endoscopically. Note: Diverticula that develop in the Laimer triangle are considerably rarer.
Fig. 9.57 Pharyngobasilar fascia at the base of the skull Inferior view. The pharyngeal musculature arises from the base of the skull by a thick sheet of connective tissue, the pharyngobasilar fascia (shown in red). The pharyngobasilar fascia ensures that the nasopharynx is always open.
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Pharynx: Topography & Innervation
Frontal sinus Nasal septum Sphenoid sinus Torus tubarius with lymphatic tissue (tonsilla tubaria) Pharyngeal tonsil in nasopharynx Pharyngeal orifice of pharyngotympanic tube Salpingopharyngeal fold with lateral lymphatic band
Right choana
Anterior arch of atlas (C1)
Soft palate
Dens of axis (C2)
Uvula
Palatine tonsil in oropharynx
Palatoglossal arch
Lingual tonsil (on postsulcal portion of the tongue)
Genioglossus Geniohyoid
Vallecula
Mylohyoid Hyoid bone
Epiglottis
Thyrohyoid ligament
Laryngopharynx
Vestibular fold Vocal fold
Cricoid cartilage
Esophagus Thyroid gland A
Trachea
• Pharyngeal tonsil (on the roof of the nasopharynx) • Paired palatine tonsils (between the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches of the oropharynx) • Lingual tonsils (covering the postsulcal portion of the tongue) • Paired tonsilla tubaria (around the pharyngeal orifice of the pharyngotympanic tube) with their inferior extensions along the salpingopharyngeal folds (lateral bands) Swelling of the tonsilla tubaria may occlude the pharyngeal orifice of the pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, preventing the equalizing of pressure in the middle ear. The mobility of the tympanic cavity is restricted, resulting in mild hearing loss. Note: Enlargement of the pharyngeal tonsil (e.g., polyps in small children) may also obstruct the orifice of the pharyngotympanic tube.
216
Nasopharynx
Airway
Fig. 9.59 Topography of the pharynx Midsagittal section, left lateral view. The pharynx communicates with the nasal cavity, tympanic cavity, oral cavity, larynx, and esophagus. Its three anterior communications divide it into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx (see Table 9.15). The extensive communications make the spread of bacteria from the pharynx a real and dangerous possibility. The inflow portions (junctions with the nasal and oral cavities) are therefore lined with lymphatic tissue (Waldeyer’s ring; see Fig. 9.49). This defense system includes:
Foodway
Oropharynx Laryngopharynx B
Table 9.15 Pharyngeal levels Region
Level
Borders
Nasopharynx
C1
Roof (sphenoid and occipital bones), choanae, and soft palate
Oropharynx
C2–C3
Uvula, palatoglossal arch, and epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
C4–C6
Epiglottis, laryngeal inlet, and cricoid cartilage (inferior border)
Regions of the Head
Epiglottic cartilage
Thyrohyoid
Epiglottic cartilage
Oral floor
Thyroid cartilage
Hyoid bone
Passavant ridge (contracted superior pharyngeal constrictor)
Soft palate
Soft palate
Oral floor
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Thyroid cartilage
Hyoid bone
Cricoid cartilage
Thyrohyoid
Cricoid cartilage
Esophagus
B
A
Fig. 9.60 Swallowing The larynx, part of the airway, is located at the inlet to the digestive tract. During swallowing, the airway must be occluded to keep food from entering the larynx and the trachea (preventing choking). Swallowing consists of three phases: 1. Oral stage (voluntary initiation): The lingual muscles move the food EROXV WR WKH RURSKDU\QJHDO LVWKPXV ZKLFK ÀUVW H[SDQGV DQG WKHQ contracts.
3KDU\QJHDOVWDJHUHÁH[FORVXUHRIDLUZD\ 7KHORQJLWXGLQDOSKDU\Qgeal muscles elevate the larynx. The lower airway (laryngeal inlet) is covered by the epiglottis. Meanwhile, the soft palate is tensed and HOHYDWHGDJDLQVWWKHSRVWHULRUSKDU\QJHDOZDOOVHDOLQJR̥WKHXSSHU airway. 3KDU\QJRHVRSKDJHDOVWDJHUHÁH[WUDQVSRUW 7KHFRQVWULFWRUVPRYH the food bolus to the stomach.
Corticonuclear tract
To thalamus and cortex (medial lemniscus)
Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
To nucleus of reticular formation (gag and swallowing reflex)
Principal sensory (pontine) nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Solitary nucleus Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Sensation (pain, temperature, touch)
Nucleus ambiguus IX
From the ear (tympanic nerve)
Superior and inferior ganglia
X
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Sensation Direct motor branch to stylopharyngeus
Taste Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Pharyngeal plexus Branchiomotor
Stylopharyngeus
Pharyngeal constrictor
General somatic sensory Special visceral sensory General visceral sensory
Larynx
Fig. 9.61 Pharyngeal plexus The pharynx receives sensory and motor innervation via the pharyngeal plexus, formed by both the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) and vagus (CN X) QHUYHVDORQJZLWKSRVWJDQJOLRQLFV\PSDWKHWLFÀEHUVIURPWKHVXSHULRU cervical ganglion. Note:2QO\WKHYDJXVQHUYHFRQWULEXWHVPRWRUÀEHUV to the plexus (the stylopharyngeus is supplied directly by CN IX).
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Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Salivary Glands
Accessory parotid gland
Fig. 9.62 Major salivary glands A Left lateral view. B Superior view. There are three major (large, paired) salivary glands: parotid, submandibular, and sublingual. They collectively produce 0.5 to 2.0 liters of saliva per day, excreted into the oral cavity via excretory ducts. The saliva keeps the oral mucosa moist. It also has digestive and protective functions: saliva contains the starch-splitting enzyme amylase and the bactericidal enzyme lysozyme.
Parotid gland
Parotid duct
1. Parotid glands: Purely serous glands (watery secretions). The parotid duct crosses superficial to the masseter, pierces the buccinator, and opens into the oral vestibule opposite the second upper molar. 2. Submandibular glands: Mixed seromucous gland. The submandibular duct opens on the sublingual papilla behind the lower incisors. 3. Sublingual glands: Predominantly mucoussecreting gland (mucoserous). The sublingual gland has many smaller excretory ducts that open on the sublingual fold or into the submandibular duct.
Buccinator Masseter A
Facial artery and vein
Sublingual fold
Submandibular gland
Sternocleidomastoid
Sublingual papilla Oral mucosa Genioglossus Sublingual gland
Geniohyoid
Submandibular duct
Mylohyoid
Submandibular gland, intraoral lobe
Lingual artery B
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Hyoid bone
Submandibular gland, extraoral lobe Hyoglossus Stylohyoid
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Labial glands
Submandibular gland
Palatine glands
Sublingual gland Pharyngeal glands
Fig. 9.63 Minor salivary glands In addition to the three major paired glands, 700 to 1000 minor glands secrete saliva into the oral cavity. They produce only 5 to 8 percent of the total output, but this amount suffices to keep the mouth moist when the major salivary glands are not functioning.
Intraparotid lymph nodes
Fig. 9.64 Bimanual examination of the salivary glands The two salivary glands of the mandible, the submandibular gland and sublingual gland, and the adjacent lymph nodes are grouped around the mobile oral floor and therefore must be palpated against resistance. This is done with bimanual examination.
Parotid tumor
Superficial temporal artery and vein
Facial nerve Hypoglossal nerve Submandibular lymph nodes Jugular lymph nodes
Lymph node
Parotid gland, superficial part Parotid plexus Facial nerve
Internal jugular vein Parotid gland, deep part
Fig. 9.65 Spread of malignant parotid tumors Malignant tumors of the parotid gland may invade surrounding structures directly (white arrowheads) or indirectly via regional lymph nodes (red arrowheads). They may also spread systematically (metastasize) through the vascular system.
Sternocleidomastoid
Fig. 9.66 Intraglandular course of the facial nerve in the parotid gland The facial nerve divides into branches within the parotid gland and is vulnerable during the surgical removal of parotid tumors. To preserve the facial nerve during parotidectomy, it is first necessary to locate and identify the facial nerve trunk. The best landmark for locating the nerve trunk is the tip of the cartilaginous auditory canal.
219
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Neurovasculature of the Tongue
Deep lingual artery
Lingual nerve
Styloid process
Glossopharyngeal nerve Submandibular ganglion Dorsal lingual artery Hypoglossal nerve Hyoglossus
Mandible
Lingual artery and vein Deep lingual vein C1 fibers to thyrohyoid
A
Submental artery and vein (from facial artery and vein)
Fig. 9.67 Nerves and vessels of the tongue A Left lateral view. B View of the inferior surface of the tongue. The tongue is supplied by the lingual artery (from the maxillary artery), which divides into its terminal branches, the deep lingual artery and the sublingual artery. The lingual vein usually runs parallel to the artery but on the medial surface of the hyoglossus muscle and drains into the internal jugular vein. The anterior two thirds of the lingual mucosa receives its somatosensory innervation (sensitivity to thermal and tactile stimuli) from the lingual nerve, which is a branch of the trigeminal nerve’s mandibular division (CN V3). The lingual nerve transmits fibers from the chorda tympani of the facial nerve (CN VII), among them the afferent taste fibers for the anterior two thirds of the tongue. The chorda tympani also contains presynaptic, parasympathetic visceromotor axons that synapse in the submandibular ganglion, whose neurons in turn innervate the submandibular and sublingual glands. The palatoglossus receives its somatomotor innervation from the vagus nerve (CN X) via the pharyngeal plexus, the other lingual muscles from the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII).
220
Sublingual artery
Sublingual vein
Hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane
Apex of tongue
Anterior lingual glands
Frenulum Sublingual fold Sublingual papilla
B
Deep lingual artery and vein Lingual nerve Submandibular duct
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Taste
Somatic sensation
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Lingual nerve (mandibular nerve, CN V3)
Facial nerve (CN VII via chorda tympani)
Fig. 9.68 Innervation of the tongue Anterior view. Left side: Somatosensory innervation. Right side: Taste innervation. The posterior one third of the tongue (postsulcal part) primarily receives somatosensory and taste innervation from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), with additional taste sensation conveyed by the vagus
nerve (CN X). The anterior two thirds of the tongue (presulcal part) receives its somatosensory innervation (e.g., touch, pain, and temperature) from the lingual nerve (branch of CN V3) and its taste sensation from the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (CN VII). Disturbances of sensation in the presulcal tongue can therefore be used to determine facial or trigeminal nerve lesions.
Deep cervical lymph nodes Lingual vein Submental lymph nodes
Jugulofacial venous junction
Submandibular lymph nodes
Internal jugular vein Jugular lymph nodes A
Fig. 9.69 Lymphatic drainage of the tongue and oral floor A Left lateral view. B Anterior view. The lymphatic drainage of the tongue and oral floor is mediated by submental and submandibular groups of lymph nodes that ultimately drain into the lymph nodes along the internal jugular vein (A, jugular
B
lymph nodes). Because the lymph nodes receive drainage from both the ipsilateral and contralateral sides (B), tumor cells may become widely disseminated in this region (e.g., metastatic squamous cell carcinoma, especially on the lateral border of the tongue, frequently metastasizes to the opposite side).
221
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Gustatory System
Ventral posteromedial nucleus of thalamus
Postcentral gyrus
Insula
Dorsal tegmental nucleus Dorsal trigeminothalamic tract Oval nucleus Facial nerve Medial parabrachial nucleus
Geniculate ganglion Inferior (petrosal) ganglion
Gustatory part
Chorda tympani
Solitary tract nucleus Dorsal vagal nucleus
Lingual nerve Inferior (nodose) ganglion
Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
Vagus nerve
Epiglottis
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Fig. 9.70 Gustatory pathway The receptors for the sense of taste are the taste buds of the tongue (see Fig. 9.71). Unlike other receptor cells, the receptor cells of the taste buds are specialized epithelial cells (secondary sensory cells, as they do not have an axon). When these epithelial cells are chemically stimulated, the base of the cells releases glutamate, which stimulates the peripheral processes of afferent cranial nerves. These different cranial nerves serve different areas of the tongue. It is rare, therefore, for a complete loss of taste (ageusia) to occur. • The anterior two thirds of the tongue is supplied by the facial nerve (CN VII), the afferent fibers first passing in the lingual nerve (branch of the trigeminal nerve) and then in the chorda tympani to the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve. • The posterior third of the tongue and the vallate papillae are supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX). A small area on the posterior third of the tongue is also supplied by the vagus nerve (CN X). • The epiglottis and valleculae are supplied by the vagus nerve (CN X). Peripheral processes from pseudounipolar ganglion cells (which correspond to pseudounipolar spinal ganglion cells) terminate on the taste buds. The central portions of these processes convey taste information to the gustatory part of the nucleus of the solitary tract. Thus, they function as the first afferent neuron of the gustatory pathway. Their
222
perikarya are located in the geniculate ganglion for the facial nerve, in the inferior (petrosal) ganglion for the glossopharyngeal nerve, and in the inferior (nodose) ganglion for the vagus nerve. After synapsing in the gustatory part of the nucleus of the solitary tract, the axons from the second neuron are believed to terminate in the medial parabrachial nucleus, where they are relayed to the third neuron. Most of the axons from the third neuron cross to the opposite side and pass in the dorsal trigeminothalamic tract to the contralateral ventral posteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. Some of the axons travel uncrossed in the same structures. The fourth neurons of the gustatory pathway, located in the thalamus, project to the postcentral gyrus and insular cortex, where the fifth neuron is located. Collaterals from the first and second neurons of the gustatory afferent pathway are distributed to the superior and inferior salivatory nuclei. Afferent impulses in these fibers induce the secretion of saliva during eating (“salivary reflex”). The parasympathetic preganglionic fibers exit the brainstem via cranial nerves VII and IX (see the descriptions of these cranial nerves for details). Besides this purely gustatory pathway, spicy foods may also stimulate trigeminal fibers (not shown), which contribute to the sensation of taste. Finally, olfaction (the sense of smell), too, is a major component of the sense of taste as it is subjectively perceived: patients who cannot smell (anosmosia) report that their food tastes abnormally bland.
Regions of the Head
9. Oral Cavity & Perioral Regions
Epiglottis Taste bud
Lateral glossoepiglottic fold
Vallecula
Median glossoepiglottic fold
Foramen cecum
Seromucous glands
Terminal sulcus Vallate papilla (B)
Foliate papillae (D)
B
Taste bud
Taste bud
Fungiform papillae (C)
A
C
Fig. 9.71 Organization of the taste receptors in the tongue 7KHKXPDQWRQJXHFRQWDLQVDSSUR[LPDWHO\WDVWHEXGVLQZKLFK WKH VHFRQGDU\ VHQVRU\ FHOOV IRU WDVWH SHUFHSWLRQ DUH FROOHFWHG 7KH taste buds are embedded in the epithelium of the lingual mucosa and are located on the surface expansions of the lingual mucosa — the vallate papillae (principal site, B WKHIXQJLIRUPSDSLOODHC DQGWKHIRliate papillae (D $GGLWLRQDOO\ LVRODWHG WDVWH EXGV DUH ORFDWHG LQ WKH
Nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
Taste pore
D
PXFRXVPHPEUDQHVRIWKHVRIWSDODWHDQGSKDU\Q[7KHVXUURXQGLQJ VHURXVJODQGVRIWKHWRQJXH(EQHUJODQGV ZKLFKDUHPRVWFORVHO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHYDOODWHSDSLOODHFRQVWDQWO\ZDVKWKHWDVWHEXGVFOHDQ WRDOORZIRUQHZWDVWLQJ+XPDQVFDQSHUFHLYHÀYHEDVLFWDVWHTXDOLWLHV VZHHW VRXU VDOW\ ELWWHU DQG D ÀIWK ´VDYRU\µ TXDOLW\ FDOOHG XPDPL ZKLFKLVDFWLYDWHGE\JOXWDPDWHDWDVWHHQKDQFHU
Light taste cell
Fig. 9.72 Microscopic structure of a taste bud Nerves induce the formation of taste buds in the oral mucosa. Axons of cranial nerves VII, IX, and X grow into the oral mucosa from the EDVDOVLGHDQGLQGXFHWKHHSLWKHOLXPWRGL̥HUHQWLDWHLQWRWKHOLJKWDQG GDUN WDVWH FHOOV PRGLÀHG HSLWKHOLDO FHOOV %RWK W\SHV RI WDVWH FHOO KDYH PLFURYLOOL WKDW H[WHQG WR WKH JXVWDWRU\ SRUH )RU VRXU DQG VDOW\ WKH WDVWH FHOO LV VWLPXODWHG E\ K\GURJHQ LRQV DQG RWKHU FDWLRQV 7KH RWKHU WDVWH TXDOLWLHV DUH PHGLDWHG E\ UHFHSWRU SURWHLQV WR ZKLFK WKH ORZPROHFXODUZHLJKWÁDYRUHGVXEVWDQFHVELQGGHWDLOVPD\EHIRXQG LQWH[WERRNVRISK\VLRORJ\ :KHQWKHORZPROHFXODUZHLJKWÁDYRUHG VXEVWDQFHVELQGWRWKHUHFHSWRUSURWHLQVWKH\LQGXFHVLJQDOWUDQVGXFtion that causes the release of glutamate, which excites the peripheral processes of the pseudounipolar neurons of the three cranial nerve JDQJOLD7KHWDVWHFHOOVKDYHDOLIHVSDQRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\GD\VDQG UHJHQHUDWHIURPFHOOVDWWKHEDVHRIWKHWDVWHEXGVZKLFKGL̥HUHQWLDWH into new taste cells. Note:7KHROGQRWLRQWKDWSDUWLFXODUDUHDVRIWKHWRQJXHDUHVHQVLWLYHWR VSHFLÀFWDVWHTXDOLWLHVKDVEHHQIRXQGWREHIDOVH Dark taste cell
Nerve
Basal cell
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Neck 10
Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck Vertebral Column & Vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Ligaments of the Vertebral Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Joints of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Ligaments of the Cervical Spine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Ligaments of the Craniovertebral Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Muscles of the Neck: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Muscles of the Neck & Back (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Muscles of the Neck & Back (II). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Muscles of the Posterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Intrinsic Back Muscles (I): Erector Spinae & Interspinales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Intrinsic Back Muscles (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Intrinsic Back Muscles (III): Short Nuchal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Prevertebral & Scalene Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Suprahyoid & Infrahyoid Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11
Larynx Larynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Laryngeal Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Larynx: Neurovasculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Larynx: Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
12
Neurovascular Topography of the Neck Arteries & Veins of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Lymphatics of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Cervical Plexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Cervical Regions (Triangles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Cervical Fasciae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Posterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Lateral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Anterior Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Deep Anterolateral Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Parapharyngeal Space (I). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Parapharyngeal Space (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Vertebral Column & Vertebrae Atlas (C1)
Dens of axis (C2)
Transverse process of atlas (C1)
Axis (C2) Vertebral bodies (of C3 and C4)
Cervical spine (C1–C7)
Thoracic spine (T1–T12)
Lumbar spine (L1–L5)
Spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens)
Cervical (secondary)
erse Transverse sses processes nd T4) (of T3 and Thoracic (primary)
Laminae (of T5 and T6)
Costal facet of transverse process
Lumbar (secondary)
Superior and inferior costal facets (of T8) Superior and inferior articular facets (of T10)
Sacral (primary) Sacrum (fused S1–S5)
Fig. 10.1 Spinal curvature Left lateral view. The spinal (vertebral) column is divided into four regions: the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spines. In the neonate, all regions demonstrate an anteriorly concave curvature. This single concave curvature in the neonate is referred to as the primary curvature of the vertebral column. During development, the cervical and lumbar regions of the vertebral column develop anteriorly convex curvatures. These changes are referred to as secondary curvatures. The cervical secondary curvature develops as infants begin to hold up their heads. The lumbar secondary curvatures are the result of upright bipedal locomotion. Kyphosis is a pathological condition where the thoracic primary curvature is abnormally exaggerated (hunchback, rounded back). Lordosis is a pathological condition where the secondary curvatures are exaggerated. Lordosis may occur in either the cervical or lumbar regions (swayback) of the vertebral column. Differing from the abnormal development of primary and secondary curvatures, scoliosis is an abnormal lateral deviation of the vertebral column.
226
Spinous processes (of C7 and T1)
Intervertebral disk illary Mammillary sses processes nd L2) (of L1 and
Intervertebral foramina
ular Articular ce surface rum of sacrum
Sacral crest
Sacral foramina
A
Coccyx
B
Fig. 10.2 Vertebral column A Left lateral view. B Posterior view. The vertebral column is divided into four regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral. Each vertebra consists of a vertebral body and vertebral (neural) arch. The vertebral bodies (with intervening intervertebral disks) form the load-bearing component of the vertebral column. The vertebral (neural) arches enclose the vertebral canal, protecting the spinal cord.
Neck
Fig. 10.3 Structure of vertebrae Left oblique posterosuperior view. Each vertebra consists of a loadbearing body and an arch that encloses the vertebral foramen. The arch is divided into the pedicle and lamina. Vertebrae have transverse and spinous processes that provide sites of attachment for muscles. Vertebrae articulate at facets on the superior and inferior articular processes. Thoracic vertebrae articulate with ribs at costal facets.
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Vertebral foramen (VF) Superior articular process (SA)
Vertebral body (VB)
Vertebral arch
Pedicle (P)
Transverse process (T)
Lamina (L)
Spinous process (S) Inferior articular process (IA)
S
S L L
Costal facet on T
T
VF
P
VF
SA facet
SA facet
P Superior and inferior costal facets
Posterior tubercle T (with sulcus for spinal nerve)
Transverse foramen A
VB
Anterior tubercle
VB
B
S (sacral crest) SA with facet
S L
Mammillary process
VF
VF (sacral canal)
Wing
SA with facet
T P
C
Superior vertebral notch Sacral promontory
D
VB
VB (base of sacrum)
Fig. 10.4 Typical vertebrae Superior view. A Cervical vertebra (C4). B Thoracic vertebra (T6). C Lumbar vertebra (L4). D Sacrum. The vertebral bodies increase in size cranially to caudally. See Fig. 10.3 for abbreviation key.
Table 10.1 Structural elements of vertebrae Each vertebra consists of a body and an arch that enclose the vertebral foramen. The types of vertebrae can be distinguished particularly easily by examining their transverse processes. The sacrum has structures that are analogous to the other vertebrae. Vertebrae
Body (VB)
Foramen (VF)
Transverse process (T)
Spinous process (S)
Cervical vertebrae C3–C7
Small (kidney-shaped)
Large (triangular)
Transverse foramina
C3–C5: short C7: long C3–C6: bifid
Thoracic vertebrae T1–T12
Medium (heart-shaped) with costal facets
Small (circular)
Costal facets
Long
Lumbar vertebrae L1–L5
Large (kidney-shaped)
Medium (triangular)
Mammillary processes
Short and broad
Sacrum (fused S1–S5)
Large to small (decreases from base to apex)
Sacral canal (triangular)
Fused (forms wing of sacrum)
Short (median sacral crest)
227
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Ligaments of the Vertebral Column
Fig. 10.5 Ligaments of the vertebral column The ligaments of the vertebral column bind the vertebrae to one another and enable the spine to withstand high mechanical loads and shearing stresses. The ligaments are divided into ligaments of the vertebral bodies and arches (Table 10.2).
Superior articular facet
Vertebral body
Intervertebral disk
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Anulus fibrosus Nucleus pulposus
Lamina
Intervertebral foramen
A Ligaments of the vertebral column. Left lateral view of T11–L3 with T11 and T12 sectioned midsagittally. B Ligaments of the vertebral body (anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, and intervertebral disk). C Ligamenta flava. D Interspinous ligaments and ligamenta flava. E Complete ligaments of the vertebral column.
Ligamenta flava
Anterior longitudinal ligament
Spinous processes Interspinous ligaments
Supraspinous ligament
Transverse process
Table 10.2 Ligaments of the vertebral column
Facet joint capsule Intertransverse ligaments
Vertebral body ligaments
Superior articular process
Anterior longitudinal ligament (along anterior surface of vertebral bodies) Posterior longitudinal ligament (along posterior surface of vertebral bodies, i.e., anterior surface of vertebral canal)
Inferior articular facet A
Intervertebral disk (between adjacent vertebral bodies; the anulus fibrosus limits rotation, and the nucleus pulposus absorbs compressive forces)
Anterior longitudinal ligament
Vertebral (neural) arch ligaments
Ligamenta flava (between laminae) Interspinous ligaments (between spinous processes) Supraspinous ligaments (along posterior border of spinous processes; in the cervical spine, the supraspinous ligament is broadened into the nuchal ligament)
Vertebral body Intervertebral disk
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Ligamenta flava C
B
Intertransverse ligaments (between transverse processes)
Lamina
Transverse process
Interspinous ligaments
Facet joint capsules (enclose the articulation between the facets of the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae)
Lamina Ligamenta flava Spinous process D
228
Inferior articular process Superior articular process E
Intertransverse ligament
Supraspinous ligament Spinous process
Neck
Transverse process
Intervertebral disk
Vertebral body
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Nutrient foramina
Pedicle Posterior longitudinal ligament
Intervertebral foramen
Intervertebral disk
Vertebral body
Gap in ligamentous reinforcement of the disk
Superior articular facet
Anterior longitudinal ligament
Costal process
Fig. 10.6 Individual ligaments of the vertebral column The anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments and ligamenta flava maintain the normal curvature of the spine.
Inferior articular process
A
A Anterior longitudinal ligament. Anterior view. The anterior longitudinal ligament runs broadly on the anterior side of the vertebral bodies from the skull base to the sacrum. Its deep collagenous fibers bind adjacent vertebral bodies together (they are firmly attached to vertebral bodies and loosely attached to intervertebral disks). Its superficial fibers span multiple vertebrae. B Posterior longitudinal ligament. Posterior view with vertebral canal windowed (vertebral arches removed). The thinner posterior longitudinal ligament descends from the clivus along the posterior surface of the vertebral bodies, passing into the sacral canal. The ligament broadens at the level of the intervertebral disk (to which it is attached by tapered lateral extensions). It narrows again while passing the vertebral body (to which it is attached at the superior and inferior margins). C Ligamenta flava and intertransverse ligaments. Anterior view with vertebral canal windowed (vertebral bodies removed). The ligamentum flavum is a thick, powerful ligament that connects adjacent laminae and reinforces the wall of the vertebral canal posterior to the intervertebral foramina. The ligament consists mainly of elastic fibers that produce the characteristic yellow color. When the spinal column is erect, the ligamenta flava are tensed, stabilizing the spine in the sagittal plane. The ligamenta flava also limit forward flexion of the spine. Note: The tips of the transverse processes are connected by interspinous ligaments that limit the rocking movements of vertebrae upon one another.
B
Spinous process
Superior articular process
Transverse process
Lamina
Intertransverse ligaments
Ligamenta flava
Facet joint capsule
Inferior articular process
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Superior articular process
Anterior longitudinal ligament Inferior articular facet C
Spinous process
229
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Cervical Spine Posterior arch of atlas (C1) Anterior tubercle
Transverse process
Posterior tubercle
Transverse foramen
C2 (axis) Spinous process of axis (C2)
Vertebral foramen
Anterior tubercle
Posterior tubercle of atlas (C1)
C1 (atlas)
Groove for vertebral artery
Superior articular facet
A
Inferior articular facet
Transverse process
Posterior arch
Vertebral body Facet (zygapophyseal) joint
Anterior tubercle
Inferior articular process
Posterior tubercle
Superior articular process
Sulcus for spinal nerve
Dens Anterior articular facet
Posterior articular facet
Superior articular facet Spinous process
Transverse foramen Body
Intervertebral foramen
Spinous process of C7
Transverse process
B
Inferior articular facet
Lamina
C7 (vertebra prominens)
Transverse foramen
Transverse foramen
Fig. 10.7 Cervical spine (C1–C7) Left lateral view. The cervical spine consists of seven vertebrae. C1 and C2 are atypical and are discussed individually. Typical cervical vertebrae (C3–C7): Typical cervical vertebrae have relatively small, kidney-shaped bodies. The superior and inferior articular processes are broad and flat; their facets are flat and inclined at approximately 45 degrees from the horizontal. The vertebral arches enclose a large, triangular vertebral foramen. Spinal nerves emerge from the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramina formed between the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae. The transverse processes of cervical vertebrae are furrowed to accommodate the emerging nerve (sulcus for spinal nerve). The transverse processes also consist of an anterior and a posterior portion that enclose a transverse foramen. The transverse foramina allow the vertebral artery to ascend to the base of the skull. The spinous processes of C3–C6 are short and bifid. The spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens) is longer and thicker; it is the first spinous process that is palpable through the skin. Atlas (C1) and axis (C2): The atlas and axis are specialized for bearing the weight of the head and allowing it to move in all directions. The body of the axis contains a vertical prominence (dens) around which the atlas turns. The atlas does not have a vertebral body: it consists of an anterior and a posterior arch that allow the head to rotate in the horizontal plane.
Superior articular process
Transverse process
Superior articular facet
Body
Inferior articular process
Sulcus for spinal nerve
C
Spinous process
Inferior articular facet
Transverse foramen
Superior articular process Superior articular facet Transverse process
Body
Inferior articular process D
Spinous process
Inferior articular facet
Fig. 10.8 Left lateral view of cervical vertebrae A Atlas (C1). B Axis (C2). C Typical cervical vertebra (C4). D Vertebra prominens (C7).
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Neck
Posterior arch
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Posterior tubercle
Vertebral foramen Superior articular facet
Superior articular facet
Anterior arch
Groove for vertebral artery
Lateral masses
Transverse process Transverse foramen Facet for dens
Transverse foramen
Anterior arch Anterior tubercle
A
Inferior articular facet
Anterior tubercle
Transverse process
A
Spinous process Vertebral foramen
Anterior articular facet
Lamina Inferior articular process
Dens
Dens
Superior articular facet
Transverse process
Transverse process
Superior articular facet
Transverse foramen Anterior articular facet
Vertebral foramen
Body
B
B
Uncinate process
Spinous process
Inferior articular facet
Superior articular process
Vertebral arch Lamina Superior articular facet
Pedicle
Posterior tubercle
Transverse process with sulcus for spinal nerve
Sulcus for spinal nerve
Transverse foramen Body
C
Uncinate process
Posterior tubercle Anterior tubercle
Transverse process
Inferior articular facet
Body Spinous process
Anterior tubercle
C
Spinous process
Uncinate process
Superior articular process
Lamina Body Vertebral foramen
Transverse foramen
Inferior articular process
Superior articular facet
Sulcus for spinal nerve
Anterior tubercle Uncinate process
Fig. 10.9 Superior view of cervical vertebrae A Atlas (C1). B Axis (C2). C Typical cervical vertebra (C4). D Vertebra prominens (C7).
Sulcus for spinal nerve
Transverse foramen
Transverse process
Body D
Transverse process
Inferior Inferior articular process articular facet Spinous process D
Fig. 10.10 Anterior view of cervical vertebrae A Atlas (C1). B Axis (C2). C Typical cervical vertebra (C4). D Vertebra prominens (C7).
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Joints of the Cervical Spine
Dens of axis (C2)
Atlanto-occipital joint Median atlantoaxial joint
Atlas (C1)
Lateral atlantoaxial joint
Axis (C2)
Atlantoaxial joint
Uncinate processes
Uncinate joint
Facet (zygapophyseal) joint Vertebral body
Facet (zygapophyseal) joint
Transverse process
Posterior tubercle Anterior tubercle
Intervertebral disk
Sulcus for spinal nerve
Intervertebral joint
A
B
Fig. 10.11 Joints of the cervical spine A Left lateral view. B Anterior view. C Radiograph of the cervical spine. The cervical spine has five types of joints. Two joints (intervertebral and facet) are common to all regions of the spine, and three are specialized joints of the cervical spine. Joints of the vertebral column: Adjacent vertebrae articulate at two points: vertebral bodies and articular processes. The bodies of adjacent vertebrae articulate at roughly horizontal intervertebral joints (via intervertebral disks). The articular processes of adjacent vertebrae articulate at facet (zygapophyseal) joints. In the cervical spine, the intervertebral joints are angled slightly anteroinferiorly, and the zygapophyseal joints are angled posteroinferiorly (roughly 45 degrees below horizontal). Joints of the cervical spine: There are two types of joints that are particular to the cervical spine: 1. Uncovertebral joints: Upward protrusions of the lateral margins of cervical vertebral bodies form uncinate processes. These processes may articulate with the inferolateral margin of the adjacent superior vertebra, forming uncovertebral joints. 2. Craniovertebral joints: The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are specialized to bear the weight of the head and facilitate movement in all directions. This is made possible by craniovertebral joints (see Fig. 10.12).
C
232
Inferior articular facet
Neck
Superior nuchal line
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
External occipital protuberance Foramen magnum
Lateral mass of atlas
Occipital condyle (occipital bone) Dens of axis (C2)
Axis (C2) A
Posterior arch of atlas (with tubercle)
Median atlantoaxial joint Superior articular facet (lateral mass of axis)
Dens of axis (C2)
Fig. 10.12 Craniovertebral joints A Posterior view. B Left oblique posterosuperior view. There are five craniovertebral joints. The paired atlanto-occipital joints are articulations between the concave superior articular facets of the atlas (C1) and the convex occipital condyle of the occipital bone. These allow the head to rock back and forth in the sagittal plane. The atlantoaxial joints (two lateral and one medial) allow the atlas to rotate in the horizontal plane around the dens of the axis. The lateral atlantoaxial joints are the paired articulations between the inferior and superior articular facets of the atlas and axis, respectively. The median atlantoaxial joint is the unpaired articulation between the dens of the axis and the fovea of the atlas. Note: While only the atlanto-occipital joints are direct articulations between the cranium and vertebral column, the atlantoaxial joints are generally classified as craniovertebral joints as well.
Vertebral artery in transverse foramen
Dens
Groove for vertebral artery
Transverse process
Spinous process
B
Lateral atlantoaxial joint
C1 spinal nerve
Atlas (C1) Axis (C2) Vertebral artery Uncinate process
Transverse process
C5 spinal nerve
Spinal nerve in sulcus
C7 spinal nerve A
Lateral atlantoaxial joint
Vertebral body (C7)
Fig. 10.13 Neurovasculature of the cervical spine A Anterior view. B Superior view. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae are extremely important in communicating neurovascular structures. Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord in the vertebral canal. They exit via the intervertebral foramina formed by the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae. The trans-
Spinal cord in vertebral foramen
Dorsal root Ventral root
Superior articular facet
Dorsal ramus
Spinal ganglion
White and gray rami communicantes
Ventral ramus
B
Vertebral artery in transverse foramen
Vertebral body
Transverse process Uncinate process
verse processes of cervical vertebrae contain grooves (sulci) through which the spinal nerves pass. The transverse processes also contain transverse foramina that allow the vertebral artery to ascend from the subclavian artery and enter the skull via the foramen magnum. Injury to the cervical spine can compress the neurovascular structures as they emerge and ascend from the vertebral column.
233
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Ligaments of the Cervical Spine
Occipital bone
Superior nuchal line
External occipital protuberance
Inferior nuchal line
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Mastoid process
Atlas (C1)
Opening for vertebral artery Transverse process
Fig. 10.14 Ligaments of the cervical spine A Posterior view. B Anterior view after removal of the anterior skull base. C Midsagittal section, left lateral view. The nuchal ligament is the broadened, sagittally oriented part of the supraspinous ligament that extends from the vertebra prominens (C7) to the external occipital protuberance.
Axis (C2)
Ligamenta flava
Nuchal ligament
Transverse process
Joint capsule (zygapophyseal joint)
B
A
Spinous process
Vertebra prominens (C7) A
Internal occipital protuberance Internal occipital crest
Occipital bone, basilar part
Atlanto-occipital joint (atlantooccipital capsule)
Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Atlas (C1)
Transverse process
Transverse foramina
Lateral atlantoaxial joint (capsule)
Axis (C2) Anterior longitudinal ligament Sulcus for spinal nerve
Intervertebral disk B
234
Zygapophyseal joint (capsule)
Posterior tubercle Anterior tubercle
Vertebra prominens (C7)
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Internal Sella Apical ligament Hypoglossal Tectorial acoustic meatus turcica canal of the dens membrane
Sphenoid sinus Occipital bone, basilar part
External occipital protuberance
Anterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Dens of axis (C2)
Anterior arch of atlas (C1)
Transverse ligament of atlas
Longitudinal fascicles
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Posterior arch of atlas
Nuchal ligament
Facet joint capsule
Ligamenta flava Vertebral arch
Intervertebral disk (nucleus pulposus)
Intervertebral foramen Spinous process
Anterior longitudinal ligament
Interspinous ligament
Posterior longitudinal ligament C
Supraspinous ligament
C7 vertebral body (vertebra prominens)
Apex of dens (C2)
Body of axis (C2)
Cerebellomedullary cistern Posterior tubercle of atlas (C1) Nuchal ligament
Posterior longitudinal ligament Vertebral body (C5) Intervertebral disk Vertebra prominens (C7)
Spinous process of C7
Supraspinous ligament Spinal cord Subarachnoid space
Fig. 10.15 Magnetic resonance image of the cervical spine Midsagittal section, left lateral view, T2-weighted TSE sequence. (From Vahlensieck M, Reiser M. MRT des Bewegungsapparates. 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2001.)
235
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Ligaments of the Craniovertebral Joints
Superior nuchal line
External occipital protuberance
Atlanto-occipital capsule
Atlanto-occipital capsule
Nuchal ligament Foramen magnum
External occipital crest
External occipital protuberance
Temporal bone
Atlanto-occipital joint
Occipital bone Occipital condyle Tectorial membrane Atlas (C1) Styloid process
Transverse process Ligamenta flava
Zygapophyseal joint (capsule)
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Spinous process A
B
Atlanto-occipital capsule
Alar ligaments
Tectorial membrane
Tectorial membrane
Longitudinal fascicles
Transverse foramen
Transverse ligament of atlas Intervertebral disk
Posterior arch of atlas Lateral atlantoaxial joint
Vertebral body
Laminae (cut)
C
Posterior longitudinal ligament
Cruciform ligament of atlas Cruciform ligament of atlas
Transverse process
Fig. 10.16 Ligaments of the craniovertebral joints and cervical spine Skull and upper cervical spine, posterior view. A The posterior atlanto-occipital membrane stretches from the posterior arch of the atlas to the posterior rim of the foramen magnum. This membrane has been removed on the right side. B With the vertebral canal opened and the spinal cord removed, the tectorial membrane, a broadened expansion of the posterior longitudinal ligament, is seen to form the anterior boundary of the vertebral canal at the level of the craniovertebral joints.
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Tectorial membrane
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane (cut)
Axis (C2)
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Posterior arch of atlas
Mastoid process
Longitudinal Apical ligament fascicles of dens
Alar ligaments
Lateral mass of atlas (C1)
Dens, posterior articular surface
Transverse ligament of atlas Longitudinal fascicles
Body of axis (C2) Intervertebral disk
Intervertebral foramen D
Posterior longitudinal ligament
C With the tectorial membrane removed, the cruciform ligament of the atlas can be seen. The transverse ligament of the atlas forms the thick horizontal bar of the cross, and the longitudinal fascicles form the thinner vertical bar. D The transverse ligament of the atlas and longitudinal fascicles have been partially removed to demonstrate the paired alar ligaments, which extend from the lateral surfaces of the dens to the corresponding inner surfaces of the occipital condyles, and the unpaired apical ligament of the dens, which passes from the tip of the dens to the anterior rim of the foramen magnum.
Neck
Median atlantoaxial joint
Anterior tubercle
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Alar ligaments (cut)
Superior articular facet
Apical ligament of dens
Transverse ligament of atlas
Transverse process Transverse foramen
Dens
Lateral mass of atlas
Vertebral foramen
Longitudinal fascicles
Groove for vertebral artery Posterior arch of atlas
Posterior tubercle of atlas
Spinous process of axis
A
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane Alar ligaments
Tectorial membrane
Apical ligament of dens
Longitudinal fascicles
Superior articular facet
Dens
Anterior arch of atlas
Median atlantoaxial joint Anterior tubercle of atlas
Lateral atlantoaxial joint
Alar Apical ligament ligaments of dens
Body of axis
Longitudinal fascicles
Transverse process
Tectorial membrane
Superior articular facet, lateral mass of atlas
B Transverse foramen
Transverse ligament of atlas
Capsule of lateral atlantooccipital joint
Transverse process Intertransverse ligament
Groove for vertebral artery
Posterior arch of atlas Ligamenta flava
C
Fig. 10.17 Ligaments of the craniovertebral joints A Superior view of atlas (C1) and axis (C2). B Anterosuperior view of C1–C4. C Posterosuperior view of atlas (C1) and axis (C2). There are five craniovertebral joints. The paired atlanto-occipital joints are articulations between the concave superior articular facets of the atlas and the convex occipital condyles of the occipital bone. The joints are stabilized by the atlanto-occipital joint capsule and the posterior atlantooccipital membrane (the equivalent of the ligamenta flava). The paired lateral atlantoaxial and unpaired median atlantoaxial joints allow the atlas to rotate in the horizontal plane around the dens of the axis. They are stabilized by the alar ligaments, the apical ligament of the dens, and the cruciform ligament of the atlas (transverse ligament and longitudinal fascicles).
Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane
Nuchal ligament
Spinous process
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Neck: Overview Fig. 10.18 Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius A Sternocleidomastoid, right lateral view. B Trapezius, posterior view.
Table 10.3 Muscles of the neck The muscles of the neck lie at the intersection of the skull, vertebral column, and upper limb. They can therefore be classified in multiple ways based on location and function. In the pages that follow, the neck muscles are grouped as follows: Superficial neck muscles
Clavicular head
Muscles that lie superficial to the deep layer (lamina) of the deep cervical fascia and are innervated by the ventral rami of spinal nerves
Sternal head
Posterior neck muscles (intrinsic back muscles)
Muscles that insert on the cervical spine and are innervated by the dorsal rami of spinal nerves • Intrinsic back muscles (including nuchal muscles) ◦ Short nuchal/craniovertebral muscles
A
p. 239
p. 240 pp. 242, 243 p. 245
Anterior neck muscles Superior part
Middle part
Muscles that insert on the anterior cervical spine and are innervated by the ventral rami of spinal nerves • Anterior vertebral (prevertebral) muscles • Lateral vertebral muscles (scalenes)
p. 252 p. 253 p. 253
Muscles that do not insert on the cervical spine • Suprahyoid muscles • Infrahyoid muscles
p. 254 p. 255 p. 255
Inferior part
B
Fig. 10.19 Superficial neck muscles A Left lateral view. B Anterior view of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. Unlike the rest of the neck muscles, the superficial neck muscles are located superficial to the deep cervical fascia. Platysma: The platysma, like the muscles of facial expression, is not enveloped in its own fascial sheath, but is instead directly associated with (and in parts inserted into) the skin. (Note: It is innervated by the same nerve as the muscles of facial expression, the facial nerve.) The platysma is highly variable in size — its fibers may reach from the lower face to the upper thorax. Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius: The trapezius lies between the investing and prevertebral layers of cervical fascia. The investing layer splits to enclose the sternocleidomastoid and the trapezius.
238
Deep cervical fascia Sternocleidomastoid Depressor anguli oris
Platysma
A
Trapezius
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Table 10.4 Superficial neck muscles Muscle
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
Platysma
Mandible (inferior border); skin of lower face and angle of mouth
Skin over lower neck and superior and lateral thorax
Facial n. (CN VII), cervical branch
Depresses and wrinkles skin of lower face and mouth; tenses skin of neck; aids forced depression of mandible
Sternocleidomastoid
Occipital bone (superior nuchal line); temporal bone (mastoid process)
Sternal head: sternum (manubrium)
Accessory n. (CN IX), spinal part
Unilateral: Moves chin up and out (tilts occiput to same side and rotates face to opposite side) Bilateral: Extends head; aids in respiration when head is fixed
Clavicular head: clavicle (medial ⅓) Trapezius, superior fibers*
Occipital bone; C1–C7 spinous processes
Clavicle (lateral ⅓)
Draws scapula obliquely upward; rotates glenoid cavity inferiorly
Rhomboid minor
Ligamentum nuchae (inferior part); spinous processes of C7–T1 vertebrae
Medial (vertebral) border of the scapula, superior to the intersection with the scapular spine
C4–C5 ventral rami (C5 fibers are from the dorsal scapular n.)
Scapular movements (e.g., retraction and rotation)
Levator scapulae
C1–C4 cervical vertebrae; posterior tubercles of transverse processes
Scapula, medial to superior angle
C3–C5 ventral rami (C5 fibers are from the dorsal scapular n.)
Scapular movements (e.g., elevation, retraction, and rotation)
Serratus posterior superior
Ligamentum nuchae (inferior part); spinous processes of C7–T3 vertebrae
Ribs 2–5
Ventral rami of thoracic spinal nn. (intercostal nn.)
Postulated to be an accessory muscle of respiration; assists in elevating ribs
*The middle and inferior parts are not described here.
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
B
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Neck & Back (I)
Sternocleidomastoid Deep cervical fascia
Trapezius, superior part Trapezius, middle part
Rhomboideus minor Levator scapulae
Clavicle
Acromion Scapular spine
Supraspinatus
Deltoid
Rhomboideus major Infraspinatus Scapula, medial border
Teres minor Teres major
Teres major
Trapezius, inferior part
Serratus anterior Latissimus dorsi (cut)
Triceps brachii
Latissimus dorsi Serratus posterior inferior
Thoracolumbar fascia, superficial layer
External oblique Olecranon Aponeurotic origin of latissimus dorsi
Internal oblique
Lumbar triangle, internal oblique Iliac crest
Gluteus medius
Fig. 10.20 Muscles of the neck and back Posterior view with trapezius and latissimus dorsi cut on right side. The extrinsic back muscles lie superficial to the thoracolumbar and deep cervical fascia. They are muscles of the upper limb (derived from the limb buds) that have migrated to the back. The intrinsic back muscles lie within the thoracolumbar and deep cervical fascia. They are derived
240
Gluteus maximus
from epaxial muscle. Because of their different embryonic origins, the intrinsic back muscles are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves, and the extrinsic back muscles are innervated by the ventral rami. Note: The trapezius and sternocleidomastoid are innervated by the accessory nerve (CN XI).
Neck
Sternothyroid
Sternohyoid
Trachea
Esophagus
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Visceral cervical fascia
Omohyoid
Thyroid gland
Sternocleidomastoid Pretracheal cervical fascia
Internal jugular vein
Superficial cervical fascia
Carotid sheath
Cervical fascia
Prevertebral cervical fascia
Vagus nerve Common carotid artery
Longus colli Anterior scalene
Brachial plexus
Middle scalene
C6 vertebra
Spinal cord
Levator scapulae Intrinsic back muscles Deep nuchal fascia
Trapezius
Superficial nuchal fascia
A
Abdominal aorta
Inferior vena cava
Parietal peritoneum, transversalis fascia
Kidney
Nuchal fascia
Renal fascia, anterior layer Transverse abdominis Internal oblique External oblique Fibrous capsule
L3 vertebra
Perirenal fat Renal fascia, posterior layer
Psoas major
Latissimus dorsi Vertebral arch Serratus posterior inferior
Costal process Spinous process Intrinsic back muscles (latissimus dorsi)
B
Fig. 10.21 Fascial planes Transverse sections, superior view. A Neck at the level of the C6 vertebra. B Posterior trunk wall at the level of the L3 vertebra (with cauda equina removed from vertebral canal). The muscles of the neck and back are separated by layers of deep fascia (see p. 242). The outermost layer, the deep investing cervical fascia, encloses all muscles with the exception of the platysma (this is located in the superficial fascia, not to be confused with the superficial
Quadratus lumborum Deep layer (lamella) Superficial layer (lamella)
Thoracolumbar fascia
layer of the deep cervical fascia). The deep cervical fascia, located in the anterior neck, is continuous posteriorly with the nuchal fascia in the posterior neck. The superficial layer of the nuchal fascia is continuous inferiorly with the superficial layer (lamella) of the thoracolumbar fascia. The intrinsic muscles of the neck and back lie within the deep nuchal fascia, which is continuous with the prevertebral cervical fascia (anteriorly) and thoracolumbar fascia (inferiorly). The muscles and structures of the anterior neck are enclosed in individual fascial sheaths (i.e., the visceral fascia, pretracheal fascia, and carotid sheath).
241
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Neck & Back (II)
Deep nuchal fascia
Serratus posterior superior (cut)
Semispinalis capitis
Rhomboideus major and minor (cut)
Serratus posterior superior External intercostal muscles
Trapezius (cut)
Deep nuchal fascia
Splenius capitis
Superficial layer (lamella) of thoracolumbar fascia
Splenius cervicis
Latissimus dorsi (cut)
Superficial layer (lamella) of thoracolumbar fascia
Serratus posterior inferior
Spinalis*
Internal oblique
Latissimus dorsi aponeurosis
Iliocostalis*
External oblique (cut)
External oblique
Longissimus*
External intercostal muscles
External oblique
Iliac crest External oblique (cut)
Internal oblique
Iliac crest
A
Gluteus maximus
B
Fig. 10.22 Extrinsic and intrinsic back muscles Posterior view. These dissections demonstrate the distinction between the intrinsic back muscles and the surrounding extrinsic back muscles and trunk muscles. The intrinsic back muscles lie within the deep nuchal fascia, which is continuous inferiorly with the superficial layer (lamella) of the thoracolumbar fascia. They are derived from epaxial muscles and therefore innervated by the dorsal rami of spinal nerves (see p. 246). The muscles of the trunk are derived from hypaxial muscle and therefore innervated by the ventral rami of spinal nerves. The visible trunk muscles are the abdominal muscles (internal and external obliques) and the thoracic muscles (external intercostals).
242
Gluteus maximus
A Removed: Extrinsic back muscles (with the exception of the serratus posterior and the aponeurotic origin of the latissimus dorsi on the right side). B Removed: All extrinsic back muscles and portions of the fascial covering (deep nuchal and superficial layers [lamellae] of the thoracolumbar fasciae). *The spinalis, iliocostalis, and longissimus are collectively known as the erector spinae.
Neck
Splenius capitis (cut)
Semispinalis capitis
Longissimus capitis
Splenius capitis
Iliocostalis cervicis
Splenius cervicis
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Splenius capitis (cut)
Semispinalis capitis (cut)
Superior nuchal line Rectus capitis posterior minor
Obliquus capitis superior
Obliquus capitis inferior
Rectus capitis posterior major Longissimus capitis Iliocostalis thoracis
Spinalis cervicis
External intercostal muscles
Levatores costarum Spinalis
Interspinales cervicis
Rotatores thoracis longi Levatores costarum longi
Longissimus thoracis
Rotatores thoracis breves
External intercostal muscles
Spinalis thoracis
Iliocostalis lumborum
Levatores costarum breves
Internal oblique (cut)
Transversus abdominis
Intertransversarii medialis lumborum
Iliac crest
Twelfth rib Intertransversarii laterales lumborum
Interspinales lumborum Transversus abdominis
A
Gluteus maximus
Multifidus
Deep layer (lamella) of thoracolumbar fascia
Iliac crest
B
Fig. 10.23 Intrinsic back muscles Posterior view. These dissections reveal the layers of intrinsic back muscles. The iliocostalis, longissimus, and spinalis collectively form the erector spinae. They lie deep to the superficial layer (lamella) of the thoracolumbar fascia and cover the other intrinsic back muscles.
Transverse processes
Deep layer (lamella) of thoracolumbar fascia
Multifidus
Quadratus lumborum
Gluteus maximus
A Removed on left side: Longissimus (except cervical portion), splenii capitis and cervicis. Removed on right side: Iliocostalis. Note the deep layer (lamella) of the thoracolumbar fascia, which gives origin to the internal oblique and transversus abdominis. B Removed on left side: Iliocostalis, longissimus, and internal oblique. Removed on right side: Erector spinae, multifidus, transversus abdominis, splenius capitis, and semispinalis capitis.
243
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Posterior Neck
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
External occipital protuberance Semispinalis capitis (cut)
Superior nuchal line
Sternocleidomastoid (cut) Splenius capitis (cut)
Semispinalis capitis Sternocleidomastoid Rectus capitis posterior minor Rectus capitis posterior major
Mastoid process Obliquus capitis superior Transverse process of atlas (C1) Obliquus capitis inferior Longissimus capitis
Splenius capitis Spinous process of axis (C2) Semispinalis cervicis Trapezius, descending part
Fig. 10.24 Muscles in the nuchal region Posterior view of nuchal region. As the neck is at the intersection of the trunk, head, and upper limb, its muscles can be divided according to embryonic origin, function, or location. Those muscles (extrinsic and intrinsic) located in the posterior neck are often referred to as the nuchal muscles. The nuchal muscles are further divided into short
244
Semispinalis capitis (cut)
Splenius capitis (cut) Splenius cervicis
nuchal muscles, which are intrinsic back muscles innervated by the dorsal rami of cervical spinal nerves. Based on location, the short nuchal muscles may also be referred to as suboccipital muscles. The anterior and posterior vertebral muscles collectively move the craniovertebral joints.
Neck
Trapezius (cut) Rectus capitis posterior minor
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Superior nuchal line External occipital protuberance
Inferior nuchal line
Semispinalis capitis (cut) Sternocleidomastoid (cut)
Rectus capitis posterior major
Splenius capitis (cut)
Obliquus capitis superior
Obliquus capitis superior
Mastoid process
Longissimus capitis (cut) Transverse process of atlas
Posterior atlantooccipital membrane (with opening for vertebral artery)
Rectus capitis posterior major
Posterior arch of atlas (C1)
Obliquus capitis inferior
Spinous process of axis (C2) Interspinales cervicis
Intertransversarii cervicis
Transverse process of C7
Spinous process of C7
A
Semispinalis capitis
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Rectus capitis posterior major
Trapezius Sternocleidomastoid
Splenius capitis
Obliquus capitis superior
Longissimus capitis Obliquus capitis inferior
Intertransversarii cervicis
B
Interspinales cervicis
Fig. 10.25 Muscle attachments in the nuchal region Posterior view of skull and cervical spine (C1–C7). A Short nuchal muscles with interspinales and intertransversarii cervicis. The superficial muscles (trapezius and sternocleidomastoid, innervated by CN XI) have been cut. The intrinsic back muscles inserting on the skull (splenius, longissimus, and semispinalis capitis) have also been cut. The intrinsic back muscles are all innervated by dorsal rami of spinal nerves. The short nuchal muscles are innervated by the dorsal rami of the first spinal nerve (suboccipital nerve). B Muscle origins (red) and insertions (blue).
245
Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Intrinsic Back Muscles (I): Erector Spinae & Interspinales
①
⑩ ③
⑤
⑧ ⑥
④ ⑨
⑦
②
A
C
B
Fig. 10.26 Interspinales and erector spinae A Interspinales and spinalis. B Iliocostalis. C Longissimus.
Table 10.5 Erector spinae and interspinales Like all intrinsic back muscles, these muscles are innervated by dorsal rami of spinal nerves. The erector spinae and interspinales are innervated by lateral branches of the dorsal rami. The longissimus is innervated by spinal nerves C1–L5, the iliocostalis by C8–L1. Muscle
Interspinalis
Spinalis*
Iliocostalis*
Longissimus*
Origin
Insertion
Action
①
I. cervicis
C1–C7 (between spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae)
Extends cervical spine
②
I. lumborum
L1–L5 (between spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae
Extends lumbar spine
③
S. cervicis
C5–T2 (spinous processes)
C2–C5 (spinous processes)
④
S. thoracis
T10–L3 (spinous processes, lateral surface)
T2–T8 (spinous processes, lateral surface)
Bilateral: Extends spine Unilateral: Bends laterally to same side
⑤
I. cervicis
3rd–7th ribs
C4–C6 (transverse processes)
⑥
I. thoracis
7th–12th ribs
1st–6th ribs
⑦
I. lumborum
Sacrum; iliac crest; thoracolumbar fascia
6th–12th ribs; deep thoracolumbar fascia; upper lumbar vertebrae (transverse processes)
⑧
L. cervicis
T1–T6 (transverse processes)
C2–C5 (transverse processes)
⑨
L. thoracis
Sacrum; iliac crest; L1–L5 (spinous processes); lower thoracic vertebrae (transverse processes)
2nd–12th ribs; T1–L5 (transverse processes)
⑩
L. capitis
T1–T3 (transverse processes); C4–C7 (transverse and articular processes)
Occipital bone (mastoid process)
Bilateral: Extends head Unilateral: Flexes and rotates head to same side
*The spinalis, iliocostalis, and longissimus are collectively known as the erector spinae. Note: The iliocostalis and longissimus extend the entire spine. The spinalis acts only on the cervical and thoracic spines.
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Atlas (C1) Axis (C2) Interspinales cervicis
Spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens)
Spinalis cervicis Mastoid process Longissimus capitis
Iliocostalis cervicis
Spinalis thoracis
Longissimus cervicis
Iliocostalis thoracis Interspinales lumborum
Longissimus thoracis
Sacrum Transverse processes of L1–L5
Iliocostalis lumborum Iliac crest
A
Sacrum
Fig. 10.27 Interspinales and erector spinae muscles The spinalis, iliocostalis, and longissimus are collectively known as the erector spinae. A Interspinales and spinalis. B Iliocostalis and longissimus.
B
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Intrinsic Back Muscles (II)
˝
˟ ˢ
˞
ˠ
˨ ˦
ˡ
˧
˩
˥
ˣ
A
A
B
Fig. 10.28 6SOHQLXVDQGVHPLVSLQDOLV A Splenius. B Semispinalis.
ˤ
B
C
Fig. 10.29 ,QWHUWUDQVYHUVDULLOHYDWRUHVFRVWDUXPPXOWLÀGXVDQGURWDWRUHV A Intertransversarii and levatores costarum. B 0 XOWLÀGXVC Rotatores.
Table 10.6 6SOHQLXVVHPLVSLQDOLVLQWHUWUDQVYHUVDULLOHYDWRUHVFRVWDUXPPXOWLÀGXVDQGURWDWRUHV All intrinsic back muscles are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. The splenius is innervated by spinal nerves C1–C6. Muscle
Splenius
Semispinalis
Intertransversarii
Levatores costarum
Insertion
Action
Bilateral: Extends cervical spine and head Unilateral: Flexes and rotates head to same side
˝
S. capitis
C3–T3 (spinous processes)
Occipital bone (lateral superior nuchal line; mastoid process)
˞
S. cervicis
T3–T6 (spinous processes)
C1–C2 (transverse processes)
˟
S. capitis
C2–C7 (transverse processes)
Occipital bone (between superior and inferior nuchal lines)
ˠ
S. cervicis
T1–T6 (transverse processes)
C2–C7 (spinous processes)
ˡ
S. thoracis
T6–T12 (transverse processes)
C6–T4 (spinous processes)
I. anteriores cervicis
C2–C7 (between anterior tubercles of adjacent vertebrae)
ˢ
I. posteriores cervicis
C2–C7 (between posterior tubercles of adjacent vertebrae)
ˣ
I. mediales lumborum
L1–L5 (between mammillary processes of adjacent vertebrae)
ˤ
I. laterales lumborum
L1–L5 (between transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae)
˥
L.c. brevis
C7–T11 (transverse processes)
˦
L.c. longi
˧ 0XOWLÀGXV
Rotatores
Origin
Costal angle of next lower rib Costal angle of rib to vertebrae below
Bilateral: Extends spine and head (stabilizes craniovertebral joints) Unilateral: Bends head and spine to same side, rotates to opposite side Bilateral: Stabilizes and extends spine Unilateral: Bends spine laterally to same side
Bilateral: Extends thoracic spine Unilateral: Bends thoracic spine to same side, rotates to opposite side
C2–sacrum (between transverse and spinous processes, skipping two to four vertebrae)
Bilateral: Extends spine Unilateral: Flexes spine to same side, rotates to opposite side Bilateral: Extends thoracic spine Unilateral: Rotates spine to opposite side
˨
R. brevis
T1–T12 (between transverse and spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae)
˩
R. longi
T1–T12 (between transverse and spinous processes, skipping one vertebra)
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10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Superior nuchal line
Inferior nuchal line
Semispinalis capitis
Semispinalis cervicis Spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens)
Superior nuchal line
Semispinalis thoracis Transverse process
Mastoid process
Spinous process
Intertransversarii posteriores cervicis
Rotatores longi
Splenius capitis
Posterior tubercle Spinous process of C7 (vertebra prominens)
Rotatores brevis
Splenius cervicis
Fifth rib
Transverse processes
Multifidus
Levatores costarum brevis
Levatores costarum longi
Sacrum
Transverse process
A
Fig. 10.30 Splenius with transversospinal and intertransverse systems A 7UDQVYHUVRVSLQDO V\VWHP URWDWRUHV PXOWLÀGXV DQG VHPLVSLQDOLV B 6SOHQLXVDQGLQWHUWUDQVYHUVHV\VWHPLQWHUWUDQVYHUVDULLDQGOHYDWRUHV FRVWDUXP
Intertransversarii mediales lumborum
Mammillary process Intertransversarii laterales lumborum
B
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10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Intrinsic Back Muscles (III): Short Nuchal Muscles Fig. 10.31 Short nuchal muscles Posterior view. The short nuchal muscles are intrinsic back muscles that are innervated by the dorsal ramus of the first spinal nerve (suboccipital nerve). These muscles contribute to the extension of the atlanto-occipital joint and rotation about the atlantoaxial joint.
①
②
④
③
Table 10.7 Short nuchal muscles Muscle
Rectii capitis posterioris
Obliquii capitis
250
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
C1 spinal nerve (suboccipital n.), dorsal ramus
Bilateral: Extends head Unilateral: Rotates head to same side
①
R.c.p. minor
C1 (posterior tubercle)
Inferior nuchal line (inner ⅓)
②
R.c.p. major
C2 (spinous process)
Inferior nuchal line (middle ⅓)
③
O.c. inferior
C2 (spinous process)
C1 (transverse process)
④
O.c. superior
C1 (transverse process)
Above the insertion of the rectus capitis posterior major
Bilateral: Extends head Unilateral: Tilts head to same side; rotates head to opposite side
Neck
Superior nuchal line
Inferior nuchal line
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Obliquus capitis superior Mastoid process Rectus capitis posterior major
Posterior tubercle of atlas (C1)
Transverse process of atlas (C1)
Spinous process of axis (C2)
Obliquus capitis inferior
A
Transverse process of atlas
Mastoid process
Posterior arch of atlas (C1)
External occipital protuberance
Mandible
Obliquus capitis superior
Atlas (C1)
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Axis (C2)
Rectus capitis posterior major Obliquus capitis inferior
Spinous process of axis (C2)
B
Fig. 10.32 Suboccipital muscles A Posterior view. B Left lateral view. The suboccipital muscles collectively act on the craniovertebral joints. The suboccipital muscles are the rectus capitis posterior major, rectus capitis posterior minor, obliquus capitis inferior, and obliquus capitis
superior. The dorsal ramus of the first cervical spinal nerve innervates all four suboccipital muscles. Note: The suboccipital triangle is located between the rectus capitis posterior major, the obliquus capitis superior, and the obliquus capitis inferior.
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Neck
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Prevertebral & Scalene Muscles
⑤
①
⑥ ③ ② ④
⑧ ⑦
Fig. 10.33 Prevertebral muscles Anterior view.
⑨
Fig. 10.34 Scalene muscles Anterior view.
Table 10.8 Prevertebral and scalene muscles Muscle ①
Longus capitis
Longus colli
Rectus capitis
Scalenes
252
② Vertical (intermediate) part
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
C3–C6 (anterior tubercles)
Occipital bone, basilar part
Cervical plexus, direct branches (C1–C3)
Bilateral: Flexes head Unilateral: Tilts and slightly rotates head to same side
C5–T3 (anterior surfaces of vertebral bodies)
C2–C4 (anterior surfaces)
Cervical plexus, direct branches (C2–C6)
Bilateral: Flexes cervical spine Unilateral: Tilts and slightly rotates cervical spine to same side
Ventral ramus of C1 spinal n. (suboccipital n.)
Bilateral: Flexion at atlanto-occipital joint Unilateral: Lateral flexion at atlantooccipital joint
Ventral rami of cervical spinal nn.
With ribs mobile: Inspiration (elevate upper ribs) With ribs fixed: Bend cervical spine to same side (unilateral contraction); flex cervical spine (bilateral contraction)
③
Superior oblique part
C3–C5 (anterior tubercles)
C1 (anterior tubercle)
④
Inferior oblique part
T1–T3 (anterior surfaces of vertebral bodies)
C5–C6 (anterior tubercles)
⑤
R.c. anterior
C1 (lateral mass)
Occipital bone (basilar part)
⑥
R.c. lateralis
C1 (transverse process)
Occipital bone (basilar part, lateral to occipital condyles)
⑦
S. anterior
C3–C6 (anterior tubercles)
1st rib (scalene tubercle)
⑧
S. medius
C1 and C2 (transverse processes); C3–C7 (posterior tubercles)
1st rib (posterior to groove for subclavian a.)
⑨
S. posterior
C5–C7 (posterior tubercles)
2nd rib (outer surface)
Neck
Longus capitis (cut)
10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Rectus capitis anterior
Rectus capitis lateralis
Longus capitis
Transverse process of atlas (C1) Transverse process of atlas (C2)
Superior oblique part
Vertical part
Longus colli
Inferior oblique part Scalenus medius Scalenus anterior
Scalenus medius
Scalenus posterior
Scalenus posterior
Interscalene triangle
Scalenus anterior (cut)
Groove for subclavian artery
Second rib
Scalene tubercle
Fig. 10.35 Anterior vertebral (prevertebral) and lateral vertebral muscles Anterior view. Removed on left side: Longus capitis and anterior scalene. The anterior vertebral muscles are the longus colli, longus capitis, rec-
First rib
tus capitis lateralis, and rectus capitis anterior. The lateral vertebral muscles are the anterior, middle, and posterior scalenes. The anterior and lateral vertebral muscles are innervated by the ventral rami of the cervical spinal nerves.
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10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Suprahyoid & Infrahyoid Muscles
④
⑧
3b
② ①
⑤
3a
⑥ ⑦
Fig. 10.36 Suprahyoid muscles Left lateral view.
Fig. 10.37 Infrahyoid muscles Anterior view.
Table 10.9 Suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles Muscle
Origin
Insertion
Innervation
Action
①
Geniohyoid
Mandible (inferior genial spine)
Hyoid bone
Ventral ramus of C1 via CN XII**
Draws hyoid bone forward (during swallowing); assists in opening mandible
②
Mylohyoid
Mandible (mylohyoid line)
Hyoid bone (via median tendon of insertion, the mylohyoid raphe)
Mylohyoid n. (from CN V3)
Tightens and elevates oral floor; draws hyoid bone forward (during swallowing); assists in opening mandible and moving it side to side (mastication)
3a
Digastric, anterior belly
Mandible (digastric fossa)
3b
Digastric, posterior belly
Temporal bone (mastoid notch, medial to mastoid process)
Hyoid bone (via an intermediate tendon with a fibrous loop)
④
Stylohyoid
Temporal bone (styloid process)
Hyoid bone (via a split tendon)
⑤
Omohyoid, inferior belly
Scapula (superior border, medial to suprascapular notch)
Hyoid bone
⑥
Sternohyoid
Manubrium and sternoclavicular joint (posterior surface)
⑦
Sternothyroid
Manubrium (posterior surface)
Thyroid cartilage (oblique line)
⑧
Thyrohyoid
Thyroid cartilage (oblique line)
Hyoid bone
Facial n. (CN VII)
Elevates hyoid bone (during swallowing); assists in depressing mandible
Ansa cervicalis of cervical plexus (C1–C3)
Depresses (fixes) hyoid; draws larynx and hyoid down for phonation and terminal phases of swallowing*
Ventral ramus of C1 via CN XII
Depresses and fixes hyoid; raises the larynx during swallowing
*The omohyoid also tenses the cervical fascia (with an intermediate tendon). The intermediate tendon is attached to the clavicle, pulling the omohyoid into a more pronounced triangle. **C1 ventral ramus fibers travel with the hypoglossal nerve for part of its pathway to target muscles.
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10. Bones, Ligaments & Muscles of the Neck
Stylohyoid Digastric, posterior belly
Digastric, anterior belly
Thyrohyoid Mylohyoid
Sternohyoid
Sternothyroid
Omohyoid, superior and inferior belly
Intermediate tendon of omohyoid
Coronoid process
Geniohyoid
Mylohyoid line
A
Head of mandible Mandibular foramen
Mylohyoid
Mandibular ramus
Mylohyoid Mylohyoid raphe Hyoid bone
Thyrohyoid Thyroid cartilage Sternothyroid
B
Digastric, anterior belly
C
Lesser horn Hyoid bone (body)
Greater horn
Digastric, posterior belly Stylohyoid
Sternohyoid Omohyoid, superior and inferior belly
Fig. 10.38 Suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles A Left lateral view. B Anterior view. C Posterosuperior view. The mylohyoid and anterior digastric are derived from the first pharyngeal arch and are therefore supplied by the trigeminal nerve (CN V). The mylohyoid nerve arises from the mandibular division of CN V before the majority of fibers enter the mandibular foramen as the inferior alveolar nerve. The stylohyoid and posterior digastric are derived from the second pharyngeal arch and are therefore supplied by the facial nerve (CN VII). The remainder of the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles are supplied by the ventral rami of the cervical spinal nerves. Fibers from the ventral ramus of C1 travel with the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) to the geniohyoid and thyrohyoid. Fibers from the ventral rami of C1–C3 combine to form the ansa cervicalis, which gives off branches to the omohyoid, sternohyoid, and sternothyroid.
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11. Larynx
Larynx
Lesser horn
Hyoid bone (body)
Foramen for superior laryngeal artery and internal laryngeal nerve
Axis (C2) Laryngeal prominence
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Greater horn
Thyrohyoid ligament
Atlas (C1)
Hyoid bone
Epiglottis
Superior horn Thyroid cartilage
Cricothyroid ligament
Inferior horn Cricoid cartilage
Cricotracheal ligament
Tracheal cartilage
Fig. 11.1 Location of the larynx Anterior view. The bony structures of the neck have characteristic vertebral levels (shown for upright adult male): • Hyoid bone: C3 • Thyroid cartilage (superior border): C4 • Laryngotracheal junction: C6–C7 These structures are a half vertebra higher in women and children. The thyroid cartilage is especially prominent in males, forming the laryngeal prominence (“Adam’s apple”).
Vocal ligament
Lesser horn
Vestibular ligament
Epiglottic cartilage
Greater horn Corniculate cartilage Arytenoid cartilage
Thyroid cartilage
Fig. 11.2 Larynx: overview Oblique left anterolateral view. The larynx consists of five cartilages: two external cartilages (thyroid and cricoid) and three internal cartilages (epiglottic, arytenoid, and corniculate). Elastic ligaments connect these cartilages to each other as well as to the trachea and hyoid bone. This allows laryngeal motion during swallowing. The thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages are hyaline, and the epiglottis and corniculate cartilages are elastic fibrocartilage.
Foramen for superior laryngeal artery and internal laryngeal nerve
Thyrohyoid membrane Superior horn
Corniculate cartilage
Vocal process Cricoarytenoid joint
Median cricothyroid ligament
Cricoid cartilage
Thyroepiglottic ligament
Cricoarytenoid ligament
Inferior horn
Cricothyroid joint
Cricotracheal ligament
A
Fig. 11.3 Laryngeal cartilages and ligaments A Left medial view of sagittal section. B Posterior view. Arrows indicate movement in the various joints. The large thyroid cartilage encloses most of the other cartilages. It articulates with the cricoid cartilage inferiorly at the paired crico-
256
B
thyroid joints, allowing it to tilt relative to the cricoid cartilage. The arytenoid cartilages move during phonation: their bases can translate or rotate relative to the cricoid cartilage at the cricoarytenoid joint.
Neck
Epiglottic cartilage
11. Larynx
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A
B
Fig. 11.4 Epiglottic cartilage A Laryngeal (posteroinferior) view. B Lingual (anterosuperior) view. C Left lateral view. The elastic epiglottic cartilage regulates the entrance of material into the larynx. During breathing, it is angled posterosuperiorly, allowing air to enter the larynx and trachea. During swallowing, the larynx is elevated relative to the hyoid bone. The epiglottis assumes a more horizontal position, preventing food from entering the airway.
Articular facet for arytenoid cartilage (cricoarytenoid joint)
Lamina
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Fig. 11.5 Thyroid cartilage Oblique left lateral view. The hyaline thyroid cartilage consists of two quadrilateral plates (laminae) that are joined at the anterior midline. The superior portion of this junction is the laryngeal prominence (“Adam’s apple”). The posterior ends of the laminae are prolonged forming the superior and inferior horns, which serve as anchors for ligaments.
Corniculate cartilage
Apex of arytenoid cartilage
Corniculate cartilage
Colliculus
Articular facet for thyroid cartilage (cricothyroid joint)
Posterior surface
Anterolateral surface
Vocal process
A A
B Muscular process
Vocal process
C Medial surface
Arch
Arch of cricoid cartilage
Vocal process
Muscular process
Colliculus Arch
C
Fig. 11.6 Cricoid cartilage A Posterior view. B Anterior view. C Left lateral view. The hyaline cricoid cartilage is a ring that is connected inferiorly to the highest tracheal cartilage by the cricotracheal ligament. The cricoid ring is expanded posteriorly to form a lamina. The laminae each have an upper and lower articular facet for the arytenoid cartilage (cricoarytenoid joint) and thyroid cartilage (cricothyroid joint), respectively.
Corniculate cartilage D
Muscular process
Vocal ligament
Conus elasticus
Articular facet (cricothyroid joint)
Articular facet
Median cricothyroid ligament
Thyroid cartilage
B
Articular facet (cricoarytenoid joint)
Apex of arytenoid cartilage
Lamina of cricoid cartilage
Cricoarytenoid ligament
Fig. 11.7 Arytenoid and corniculate cartilages Right cartilages. A Right lateral view. B Left lateral (medial) view. C Posterior view. D Superior view. The arytenoid cartilages alter the positions of the vocal cords during phonation. The pyramid-shaped hyaline cartilages have three surfaces (anterolateral, medial, and posterior), an apex, and a base with vocal and muscular processes. The apex articulates with the tiny corniculate cartilages, which are composed of elastic fibrocartilage.
257
Neck
11. Larynx
Laryngeal Muscles Arytenoid cartilage, vocal process
Oblique line
Vocalis
Arytenoid cartilage, muscular process
Conus elasticus
Cricothyroid
Straight part
Inferior horn of thyroid cartilage
Oblique part
Lateral cricoarytenoid
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Middle cricoarytenoid ligament
Articular facet for thyroid
B
A Arch of cricoid cartilage
Epiglottic cartilage
Thyroarytenoid muscle, thyroepiglottic part
Oblique arytenoid
Aryepiglottic fold
Aryepiglottic fold
Cuneiform tubercle
Cuneiform tubercle
Thyroarytenoid
Transverse arytenoid
Lamina of cricoid cartilage
Oblique arytenoid
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Thyroarytenoid
Corniculate tubercle
Lateral cricoarytenoid
Posterior cricoarytenoid
D C
Table 11.1 Laryngeal muscles The laryngeal muscles move the laryngeal cartilages relative to one another and affect the tension and/or position of the vocal folds. Numerous muscles move the larynx as a whole (infrahyoids, suprahyoids, pharyngeal constrictors, stylopharyngeus, etc.). Muscle
Innervation
Action
Vocal folds
Rima glottidis
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Recurrent laryngeal n.**
Rotates arytenoid cartilage outward and slightly to the side
Abducts
Opens
Lateral cricoarytenoid*
Rotates arytenoid cartilage inward
Adducts
Closes
Transverse arytenoid
Moves arytenoids toward each other
Thyroarytenoid
Rotates arytenoid cartilage inward
Relaxes
Closes
Vocalis***
Regulates tension of vocal folds
Tightens
None
Cricothyroid
External laryngeal n.
Tilts cricoid cartilage posteriorly, acting on the vocalis muscle to increase tension in the vocal folds
*The lateral cricoarytenoid is called the muscle of phonation as it initiates speech production. **Unilateral loss of the recurrent laryngeal nerve (e.g., due to nodal metastases from a hilar bronchial carcinoma of the left lung) leads to ipsilateral palsy of the posterior cricoarytenoid. This prevents complete abduction of the vocal folds, causing hoarseness. Bilateral nerve loss (e.g., due to thyroid surgery) may cause asphyxiation. ***The vocalis is derived from the inferior fibers of the thyroarytenoid muscle. These fibers connect the arytenoid cartilage with the vocal ligament.
258
Neck
11. Larynx
Cricothyroid
Vocalis
Thyroarytenoid Posterior cricoarytenoid
E
Lateral cricoarytenoid
Transverse arytenoid
A
Fig. 11.8 Laryngeal muscles A Left lateral oblique view of extrinsic laryngeal muscles. B Left lateral view of intrinsic laryngeal muscles (left thyroid lamina and epiglottis removed). C Posterior view. D Left lateral view. E Actions (arrows indicate directions of pull).
B
Fig. 11.9 Indirect laryngoscopy A Mirror examination of the larynx from the perspective of the examiner. The larynx is not accessible to direct inspection but can be viewed with the aid of a small mirror. The examiner depresses the tongue with one hand while introducing the laryngeal mirror (or endoscope) with the other hand. A Optical path: The laryngeal mirror is held in front of the uvula, directing light from the examiner’s head mirror down toward the larynx. The image seen by the examiner is shown in Fig. 11.10.
Median glossoepiglottic fold Vallecula
Root of tongue Epiglottis
Vocal fold
Epiglottic tubercle
Laryngeal ventricle
Aryepiglottic fold
Vestibular fold
C
D
E
Piriform sinus
Cuneiform tubercle
Arch of cricoid cartilage
Vocal process
A
B
Corniculate tubercle
Interarytenoid notch
Trachea
Fig. 11.10 Indirect laryngoscopy A Laryngoscopic mirror image. B Normal respiration. C Vigorous respiration. D Phonation position (vocal folds completely adducted). E Whispered speech (vocal folds slightly abducted). Indirect laryngoscopy produces a virtual image of the larynx in which the right vocal fold appears on the right side of the mirror image and anterior structures (e.g., tongue base, valleculae, and epiglottis) appear at the top of the image. The vocal folds appear as smooth-edged
bands (there are no blood vessels or submucosa below the stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium of the vocal folds). They are therefore markedly lighter than the highly vascularized surrounding mucosa. The glottis can be evaluated in closed (respiratory) and opened (phonation) position by having the patient alternately inhale and sing “hee.” The clinician can then determine pathoanatomical changes (e.g., redness, swelling, and ulceration) and functional changes (e.g., to vocal fold position).
259
Neck
11. Larynx
Larynx: Neurovasculature
Epiglottis
Epiglottic cartilage
Quadrangular membrane
Thyroid cartilage
Glands Rima vestibuli
Vestibular fold Cut edges Vocal fold
Laryngeal saccule
Laryngeal ventricle
Vestibular ligament
Rima glottidis
Vocal ligament Conus elasticus
Vocalis muscle
Thyroarytenoid muscle
Ventricle
A
Vallecula
Lingual tonsil Epiglottis
Hyoid bone
Piriform recess
Hyoepiglottic ligament
Aryepiglottic fold
Thyrohyoid ligament
Cuneiform tubercle
Vestibular fold
Corniculate tubercle
Ventricle Vocal fold
Piriform recess
Laryngeal vestibule
Cricoid cartilage
Median cricothyroid ligament
Intermediate laryngeal cavity
Esophagus
Tracheal cartilage
Infraglottic cavity
Membranous wall of trachea B
Fig. 11.11 Laryngeal mucosa A Posterior view with pharynx and esophagus cut along the midline and spread open. B Left lateral view of midsagittal section. C Posterior view with laryngeal levels. The larynx lies anterior to the laryngopharynx. Air enters through the laryngeal inlet formed by the epiglottis and aryepiglottic folds. Lateral to the aryepiglottic folds are pear-shaped mucosal fossae (piriform recesses), which channel food past the larynx and into the laryngopharynx and on into the esophagus. The interior of the larynx is lined with mucous membrane that is loosely applied to its underlying tissue (except at the vocal folds). The laryngeal cavity can be further subdivided with respect to the vestibular and vocal folds (Table 11.2).
260
Fig. 11.12 Vestibular and vocal folds Coronal section. The vestibular and vocal folds are the mucosal coverings of underlying ligaments. The vocal folds (“vocal cords”) contain the vocal ligament and vocalis muscle. The fissure between the vocal folds is the rima glottidis (glottis). The vestibular folds (“false vocal cords”) are superior to the vocal folds. They contain the vestibular ligament, the free inferior end of the quadrangular membrane. The fissure between the vestibular folds is the rima vestibuli, which is broader than the rima glottidis. Note: The loose connective tissue of the laryngeal inlet may become markedly swollen (e.g., insect bite, inflammatory process), obstructing the rima vestibuli. This laryngeal edema (often incorrectly called “glottic edema”) presents clinically with dyspnea and poses an asphyxiation risk.
C
Table 11.2 Divisions of the laryngeal cavity Laryngeal level
Boundaries
I: Laryngeal vestibule (supraglottic space)
Laryngeal inlet (aditus laryngis) to vestibular folds
II: Intermediate laryngeal cavity (transglottic space)
Vestibular folds across the laryngeal ventricle (lateral evagination of mucosa) to vocal folds
III: Infraglottic cavity (subglottic space)
Vocal folds to inferior border of cricoid cartilage
Neck
11. Larynx
Vagus nerve (CN X) Superior thyroid artery
Superior laryngeal nerve
Superior laryngeal artery
Internal laryngeal nerve (sensory)
Common carotid artery
External laryngeal nerve (motor to cricothyroid)
Cricothyroid branch Inferior laryngeal artery
Cricothyroid
Inferior thyroid artery
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve
Thyrocervical trunk Right subclavian artery Vagus nerve (CN X)
Brachiocephalic trunk
Aortic arch
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve (a branch of CN X)
A
Facial vein
Superior laryngeal vein Superior thyroid vein
Middle thyroid veins
Inferior laryngeal vein
Thyroid venous plexus Internal jugular vein Inferior thyroid vein Left brachiocephalic vein B
Subclavian vein
Fig. 11.13 Laryngeal blood vessels and nerves A Arteries and nerves, anterior view. B Veins, left lateral view. Arteries: The larynx derives its blood supply primarily from the superior and inferior laryngeal arteries. The superior laryngeal artery arises from the superior thyroid artery (a branch of the external carotid artery). The inferior laryngeal artery arises from the inferior thyroid artery (a branch of the thyrocervical trunk). Nerves: The larynx is innervated by the superior laryngeal nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve (of the vagus nerve). The superior laryngeal nerve splits into an internal (sensory) and an external (motor) laryngeal nerve. The external laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid. The remaining intrinsic laryngeal muscles receive motor innervation from the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which branches from the vagus nerve below the larynx and ascends. Note: The left recurrent laryngeal nerve wraps around the aortic arch, and the right recurrent laryngeal nerve wraps around the subclavian artery. A left-sided aortic aneurysm may cause left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy, resulting in hoarseness (see p. 263). Veins: The larynx is drained by a superior and an inferior laryngeal vein. The superior laryngeal vein drains to the internal jugular vein (via the superior thyroid vein); the inferior laryngeal vein drains to the left brachiocephalic vein (via the thyroid venous plexus to the inferior thyroid vein).
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Neck
11. Larynx
Larynx: Topography
Superior laryngeal nerve Internal laryngeal nerve
Hyoid bone
Superior laryngeal vein and artery
Thyrohyoid membrane
Cricothyrotomy High tracheotomy
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor (thyropharyngeal part)
Thyrohyoid
External laryngeal nerve
Oblique line
Fig. 11.15 Approaches to the larynx and trachea Midsagittal section, left lateral view. When an acute edematous obstruction of the larynx (e. g., due to an allergic reaction) poses an acute risk of asphyxiation, the following surgical approaches are available for creating an emergency airway:
Median cricothyroid ligament Straight part Cricothyroid
Oblique part Middle thyroid vein Thyroid gland
Low tracheotomy
• Division of the median cricothyroid ligament (cricothyrotomy) • Incision of the trachea (tracheotomy) at a level just below the cricoid cartilage (high tracheotomy) or just superior to the jugular notch (low tracheotomy).
Inferior thyroid artery Esophagus
A Epiglottis
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Fig. 11.14 Topography of the larynx Left lateral view. A Superficial dissection. B Deep dissection (cricothyroid and left thyroid lamina removed with pharyngeal mucosa retracted). Neurovascular structures enter the larynx posteriorly. The larynx receives sensory and motor innervation from branches of the vagus nerve (CN X). Sensory innervation: The upper larynx (above the vocal folds) receives sensory innervation from the internal laryngeal nerve, and the infraglottic cavity receives sensory innervation from the recurrent laryngeal nerve. Motor innervation: The cricothyroid receives motor innervation from the external laryngeal nerve, and the rest of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx receive motor innervation from the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
Internal laryngeal nerve
Hyoid bone
Superior laryngeal vein and artery
Median thyrohyoid ligament
Thyroid lamina
Galen’s anastomosis (between sensory branches of internal and recurrent laryngeal nerves)
Thyroarytenoid Lateral cricothyroid
Posterior cricoarytenoid
Median cricothyroid ligament
Esophagus
Cricothyroid
Middle thyroid vein
Tracheal branches Trachea B
262
Inferior thyroid artery Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Neck
To glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) To superior laryngeal nerve (cricothyroid muscle)
Brainstem (medulla oblongata)
Glands
Brainstem lesion (hemorrhage, neoplasm) ① Vagus nerve roots Superior (jugular) ganglion
To recurrent laryngeal nerve
Skull base tumors ②
To accessory nerve (CN XI)
Inferior (nodose) ganglion Superior laryngeal nerve Carotid surgery ③
Internal laryngeal nerve
Vestibular fold Laryngeal ventricle (Morgagni space)
Stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
Jugular foramen
Pharyngeal branch to pharyngeal plexus
Reinke space (loose connective tissue)
Thyroarytenoid
Subglottic edema, ciliated respiratory epithelium
Vocal ligament Vocalis
Conus elasticus Vagus nerve (CN X)
External laryngeal nerve
Left common carotid artery Thyroid surgery ⑥
⑤ Aortic
aneurysm
A
a b c d
Fig. 11.17 Vocal folds Schematic coronal histologic section, posterior view. The vocal fold, which is exposed to severe mechanical stresses, is covered by nonkeratinized squamous epithelium, unlike the adjacent subglottic space, which is covered by ciliated respiratory epithelium. The mucosa of the vocal folds and subglottic space overlies loose connective tissue. Chronic irritation of the subglottic mucosa (e.g., from cigarette smoke) may cause chronic edema in the subglottic space, resulting in a harsh voice. Degenerative changes in the vocal fold mucosa may lead to thickening, loss of elasticity, and squamous cell carcinoma.
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve
Table 11.3 Vagus nerve lesions
Bronchial carcinoma ④
Lesions of the laryngeal nerves (Fig. 11.16A) may cause sensory loss or motor paralysis, which disrupts the position of the vocal folds (Fig. 11.16B).
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Level of nerve lesion and effects on vocal fold position
Sites of injury to vagus nerve or its branches
B
11. Larynx
Positions of the vocal folds a. Median or phonation position b. Paramedian position c. Intermediate position d. Lateral or respiratory position
Fig. 11.16 Vagus nerve lesions The vagus nerve (CN X) provides branchiomotor innervation to the pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles and somatic sensory innervation to the larynx. Note: The vagus nerve also conveys parasympathetic motor fibers and visceral sensory fibers to and from the thoracic and abdominal viscera. Branchiomotor innervation: The nucleus ambiguus contains the cell bodies of lower motor neurons whose branchiomotor fibers travel in CN IX, X, and XI. The nuclei of the vagus nerve are located in the middle region of the nucleus ambiguus in the brainstem (the cranial portions of the nucleus send axons via the glossopharyngeal nerve, and the caudal portions send axons via the accessory nerve). Fibers emerge from the middle portion of the nucleus ambiguus as roots and combine into CN X, which passes through the jugular foramen. Branchiomotor fibers are distributed to the pharyngeal plexus via the pharyngeal branch and the cricothyroid muscle via the external laryngeal nerve (a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve). The remaining branchiomotor fibers leave the vagus nerve as the recurrent laryngeal nerves, which ascend along the trachea to reach the larynx. Sensory innervation: General somatic sensory fibers travel from the laryngeal mucosa to the spinal nucleus of the trigeminal nerve via the vagus nerve. The cell bodies of these primary sensory neurons are located in the inferior (nodose) ganglion. Note: The superior (jugular) ganglion contains the cell bodies of viscerosensory neurons.
①
Central lesion (brainstem or higher)
E.g., due to tumor or hemorrhage. Spastic paralysis (if nucleus ambiguus is disrupted), flaccid paralysis, and muscle atrophy (if motor neurons or axons are destroyed). ②
b,c
None
b,c
Entire affected side
d
Above vocal fold
a,b
Below vocal fold
Skull base lesion*
E.g., due to nasopharyngeal tumors. Flaccid paralysis of all intrinsic and extrinsic laryngeal muscles on affected side. Glottis cannot be closed, causing severe hoarseness. ③
Sensory loss
Superior laryngeal nerve lesions*
E.g., due to carotid surgery. Hypotonicity of the cricothyroid, resulting in mild hoarseness with a weak voice, especially at high frequencies. Recurrent laryngeal nerve lesions** E.g., due to bronchial carcinoma ④ , aortic aneurysm ⑤ , or thyroid surgery ⑥ . Paralysis of all intrinsic laryngeal muscles on affected side. This results in mild hoarseness, poor tonal control, rapid voice fatigue, but not dyspnea.
*Other motor deficits include drooping of the soft palate and deviation of the uvula toward the affected side, diminished gag and cough reflexes, difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and hypernasal speech due to deficient closure of the pharyngeal isthmus. Sensory defects include the sensation of a foreign body in the throat. **Transection of both recurrent laryngeal nerves can cause significant dyspnea and inspiratory stridor (high-pitched noise indicating obstruction), necessitating tracheotomy in acute cases.
263
Neck
11. Larynx
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor Thyroid cartilage
Superior thyroid artery
Pyramidal lobe Cricothyroid ligament Right lobe Isthmus of thyroid gland
Cricothyroid
Parathyroid glands, superior pair
Left lobe
Parathyroid glands, inferior pair Inferior thyroid artery
Trachea B
A
Fig. 11.18 Thyroid and parathyroid glands A Anterior view. B Posterior view. The thyroid gland consists of two laterally situated lobes and a central narrowing (isthmus). A pyramidal lobe may be found in place of the isthmus; the apex points to the embryonic origin of the thyroid at the base of the tongue (on occasion, a persistent thyroglossal duct may
>O>QEVOLFA DI>KAP
be present, connecting the pyramidal lobe with the foramen cecum of the tongue). The parathyroid glands (generally four in number) show considerable variation in number and location. Note: Because the parathyroid glands are usually contained within the thyroid capsule, there is considerable risk of inadvertently removing them during thyroid surgery.
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Fig. 11.19 Topography of the thyroid gland Transverse section through the neck at the T 1 level, superior view. The thyroid gland partially surrounds the trachea and is bordered posterolaterally by the carotid sheath. When the thyroid gland is pathologically enlarged (e. g., due to iodine-deficiency goiter), it may gradually compress and narrow the tracheal lumen, causing respiratory distress. The thyroid gland is surrounded by a fibrous capsule composed of an internal and external layer. The delicate internal layer (internal capsule, not shown here) directly invests the thyroid gland and is fused with its
264
OBSBOQB?O>I I>VBO
glandular parenchyma. Vascularized fibrous slips extend from the internal capsule into the substance of the gland, subdividing it into lobules. The internal capsule is covered by the tough external capsule, which is part of the pretracheal layer of the deep cervical fascia. This capsule invests the thyroid gland and parathyroid glands and is also called the “surgical capsule” because it must be opened to gain surgical access to the thyroid gland. Between the external and internal capsules is a potential space that is traversed by vascular branches and is occupied by the parathyroid glands.
Neck
Superior thyroid artery
Inferior thyroid artery
External carotid artery
Thyrohyoid membrane
Superior laryngeal vein
Internal carotid artery
Superior thyroid vein
Internal jugular vein
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Middle thyroid vein
Thyroid venous plexus Inferior bulb of left jugular vein
Inferior bulb of right jugular vein
Thyrocervical trunk Right recurrent laryngeal nerve
11. Larynx
Left subclavian artery
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve
Subclavian vein Thoracic duct
Right lymphatic duct Inferior thyroid vein
Left brachiocephalic vein
Right brachiocephalic vein
A
Superior vena cava B
Fig. 11.20 Blood supply and innervation of the thyroid gland Anterior view. A Arterial supply: The thyroid gland derives most of its arterial blood supply from the superior and inferior thyroid arteries. The superior thyroid artery, a branch of the external carotid artery, runs forward and downward to supply the gland. It is supplied from below by the inferior thyroid artery, which branches from the thyrocervical trunk. All of these arteries, which course on the right and left sides of the organ, must be ligated during surgical removal of the thyroid gland. In addition, a rare branch, the thyroidima, may arise from the brachiocephalic trunk or right common carotid artery to supply the gland from below.
Note: Operations on the thyroid gland carry a risk of injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which is closely related to the posterior surface of the gland. Because it supplies important laryngeal muscles, unilateral injury to the nerve will cause postoperative hoarseness; bilateral injury may additionally result in dyspnea (difficulty in breathing). Prior to thyroid surgery, therefore, an otolaryngologist should confirm the integrity of the nerve supply to the laryngeal muscles and exclude any preexisting nerve lesion. B Venous drainage: The thyroid gland is drained anteroinferiorly by a well-developed thyroid venous plexus, which usually drains through the inferior thyroid vein to the left brachiocephalic vein. Blood from the thyroid gland also drains to the internal jugular vein via the superior and middle thyroid veins.
Lumen of epithelial follicle Colloid Epithelial cell, squamous to low cuboidal
Chief cell Epithelial cell, cuboidal to columnar A
B
Fig. 11.21 Histology of the thyroid gland The thyroid gland absorbs iodide from the blood and uses it to make the thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T 4, tetraiodothyronine) and triiodothyronine (T 3). These hormones are stored at extracellular sites in the gland, bound to protein, and when needed they are mobilized from the thyroid follicles and secreted into the bloodstream. A special feature of the thyroid gland is the appearance of its epithelium, which varies depending on whether it is storing hormones or releasing them into the blood. The epithelial cells are flattened or squamous when in their resting or “storage state” (A), but they are columnar when in their active or “secretory state” (B). The epithelial morphology thus indicates the current functional state of the cells. Iodine deficiency causes an enlargement of the colloidal follicular lumen, which eventually results in a gross increase in the size of the thyroid (goiter). With prolonged iodine deficiency, there is a reduction in body metabolism and concomitant lethargy, fatigue, and mental depression. Conversely, hyperactivity of the thyroid, as in Graves’ disease (an autoimmune disorder), causes a generalized metabolic acceleration, with irritability and weight loss. In the midst of the thyroid follicles are parafollicular cells (C cells), which secrete calcitonin. Calcitonin inhibits bone resorption and reduces the calcium concentration in the blood.
Connective tissue fibers Oxyphilic cell
Fig. 11.22 Histology of the parathyroid gland The principal cell type in the parathyroid gland is the chief cell, which responds directly to low blood calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH, parathormone). Parathyroid hormone increases calcium concentration in the blood by various means, including the stimulation of bone resorption by osteoclasts and the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium. Parathyroid hormone thus acts antagonistically against calcitonin produced by the thyroid’s C cells. Inadvertent removal of the parathyroid glands during thyroid surgery can cause a dramatic fall in serum calcium, with catastrophic consequences. Such a hypocalcemic condition causes neuromuscular irritability and, potentially, generalized fatal seizures involving respiratory muscles. Conversely, pathological hyperactivity of the parathyroid can lead to chronic hypercalcemia, often associated with bone loss (osteoporosis) and abnormal calcium deposition in the circulatory and urinary systems. Chronic hyperparathyroidism with hypertrophy of chief cells and elevated serum calcium is a common consequence of end-stage renal failure, by a mechanism not clearly established.
265
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Arteries & Veins of the Neck Fig. 12.1 Arteries of the neck Left lateral view. The structures of the neck are supplied by branches of the external carotid artery and the subclavian artery (the internal carotid artery gives off no branches in the neck). The common carotid artery is enclosed in a fascial sheath (carotid sheath) along with the jugular vein and vagus nerve. The vertebral artery ascends through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae.
Vertebral artery Ascending pharyngeal artery External carotid artery
Lingual artery
Internal carotid artery
Infrahyoid branch Superior thyroid artery Superior laryngeal artery
Vertebral artery Inferior thyroid artery Ascending cervical artery
Cricothyroid branch
Common carotid artery Transverse cervical artery
Glandular branches
Suprascapular artery Thyrocervical trunk Left subclavian artery
Table 12.1 Arteries of the neck For a complete treatment of the arteries of the head and neck, see Chapter 3. Artery
Branches
Secondary branches*
External carotid a.
Superior thyroid a.
Superior laryngeal, cricothyroid, infrahyoid, and sternocleidomastoid aa.
Ascending pharyngeal a.
Pharyngeal, palatine, prevertebral, inferior tympanic, and meningeal aa.
Lingual a.
Suprahyoid, dorsal lingual, deep lingual, and sublingual aa.
Facial a.
Ascending palatine, tonsillar, glandular, and submental aa.
Occipital a.
Sternocleidomastoid, descending, mastoid, auricular, and meningeal aa.
Posterior auricular a.
Stylomastoid and auricular aa.
Superficial temporal a.
(Branching occurs on the face)
Maxillary a.
(Branches within the infratemporal fossa are listed in Table 5.1, p. 102)
Vertebral a.
Spinal aa. and muscular aa.
Thyrocervical trunk
Inferior thyroid a.
Subclavian a.
Inferior laryngeal, tracheal, esophageal, and ascending cervical aa.
Suprascapular a. Transverse cervical a. Internal thoracic a.
(Branching occurs within the thorax)
Descending (dorsal) scapular a.
(When present, it supplies the territory of the deep branch of the transverse cervical a.)
*Only branches that arise in the neck are listed here.
266
Superficial and deep branches
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Facial vein External jugular vein Superior thyroid vein
Internal jugular vein Anterior jugular vein Jugular venous arch
Middle thyroid vein
Transverse cervical vein
Inferior thyroid vein
Left brachiocephalic vein
Right brachiocephalic vein
Superior vena cava
Fig. 12.2 Veins of the neck Anterior view. The veins of the head and neck drain to the superior vena cava via the right and left brachiocephalic veins. The large internal jugular vein combines with the subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein on each side. The internal jugular vein is located within
the carotid sheath. It receives blood from the anterior neck and the interior of the skull. The subclavian vein receives blood from the neck via the external and anterior jugular veins, which are located within the superficial cervical fascia. Note: The thyroid venous plexus and vertebral veins typically drain directly into the brachiocephalic veins.
Table 12.2 Veins of the neck For a complete treatment of the veins of the head and neck, see Chapter 3. Right and left brachiocephalic vv.*
Internal jugular v.
Inferior petrosal sinus, pharyngeal vv.; occipital, (common) facial, lingual, and superior and middle thyroid vv.
Subclavian v.
External jugular v.
Vertebral v.
Internal and external vertebral venous plexuses; ascending cervical (anterior vertebral) and deep cervical vv.
Inferior thyroid vv.
Thyroid venous plexus
Posterior external jugular, anterior jugular, transverse cervical, and suprascapular vv.**
*The brachiocephalic vein is formed by the joining of its two primary tributaries, the internal jugular vein and the subclavian vein. Only tributaries within the neck are listed above. **The tributaries of the external jugular vein may on occasion drain directly into the subclavian vein.
267
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Lymphatics of the Neck
A distinction is made between regional lymph nodes, which are associated with a particular organ or region and constitute their primary filtering stations, and collecting lymph nodes, which usually receive lymph from multiple regional lymph node groups. Lymph from the head and neck region, gathered in scattered regional nodes, flows through its system of deep cervical collecting lymph nodes into the right and left
Retroauricular lymph nodes
Occipital lymph node
jugular trunks, each closely associated with its corresponding internal jugular vein. The jugular trunk on the right side drains into the right lymphatic duct, which terminates at the right jugulosubclavian junction. The jugular trunk on the left side terminates at the thoracic duct, which empties into the left jugulosubclavian junction (see Fig. 12.6).
Superficial parotid lymph nodes
Mastoid lymph nodes
Fig. 12.3 Superficial cervical lymph nodes Right lateral view. Enlarged cervical lymph nodes are a common finding at physical examination. The enlargement of cervical lymph nodes may be caused by inflammation (usually a painful enlargement) or neoplasia (usually a painless enlargement) in the area drained by the nodes. The superficial cervical lymph nodes are primary drainage locations for lymph from adjacent areas or organs.
Deep parotid lymph nodes
Anterior superficial cervical lymph nodes Lateral superficial cervical lymph nodes
Fig. 12.4 Deep cervical lymph nodes Right lateral view. The deep lymph nodes in the neck consist mainly of collecting nodes. They have major clinical importance as potential sites of metastasis from head and neck tumors. Affected deep cervical lymph nodes may be surgically removed (neck dissection) or may be treated by regional irradiation. For this purpose, the American Academy of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery has grouped the deep cervical lymph nodes into six levels (Robbins 1991): I Submental and submandibular lymph nodes II – IV Deep cervical lymph nodes along the internal jugular vein (lateral jugular lymph nodes): – II Deep cervical lymph nodes (upper lateral group) – III Deep cervical lymph nodes (middle lateral group) – IV Deep cervical lymph nodes (lower lateral group) V Lymph nodes in the posterior cervical triangle VI Anterior cervical lymph nodes
268
II
I
V III
IV
VI
Neck
Occipital
Parotidauricular
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Facial
Fig. 12.5 Directions of lymphatic drainage in the neck Right lateral view. Understanding this pattern of lymphatic flow is critical to identifying the location of a potential cause of enlarged cervical lymph nodes.There are two main sites in the neck where the lymphatic pathways intersect:
Nuchal Jugulofacial venous junction Parallel to internal jugular vein Along the accessory nerve Axillary
Right lymphatic duct
Submentalsubmandibular Laryngotracheothyroidal Jugulosubclavian venous junction
• Jugulofacial venous junction: Lymphatics from the head pass obliquely downward to this site, where the lymph is redirected vertically downward in the neck. • Jugulosubclavian venous junction: The main lymphatic trunk, the thoracic duct, terminates at this central location, where lymph collected from the left side of the head and neck region is combined with lymph draining from the rest of the body. If only peripheral nodal groups are affected, this suggests a localized disease process. If the central groups (e.g., those at the venous junctions) are affected, this usually signifies an extensive disease process. Central lymph nodes can be obtained for diagnostic evaluation by prescalene biopsy.
Thoracic duct
B F B C D A
F
Fig. 12.6 Relationship of the cervical nodes to the systemic lymphatic circulation Anterior view. The cervical lymph nodes may be involved by diseases that are not primary to the head and neck region, because lymph from the entire body is channeled to the left and right jugulosubclavian junctions (red circles). This can lead to retrograde involvement of the cervical nodes. The right lymphatic duct terminates at the right jugulosubclavian junction, the thoracic duct at the left jugulosubclavian junction. Besides cranial and cervical tributaries, the lymph from thoracic lymph nodes (mediastinal and tracheobronchial) and from abdominal and caudal lymph nodes may reach the cervical nodes by way of the thoracic duct. As a result, diseases in those organs may lead to cervical lymph node enlargement. For example, gastric carcinoma may metastasize to the left supraclavicular group of lymph nodes, producing an enlarged sentinel node that suggests an abdominal tumor. Systemic lymphomas may also spread to the cervical lymph nodes by this pathway.
E
E
C
D
Fig. 12.7 Systematic palpation of the cervical lymph nodes The cervical lymph nodes are systematically palpated during the physical examination to ensure the detection of any enlarged nodes. Panel A shows the sequence in which the various nodal groups are successively palpated. The examiner usually palpates the submentalsubmandibular group first (B), including the mandibular angle (C), then proceeds along the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle (D). The supraclavicular lymph nodes are palpated next (E), followed by the lymph nodes along the accessory nerve and the nuchal group of nodes (F).
269
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Cervical Plexus The neck receives innervation from the cervical spinal nerves as well as three cranial nerves: glossopharyngeal (CN IX), vagus (CN X), and accessory (CN XI). CN IX and X innervate the pharynx and larynx;
CN XI provides motor innervation to the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid. The course and distribution of the cranial nerves are described in Chapter 4.
Fig. 12.8 Cervical spinal nerves Like all spinal nerves, the cervical spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord as a dorsal (sensory) root and a ventral (motor) root. The roots combine to form the mixed spinal nerve, which then gives off a dorsal and a ventral ramus. Dorsal rami: Supply motor innervation to the intrinsic back muscles (epiaxial muscle) (Table 12.3). Ventral rami: Supply motor innervation to the anterolateral muscles of the neck derived from the hypaxial muscle. The ventral rami of C1–C4 supply motor innervation to the deep neck muscles (scalenes, rectii capitis anterioris) via direct branches. The ventral rami also combine to form the cervical plexus, which supplies the skin and musculature of the anterior and lateral neck.
Dorsal rootlets (sensory)
Dorsal root with spinal ganglion Spinal nerve
Dorsal ramus Ventral ramus Gray ramus communicans
Ventral root Ventral rootlets (motor)
White ramus communicans
Meningeal branch Splanchnic nerves
Sympathetic ganglion
Table 12.3 Dorsal rami of C1– C3 Dorsal ramus
Motor
Sensory
C1 (Suboccipital n.)*
Nuchal muscles (e.g., superior oblique, inferior oblique, rectus capitis posterior major, rectus capitis posterior minor, semispinalis capitis)
Meninges
C2
Greater occipital n.* (medial branch of C2)
–
C2 dermatome (posterior neck and scalp)
Lateral branch of C2
Semispinalis capitis, splenius capitis, longissimus capitis
–
Least occipital n.* (medial branch of C3)
–
C3 dermatome (posterior neck)
Lateral branch of C3
Semispinalis capitis, splenius capitis, longissimus capitis
–
C3
*The suboccipital nerve is primarily a motor nerve, whereas the greater occipital and least occipital nerves are sensory branches of C2 and C3, respectively.
Fig. 12.9 Cervical plexus The ventral rami of spinal nerves C1–C4 emerge from the intervertebral foramina along the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. They emerge between the anterior and posterior scalenes and give off short direct branches to the scalenes and rectii capitis anterioris before coursing anteriorly to form the cervical plexus. Motor fibers: Motor fibers from C1 course with the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII). Certain fibers continue with the nerve to innervate the thyrohyoid and geniohyoid. The remainder leave CN XII to form the superior root of the ansa cervicalis. The inferior root is formed by motor fibers from C2 and C3. The ansa cervicalis innervates the omohyoid, sternothyroid, and sternohyoid. Most motor fibers from C4 descend as the phrenic nerve, which innervates the diaphragm. Sensory fibers: The sensory fibers of C2–C4 emerge from the cervical plexus as peripheral nerves. (Note: The sensory fibers of C1 go to the meninges.) These peripheral sensory nerves emerge from Erb’s point and provide sensory innervation to the anterolateral neck.
270
To meninges (sensory) Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
C1
C2
C3
Superior root of ansa cervicalis (C1, motor)
C4
Inferior root of ansa cervicalis (C2–C3, motor)
C5
Ansa cervicalis Phrenic nerve (C3–C5, mixed)
Lesser occipital nerve (C2, sensory)
Great auricular nerve (C2–C3, sensory) Transverse cervical nerve (C2–C3, sensory)
Supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4, sensory)
To brachial plexus
Neck
Hyoglossus
Arc of hypoglossal nerve
Stylohyoid
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Styloglossus
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Ventral ramus of C1 C1 C2 Lingual nerve (CN V3) Genioglossus
C3
Geniohyoid branch (C1)
Thyrohyoid branch (C1) Superior root of ansa cervicalis (C1) Thyrohyoid Inferior pharyngeal constrictor Inferior root of ansa cervicalis (C2–C3)
Omohyoid, superior belly Sternohyoid Sternothyroid
Fig. 12.10 Motor nerves of the cervical plexus Left lateral view.
Ansa cervicalis
Sternocleidomastoid Parotid gland (within capsule)
Lesser occipital nerve (C2)
Great auricular nerve (C2–C3) Transverse cervical nerve (C2–C3)
Erb’s point
Platysma
Supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4)
Trapezius
Fig. 12.11 Sensory nerves of the cervical plexus Left lateral view.
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12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Cervical Regions (Triangles)
Occipital region
Parietal region
˝
Submandibular triangle
Carotid triangle
Submental triangle
˞
Muscular triangle
ˠ
A Occipital triangle
Omoclavicular triangle
Lesser supraclavicular fossa B
ˠ
˟
Fig. 12.12 Cervical regions A Right lateral oblique view. B Left posterior oblique view. For descriptive purposes, the anterolateral neck is divided into an anterior and a posterior cervical triangle, separated by the sternocleido-
mastoid. The posterior portion of the neck is referred to as the nuchal region.
Table 12.4 Cervical regions Region
Subdivision
˝ Anterior cervical region (anterior cervical triangle): Bounded by the midline, mandible, and sternocleidomastoid.
Submandibular (digastric) triangle: Bounded by the mandible and the bellies of the digastric muscle. Carotid triangle: Bounded by the sternocleidomastoid, superior belly of the omohyoid, and posterior belly of the digastric. Muscular triangle: Bounded by the sternocleidomastoid, superior omohyoid, and sternohyoid. Submental triangle: Bounded by the anterior bellies of the diagastric, the hyoid bone, and the mandible.
˞
Sternocleidomastoid region: The region lying under the sternocleidomastoid muscle.
˟ Lateral cervical region (posterior cervical triangle): Bounded by the sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, and clavicle.
Omoclavicular (subclavian) triangle: Bounded by the inferior belly of the omohyoid, the clavicle, and the sternocleidomastoid. Occipital triangle: Bounded by the inferior belly of the omohyoid, the trapezius, and the clavicle.
ˠ Posterior cervical region (nuchal region): Region lying under the trapezius muscle inferior to its insertion at the superior nuchal line and superior to the vertebra prominens (C7).
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12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Submandibular triangle
Digastric muscle, posterior belly
Digastric muscle, anterior belly
Sternocleidomastoid Lateral cervical region (posterior cervical triangle)
Submental triangle Carotid triangle Submandibular triangle
Trapezius
Muscular triangle
Digastric muscle, anterior belly
B Lesser supraclavicular fossa
Submental triangle Hyoid bone Sternocleidomastoid region
Carotid triangle
Clavicle
Fig. 12.13 Muscle dissection of the neck A Anterior view with the head slightly extended. B Left lateral view.
A Lateral cervical region (posterior cervical triangle)
Lesser supraclavicular fossa
Trapezius
External occipital protuberance Suprasternal notch Clavicle
Inferior border of mandible Acromion
A
Fig. 12.14 Palpable bony prominences in the neck A Anterior view. B Posterior view. Certain palpable structures define the boundaries of the neck. The superior boundaries of the neck are the
Spinous process of C7 vertebra
Tip of mastoid process
Acromion
B
inferior border of the mandible, tip of the mastoid process, and external occipital protuberance. The inferior boundaries are the suprasternal notch, clavicle, acromion, and spinous process of the C7 vertebra.
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12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Cervical Fasciae Fig. 12.15 Cervical fasciae The structures of the neck are enclosed by multiple layers of cervical fasciae, sheets of connective tissue that subdivide the neck into compartments. The fascial layers are separated by interfascial spaces. There are four major fascial spaces in the neck: pretracheal, retropharyngeal, prevertebral, and carotid. These spaces are not prominent under normal conditions (the fasciae lie flat against each other). However, the spaces may provide routes for the spread of inflammatory processes (e.g., tonsillar infections in the infratemporal fossa) from regions of the head and neck into the mediastinum.
˟ Muscular pretracheal fascia
˝ Deep cervical fascia
ˠ Visceral pretracheal fascia Carotid sheath ˠ
Prevertebral fascia ˞
Deep nuchal fascia ˞
ˠ Buccopharyngeal fascia
Superficial nuchal fascia ˝
Table 12.5 Cervical fasciae and fascial spaces 'HVSLWHJHQHUDOO\EHLQJFRQWLQXRXVPDQ\RIWKHIDVFLDOOD\HUVEHDUGL̥HUHQWQDPHVLQGL̥HUHQWUHJLRQVRIWKHQHFNUHODWLYHWRWKHVWUXFWXUHVWKH\HQFORVH Layer Fascial layer
Description
Contents
6XSHUÀFLDOFHUYLFDOIDVFLDQRWVKRZQ
Subcutaneous tissue that lies deep to the skin and contains the platysma anterolaterally.
Platysma
˝ Investing layer (yellow) = Deep cervical IDVFLD6XSHUÀFLDOQXFKDOIDVFLD
Envelops the entire neck and is continuous with the nuchal ligament posteriorly.
Trapezius and (splits around the) sternocleidomastoid
˞
Prevertebral layer (purple) = Prevertebral fascia + Deep nuchal fascia
Attaches superiorly to the skull base and continues inferiorly into the superior mediastinum, merging with the anterior longitudinal ligament. Continues along the subclavian artery and brachial plexus, becoming continuous with the axillary sheath. 7 KHSUHYHUWHEUDOIDVFLDVSOLWVLQWRDQDQWHULRUDODU DQGDSRVWHULRU layer (the “danger space” is located between these layers).
Intrinsic back muscles and prevertebral muscles
Pretracheal fascia (green)
˟
Carotid sheath (blue)
Muscular portion (light green)
Infrahyoid muscles
ˠ Visceral portion (dark green): Attaches to the cricoid cartilage and is continuous posteriorly with the buccopharyngeal fascia. Continues inferiorly into the superior mediastinum, eventually PHUJLQJZLWKWKHÀEURXVSHULFDUGLXP
Thyroid gland, trachea, esophagus, and pharynx
Consisting of loose areolar tissue, the sheath extends from the base of the skull (from the external opening of the carotid canal) to the aortic arch.
Common and internal carotid arteries, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve (CN X); in addition, &1,;&1;,DQG&1;,,EULHÁ\ pass through the most superior part of the carotid sheath.
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12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Mandible (no fascial layers on face)
Parotid gland with opened capsule Deep cervical fascia
Sternocleidomastoid (cut)
Sternohyoid
Carotid sheath (cut)
Visceral pretracheal fascia
Muscular pretracheal fascia (cut) Prevertebral fascia Trapezius Clavicle Sternal and clavicular heads of sternocleidomastoid (cut)
Clavipectoral fascia
A
Superficial nuchal fascia
Nuchal ligament
Spinal cord
Deep cervical fascia Muscular pretracheal fascia
Posterior layer Anterior (alar) layer Deep nuchal fascia
Visceral pretracheal fascia
Prevertebral fascia
“Danger space” (between layers of prevertebral fascia) B Retrovisceral fascia
Fig. 12.16 Fascial relationships in the neck A $QWHULRUYLHZZLWKVNLQVXSHUÀFLDOFHUYLFDOIDVFLDDQGSODW\VPDUHPRYHGB / HIWODWHUDOYLHZRIPLGVDJLWWDOVHFWLRQ 7KHVXSHUÀFLDOFHUYLFDOIDVFLDQRWVKRZQ OLHVMXVWGHHSWRWKHVNLQDQG FRQWDLQVWKHFXWDQHRXVPXVFOHRIWKHQHFNSODW\VPD 7KHLQYHVWLQJ OD\HU FRQWDLQV WKH UHPDLQGHU RI WKH VWUXFWXUHV LQ WKH QHFN 7KH GHHS FHUYLFDO IDVFLD DWWDFKHV WR WKH LQIHULRU ERUGHU RI WKH PDQGLEOH DQG LV FRQWLQXRXVLQIHULRUO\ZLWKWKHFODYLSHFWRUDOIDVFLDDQWHULRUO\ DQGWKH VXSHUÀFLDOQXFKDOIDVFLDDQGWKHWKRUDFROXPEDUIDVFLDSRVWHULRUO\ 7KH GHHSFHUYLFDOIDVFLDVSOLWVWRHQFORVHWKHSDURWLGJODQGLQDFDSVXOHA, VZHOOLQJRIWKHSDURWLGJODQGUHVXOWVLQSDLQGXHWRFRQVWULFWLRQE\WKH FDSVXOH ,WDOVRVSOLWVWRHQFORVHWKHVWHUQRFOHLGRPDVWRLG,QWKHDQWHULRUQHFNWKHSUHWUDFKHDOOD\HUOLHVMXVWGHHSWRWKHLQYHVWLQJOD\HU,W
Retropharyngeal space (between retrovisceral and alar fasciae)
FRQVLVWVRIDPXVFXODUSRUWLRQDQGDYLVFHUDOSRUWLRQZKLFKFROOHFWLYHO\ HQFORVHWKHVWUXFWXUHVRIWKHDQWHULRUQHFNLQFOXGLQJWKHSKDU\Q[WUDFKHDDQGHVRSKDJXV7KHSRUWLRQRIWKHSUHWUDFKHDOIDVFLDSRVWHULRUWR WKHHVRSKDJXVLVNQRZQDVWKHUHWURYLVFHUDOIDVFLDB ,WLVVHSDUDWHG IURPWKHSUHYHUWHEUDOIDVFLDE\WKHUHWURSKDU\QJHDOVSDFH,QIHULRUWR WKHODU\QJHDOLQOHWWKHSUHYHUWHEUDOIDVFLDVSOLWVLQWRDQDQWHULRUDODU DQGDSRVWHULRUOD\HUZKLFKDUHVHSDUDWHGE\WKH´GDQJHUVSDFHµ³D SRWHQWLDO URXWH IRU WKH VSUHDG RI LQIHFWLRQ IURP WKH SKDU\Q[ LQWR WKH VXSHULRUPHGLDVWLQXP:LWKWXEHUFXORXVRVWHRP\HOLWLVRIWKHFHUYLFDO VSLQH D UHWURSK\DUQJHDO DEVFHVV PD\ GHYHORS LQ WKH ´GDQJHU VSDFHµ DORQJWKHSUHYHUWHEUDOIDVFLD%RWKSUHYHUWHEUDOOD\HUVDUHFRQWLQXRXV SRVWHULRUO\ZLWKWKHGHHSQXFKDOIDVFLDNote:7KHODWHUDOO\ORFDWHGFDURWLGVKHDWKA GRHVQRWDSSHDULQWKHPLGVDJLWWDOVHFWLRQ
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Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Posterior Neck Occipital region
Occipital artery and vein
Greater occipital nerve (dorsal ramus of C2) Occipital lymph nodes
Semispinalis capitis
Third occipital nerve (dorsal ramus of C3)
Lesser occipital nerve (C2) Sternocleidomastoid Splenius capitis Great auricular nerve (C2–C3) Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Posterior cutaneous branches (dorsal ramus of C6)
Fig. 12.17 Posterior cervical (nuchal) region Posterior view. Left side: Subcutaneous layer of superficial nuchal fascia. Right side: All fascia removed (superficial cervical fascia, investing layer, prevertebral layer). The posterior cervical region is bounded superiorly by the superior nuchal line (the attachment of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid to the occipital bone) and inferiorly by the palpable spinous process of the last cervical vertebra, the vertebra prominens (C7). The posterior cervical region, like the rest of the neck, is completely enveloped in superficial fascia (left side). The investing layer of deep cervical fascia envelops the trapezius and splits to enclose the sternocleidomastoid.
276
Trapezius
Both muscles are innervated by the accessory nerve (CN XI). The deep nuchal fascia (the posterior continuation of the prevertebral fascia) lies deep to the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid and encloses the intrinsic back muscles (here: semispinalis and splenius capitis). The intrinsic back muscles receive motor and sensory innervation from the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves (see Fig. 12.20). The great auricular and lesser occipital nerves are also visible in this dissection. They are sensory nerves arising from the cervical plexus (formed by the ventral rami of C1–C4). The major artery of the occipital region is the occipital artery, a posterior branch of the external carotid artery.
Neck
Trapezius (cut)
Occipital artery
Splenius capitis (cut)
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Sternocleidomastoid (cut)
Semispinalis capitis (cut) Obliquus capitis superior Rectus capitis posterior minor Greater occipital nerve (C2)
Suboccipital nerve (C1)
Vertebral artery
Occipital artery
Rectus capitis posterior major
Great auricular nerve
Obliquus capitis inferior Spinous process of axis Third occipital nerve (C3)
Fig. 12.18 Suboccipital triangle Posterior view of right side. The suboccipital triangle is a muscular triangle lying deep to the trapezius, splenius capitis, and semispinalis capitis. It is bounded superiorly by the rectus capitis posterior major, laterally by the obliquus capitis superior, and inferiorly by the obliquus capitis inferior. A short segment of the vertebral artery runs through the deep part of the triangle after leaving the transverse foramen of the atlas. It gives off branches to the surrounding short nuchal muscles before exiting the suboccipital triangle by perforating the posterior atlanto-occipital membrane. The vertebral arteries unite intracranially to form the basilar artery, a major contributor to cerebral blood flow.
Transverse process of atlas Cervical posterior intertransversarius Longissimus capitis Semispinalis capitis
Splenius capitis
Supraorbital nerve (from CN V1) Greater occipital nerve
C2
Supraorbital nerve (from CN V1)
C3
Lesser occipital nerve
Greater occipital nerve (dorsal ramus of C2)
C4
Lesser occipital nerve (C2)
A Dorsal rami of spinal nerves B
Fig. 12.19 Sites of emergence of the occipital nerves Posterior view. The sites where the lesser and greater occipital nerves emerge from the fascia into the subcutaneous connective tissue are clinically important because they are tender to palpation in certain diseases (e. g., meningitis). The examiner tests the sensation of these nerves by pressing lightly on the circled points with the thumb. If these points (but not their surroundings) are painful, the clinician should suspect meningitis.
Great auricular nerve (C2–C3) Supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4)
Fig. 12.20 Cutaneous innervation of the posterior neck Posterior view. A Segmental innervation (dermatomes). B Peripheral cutaneous nerves. The occiput and nuchal regions derive most of their segmental innervation from the C2 and C3 spinal nerves. Of the specific cutaneous nerves, the greater occipital nerve is a dorsal ramus; the lesser occipital, great auricular, and supraclavicular nerves are branches of the cervical plexus (formed from the ventral rami of C1–C4). See p. 65 for segmental versus peripheral cutaneous innervation.
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Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Lateral Neck
Parotid gland
Fig. 12.21 Lateral neck Right lateral view. Removed: Superficial cervical fascia, platysma, and parotid capsule (investing layer). The investing layer of deep cervical fascia encloses all the structures of the neck with the exception of the platysma. (Note: The face does not have fascial layers.) It splits to enclose the parotid gland in a capsule. The capsule has been opened to show the emergence of the cervical branch of the facial nerve (CN VII) from the parotid plexus. The cervical branch provides motor innervation to the platysma. The sensory nerves of the anterolateral neck (lesser occipital, great auricular, transverse cervical, and supraclavicular) arise from the cervical plexus, formed by the ventral rami of C1–C4. They pierce the investing layer at or near the punctum nervosum (Erb’s point), midway down the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid. Note: The transverse cervical nerve (sensory) courses deep to the external jugular vein and forms a mixed anastomosis with the cervical branch (motor) of CN VII.
278
Masseter
Lesser occipital nerve (C2) Great auricular nerve (C2–C3) Erb’s point
Facial vein External jugular vein
Lateral supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4)
Posterior border of sternocleidomastoid
Anterior border of trapezius
Anastomosis Investing layer of deep cervical fascia Transverse cervical nerve (C2–C3) Clavicle
Intermediate supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4)
Fig. 12.22 Posterior cervical triangle Right lateral view. A Investing fascia removed. B Pretracheal fascia removed. C Prevertebral fascia removed. The investing layer of deep cervical fascia splits into a superficial and a deep lamina to enclose the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius, both of which are innervated by the accessory nerve (CN XI). (Note: The accessory nerve may be injured during lymph node biopsy.) Removing the investing layer between the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius reveals the posterior cervical triangle (bounded inferiorly by the clavicle). This exposes the prevertebral fascia, which encloses the intrinsic and deep muscles of the neck. The prevertebral fascia is fused to the pretracheal fascia, which envelops the omohyoid (B). Removing the prevertebral fascia exposes the phrenic nerve (C), which arises from the cervical plexus and descends to innervate the diaphragm. The brachial plexus (C) is also visible at its point of emergence between the anterior and middle scalenes.
Facial nerve (CN VII), cervical branch of parotid plexus
Medial supraclavicular nerves (C3–C4)
Lesser occipital nerve Great auricular nerve Accessory nerve (CN XI)
External jugular vein
Erb’s point
Superficial lamina of investing layer
Superficial cervical node
Anastomosis
Superficial cervical artery
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius Transverse cervical nerve
Supraclavicular nerves
A
Prevertebral lamina
Superficial cervical vein
Pretracheal lamina
Deep lamina of investing layer
Neck
Lesser occipital nerve
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Parotid gland
Great auricular nerve Accessory nerve (CN XI) Lateral supraclavicular nerves
External jugular vein
Intermediate supraclavicular nerves
Sternocleidomastoid Transverse cervical and CN VII anastomosis
Trapezius
Prevertebral fascia
Transverse cervical artery and vein
Transverse cervical nerve Right subclavian vein
Omohyoid
B
Sternocleidomastoid Trapezius
Accessory nerve (CN XI) Scalenus medius Levator scapulae Scalenus posterior Transverse cervical artery and vein Omohyoid, inferior belly
Phrenic nerve (C3–C5)
Brachial plexus Scalenus anterior Suprascapular artery Right subclavian vein
C
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12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Anterior Neck Mandible
Fig. 12.23 Anterior neck Anterior view. Left neck: Superficial cervical fascia removed to expose platysma. Right neck: Platysma removed to expose investing layer. The investing layer of deep cervical fascia lies just deep to the cutaneous platysma muscle, which is innervated by the cervical branch of the facial nerve (CN VII). It attaches to the inferior border of the mandible and is continuous inferiorly with the clavipectoral fascia. The investing layer splits to form a capsule around the parotid gland. Inflammation of the parotid gland (e.g., mumps) causes conspicuous facial swelling and deformity in this region (“hamster cheeks” with prominent earlobes). The investing layer also divides into a deep and a superficial lamina to enclose the sternocleidomastoid. The investing layer has been cut around the midline to expose the pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia, which encloses the infrahyoid muscles and the viscera of the anterior neck.
Parotid gland with opened capsule Investing fascia
Platysma
External jugular vein
Anterior jugular vein Transverse cervical nerve
Great auricular nerve
Pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia
Transverse cervical nerve
Deep lamina of investing fascia
Supraclavicular nerves
Sternocleidomastoid muscle, sternal head
Superior laryngeal artery Internal jugular vein
Fig. 12.24 Anterior cervical triangle Anterior view. The pretracheal fascia has been removed to expose the anterior cervical triangle, bounded by the mandible and the anterior borders of the sternocleidomastoid muscles. The infrahyoid muscles are enclosed by the muscular pretracheal fascia (removed). The thyroid gland and larynx are enclosed by the visceral pretracheal fascia (removed). The anterior cervical triangle contains neurovasculature of the larynx and thyroid gland, including the first branch of the external carotid artery (the superior thyroid artery). The internal and external laryngeal nerves (from the superior laryngeal branch of CN X) are visible. C1 motor fibers run with the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) to the thyrohyoid and geniohyoid (not shown). Certain C1 motor fibers leave CN XII to form the superior root of the ansa cervicalis. The inferior root is formed by motor fibers from C2 and C3. The ansa cervicalis innervates the omohyoid, sternothyroid, and sternohyoid.
280
External laryngeal nerve Right common carotid artery Superior thyroid artery External jugular vein
Internal laryngeal nerve
Arch of jugular vein
Thyroid cartilage
Medial supraclavicular nerve
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Nerve to the thyrohyoid (C1) Median thyrohyoid ligament Thyrohyoid Omohyoid (cut) Sternocleidomastoid Superior root of ansa cervicalis (C1) Cricothyroid Sternothyroid Sternohyoid (cut)
Inferior thyroid vein
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Superior laryngeal artery
Superior thyroid artery and vein
Thyroid cartilage
Trapezius
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Phrenic nerve
External laryngeal nerve Cricothyroid
Brachial plexus
Anterior scalene
Ascending cervical artery
Internal jugular vein Inferior thyroid artery Inferior thyroid artery and middle thyroid vein
Suprascapular nerve
Thyrocervical trunk
Transverse cervical artery
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Suprascapular artery
Right subclavian vein
Left subclavian artery Thyrocervical trunk
Right recurrent laryngeal nerve Right brachiocephalic vein
Right brachiocephalic trunk
Inferior thyroid vein
Left recurrent laryngeal nerve
Fig. 12.25 Root of the neck (thoracic inlet) Anterior view. The root of the neck contains numerous structures, including the common carotid artery, subclavian artery, subclavian vein, internal jugular vein, inferior thyroid vein, vagus nerve, phrenic nerve,
Left common carotid artery
and recurrent laryngeal nerve. A retrosternal goiter enlarging the inferior pole of the thyroid gland can easily compress neurovascular structures at the thoracic inlet.
Inferior thyroid artery Vertebral artery Recurrent laryngeal nerve
A
B
C
Subclavian artery
Fig. 12.26 Course of the right recurrent laryngeal nerve (after von Lanz and Wachsmuth) Anterior view. The recurrent laryngeal nerve is a somatomotor and sensory branch of the vagus nerve, which innervates all the muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid muscle. Unilateral damage to this nerve supply results in hoarseness, and bilateral damage leads to a closed glottis with severe dyspnea. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve may pass in front of (A), behind (B), or between (C), the branches of the inferior thyroid artery. Its course should be noted during operations on the thyroid gland due to its close relationship to the posterior surface of the gland. Note: The left recurrent laryngeal nerve passes around the aortic arch in proximity to the ligamentum arteriosum.
A
B
C
Fig. 12.27 Variations in the branching pattern of the right inferior thyroid artery (after Platzer) The course of the inferior thyroid artery is highly variable. It may run medially behind the vertebral artery (A), divide immediately after arising from the thyrocervical trunk (B), or arise as the first branch of the subclavian artery (C).
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Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Deep Anterolateral Neck
Median thyrohyoid ligament
Thyroid cartilage
Common carotid artery
Internal jugular vein Vagus nerve (CN X)
External laryngeal nerve
Fig. 12.28 Root of the neck Anterior view of left neck. Removed: Clavicle (sternal end), first rib, manubrium sterni, and thyroid gland. The left common carotid artery has been cut to expose sympathetic ganglia and the ascent of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve from the aortic arch (where it arises from CN X). The brachial plexus can be seen emerging from the interscalene space between the anterior and middle scalenes. It courses with the subclavian artery and vein into the axilla. The phrenic nerve descends on the anterior scalene into the mediastinum, where it innervates the diaphragm. The left thoracic duct terminates at the jugulosubclavian venous junction. It receives lymph from the entire body with the exception of the right upper quadrant, which drains to the right lymphatic duct.
Accessory nerve (CN XI) Trapezius
Middle cervical ganglion
Phrenic nerve
Cricothyroid
Scalenus anterior
Sympathetic trunk
Brachial plexus
Inferior thyroid artery
Ascending cervical artery
C8 nerve root
Transverse cervical artery
Vertebral artery
Suprascapular artery
T1 nerve root
Subclavian artery
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Transverse cervical vein
Stellate (cervicothoracic) ganglion
Subclavian vein Left common carotid artery
Thoracic duct
Digastric, posterior belly
Internal carotid artery
Internal thoracic artery
External carotid artery
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Facial nerve (CN VII), mandibular branch
282
Submandibular gland
Internal jugular vein
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Common facial vein
Hyoid bone Internal laryngeal nerve
Sternocleidomastoid artery
Nerve to thyrohyoid (C1)
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Superior thyroid artery
Carotid body
Sternothyroid Superior root of ansa cervicalis (C1)
External jugular vein
Thyroid gland
Sternocleidomastoid
Internal jugular vein
Facial artery Lingual artery
Superior cervical ganglion
Fig. 12.29 Carotid triangle Right lateral view. The investing layer of deep cervical fascia has been removed to expose the carotid triangle, a subdivision of the anterior cervical triangle bounded by the sternocleidomastoid, superior belly of the omohyoid, and posterior belly of the digastric. The prevertebral and pretracheal fasciae have also been removed to expose the contents of the carotid triangle, which include the internal and external carotid arteries and the tributaries of the internal jugular vein. The sympathetic trunk runs between the major blood vessels along with the vagus nerve (CN X). C1 motor fibers course with the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) to the thyrohyoid and geniohyoid. Certain C1 motor fibers leave to form the superior root of the ansa cervicalis (the inferior root is formed from C2–C3 fibers). The ansa cervicalis innervates the omohyoid, sternohyoid, and sternothyroid.
Thyrocervical trunk
Ansa cervicalis (C1–C3) Inferior root of ansa cervicalis (C2–C3)
Omohyoid
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Splenius capitis Semispinalis capitis Internal carotid artery
Facial artery and vein
External carotid artery
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Superior cervical ganglion
Sympathetic trunk
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Omohyoid, superior belly (cut)
Scalenus medius
Carotid bifurcation with carotid body
Scalenus anterior
Superior thyroid artery
Internal jugular vein
Thyroid gland
Superficial cervical artery
Common carotid artery
Ansa cervicalis
Sternohyoid Inferior thyroid artery
Phrenic nerve
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Brachial plexus
Vertebral artery
Omohyoid muscle, inferior belly (cut)
Sternothyroid Sternocleidomastoid (cut)
Fig. 12.30 Deep lateral cervical region Right lateral view. The sternocleidomastoid region and carotid triangle have been dissected along with adjacent portions of the posterior and anterior cervical triangles. The carotid sheath has been removed in this dissection along with the cervical fasciae and omohyoid muscle to demonstrate important neurovascular structures in the neck: • • • • •
Common carotid artery with internal and external carotid arteries Superior and inferior thyroid arteries Internal jugular vein Deep cervical lymph nodes along the internal jugular vein Sympathetic trunk, including ganglia
External carotid artery Thyrolingual trunk
B
Vagus nerve (CN X) Accessory nerve (CN XI) Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Brachial plexus Phrenic nerve
The phrenic nerve (C3–C5) originates from the cervical plexus and the brachial plexus. The muscular landmark for locating the phrenic nerve is the scalenus anterior, along which the nerve descends in the neck. The (posterior) interscalene space is located between the scalenus anterior and medius and the first rib and is traversed by the brachial plexus and subclavian artery. The subclavian vein passes the scalenus anterior.
Linguofacial trunk
Internal carotid artery
A
• • • • •
C
D
Thyrolinguofacial trunk
E
Fig. 12.31 Variants of the carotid arteries (after Faller and Poisel-Golth) The internal carotid artery may arise from the common carotid artery posterolateral (49%, A) or anteromedial (9%, B) to the external carotid artery, or at other intermediate sites. The external carotid artery may give origin to a thyrolingual trunk (4%, C), linguofacial trunk (23%, D), or thyrolinguofacial trunk (0.6%, E).
283
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Parapharyngeal Space (I)
Occipital bone Vagus nerve (CN X) Sigmoid sinus
Pharyngobasilar fascia
Superior jugular bulb (cut)
Pharyngeal raphe
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Occipital artery
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Stylopharyngeus Superior cervical ganglion
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Internal jugular vein
Superior laryngeal nerve
Sternocleidomastoid
External carotid artery Internal carotid artery Ascending pharyngeal artery
Middle cervical ganglion
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Carotid body
Pharyngeal venous plexus
Sympathetic trunk Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Superior thyroid artery Vagus nerve (CN X)
Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Esophagus A
Fig. 12.32 Parapharyngeal space Posterior view. A Removed: Fascial layers and contents of the prevertebral fascia. B Pharynx opened along pharyngeal raphe. The common and internal carotid arteries travel with the jugular vein and vagus
Ascending pharyngeal artery
Occipital artery
Facial artery
Internal carotid artery External carotid artery A
284
B
nerve within the carotid sheath, which attaches to the skull base. The pharynx, thyroid gland, and anterior viscera are enclosed within the pretracheal fascia (the posterior portion, the buccopharyngeal fascia, lies anterior to the prevertebral fascia).
C
D
Fig. 12.33 Ascending pharyngeal artery: variants (after Tillmann, Lippert, and Pabst) Left lateral view. The main arterial vessel supplying the upper and middle pharynx is the ascending pharyngeal artery. In 70% of cases (A) it arises from the posteroinferior surface of the external carotid artery. In approximately 20% of cases it arises from the occipital artery (B). Occasionally (8%) it originates from the internal carotid artery or carotid bifurcation (C), and in 2% of cases it arises from the facial artery (D).
Neck
Choanae, of nasal cavity
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Trochlear nerve (CN IV) and oculomotor nerve (CN III)
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) and facial nerve (CN VII)
Middle nasal turbinate Inferior nasal turbinate
CN IX, X, and XI
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Occipital artery
Uvular muscle
Superior cervical ganglion
Palatopharyngeus
Salpingopharyngeus
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Accessory nerve (CN XI)
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Sternocleidomastoid
Superior laryngeal nerve
Root of tongue
Epiglottis
Vagus nerve (CN X)
Sympathetic trunk
Cuneiform tubercle
Internal laryngeal nerve Corniculate tubercle
Superior laryngeal artery and vein
Arytenoid muscle, oblique part Arytenoid muscle, transverse part
Internal jugular vein Posterior cricoarytenoid
Common carotid artery
Middle cervical ganglion Recurrent (inferior) laryngeal nerve
Inferior thyroid artery External jugular vein
Vertebral artery (cut) Left subclavian artery Right recurrent laryngeal nerve Right brachiocephalic vein
Vertebral ganglion
Brachiocephalic trunk Left recurrent laryngeal nerve Aortic arch
Vagus nerve (CN X) Superior vena cava
B
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Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Parapharyngeal Space (II)
Lingual tonsil
Sublingual gland Mandible Buccinator
Masseter
Oral vestibule Submandibular ganglion Lingual nerve
Pharynx
Inferior alveolar nerve and artery
Palatine tonsil
Medial pterygoid
Parotid gland Styloid process
Styloglossus
Parotid duct
Retromandibular vein
Internal carotid artery
External carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Retropharyngeal lymph nodes
Palatopharyngeus
Dens of axis
Fig. 12.34 Spaces in the neck Transverse section, superior view. The pharynx is enclosed by the pretracheal fascia along with the larynx and thyroid gland. The posterior portion of the pretracheal fascia that is in direct contact with the pharynx is called the buccopharyngeal fascia. The fascial space surrounding the pharynx (parapharyngeal space) is divided into a posterior (retropharyngeal) space and a lateral (lateropharyngeal) space. The
Stylopharyngeal aponeurosis
Vertebral artery
Vagus nerve
retropharyngeal space (green) lies between the anterior alar layer of the prevertebral fascia (red) and the buccopharyngeal fascia, the posterior portion of the pretracheal fascia. The lateropharyngeal space is divided by the stylopharyngeal aponeurosis into an anterior and a posterior part. The anterior part (yellow) is contained within the pretracheal fascia in the neck (this section is through the oral cavity). The posterior part (orange) is contained within the carotid sheath.
Subarachnoid space Prevertebral fascia
Orbit Jugular vein
Pretracheal layer
Cavernous sinus
From palatine tonsil
Carotid artery Palatine tonsil
Parotid gland
Space bounded by visceral fascia
①
④
Cervical soft tissues
A
Fig. 12.35 Clinical significance of the parapharyngeal space (after Becker, Naumann, and Pfaltz) Bacteria and inflammatory processes from the oral and nasal cavities (e.g., tonsillitis, dental infections) may invade the parapharyngeal space. From there, they may spread in various directions (A). Invasion of the jugular vein may lead to bacteremia and sepsis. Invasion of the subarachnoid space poses a risk of meningitis. Inflammatory processes may also track downward into the mediastinum (gravitation abscess),
286
Retropharyngeal space
Investing fascia
Parapharyngeal space
B
Mediastinum
② ③
“Danger space” (between alar and prevertebral layers)
causing mediastinitus (B). These may spread anteriorly in the spaces between the investing and muscular pretracheal layers ① or in the space within the pretracheal fascia ②. They may also spread posteriorly in the retropharyngeal space ③ between the buccopharyngeal prevertebral fascia and the alar prevertebral fascia. Infections that enter the “danger space” ④ between the alar and prevertebral layers of the prevertebral fascia may spread directly into the mediastinum.
Neck
12. Neurovascular Topography of the Neck
Foliate papilla
Vallate papilla Palatoglossus Palatine tonsil Plane of section in Fig. 12.34 Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Lingual tonsil Vallecula
Ascending pharyngeal artery, tonsillar branches
Aryepiglottic fold Palatopharyngeus Epiglottis
Superior laryngeal artery
Cuneiform tubercle
Internal laryngeal nerve
Piriform recess
Interarytenoid notch
Corniculate tubercle
Stylopharyngeus Posterior cricoarytenoid
Thyroid gland
Inferior thyroid vein Inferior thyroid artery Right recurrent laryngeal nerve Esophagus Trachea Submucosal venous plexus
Fig. 12.36 Neurovascular structures of the parapharyngeal space Posterior view of an en bloc specimen composed of the tongue, larynx, esophagus, and thyroid gland, as it would be resected at autopsy for pathologic evaluation of the neck. This dissection clearly demonstrates the branching pattern of the neurovascular structures that occupy the plane between the pharyngeal muscles.
Note the vascular supply to the palatine tonsil and its proximity to the neurovascular bundle, which creates a risk of hemorrhage during tonsillectomy.
287
Neuroanatomy 13
Neuroanatomy Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Spinal Cord: Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Brain: Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Brain & Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Spinal Cord & Meninges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Dural Sinuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Arteries of the Brain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Neurons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Nervous System
Encephalon
Spinal cord
Brachial plexus
Intervertebral foramina
Spinal ganglia
Spinal nerves
Lumbosacral plexus
A
Fig. 13.1 Topography of the nervous system A Posterior view. B Right lateral view. The central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain (encephalon) and spinal cord, is shown in pink. The peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of nerves and ganglia, is shown in yellow. The nerves arising from the spinal cord leave their bony canal through the intervertebral foramina and are distributed to their target structures. The spinal nerves are formed in the foramina by the union of their dorsal (poste-
290
B
rior) roots and ventral (anterior) roots (see p. 292). The small spinal ganglion in the intervertebral foramen appears as a slight swelling of the dorsal root (visible only in the posterior view; its function is described on p. 292). In the limbs, the ventral rami of the spinal nerves come together to form plexuses. These plexuses then give rise to the peripheral nerves that supply the limbs.
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
I
Parietal/dorsal
II III IV V VI VII
Cranial/oral Occipital/ caudal
Frontal/cranial/ oral/rostral
②
VIII XII
IX
XI
X
Basal/ventral Dorsal/ posterior
Fig. 13.2 Spinal and cranial nerves Anterior view. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain. The cranial nerve pairs are traditionally designated by Roman numerals. Note: There is a spinal contribution to the accessory nerve (CN XI).
Spinal nerves
X
①
Ventral/ anterior
Caudal
Fig. 13.3 Terms of location and direction in the CNS Midsagittal section, right lateral view. Note two important axes: ① The almost vertical brainstem axis (corresponds approximately to the body axis). ② The horizontal axis through the diencephalon and telencephalon.
Joints, skin, skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle
Somatosensory fibers
Afferents
Viscerosensory fibers
Viscera, vessels
Somatomotor fibers
CNS
Efferents
Visceromotor fibers
Glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
Fig. 13.4 Information flow in the nervous system The information encoded in nerve fibers is transmitted either to the CNS (brain and spinal cord) or from the CNS to the periphery (PNS, including the peripheral parts of the autonomic nervous system). Fibers that carry information to the CNS are called afferent fibers or afferents for short; fibers that carry signals away from the CNS are called efferent fibers or efferents.
291
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Spinal Cord: Organization Roof plate
Roof plate Alar plate White matter Alar plate
Posterior (dorsal) horn
Zone of autonomic neurons
White matter
Lateral horn
Basal plate
Basal plate
Anterior (ventral) horn
Floor plate
A
Zone of autonomic neurons
Floor plate
B
Fig. 13.5 Development of the spinal cord Transverse section, superior view. A Early neural tube. B Intermediate stage. C Adult spinal cord. The spinal cord consists of white matter that encloses gray matter columns arranged about the central canal. The gray matter primarily contains the cell bodies of neurons, and the white matter primarily consists of nerve fibers (axons). Axons with the same function are collected into bundles. Within the spinal cord, these bundles are called tracts (in the periphery they are called nerves). Ascending (afferent or sensory) tracts terminate in the brain. Descending (efferent or motor) tracts pass from the brain into the spinal cord.
Central canal
C
The spinal cord develops from the neural tube. Note: Neurons do not develop from the roof or floor plates. • Posterior (dorsal) horn: Develops from basal plate (posterior neural tube, pink). It contains afferent (sensory) neurons. • Anterior (ventral) horn: Develops from the alar plate (anterior neural tube, blue). It contains efferent (motor) neurons. • Lateral horn: Develops from the intervening zone. It contains autonomic sympathetic neurons. Note: The lateral horn is present in the thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord. C1
Dorsal horn
Dorsal rootlets
Spinal ganglia
Dorsal root with spinal ganglion
T1 Spinal nerve
Spinal cord
Dorsal ramus Ventral ramus
Ventral horn
Ventral root Ventral rootlets
A
Meningeal branch Splanchnic nerves
Gray ramus communicans White ramus communicans Sympathetic ganglion
L2 vertebra
L1
Cauda equina S1
B
Fig. 13.6 Organization of spinal cord segments A Transverse section, superior view. B Longitudinal section, posterior view with laminar (neural) arches of vertebral bodies removed. There are two main organizational principles in the spinal cord: 1. Functional organization within segments (A). In each spinal cord segment, afferent dorsal rootlets enter the cord posteriorly, and efferent ventral rootlets emerge anteriorly. The rootlets combine to form the dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) roots. The dorsal and ventral roots of each spinal cord segment fuse to form a mixed spinal nerve, which carries both sensory and motor fibers. Shortly
292
after the fusion of its two roots, the spinal nerve divides into various branches. 2. Topographical organization of segments (B). The spinal cord consists of a vertical series of 31 segments. Each segment innervates a specific area. Most spinal nerves emerge inferior to their corresponding vertebra (see Fig. 13.7). The spinal cord level does not, however, correspond to the level of the vertebra. The lower end of the adult spinal cord extends only to the first lumbar vertebral body (L1). Below L1, the spinal nerve roots descend to the intervertebral foramina as the cauda equina (“horse’s tail”). At the intervertebral foramina, they join to form the spinal nerves.
Neuroanatomy
T8 L4
L3
L2
L1
T6 T7
T4 T5
13. Neuroanatomy
T2 T3
C2
T1
L5 S1
C3
S2
2 3 4
C5
S5
C3
T9
T 11
C4
T 12
C6
T 10
C5 T1
C6 C7
2 3
T1 T2
4
C7
T3
5
C8
T4
6
T5
7
T6
8
T7
9
T8
10
T9
11
T 10
12 L1
Fig. 13.8 Dermatomes Sensory innervation of the skin correlates with the sensory roots of the spinal nerves. Every spinal cord segment (except for C1) innervates a particular skin area (= dermatome). From a clinical standpoint, it is important to know the precise correlation of dermatomes
T 11
2 3 4 5
T 12 L1
with spinal cord segments so that the level of a spinal cord lesion can be determined based on the location of the affected dermatome. For example, a lesion of the C8 spinal nerve root is characterized by a loss of sensation on the ulnar (small-finger) side of the hand.
L2
L3
L4
L5
S2
S1
S3 S4 Filum terminale
C4
S4
C2
5 6 7 8
T1
S1 2 3 4 5
S3
C1
C1
S5
Fig. 13.7 Spinal cord segments Midsagittal section, viewed from the right side. The spinal cord is divided into five major regions: the cervical cord (C, pink), thoracic cord (T, blue), lumbar cord (L, green), sacral cord (S, yellow), and coccygeal cord (gray). The adult spinal cord generally extends to the level of the L1 vertebral body. The region below, known as the cauda equina (see Fig. 13.6B), provides relatively safe access for
Table 13.1 Levels of spinal cord segments Spinal cord segment
Nearest vertebral body
Nearest spinous process
C8
C6 (inferior margin) and C7 (superior margin)
C6
T6
T5
T4
T12
T10
T9
L3
T11
S1
T12
Note: These are only approximations and may differ among individuals.
introducing a spinal needle to sample CSF (lumbar puncture). Numbering of spinal cord segments. The spinal cord segments are numbered according to the exit point of their associated spinal nerve. In most cases, the spinal nerve emerges inferior to its associated vertebra (exceptions: C1–C8*). The emergence point does not necessarily correlate with the nearest skeletal element (see Table 13.1). Progressively greater
“mismatch” between segments and associated vertebrae occurs at more caudal levels. The relationship between the spinal cord segments and vertebrae can be used to assess injuries to the vertebral column (e.g., spinal fracture or cord lesions). * Note: There are only seven cervical vertebrae but eight pairs of cervical spinal nerves (C1– C8).
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Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Brain: Organization
Fig. 13.9 Gross anatomy of the brain A Left lateral view with dura mater removed. B Basal (inferior) view with cervical spinal cord sectioned. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided into four major parts (Fig. 13.10): telencephalon (cerebrum), diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum. The telencephalon (cerebrum) is the large outer portion of the brain, consisting of two hemispheres separated by a longitudinal cerebral fissure (B). The telencephalon (cerebrum) is divided macroscopically into five lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and central (insular). Note: The central (insular) lobe cannot be seen unless the temporal or parietal lobe is retracted at the lateral sulcus. The surface contours of the cerebrum are defined by convolutions (gyri) and depressions (sulci). The central sulcus, an important reference point on the cerebrum, separates the precentral gyrus from the postcentral gyrus. The precentral gyrus mediates voluntary motor activity, and the postcentral gyrus mediates the conscious perception of body sensation. Gyri vary considerably between individuals and may even vary between hemispheres. Sulci may be narrowed and compressed in brain edema (excessive fluid accumulation in the brain). They are enlarged in brain atrophy (e.g., Alzheimer disease), due to tissue loss from the gyri.
Central sulcus
Precentral gyrus
Parietal lobe
Postcentral gyrus
Frontal lobe Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe Lateral sulcus Brainstem
A
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Cerebellum
Longitudinal cerebral fissure
Hypophysis (pituitary)
Pons
Medulla oblongata Cerebellum
B
294
Cervical cord
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Telencephalon
Corpus callosum Diencephalon Mesencephalon Cerebellum
Pituitary
Pons Medulla oblongata
Fig. 13.10 Developmental organization of the brain Midsagittal section of brain (along longitudinal cerebral fissure). Medial view of right hemisphere. The brain is divided developmentally into six major parts: telencephalon (cerebrum), diencephalon, mesencephalon, pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. The mesencephalon, pons,
and medulla oblongata are collectively referred to as the brainstem. The medulla oblongata, the caudal portion of the brainstem, is continuous inferiorly with the spinal cord. There is no definite anatomical boundary between them, as the brain and spinal cord are a functional unit (the central nervous system).
Table 13.2 Development of the brain Primary vesicle
Neural tube
Prosencephalon (forebrain)
Region
Structure
Telencephalon
Cerebral cortex, white matter, and basal ganglia
Diencephalon
Epithalamus (pineal), dorsal thalamus, subthalamus, and hypothalamus
Mesencephalon (midbrain)* Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
Tectum, tegmentum, and cerebral peduncles Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Cerebellum
Cerebellar cortex, nuclei, and peduncles
Pons*
Nuclei and fiber tracts
Medulla oblongata*
*The mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata are collectively known as the brainstem.
295
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Brain & Meninges
Dura mater, endosteal layer
Inner table Cranial bone
Diploë
Lateral lacuna (open)
Outer table
Arachnoid granulations
Lateral lacuna (closed)
Middle meningeal artery, anterior (frontal) branch
Superior sagittal sinus (open)
Middle meningeal artery, posterior (parietal) branch
Lateral lacuna (open) Arachnoid granulations
Ostia of bridging veins
A Confluence of the sinuses
Superior cerebral veins Branches of middle cerebral artery
Arachnoid
Cerebral surface with pia mater Bridging veins (superior cerebral veins just before they enter the superior sagittal sinus)
Dura mater
B
Fig. 13.11 Brain and meninges in situ Superior view. A The calvaria has been removed, and the superior sagit tal sinus and its lateral lacunae have been opened. B The dura mater has been removed from the left hemisphere, and the dura and arachnoid have been removed from the right hemisphere. The brain and spinal cord are covered by membranes called meninges, which form a sac filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The meninges are composed of the following three layers: • Outer layer: The dura mater (often shortened to “dura”) is a tough layer of collagenous connective tissue. It consists of two layers, an inner meningeal layer and an outer endosteal layer. The periosteal layer adheres firmly to the periosteum of the calvaria within the cranial cavity, but it is easy to separate the inner layer from the bone in this region, leaving it on the cerebrum, as illustrated here (A). • Middle layer: The arachnoid (arachnoid membrane) is a translucent membrane through which the cerebrum and the blood vessels in the subarachnoid space can be seen (B).
296
• Inner layer: The pia mater directly invests the cerebrum and lines its fissures (B). The arachnoid and pia are collectively called the leptomeninges. The space between them, called the subarachnoid space, is filled with CSF and envelops the brain. It contains the major cerebral arteries and the superficial cerebral veins, which drain chiefly through “bridging veins” into the superior sagittal sinus. The dura mater in the midline forms a double fold between the periosteal and meningeal layers that encloses the endothelium-lined superior sagittal sinus, which has been opened in the illustration. Inspection of the opened sinus reveals the arachnoid granulations (pacchionian granulations, arachnoid villi). These protrusions of the arachnoid are sites for the reabsorption of CSF. Arachnoid granulations are particularly abundant in the lateral lacunae of the superior sagittal sinus. The dissection in A shows how the middle meningeal artery is situated between the dura and calvaria. Rupture of this vessel causes blood to accumulate between the bone and dura, forming an epidural hematoma.
Neuroanatomy
Superior sagittal sinus Telencephalon, frontal lobe Lateral ventricle Telencephalon, temporal lobe Pituitary Cavernous sinus
13. Neuroanatomy
Lateral ventricle, anterior horn Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Sphenoparietal sinus Superior petrosal sinus Transverse sinus Pons
Cerebellum Basilar plexus
Inferior petrosal sinus Sigmoid sinus
Medulla oblongata
Fig. 13.12 Projection of important brain structures Anterior view. The largest structures of the cerebrum (telencephalon) are the frontal and temporal lobes. The falx cerebri separates the two cerebral hemispheres in the midline (not visible here). In the brainstem,
we can identify the pons and medulla oblongata on both sides of the midline below the telencephalon. The superior sagittal sinus and the paired sigmoid sinuses can also be seen. The anterior horns of the two lateral ventricles are projected onto the forehead.
Great cerebral vein Superior sagittal sinus Inferior sagittal sinus Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Cavernous sinus Superior petrosal sinus
Anterior (frontal) horn Central part Posterior (occipital) horn
Lateral ventricle
Inferior (temporal) horn Straight sinus Fourth ventricle Confluence of the sinuses Transverse sinus Occipital sinus
Inferior petrosal sinus
Fig. 13.13 Projection of important brain structures Left lateral view. The relationship of specific lobes of the cerebrum to the cranial fossae can be appreciated in this view. The frontal lobe lies in the anterior cranial fossa, the temporal lobe in the middle cranial fossa,
Sigmoid sinus
and the cerebellum in the posterior cranial fossa. The following dural venous sinuses can be identified: the superior and inferior sagittal sinus, straight sinus, transverse sinus, sigmoid sinus, cavernous sinus, superior and inferior petrosal sinus, and occipital sinus.
297
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Spinal Cord & Meninges
Fig. 13.14 Spinal cord in the vertebral canal Transverse section at the level of the C4 vertebra, viewed from above. The spinal cord occupies the center of the vertebral foramen and is anchored within the subarachnoid space to the spinal dura mater by the denticulate ligament. The root sleeve, an outpouching of the dura mater in the intravertebral foramen, contains the spinal ganglion and the dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal nerve. The spinal dura mater is bounded externally by the epidural space, which contains venous plexuses, fat, and connective tissue. The epidural space extends upward as far as the foramen magnum, where the dura becomes fused to the cranial periosteum.
Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus
Epidural space Subarachnoid space
Dorsal horn
Arachnoid
Denticulate ligament
Spinal dura mater
Ventral horn Intervertebral foramen (superior notch shown)
Dorsal root Ventral root
Spinal ganglion Spinal nerve
Vertebral artery Vertebral veins
Epidural fat
Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus
Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus
Dural (thecal) sac
Root sleeve
Fatty tissue Epidural space Cauda equina
Filum terminale Spinal ganglion
Fig. 13.15 Cauda equina in the vertebral canal Transverse section at the level of the L2 vertebra, viewed from below. The spinal cord usually ends at the level of the first lumbar vertebra (L1). The space below the lower end of the spinal cord is occupied by the cauda equina and filum terminale in the dural sac, which ends at the level of the S2 vertebra. The epidural space expands at that level and contains extensive venous plexuses and fatty tissue.
298
Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus
Spinal dura mater
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
L1 vertebra Conus medullaris
T 12 Conus medullaris (adult)
Filum terminale
L1 Spinal ganglion
Conus medullaris (newborn)
Cauda equina (dorsal and ventral spinal roots)
Dural sac (lumbar cistern)
Spinal dura mater Spinal arachnoid
Sacral hiatus Filum terminale
Fig. 13.16 Cauda equina in the vertebral canal Posterior view. The laminae and the dorsal surface of the sacrum have been partially removed. The spinal cord in the adult terminates at approximately the level of the first lumbar vertebra (L1). The dorsal and ventral spinal nerve roots extending from the lower end of the spinal cord (conus medullaris) are known collectively as the cauda equina. During lumbar puncture at this level, a needle introduced into the subarachnoid space (lumbar cistern) normally slips past the spinal nerve roots without injuring them.
Fig. 13.17 Age-related changes of spinal cord levels Anterior view. As an individual grows, the longitudinal growth of the spinal cord increasingly lags behind that of the vertebral column. At birth the distal end of the spinal cord, the conus medullaris, is at the level of the L3 vertebral body (where lumbar puncture is contraindicated). The spinal cord of a tall adult ends at the T12/L1 level, whereas that of a short adult extends to the L2/L3 level. The dural sac always extends into the upper sacrum. It is important to consider these anatomical relationships during lumbar puncture. It is best to introduce the needle at the L3/L4 interspace (see Fig. 13.18).
Conus medullaris Cauda equina 1
Filum terminale
2
Sacral hiatus
A
B
3
Fig. 13.18 Lumbar puncture, epidural anesthesia, and lumbar anesthesia In preparation for a lumbar puncture, the patient bends far forward to separate the spinous processes of the lumbar spine. The spinal needle is usually introduced between the spinous processes of the L3 and L4 vertebrae. It is advanced through the skin and into the dural sac (lumbar cistern, see Fig. 13.17) to obtain a CSF sample. This procedure has numerous applications, including the diagnosis of meningitis. For epidural anesthesia, a catheter is placed in the epidural space without penetrating the dural sac (1). Lumbar anesthesia is induced by injecting a local anesthetic solution into the dural sac (2). Another option is to pass the needle into the epidural space through the sacral hiatus (3).
299
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Spaces
Arachnoid granulations
Choroid plexus of lateral ventricle
Choroid plexus of third ventricle Superior sagittal sinus Ambient cistern Interhemispheric cistern
Straight sinus
Interventricular foramen
Cerebral aqueduct
Confluence of the sinuses Cistern of lamina terminalis
Basal cistern
Vermian cistern Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle
Chiasmatic cistern
Cerebellomedullary cistern (cisterna magna)
Interpeduncular cistern
Median aperture
Pontomedullary cistern Central canal
Spinal cord Vertebral venous plexus Subarachnoid space Endoneural space Spinal nerve
Fig. 13.19 CSF spaces Schematized midsagittal section. Medial view of right hemisphere. The brain and spinal cord are suspended in CSF. CSF is located in the subarachnoid space enclosed by the meningeal layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord. The cerebral ventricles and subarachnoid space have a combined capacity of approximately 150 mL of CSF (80% in subarachnoid space, 20% in ventricles). This volume is completely replaced two to four times daily. CSF is produced in the choroid plexus
300
(red), present in each of the four cerebral ventricles (see Fig. 13.13). It flows from the ventricles through the median and lateral apertures (not shown) into the subarachnoid space. Most CSF drains from the subarachnoid space through the arachnoid granulations (see Fig. 13.11) and the dural sinuses. Smaller amounts drain along the proximal portions of the spinal nerves into venous plexuses or lymphatic pathways. Obstruction of CSF drainage will cause a rapid rise in intracranial pressure due to the high rate of CSF turnover.
Neuroanatomy
Posterior thalamic nucleus Pineal body
Choroid plexus of lateral ventricle
13. Neuroanatomy
Middle cerebellar peduncles Median aperture
Fornix
Taenia choroidea Taenia thalami
Taenia fornicis B
A
Lateral aperture
Bochdalek’s flower basket
Fig. 13.20 Choroid plexus A Lateral ventricles. Rear view of thalamus. B Fourth ventricle. Posterior view of partially opened rhomboid fossa (cerebellum removed). C Cerebral ventricles, superior view. The choroid plexus is formed by the ingrowth of vascular loops into the ependyma. The ependyma is firmly attached to the walls of the associ-
ated ventricles. Its lines of attachment, the taeniae, are revealed when the plexus tissue is removed with forceps (C). As the choroid plexus is adherent to the ventricular wall at only one site, it can float freely in the ventricular system. Free ends of the choroid plexus may extend through the lateral aperture into the subarachnoid space (“Bochdalek’s flower basket”).
Dural venous sinus
Ependyma Cuboidal epithelium
CSF space
C
Choroid plexus
Arachnoid granulations Fourth ventricle
Brush border Blood vessels
Subarachnoid space
Median aperture Cerebral aqueduct Lateral ventricle
Fig. 13.21 Histological section of the choroid plexus (after Kahle) The choroid plexus is a protrusion of the ventricular wall. It is often likened to a cauliflower because of its extensive surface folds. The epithelium of the choroid plexus consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells and has a brush border on its apical surface (to increase the surface area further).
Olfactory cistern
Cistern of corpus callosum
Fig. 13.22 CSF circulation The choroid plexus is present to some extent in each of the four cerebral ventricles. It produces CSF, which flows through the two lateral apertures (not shown) and median aperture into the subarachnoid space. From there, most of the CSF drains through the arachnoid granulations into the dural venous sinuses.
Cistern of lamina terminalis Chiasmatic cistern
Carotid cistern
Cistern of lateral cerebral fossa (encloses middle cerebral artery)
Interpeduncular cistern
Posterior communicating artery
Crural cistern (encloses the anterior choroidal artery)
Middle cerebral artery Ambient cistern (encloses posterior cerebral artery and superior cerebellar artery)
Trigeminal cistern Median pontine cistern
Anterior inferior cerebellar artery
Basilar artery
Flocculus
Posterior inferior cerebellar artery Vertebral artery
Third ventricle
Pontocerebellar cistern Posterior spinal cistern
Lateral cerebelloAnterior medullary cistern spinal cistern
Fig. 13.23 Subarachnoid cisterns (after Rauber and Kopsch) Basal view. The cisterns are CSF-filled expansions of the subarachnoid space. They contain the proximal portions of some cranial nerves and basal cerebral arteries (veins are not shown). When arterial bleeding occurs (as from a ruptured aneurysm), blood will seep into the subarachnoid space and enter the CSF. A ruptured intracranial aneurysm is a frequent cause of blood in the CSF.
301
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Dural Sinuses
Inferior sagittal sinus
Superior sagittal sinus
Superior anastomotic vein (of Trolard) Deep middle cerebral vein
Basilar vein
Fig. 13.24 Dural sinus tributaries from the cerebral veins (after Rauber and Kopsch) Right lateral view. Venous blood collected deep within the brain drains to the dural sinuses through superficial and deep cerebral veins. The red arrows in the diagram show the principal directions of venous blood flow in the major sinuses. Because of the numerous anastomoses, the isolated occlusion of a complete sinus segment may produce no clinical symptoms.
Internal cerebral vein
Anterior cerebral vein
Great cerebral vein
Anterior intercavernous sinus Superficial middle cerebral vein
Straight sinus Confluence of the sinuses Inferior anastomotic vein (of Labbé)
Cavernous sinus Emissary vein (sphenoidal) Superior petrosal sinus Transverse sinus
Parietal emissary vein
Inferior petrosal sinus Superior jugular bulb
Great cerebral vein Inferior sagittal sinus
Superior sagittal sinus Straight sinus
Superior ophthalmic vein
Superior petrosal sinus
Angular vein
Occipital emissary vein
Inferior ophthalmic vein
Occipital vein Confluence of the sinuses
Cavernous sinus
Transverse sinus
Infraorbital vein
Posterior auricular vein
Venous plexus of foramen ovale
Sigmoid sinus
Pterygoid plexus Deep facial vein
Mastoid emissary vein
Inferior petrosal sinus
Condylar emissary vein
Maxillary vein
Superficial temporal vein
Retromandibular vein Facial vein Posterior division, retromandibular vein
External jugular vein
Fig. 13.25 Accessory drainage pathways of the dural sinuses Right lateral view. The dural sinuses have many accessory drainage pathways besides their principal drainage into the two internal jugular veins. The connections between the dural sinuses and extracranial veins mainly serve to equalize pressure and regulate temperature. These anastomoses are of clinical interest because their normal direction of blood flow may reverse (general absence of functional valves in the head and neck), allowing blood from extracranial veins to reflux into the dural sinuses. This mechanism may give rise to sinus infections that lead, in turn, to vascular occlusion (venous
302
Internal jugular vein
Anterior division, retromandibular vein
sinus thrombosis). The most important accessory drainage vessels include the following: • Emissary veins (diploic and superior scalp veins) • Superior ophthalmic vein (angular and facial veins) • Venous plexus of foramen ovale (pterygoid plexus, retromandibular vein) • Marginal sinus and basilar plexus (internal and external vertebral venous plexus)
Neuroanatomy
Sagittal suture
13. Neuroanatomy
Parietal foramen with parietal emissary vein
Superior sagittal sinus
Lambdoid suture
Confluence of the sinuses
Parietomastoid suture
Transverse sinus External occipital protuberance
Occipital foramen with occipital emissary vein
Mastoid foramen with mastoid emissary vein Venous plexus around the foramen magnum (marginal sinus) Mastoid process Venous plexus of hypoglossal nerve canal External vertebral venous plexus
Sigmoid sinus
(Posterior) condylar canal with condylar emissary vein
Occipital condyle Internal jugular vein Occipital vein
Fig. 13.26 Emissary veins Posterior view of occiput. Emissary veins establish a direct connection between the intracranial dural sinuses and extracranial veins. They run through small cranial openings such as the parietal and mastoid foramina. Emissary veins are of clinical interest because they create a potential route by which bacteria from the scalp may spread to the dura mater and incite a purulent meningitis. Only the posterior emissary veins are shown here.
303
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Arteries of the Brain
Internal carotid artery, cerebral part Posterior communicating artery Internal carotid artery, petrous part Basilar artery
Posterior cerebral artery Atlas
Axis
Fig. 13.27 Arterial supply to the brain Left lateral view. The parts of the brain in the anterior and middle cranial fossae receive their blood supply from branches of the internal carotid artery; the parts of the brain in the posterior cranial fossa are supplied by branches of the vertebral and basilar arteries (the basilar artery is formed by the confluence of the two vertebral arteries). The carotid and basilar arteries are connected by a vascular ring called the circle of Willis (see Fig. 13.29). In many cases the circle of Willis allows for compensation of decreased blood flow in one vessel with increased “collateral” blood flow through another vessel (important in patients with stenotic lesions of the afferent arteries, see Fig. 13.31).
Internal carotid artery, cervical part External carotid artery Superior thyroid artery Common carotid artery
Aortic arch
Carotid bifurcation Vertebral artery
Subclavian artery
Anterior choroidal artery Anterior cerebral artery
Middle cerebral artery C1
Posterior communicating artery
(4) Cerebral part C2 Carotid siphon
Ophthalmic artery C3
C4
Petrous bone
Temporal bone
(3) Cavernous part C5 (2) Petrous part
(1) Cervical part
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Zygomatic arch Styloid process Mastoid process
Fig. 13.28 Anatomical divisions of the internal carotid artery Anterior view of the left internal carotid artery. The internal carotid artery consists of four topographically distinct parts between the carotid bifurcation and the point where it divides into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. The parts (separated in the figure by white disks) are: (1) Cervical part (red): Located in the lateral pharyngeal space. (2) Petrous part (yellow): Located in the carotid canal of the petrous bone. (3) Cavernous part (green): Follows an S-shaped curve in the cavernous sinus. (4) Cerebral part (purple): Located in the chiasmatic cistern of the subarachnoid space. Except for the cervical part, which generally does not give off branches, all the other parts of the internal carotid artery give off numerous branches. The intracranial parts of the internal carotid artery are subdivided into five segments (C1–C5) based on clinical criteria: • C1–C2: Supraclinoid segments, located within the cerebral part. C1 and C2 lie above the anterior clinoid process of the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone. • C3–C5: Infraclinoid segments, located within the cavernous sinus.
Neuroanatomy
Posterior communicating artery
Superior sagittal sinus Anterior cerebral artery
Posterior cerebral artery
Anterior communicating artery
Anterior inferior cerebellar artery
13. Neuroanatomy
Anterior cerebral artery
Anterior communicating artery
Middle cerebral artery
Posterior communicating artery
Internal carotid artery
Posterior cerebral artery
Basilar artery
A
Middle cerebral artery
Basilar artery
Internal carotid artery
Foramen magnum
Superior cerebellar artery
Vertebral artery Posterior spinal artery Anterior spinal artery
Pontine arteries Confluence of the sinuses
Posterior inferior cerebellar artery
Fig. 13.29 Circle of Willis Superior view. The two vertebral arteries enter the skull through the foramen magnum and unite behind the clivus to form the unpaired basilar artery. This vessel then divides into the two posterior cerebral arteries (additional vessels that normally contribute to the circle of Willis are shown in Fig. 13.30). Note: Each middle cerebral artery (MCA) is the direct continuation of the internal carotid artery on that side. Clots ejected by the left heart will frequently embolize to the MCA territory.
B
C
D
E
F
G
Fig. 13.30 Variants of the circle of Willis (after Lippert and Pabst) The vascular connections within the circle of Willis are subject to considerable variation. As a rule, the segmental hypoplasias shown here do not significantly alter the normal functions of the arterial ring. A In most cases, the circle of Willis is formed by the following arteries: the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries; the anterior and posterior communicating arteries; the internal carotid arteries; and the basilar artery. B Occasionally, the anterior communicating artery is absent. C Both anterior cerebral arteries may arise from one internal carotid artery (10% of cases). D The posterior communicating artery may be absent or hypoplastic on one side (10% of cases). E Both posterior communicating arteries may be absent or hypoplastic (10% of cases). F The posterior cerebral artery may be absent or hypoplastic on one side. G Both posterior cerebral arteries may be absent or hypoplastic. In addition, the anterior cerebral arteries may arise from a common trunk.
Middle cerebral artery Carotid siphon
Basilar artery
Carotid bifurcation
Vertebral artery Common carotid artery
Origin of vertebral artery Subclavian artery Brachiocephalic trunk
Fig. 13.31 Stenoses and occlusions of arteries supplying the brain Atherosclerotic lesions in older patients may cause the narrowing (stenosis) or complete obstruction (occlusion) of arteries that supply the brain. Stenoses most commonly occur at arterial bifurcations. The sites of predilection are shown with circles. Isolated stenoses that develop gradually may be compensated for by collateral vessels. When stenoses occur simultaneously at multiple sites, the circle of Willis cannot compensate for the diminished blood supply, and cerebral blood flow becomes impaired (varying degrees of cerebral ischemia). Note: The damage is manifested clinically in the brain, but the cause is located in the vessels that supply the brain. Because stenoses are treatable, their diagnosis has major therapeutic implications.
Subclavian artery Aortic arch
Fig. 13.32 Anatomical basis of subclavian steal syndrome “Subclavian steal” usually results from stenosis of the left subclavian artery (red circle) located proximal to the origin of the vertebral artery. This syndrome involves a stealing of blood from the vertebral artery by the subclavian artery. When the left arm is exercised, as during yard work, insufficient blood may be supplied to the arm to accommodate the increased muscular effort (the patient complains of muscle weakness). As a result, blood is “stolen” from the vertebral artery circulation, and there is a reversal of blood flow in the vertebral artery on the affected side (arrows). This leads to deficient blood flow in the basilar artery and may deprive the brain of blood, producing a feeling of lightheadedness.
305
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Neurons Receptor segment
Transmission segment
Terminal segment
Soma Dendrite
Direction of transmission
Axon hillock Axon
Presynaptic terminal (bouton) Membrane potential
¸ J
¸ J
¸ J
¸ J
¨ J
¨ J
¨ J
¨ J
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Potential at the axon hillock
Fig. 13.33 Neurons (nerve cells) Neurons are the smallest functional units of the nervous system. Each neuron is composed of a cell body (soma or perikaryon) and two types of processes: dendrites and axons. The function of the neuron is reflected in the number and type of processes arising from the cell body (see Fig. 13.35). • Dendrite (receptor segment): Conducts impulses from synapse to the cell body. Depending on its function, a neuron may have multiple dendrites. Dendrites may undergo complex arborization to increase their surface area. • Axon (projecting segment): Conducts impulses to other neurons or cells (e.g., skeletal muscle). Neurons have only one axon. In the CNS, axons are generally myelinated (covered with myelin cells). The cell membranes of myelin cells are predominantly lipid (this gives white matter its fatty appearance). Myelination electrically insulates axons, increasing the speed of impulse conduction.
Action potential
Neurons communicate at synapses, the junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the other (see Fig. 13.37). Nerve impulses are propagated through waves of depolarization across cell membranes. Resting nerve cells have a membrane potential of −80 mV (higher concentration of positive ions outside the nerve cell than inside). In response to a nerve impulse, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse. These neurotransmitters bind ion channels that allow positive ions to rush into the cytoplasm. This initiates other channels to open, causing the cell membrane to become massively depolarized (+40 mV). This initiates an action potential at the axon hillock, the origin of the axon on the cell body. The action potential travels along the axon and induces the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal at the next synapse. The action potential is therefore propagated rapidly across multiple cells, which are repolarized through the action of ion pumps. Note: Neurotransmitters may be either excitatory or inhibitory (create either an excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential at the target neuron).
Dendrite
Fig. 13.34 Electron microscopy of the neuron The organelles of neurons can be resolved with an electron microscope. Neurons are rich in rough endoplasmic reticulum (protein synthesis, active metabolism). This endoplasmic reticulum (called Nissl substance under a light microscope) is easily demonstrated by light microscopy when it is stained with cationic dyes (which bind to the anionic mRNA and nRNA of the ribosomes). The distribution pattern of the Nissl substance is used in neuropathology to evaluate the functional integrity of neurons. The neurotubules and neurofilaments that are visible by electron microscopy are referred to collectively in light microscopy as neurofibrils, as they are too fine to be resolved as separate structures under the light microscope. Neurofibrils can be demonstrated in light microscopy by impregnating the nerve tissue with silver salts. This is important in neuropathology, for example, because the clumping of neurofibrils is an important histological feature of Alzheimer disease.
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
Mitochondrion
Nuclear pore Axon hillock
Golgi apparatus
Axon
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Neurotubules and neurofilaments
Neuroanatomy
13. Neuroanatomy
Presynaptic membrane Presynaptic terminal (bouton)
Synaptic cleft 1
Postsynaptic membrane
Vesicles with neurotransmitter
Spine
Postsynaptic membrane Synaptic cleft Presynaptic membrane A
B
C
D
E
2
F
Fig. 13.35 Basic neuron forms Neurons consist of a cell body, an axon, and one or more dendrites. The function of the neuron is reflected in its structure. Neurons A–D are efferent (motor) neurons, which convey impulses from the CNS to the periphery. Neurons E and F are afferent (sensory) neurons, which convey impulses to the CNS. A, B Multipolar neurons: Multiple dendrites with either a long (A) or short (B) axon. Alpha motor neurons of the spinal cord are the longaxon form. Interneurons in the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord are the short-axon form. C Pyramidal cell: Long axon with multiple dendrites only at the apex and base of the triangular cell body (e.g., efferent neurons of cerebral motor cortex). D Purkinje cell: Long axon with elaborately branched dendritic tree from one site on the cell body. Purkinje cells are found within the cerebellum. E Bipolar neuron: Long axon and long dendrite that arborizes in the periphery (e.g., retinal cells). F Pseudounipolar neuron: Long axon and long arborized dendrite that are not separated by the cell body. This is the traditional form of primary afferent (sensory) neurons in spinal nerves. The cell bodies of these neurons form the spinal (dorsal root) ganglion.
Fig. 13.36 Synapses in the CNS Synapses are the functional connection between two neurons. They consist of a presynaptic membrane, a synaptic cleft, and a postsynaptic membrane. In a “spine synapse” (1), the presynaptic terminal (bouton) is in contact with a specialized protuberance (spine) of the target neuron. The side-by-side synapse of an axon with the flat surface of a target neuron is called a parallel contact or bouton en passage (2). The vesicles in the presynaptic expansions contain the neurotransmitters that are released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis when the axon fires. From there the neurotransmitters diffuse to the postsynaptic membrane, where their receptors are located. A variety of drugs and toxins act upon synaptic transmission (antidepressants, muscle relaxants, nerve gases, botulinum toxin).
Axon
Axon Axosomatic
Dendrite Axodendritic
Axoaxonal
Fig. 13.37 Synaptic patterns Axons may terminate at various sites on the target neuron and form synapses there. The synaptic patterns are described as axodendritic, axosomatic, or axoaxonal. Axodendritic synapses are the most common. The cerebral cortex consists of many small groups of neurons that are collected into functional units called columns.
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Sectional Anatomy 14
Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck Coronal Sections of the Head (I): Anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Coronal Sections of the Head (II): Posterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Coronal MRIs of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (I): Anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Coronal MRIs of the Neck (III): Posterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Transverse Sections of the Head (I): Cranial . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Transverse Sections of the Head (II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Transverse Sections of the Head (III): Caudal . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Transverse Sections of the Neck (I): Cranial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Transverse Sections of the Neck (II): Caudal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Transverse MRIs of the Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Transverse MRIs of the Oral Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Transverse MRIs of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Sagittal Sections of the Head (I): Medial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Sagittal Sections of the Head (II): Lateral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Sagittal MRIs of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Sagittal MRIs of the Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal Sections of the Head (I): Anterior
Anterior cranial fossa Frontal lobe of cerebrum
Levator palpebrae superioris Periorbital fat
Orbital plate of ethmoid bone
Vitreous body
Ethmoid air cells
Medial rectus Inferior rectus
Middle nasal meatus and concha
Inferior oblique Orbicularis oculi
Infraorbital nerve (from CN V2) in infraorbital canal Maxillary sinus
Cartilaginous nasal septum
Inferior nasal meatus
Inferior nasal concha
Vomer Palatine process of the maxilla
First upper molar
Greater palatine artery
Buccinator
Oral cavity
Tongue Oral vestibule
Genioglossus Geniohyoid
First lower molar
Inferior alveolar nerve, artery, and vein in mandibular canal
Mylohyoid Platysma
Fig. 14.1 Coronal section through the anterior orbital margin Anterior view. This section of the skull can be roughly subdivided into four regions: the oral cavity, the nasal cavity and sinus, the orbit, and the anterior cranial fossa. Inspecting the region in and around the oral cavity, we observe the muscles of the oral floor, the apex of the tongue, the neurovascular structures in the mandibular canal, and the first molar. The hard palate separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity, which is divided into left and right halves by the nasal septum. The inferior and middle nasal conchae can be identified along with the laterally situated maxillary sinus. The structure bulging down into the roof of the sinus is the infraorbital canal, which transmits the infraorbital nerve (branch of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve, CN V2).
310
Digastric (anterior belly)
The plane of section is so far anterior that it does not cut the lateral bony walls of the orbits because of the lateral curvature of the skull. The section passes through the transparent vitreous body and three of the six extraocular muscles, which can be identified in the periorbital fat. Two additional muscles can be seen in the next deeper plane of section (Fig. 14.2). The space between the two orbits is occupied by the ethmoid cells. Note: The bony orbital plate is very thin (lamina papyracea) and may be penetrated by infection, trauma, and neoplasms. In the anterior cranial fossa, the section passes through both frontal lobes of the brain in the most anterior portions of the cerebral gray matter. Very little white matter is visible at this level.
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Superior sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri*
Frontal lobe of cerebrum
Crista galli
Olfactory bulb (CN I)
Levator palpebrae superioris
Ethmoid air cells
Superior rectus Superior oblique
Temporalis, superficial and deep heads
Lateral rectus Optic nerve (CN II)
Inferior orbital fissure
Medial rectus Inferior rectus
Infratemporal fossa
Middle nasal concha
Zygomatic arch
Inferior nasal concha
Maxillary sinus Masseter, superficial part
Masseter
Masseter, deep part Buccal nerve
Buccinator
Buccal vein
Tongue Lingual nerve, deep lingual vein Inferior alveolar nerve, artery, and vein in mandibular canal
Geniohyoid Mylohyoid Digastric (anterior belly)
Fig. 14.2 Coronal section through the retrobulbar space Anterior view. Here, the tongue is cut at a more posterior level than in Fig. 14.1 and therefore appears broader. In addition to the oral floor muscles, we see the muscles of mastication on the sides of the skull. In the orbital region we can identify the retrobulbar space with its fatty tissue, the extraocular muscles, and the optic nerve. The orbit communicates laterally with the infratemporal fossa through the inferior
orbital fissure. This section cuts through both olfactory bulbs in the anterior cranial fossa, and the superior sagittal sinus can be recognized in the midline. *Note: More posteriorly, the falx cerebri does not separate the cerebral hemispheres. Its inferior margin is nonattached, superior to the corpus callosum.
311
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal Sections of the Head (II): Posterior
Superior sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri
Frontal lobe of cerebrum
Olfactory nerve (CN I) Superior oblique
Superior rectus Lateral rectus
Temporalis
Optic nerve (CN II)
Ethmoid air cells
Medial rectus Inferior rectus
Nasal septum
Infraorbital nerve (from CN V2)
Zygomatic arch
Masseter Maxillary sinus Nasal cavity
Coronoid process Soft palate
Mandibular ramus
Buccal fat pad Medial pterygoid
Tongue
Buccinator Body of mandible
Genioglossus Lingual nerve, deep lingual artery and vein Mylohyoid
Inferior alveolar nerve, artery, and vein in mandibular canal Hyoglossus Digastric (anterior belly)
Geniohyoid
Fig. 14.3 Coronal section through the orbital apex Anterior view. The soft palate replaces the hard palate in this plane of section, and the nasal septum becomes osseous at this level. The buccal fat pad is also visible in this plane. The buccal pad is attenuated in
312
wasting diseases; this is why the cheeks are sunken in patients with end-stage cancer. This coronal section is slightly angled, producing an apparent discontinuity in the mandibular ramus on the left side of the figure (compare with the continuous ramus on the right side).
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Superior sagittal sinus Falx cerebri Lateral ventricle Corpus callosum Parietal lobe
Head of caudate nucleus Internal capsule Putamen
Temporalis Anterior cerebral artery
Optic nerve (CN II) Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
Internal carotid artery
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
Temporal lobe
Abducent nerve (CN VI)
Pituitary
Ophthalmic division (CN V1)
Cavernous sinus Sphenoid sinus
Zygomatic arch
Septum of sphenoid sinus
Maxillary division (CN V2) Middle cranial fossa Mandibular division (CN V3) Masseter Lateral pterygoid
Nasopharynx
Lingual nerve
Lingual nerve
Inferior alveolar nerve
Inferior alveolar nerve
Mandibular ramus Medial pterygoid
Uvula Oropharynx
Palatine tonsil
Epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
Fig. 14.4 Coronal section through the pituitary Anterior view. The nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx can now be identified. This section cuts the epiglottis, below which is the supraglottic space. The plane cuts the mandibular ramus on both sides, and a relatively long segment of the mandibular division (CN V3) can be identified on the left side. Above the roof of the sphenoid sinuses is the pituitary (hypophysis), which lies in the hypophyseal fossa. In the cranial cavity, the plane of section passes through the middle cranial fossa.
Due to the presence of the carotid siphon (a 180-degree bend in the cavernous part of the internal carotid artery), the section cuts the internal carotid artery twice on each side. Cranial nerves can be seen passing through the cavernous sinus on their way from the middle cranial fossa to the orbit. The superior sagittal sinus appears in cross section at the attachment of the falx cerebri. At the level of the cerebrum, the plane of section passes through the parietal and temporal lobes.
313
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal MRIs of the Head
Superior sagittal sinus
Falx cerebri with superior frontal gyrus
Ethmoid air cells Roof of orbit
Levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus, and supraorbital nerve Superior oblique with superior ophthalmic vein Lacrimal gland Eyeball Lateral rectus Periorbital fat Inferior rectus and inferior oblique
Medial rectus with ophthalmic artery Zygomatic bone
Infraorbital artery, vein, and nerve Middle and inferior nasal conchae
Maxillary sinus
Nasal septum Maxilla (alveolar process) Tongue
Depressor anguli oris
Mandibular dentition
Genioglossus
Fig. 14.5 Coronal MRI through the eyeball Anterior view. In this plane of section, the falx cerebri completely divides the cerebral hemispheres. The extraocular muscles can be used to find the orbital neurovasculature: the supraorbital nerve runs superior to the levator palpebrae superioris and superior rectus, the superior ophthalmic vein runs medial and superior to the superior oblique, and the oph-
314
Lingual nerve, deep lingual artery and vein
thalmic artery runs inferior to the medial rectus. The infraorbital canal (containing the infraorbital artery, vein, and nerve) runs inferior to the inferior rectus and oblique. The region medial to the mandibular dentition and lateral to the genioglossus contains the sublingual gland as well as the lingual nerve, deep lingual artery and vein, hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), and submandibular duct.
Sectional Anatomy
Superior frontal gyrus
Superior sagittal sinus
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Frontal bone
Falx cerebri
Ethmoid air cells Cingulate gyrus Olfactory bulb (CN I) Levator palpebrae superioris and superior rectus with supraorbital nerve
Roof of orbit
Ophthalmic artery and optic nerve (CN II)
Periorbital fat
Lateral rectus
Orbital plate and medial rectus
Temporalis
Inferior rectus above infraorbital artery, vein, and nerve Nasal septum
Zygomatic bone
Maxillary sinus Masseter
Inferior nasal concha
Hard palate Maxilla (alveolar process)
Depressor anguli oris
Tongue Body of mandible
Genioglossus
Fig. 14.6 Coronal MRI through the posterior orbit Anterior view. The inferior margin of the falx cerebri is now superior to the cingulate gyrus. In the orbit, the supraorbital nerve runs with the levator palpebrae superioris and superior rectus, and the oculomotor nerve (CN III) runs lateral to the inferior rectus, which in turn runs supe-
Submandibular gland
rior to the infraorbital canal. The ophthalmic artery can be used to find the more medially located optic nerve (CN II), both of which emerge from the optic canal. Note the asymmetrical nature of the nasal cavities. The submandibular gland is more prominent in this section between the genioglossus and the body of the mandible.
315
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal MRIs of the Neck (I): Anterior
Anterior ethmoid air cells
Levator palpebrae superioris and superior rectus Sphenoid bone, lesser wing Lateral rectus Temporalis
Optic nerve (CN II) Superior oblique, medial rectus, and inferior rectus
Zygomatic bone Middle nasal concha Masseter
Maxillary sinus
Hard palate Transverse muscle of the tongue
Hypoglossus, genioglossus, and lingual septum
Longitudinal muscle of the tongue Buccinator
Mandible
Digastric, anterior belly Mylohyoid and geniohyoid Platysma
Thyrohyoid cartilage Vestibular fold Vocalis Infraglottic cavity
Glottis
Sternohyoid
Cricoid cartilage Trachea
Fig. 14.7 Coronal MRI of the lingual muscles Anterior view. This plane of section lies just posterior to the previous one and transects the extrinsic (genioglossus and hypoglossus) and intrinsic (longitudinal and transverse) lingual muscles. The muscles of
316
mastication (temporalis and masseter) are visible, as are the buccinator, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid. This section cuts the larynx and trachea, revealing the vestibular fold, vocalis muscle, and cricoid cartilage.
Sectional Anatomy
Nasopharynx
Vomer
Sphenoid sinus
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, cartilaginous part
Temporalis
Zygomatic bone, temporal process
Sphenoid bone, greater wing Lateral pterygoid
Masseter
Medial pterygoid Levator veli palatini and peripharyngeal space
Soft palate Transverse muscle of the tongue
Mandible
Genioglossus Facial artery and platysma Epiglottic vallecula
Thyroid cartilage Thyroarytenoid
Piriform recess Laryngeal vestibule
Trachea Arytenoid cartilage
Sternocleidomastoid
Thyroid gland with inferior thyroid veins
Subclavian vein Clavicle
Fig. 14.8 Coronal MRI of the soft palate and muscles of mastication Anterior view. This section illustrates the convergence of the air- and foodways in the pharynx. The nasopharynx lies inferior to the sphenoid sinus and superior to the soft palate. It converges with the foodway in the oropharynx, located posterior to the uvula (not shown). The oropharynx continues inferiorly to the epiglottis (the epiglottis
vallecula lies anterior to this). The air- and foodways then diverge into the larynx and laryngopharynx, respectively. The laryngeal vestibule is the superior portion of the larynx, above the vocal folds. This section reveals the thyroid and arytenoid cartilage of the larynx. Compare this image to Fig. 14.9.
317
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal MRIs of the Neck (II)
Temporalis
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Sphenoid sinus
Pharyngeal tonsils
Tensor veli palatini
Lateral pterygoid
Maxillary artery and inferior alveolar nerve Zygomatic bone
Nasopharynx and soft palate Parotid gland
Levator veli palatini
Masseter
Medial pterygoid Facial artery
Mandibular ramus
Palatopharyngeus Palatine tonsil Submandibular gland
Oropharynx
Internal carotid artery
Epiglottic vallecula External carotid artery
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Laryngeal vestibule
Common carotid artery
Sternocleidomastoid
Trachea
Thyroid gland
Subclavian vein
Internal jugular vein
Right brachiocephalic vein
Right lung
Right subclavian artery
Fig. 14.9 Coronal MRI of the great vessels Anterior view. This image clearly demonstrates the course of the great vessels in the neck. This image is also an excellent demonstration of the
318
Aorta
Brachiocephalic trunk
Left lung
structures of the oral cavity. Note the position of the pharyngeal tonsils on the roof of the nasopharynx and the extent of the palatine tonsils in the oropharynx.
Sectional Anatomy
Temporalis
Cavernous sinus
Sphenoid sinus
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Nasopharynx
Internal carotid artery (syphon)
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Mandibular fossa of temporal bone
Zygomatic process
Articular disk Head of mandible Lateral pterygoid
Parotid gland
Maxillary artery Medial pterygoid Levator veli palatini Digastric (posterior belly)
Longus capitis Longus colli
Intervertebral disk
Comon carotid artery, internal jugular vein
Sternocleidomastoid External jugular vein
Vertebral body
Spinal nerve roots Anterior scalene Thyroid gland
Common carotid artery
Vertebral artery
Subclavian artery
Vertebral vein
Left lung
Right lung
Brachiocephalic trunk
Trachea
Fig. 14.10 Coronal MRI through the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) Anterior view. This image clearly demonstrates the structures of the TMJ, in particular the articular disk and mandibular head. The ramus of
Aorta
Common carotid artery
the mandible is seen medial to the parotid gland. This image shows the cervical vertebrae with intervertebral disks.
319
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Coronal MRIs of the Neck (III): Posterior
Temporalis
Atlas (C1), lateral mass
Dens of axis (C2)
Clivus
Temporal bone, petrous part
External acoustic meatus
Tympanic cavity
Occipital condyle
Parotid gland
Atlanto-occipital joint Atlantoaxial joint
Atlas (C1), transverse process
Internal jugular vein
Alar ligaments Stylohyoid Digastric
C4 and C5 spinal nerve roots
Sternocleidomastoid
Articular process of C6 Spinal cord
Middle scalene
Zygapophyseal joint
Posterior scalene Second rib
Right lung
Esophagus
Fig. 14.11 Coronal MRI through the cervical vertebrae and spinal nerves Anterior view. This image clearly shows the C1 through T2 vertebrae. The lateral masses of the atlas (C1) can be seen flanking the dens of the
320
Left lung
axis (C2). The more inferior vertebrae can be counted using the articular processes of the cervical vertebrae. The spinal nerve roots emerge between the articular processes (note for counting purposes: the C3 root emerges inferior to C2 and superior to the articular processes of C3).
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Foramen magnum
Temporal bone, petrous part Mastoid process
Atlas (C1), posterior arch
Digastric (posterior belly) and obliquus capitis superior Splenius capitis
Vertebral artery
Obliquus capitis inferior Longissimus capitis
Spinous process of C2 Sternocleidomastoid Deep cervical artery and vein
Levator scapulae
Splenius cervicis
Multifidus Trapezius
Brachial plexus Spinous process of C7
First rib Costal process
Right lung
Spinal cord
Fig. 14.12 Coronal MRI through the nuchal muscles Anterior view. This image clearly shows the relations of the muscles in the neck. Note: The elongated spinous process of the C7 vertebra (ver-
Left lung
tebra prominens) is still visible in this section. The spinal cord is visible both during its passage through the foramen magnum and more caudally, posterior to the T1 vertebral body.
321
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse Sections of the Head (I): Cranial
Crista galli Dorsal Vitreous body nasal artery
Periorbital fat
Nasal branch of facial artery
Ethmoid air cells
Superior oblique Levator palpebrae superioris Superior rectus
Superficial temporal vein
Infratemporal fossa Temporalis
Optic chiasm Optic tract (CN II)
Red nucleus Cerebral aqueduct
Third ventricle Cerebral peduncle Substantia nigra
Choroid plexus Vermis of cerebellum
Inferior sagittal sinus Lateral ventricle, occipital horn
Superior sagittal sinus
Fig. 14.13 Transverse section through the upper level of the orbits Superior view. The highest section in this series displays the muscles in the upper level of the orbit (the orbital levels are described on p. 116). The section cuts the bony crista galli in the anterior cranial fossa, flanked on each side by cells of the ethmoid sinus. The sections of the optic chiasm and adjacent optic tract are parts of the diencephalon, which sur-
322
rounds the third ventricle at the center of the section. The red nucleus and substantia nigra are visible in the mesencephalon. The pyramidal tract descends in the cerebral peduncles. The section passes through the posterior (occipital) horns of the lateral ventricles and barely cuts the vermis of the cerebellum in the midline.
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Nasal cavity Lens Vitreous body
Lacrimal gland
Optic nerve (CN II) Optic canal Internal carotid artery Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Cavernous sinus Pons
Cerebellar vermis
Nasal septum Ethmoid air cells Medial rectus Lateral rectus Infratemporal fossa Temporalis Pituitary (hypophysis) Dorsum sellae Basilar artery Interpeduncular fossa
Tentorium cerebelli Inferior sagittal sinus Lateral ventricle, occipital horn
Falx cerebri Superior sagittal sinus
Fig. 14.14 Transverse section through the optic nerve and pituitary Superior view. The optic nerve is seen just before its entry into the optic canal, indicating that the plane of section passes through the middle level of the orbit. Because the nerve completely fills the canal, growth disturbances of the bone at this level may cause pressure injury to the nerve. This plane cuts the ocular lenses and the cells of the ethmoid
labyrinth. The internal carotid artery can be identified in the middle cranial fossa, embedded in the cavernous sinus. The section cuts the oculomotor nerve on either side, which courses in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus. The pons and cerebellar vermis are also seen. The falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli appear as thin lines that come together at the straight sinus.
323
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse Sections of the Head (II)
Vomer (bony part of nasal septum) Nasal cavity
Cartilaginous nasal septum Inferior oblique
Vitreous body Inferior rectus Periorbital fat
Inferior orbital fissure Sphenoid bone, greater wing
Infratemporal fossa Temporalis Sphenoid sinus Cavernous sinus
Internal carotid artery
Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Temporal bone, petrous part
Clivus
Pons
Basilar artery Trigeminal nerve (CN V)
Cerebellum
Tentorium cerebelli Straight sinus Falx cerebri Superior sagittal sinus
Fig. 14.15 Transverse section through the sphenoid sinus Superior view. This section cuts the infratemporal fossa on the lateral aspect of the skull and the temporalis muscle that lies within it. The plane passes through the lower level of the orbit, which is continuous posteriorly with the inferior orbital fissure. This section displays the anterior extension of the two greater wings of the sphenoid bone and
324
the posterior extension of the two petrous parts of the temporal bones, which mark the boundary between the middle and posterior cranial fossae. The clivus is part of the posterior cranial fossa and lies in contact with the basilar artery. The pontine origin of the trigeminal nerve is visible. Note: The trigeminal nerve passes superior to the petrous portion of the temporal bone to enter the middle cranial fossa.
Sectional Anatomy
Nasal cavity
Buccal fat pad
Zygomatic arch Body of sphenoid bone Mandibular division (CN V3 )
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Cartilaginous nasal septum
Maxillary sinus Infraorbital nerve (from CN V2) in infraorbital canal Temporalis Lateral pterygoid
Masseter Head of mandible Internal carotid artery
Superficial temporal artery and veins
Inferior petrosal sinus
Clivus Basilar artery Facial nerve (CN VII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Pontocerebellar cistern Vermis of cerebellum
Transverse sinus
Dentate nucleus
Posterior lobe of cerebellum Straight sinus
Falx cerebri Superior sagittal sinus
Fig. 14.16 Transverse section through the middle nasal concha Superior view. This section below the orbit passes through the infraorbital nerve and canal. Medial to the infraorbital nerve is the roof of the maxillary sinus. The zygomatic arch is visible in its entirety, with portions of the muscles of mastication (masseter, temporalis, and lateral pterygoid) and the upper part of the head of the mandible. The mandibular division (CN V3) appears in cross section in its bony canal, the
Occipital lobe
foramen ovale. The body of the sphenoid bone forms the bony center of the base of the skull. The facial and vestibulocochlear nerves emerge from the brainstem and enter the internal acoustic meatus. The dentate nucleus lies within the white matter of the cerebellum. The space around the anterior part of the cerebellum, the pontocerebellar cistern, is filled with cerebrospinal fluid in the living individual. The transverse sinus is prominent among the dural sinuses of the brain.
325
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse Sections of the Head (III): Caudal
Naris Cartilaginous nasal septum
Alar cartilage, medial crus Nasal cavity Nasal septum
Facial vein
Inferior nasal concha Choana
Medial pterygoid Masseter Buccal nerve Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube CN V3
Lateral pterygoid and pterygoid venous plexus Masseteric nerve Nasopharynx
Auriculotemporal nerve and maxillary veins
Parotid gland Retromandibular vein
Internal carotid artery
External auditory canal
Auricular cartilage
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X), and accessory spinal nerve (CN XI)
Internal jugular vein Sigmoid sinus Vertebral venous plexus
Accessory nerve (CN XI), spinal root Vertebral artery
Medulla oblongata Diploic veins
Falx cerebelli
Transverse sinus Semispinalis capitis
Fig. 14.17 Transverse section through the nasopharynx Superior view. This section passes through the external nose and portions of the cartilaginous nasal skeleton. The nasal cavities communicate with the nasopharynx through the choanae. Cartilaginous portions of the pharyngotympanic tube project into the nasopharynx. The internal jugular vein travels with the vagus nerve (CN X) and common carotid artery as a neurovascular bundle within the carotid sheath, a fascial covering that extends from the base of the skull to the arch of the aorta. Cranial nerves IX, XI, and XII also pierce the upper portion
326
of the carotid sheath. However, these neurovascular structures do not all enter and exit the skull base together. The jugular foramen consists of a neural and a venous portion. The neural portion conducts the glossopharyngeal (CN IX), vagus (CN X), and accessory spinal (CN XI) nerves, and the venous portion contains the jugular bulb, which receives blood from the sigmoid sinus. (Note: The internal jugular vein begins at the inferior portion of the jugular foramen.) The internal carotid artery enters the carotid canal, and the hypoglossal (CN XII) nerve enters the hypoglossal canal.
Sectional Anatomy
Soft palate (including tensor and levator veli palatini)
Maxilla
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Mucoperiosteum of the hard palate
Lateral pterygoid plate
Levator anguli oris Buccinator Masseter
Lingual nerve Medial pterygoid
Inferior alveolar nerve
Lateral pterygoid
Atlas (C1)
Mandibular ramus
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Maxillary artery
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Accessory spinal nerve (CN XI)
Facial nerve (CN VII) within parotid gland
Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) Vagus nerve (CN X)
Occipital artery
Median atlantoaxial joint
Posterior condylar emissary vein Splenius capitis
Dens of axis (C2) Vertebral artery Transverse ligament of atlas
Occipital bone
Spinal Trapezius cord
Fig. 14.18 Transverse section through the median atlantoaxial joint Superior view. The section at this level passes through the connective tissue sheet that stretches over the bone of the hard palate. Portions of the upper pharyngeal muscles are sectioned close to their origin. The neurovascular structures in the carotid sheath are also well displayed. The dens of the axis articulates in the median atlantoaxial joint with the
Semispinalis capitis
facet for the dens on the posterior surface of the anterior arch of the atlas. The transverse ligament of the atlas that helps to stabilize this joint can also be identified. The vertebral artery and its accompanying veins are displayed in cross section, as is the spinal cord. In the occipital region, the section passes through the upper portion of the posterior neck muscles.
327
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse Sections of the Neck (I): Cranial
Arytenoid cartilage
Epiglottic cartilage
Laryngeal vestibule
Platysma
Omohyoid Thyrohyoid
Piriform recess
Thyroid cartilage
Superior thyroid vein Common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve (CN X) in carotid sheath
Sternocleidomastoid Hypopharynx
C5 vertebra External jugular vein Longus colli
Accessory spinal nerve (CN XI), external branch
C4 spinal nerve
Vertebral artery
C5 spinal nerve
C6 vertebral body
C6 spinal nerve
Longissimus capitis
Levator scapulae
Longissimus cervicis
Trapezius
Splenius cervicis
Splenius capitis
Spinous process of C 7
Fig. 14.19 Transverse section at the level of the C5 vertebral body Inferior view. The internal jugular vein travels with the common carotid artery and vagus nerve in the carotid sheath. The accessory spinal nerve (CN XI) is medial to the sternocleidomastoid; more proximal to the skull base it will pierce the carotid sheath to enter the jugular fora-
328
Semispinalis cervicis
men with the internal jugular vein, as well as CN IX and X. The elongated spinous process of the C7 vertebra (vertebra prominens) is visible at this level, owing to the lordotic curvature of the neck. Note that the triangular shape of the arytenoid cartilage is clearly demonstrated in the laryngeal cross section.
Sectional Anatomy
Epiglottic cartilage Thyroid cartilage
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Laryngeal vestibule
Piriform recess Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Thyroid gland Common carotid artery
Superior thyroid artery and vein
Vagus nerve (CN X) Internal jugular vein
Scalenus anterior with phrenic nerve
External jugular vein C5 spinal nerve
Scalenus medius
C6 spinal nerve
Scalenus posterior
Vertebral artery
Longissimus capitis
C7 spinal nerve
Levator scapulae
C6 vertebra
Trapezius
Spinal cord
Serratus posterior superior Splenius cervicis
Vertebral arch of C7
Semispinalis cervicis
Rhomboid minor
Fig. 14.20 Transverse section through the C6 vertebral body Inferior view. The piriform recess can be identified at this level, and the vertebral artery is visible in its course along the vertebral body. The vagus nerve (CN X) lies in a posterior angle between the common carotid artery and internal jugular vein within the carotid sheath. The phrenic nerve, which arises from the ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves C3–C5, lies on the scalenus anterior muscle on the left side.
329
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse Sections of the Neck (II): Caudal
Arytenoid cartilage
Thyroid cartilage Sternohyoid
Superior thyroid vein
Thyrohyoid
Hypopharynx
Omohyoid
Common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve (CN X) in carotid sheath
Thyroid gland Sternocleidomastoid
Longus colli
Scalenus anterior with C5 spinal nerve
C4 spinal nerve
Vertebral vein Scalenus medius
C6 spinal nerve and C6 vertebra
Vertebral artery Scalenus posterior
C7 spinal nerve and C7 vertebra Levator scapulae
Vertebral arch of T1
Trapezius
Fig. 14.21 Transverse section at the level of the C6 vertebral body Inferior view. This cross section passes through the base of the arytenoid cartilage in the larynx. The hypopharynx appears as a narrow transverse cleft behind the larynx.
Semispinalis cervicis
Splenius cervicis
Thyroid cartilage Rima glottidis Lamina of cricoid cartilage Hypopharynx Common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve (CN X) C6 vertebra Vertebral artery and vein Scalenus medius Scalenus posterior Levator scapulae Trapezius
Fig. 14.22 Transverse section at the level of the C6/C7 vertebral junction Inferior view. This cross section passes through the larynx at the level of the vocal folds. The thyroid gland appears considerably smaller at this level than in subsequent views.
330
Sternohyoid Thyrohyoid Superior thyroid artery Sternocleidomastoid Thyroid gland External jugular vein C5 spinal nerve C6 spinal nerve C7 spinal nerve and C7 vertebra
C8 spinal nerve Vertebral arch of T1
Sectional Anatomy
Superior thyroid vein
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Sternohyoid
Cricoid cartilage
Sternothyroid
Superior thyroid artery
Thyroid gland
Internal jugular vein, vagus nerve (CN X), and common carotid artery
Sternocleidomastoid
Phrenic nerve with scalenus anterior
Esophagus Thyrocervical trunk
External jugular vein
Inferior thyroid artery C6 spinal nerve
Vertebral artery and vein
C7 spinal nerve
Scalenus medius
C8 spinal nerve Scalenus posterior
Intervertebral disk
Second rib
T1 vertebra and spinal nerve
Transverse process of T2
Fig. 14.23 Transverse section at the level of the C7/T1 vertebral junction Inferior view. This cross section clearly displays the scalenus anterior and medius muscles and the interval between them, which is traversed by
Sternocleidomastoid
the C6–C8 roots of the brachial plexus. Note the neurovascular structures (common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, vagus nerve) that lie within the carotid sheath between the sternocleidomastoid, anterior scalene, and thyroid gland.
Anterior jugular vein
Arch of cricoid cartilage Trachea
Common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve (CN X) Scalenus anterior Omohyoid
Thyroid gland
Esophagus Thyrocervical trunk
C6 spinal nerve
External jugular vein
C7 spinal nerve
Transverse cervical artery
C8 spinal nerve
Scalenus medius
First rib
Longus colli and vertebral artery
T1 vertebra Scalenus posterior Second rib
Pleural dome of left lung
Spinal cord
Serratus anterior
Third rib
Levator scapulae
Fig. 14.24 Transverse section at the level of the T1/T2 vertebral junction Inferior view. Due to the curvature of the neck in this specimen, the section also cuts the intervertebral disk between T1 and T2. This section includes the C6–C8 nerve roots of the brachial plexus and a small
section of the left pleural dome. The proximity of the pulmonary apex to the brachial plexus shows why the growth of an apical lung tumor may damage the brachial plexus roots. Note also the thyroid gland and its proximity to the trachea and neurovascular bundle in the carotid sheath.
331
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse MRIs of the Head Superior rectus
Ethmoid air cells
Frontal sinus
Eyeball
Lacrimal gland
Ophthalmic vein
Temporalis
Sphenoidal bone
Optic nerve (CN II)
Temporoparietalis
Sphenoid sinus and pituitary (hypophysis)
Internal carotid artery Dorsum sellae
Middle cerebral artery Lateral ventricle, temporal horn
Basilar artery
Pons Fourth ventricle Vermis of cerebellum
Temporal bone
Confluence of the sinuses Occipital bone with internal occipital protuberance
A Ethmoid air cells
Nasal bone
Anterior chamber of eyeball
Lens Zygomatic bone
Eyeball Medial, superior, and lateral rectus muscles
Optic nerve (CN II) in periorbital fat
Temporalis Temporal lobe
Temporoparietalis
CN V2 and CN V3 anterior to internal carotid artery
Sphenoid sinus Clivus
Basilar artery and pons
Cochlea with posterior semicircular canal
Mastoid air cells Sigmoid sinus
Internal acoustic meatus with facial (CN VII) and vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerves
Uvula of vermis
Fourth ventricle Vermis of cerebellum
B
Internal occipital protuberance
Fig. 14.25 Transverse MRIs through the orbit and ethmoid air cells Inferior view. A Superior orbit. This section demonstrates the relationship of the frontal and sphenoid sinuses to the orbit and nasal cavity. B Section through optic nerve (CN II). The divisions of the eye can be clearly seen along with the extraocular muscles located in the peri-
332
orbital fat. The sigmoid sinus is located posterior to the mastoid air cells and lateral to the cerebellum. This section clearly displays the internal acoustic meatus, which conducts the facial (CN VII) and vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerves.
Sectional Anatomy
Orbicularis oris
Middle nasal concha
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Nasal septum
Nasal bone
Maxilla with infraorbital canal
Levator labii superioris
Nasolacrimal duct Maxillary sinus Temporalis Medial pterygoid between medial and lateral pterygoid plates
Masseter Lateral pterygoid
Pharyngeal recess
Head of mandible
Levator and tensor veli palatini
Mandibular (CN V3) and auriculotemporal nerves
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein with CN IX, X, and XI
Longus capitis Mastoid air cells
Vertebral artery
Sigmoid sinus
Medulla oblongata Posterior lobe of cerebellum
Semispinalis capitis
Falx cerebri around superior sagittal sinus
Fig. 14.26 Transverse MRI through the orbit and nasolacrimal duct Inferior view. This section clearly demonstrates the relationships of the infraorbital canal and nasolacrimal duct to the maxillary sinus. The medial and lateral pterygoid plates can be seen flanking the medial pterygoid. The pharyngeal recess is visible, anterior to the longus
Occipital bone
Fourth ventricle
capitis. The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) is lateral to the levator and tensor veli palatini and medial to the lateral pterygoid. Cranial nerves IX, X, and XI run just anteromedial to the internal jugular vein.
333
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse MRIs of the Oral Cavity Maxillary sinus
Nasal concha
Orbicularis oris
Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
Sphenoid sinus
Temporalis Masseter
Articular disk
Trigeminal nerve (CN V) Head of mandible
Foramen lacerum
External acoustic meatus
Vertebral artery
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein Mastoid air cells
Medulla oblongata Fourth ventricle Falx cerebri Cerebellum, posterior lobe Occipital bone
Fig. 14.27 Transverse MRI through the TMJ Inferior view. Note: The plane of this section is slightly higher than Fig. 14.26. It has been included here in order to show the articular disk of the TMJ and the full extent of the mandible.
Maxilla (alveolar process)
Orbicularis oris Levator anguli oris
Hard palate
Facial artery
Buccinator
Lateral and medial pterygoids
Temporalis Masseter Tensor and levator veli palatini
Mandibular ramus Internal carotid artery
Parotid gland
Internal jugular vein
Retromandibular vein Medulla oblongata and interpeduncular cistern
Mastoid air cells
Vertebral artery Condylar canal
Splenius capitis Tonsil of cerebellum
Semispinalis capitis
Fig. 14.28 Transverse MRI through the hard and soft palates Inferior view. This section demonstrates the relation of the mandibular ramus to the muscles of mastication in the infratemporal fossa.
334
Cisterna magna
Occipital bone
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Orbicularis oris
Genioglossus
Depressor anguli oris
Uvula and oropharynx
Mandible
Longus colli and capitis
Facial artery External carotid artery
Hypoglossus Masseter Medial pterygoid Palatine tonsils and pharyngeal muscles Internal jugular vein and common carotid artery
Retromandibular vein in parotid gland
Digastric, posterior belly
Sternocleidomastoid
Levator scapulae Body of axis (C2) Splenius capitis
Longissimus cervicis
Vertebral artery A
Semispinalis capitis
Spinal cord
Obliquus capitis inferior
Trapezius
Mandible Mentalis
Genioglossus
Depressor anguli oris Oropharynx Mylohyoid Hyoglossus
Hypopharynx
Retromandibular vein
Submandibular gland Stylohyoid and posterior digastric
External carotid artery
Epiglottis Palatopharyngeus and middle pharyngeal constrictor
External jugular vein
Internal carotid artery Vertebral artery
External jugular vein C3 vertebra (body and posterior arch)
Levator scapulae
Sternocleidomastoid Deep cervical veins Splenius capitis
B
Semispinalis capitis
Nuchal ligament
Fig. 14.29 Transverse MRIs through the mandible Inferior view. A Section through mandibular arch. This section demonstrates the relationship of the oropharynx to the soft palate (uvula) and
Spinalis cervicis
Trapezius
prevertebral muscles (longus colli and capitis). The vessels of the carotid sheath are clearly visible, along with the retromandibular vein in the parotid gland. B Section through body of mandible and hypophyarynx.
335
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Transverse MRIs of the Neck
Thyrohyoid and sternohyoid Epiglottic cartilage Laryngeal vestibule
Aryepiglottic fold Submandibular gland
Platysma
Common carotid artery
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
Internal jugular vein Longus colli and capitis Sternocleidomastoid
External jugular vein
Vertebral artery
Longissimus capitis
Middle scalene
Spinalis cervicis
Levator scapulae
Splenius cervicis
Splenius capitis
Trapezius
Semispinalis cervicis
Semispinalis capitis
Fig. 14.30 Transverse MRI through the C4 vertebral body Inferior view. This section demonstrates the aryepiglottic fold in the laryngeal vestibule. Note the proximity of the prevertebral muscles to the pharyngeal constrictors.
Thyroid cartilage
Sternohyoid and thyrohyoid
Anterior jugular veins Platysma
Sternothyroid
Larynx
Thyroid gland
Internal jugular vein Common carotid artery
Cricoid cartilage
Scalenes
Sternocleidomastoid with external jugular vein Esophagus
Levator scapulae
Vertebral artery and vein
Spinalis cervicis Semispinalis cervicis
C7 spinal nerve root
Splenius capitis C6 vertebral body, C7 posterior arch
C7 spinous process
Fig. 14.31 Transverse MRI through the C6 vertebral body Inferior view. This section demonstrates the cricoid and thyroid cartilage of the larynx (note the change in shape of the larynx). Due to lordosis of the cervical spine, this section includes the C6 vertebral body and the C7 spinous process with posterior arch.
336
Multifidus
Trapezius
Sectional Anatomy
Sternohyoid and sternothyroid
Trachea
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Anterior jugular vein
Thyroid gland with inferior thyroid artery
Esophagus Common carotid artery
Sternocleidomastoid Longus colli with vertebral artery
Internal jugular vein
Anterior scalene
External jugular vein
Middle and posterior scalene Spinal cord with C8 spinal nerve root
First rib Transverse process of T1 Serratus posterior superior Levator scapulae
Semispinalis capitis
Semispinalis cervicis
Fig. 14.32 Transverse MRI through the C7 vertebra Inferior view. This section demonstrates the relationship of the trachea to the esophagus. Note the position of the carotid sheath (containing the common carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagus nerve)
Rhomboid minor
Splenius capitis
Trapezius
with respect to the thyroid gland. The C8 spinal nerve root can be seen emerging from the spinal cord. Note the first rib and transverse process of the thoracic vertebra.
337
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Sagittal Sections of the Head (I): Medial
Frontal sinus
Corpus callosum
Anterior cranial fossa Olfactory bulb (CN I) Pituitary Sphenoid sinus
Clivus Transverse sinus
Choana
Foramen magnum
Nasal septum
Atlas (C1), anterior and posterior arches
Hard palate
Nuchal ligament
Soft palate
Transverse ligament of atlas
Nasopharynx Uvula
Median atlantoaxial joint
Mandible
Dens of axis (C2) C3 vertebra
Oropharynx Geniohyoid Mylohyoid Epiglottic vallecula Hyoid bone
Laryngeal cartilage
Fig. 14.33 Midsagittal section through the nasal septum Left lateral view. The anatomical structures at this level can be roughly assigned to the facial skeleton or neurocranium (cranial vault). The lowest level of the facial skeleton is formed by the oral floor muscles between the hyoid bone and mandible and the overlying skin. This section also passes through the epiglottis and the larynx below it, which are considered part of the cervical viscera. Note: The epiglottic vallecula, located in the oropharynx, is bounded by the root of the tongue and the epiglottis. The hard and soft palate with the uvula define the
338
Epiglottis
Laryngopharynx
boundary between the oral and nasal cavities. Posterior to the uvula is the oropharynx. The section includes the nasal septum, which divides the nasal cavity into two cavities (sectioned above and in front of the septum) that communicate with the nasopharynx through the choanae. Posterior to the frontal sinus is the anterior cranial fossa, which is part of the neurocranium. This section passes through the medial surface of the brain (the falx cerebri has been removed). The cut edge of the corpus callosum, the olfactory bulb, and the pituitary are also shown.
Sectional Anatomy
Caudate nucleus, head
Internal capsule
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Medial segment of globus pallidus
Uncus
Lateral ventricle Posterior thalamic nuclei
Oculomotor nerve (CN III) Optic nerve (CN II)
Pontocerebellar cistern
Frontal sinus
Tentorium cerebelli
Ethmoid air cells
Cerebellum Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Sphenoid sinus Middle nasal concha
Vertebral artery
Inferior nasal concha
Rectus capitis posterior minor
Palatine process, palatine sulcus
Semispinalis capitis
Maxilla
Rectus capitis posterior major
Superior labial vestibule Oral cavity
C2 spinal nerve
Palatopharyngeus
Obliquus capitis inferior
Inferior labial vestibule
Longus capitis
Tongue
Splenius capitis
Mandible Lingual nerve and deep lingual veins
C3 spinal nerve Spinalis cervicis
Anterior digastric
C4 spinal nerve
Mylohyoid Hyoid bone Epiglottic cartilage and vallecula
Laryngopharynx
Thyroid cartilage
Fig. 14.34 Sagittal section through the medial orbital wall Left lateral view. This section passes through the inferior and middle nasal conchae within the nasal cavity. Above the middle nasal concha are the ethmoid air cells. The only parts of the nasopharynx visible in this section are a small luminal area and the lateral wall, which bears
Vertebral artery
C5 spinal nerve
C6 spinal nerve
C7 spinal nerve
a section of the cartilaginous portion of the pharyngotympanic tube. The sphenoid sinus is also displayed. In the region of the cervical spine, the section cuts the vertebral artery at multiple levels. The lateral sites where the spinal nerves emerge from the intervertebral foramina are clearly displayed. Note: This section is lateral to the geniohyoid.
339
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Sagittal Sections of the Head (II): Lateral
Extreme capsule
External capsule
Claustrum
Putamen
Internal capsule Dentate gyrus
Amygdala Trigeminal ganglion (CN V) Internal carotid artery
Lateral rectus Superior rectus
Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube
Frontal sinus
Posterior meningeal artery
CN II Procerus
CN IX, X, and XI
Inferior rectus Vitreous body CN V2 in pterygopalatine fossa
CN XII Transverse sinus
Sphenoid sinus
Condylar emissary vein
Lateral pterygoid Levator veli palatini
Rectus capitis posterior major
Medial pterygoid
Semispinalis capitis Internal carotid artery
Maxillary sinus
Obliquus capitis inferior
Palatine tonsil Orbicularis oris
Greater occipital nerve (C2)
Palatopharyngeus
Vertebral artery C3 spinal nerve
Tongue
Trapezius
Genioglossus
Splenius capitis
Mylohyoid
Retropharyngeal space
Anterior digastric Hyoid bone, lesser cornu
Submandibular gland
Hyoid bone, greater cornu
Thyroid cartilage, left lamina
Fig. 14.35 Sagittal section through the inner third of the orbit Left lateral view. This section passes through the maxillary and frontal sinuses while displaying one ethmoid air cell and the peripheral part of the sphenoid sinus. It passes through the medial portion of the internal carotid artery and submandibular gland. The pharyngeal and masticatory muscles are grouped about the cartilaginous part of the pharyn-
340
Inferior pharyngeal constrictor
gotympanic tube. The eyeball and optic nerve are cut peripherally by the section, which displays relatively long segments of the superior and inferior rectus muscles. Sectioned brain structures include the external and internal capsules and the intervening putamen. The amygdala can be identified near the base of the brain. A section of the trigeminal ganglion appears below the cerebrum.
Sectional Anatomy
Internal carotid artery
Temporal bone, petrous part
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Foot of hippocampus
Internal auditory canal Choroid plexus
Lateral rectus
Facial nerve (CN VII)
Periorbital fat Levator palpebrae superioris Occipitofrontalis, frontal belly
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Superior rectus Vitreous body Lens Inferior oblique Orbicularis oculi, orbital and palpebral parts Lateral pterygoid, superior and inferior parts
Transverse sinus
Temporalis
Cerebellum
Levator labii superioris
Semispinalis capitis
Maxillary sinus
Stylopharyngeus Obliquus capitis inferior Splenius cervicis
Medial pterygoid
Splenius capitis
Buccinator
Stylohyoid
Oral vestibule
Internal jugular vein Levator scapulae
Orbicularis oris Inferior alveolar nerve, artery, and vein in mandibular canal
Lymph node Body of mandible
Mylohyoid
Platysma
Submandibular gland
Fig. 14.36 Sagittal section through the approximate center of the orbit Left lateral view. Due to the obliquity of this section, the dominant structure in the oral floor region is the mandible, whereas the oral vestibule appears as a narrow slit. The buccal and masticatory muscles are prominently displayed. Much of the orbit is occupied by the eyeball,
Common carotid artery
which appears in longitudinal section. Aside from a few sections of the extraocular muscles, the orbit in this plane is filled with periorbital fat. Both the internal carotid artery and the internal jugular vein are demonstrated. Except for the foot of the hippocampus, the only visible cerebral structures are the white matter and cortex. The facial nerve and vestibulocochlear nerve can be identified in the internal auditory canal.
341
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Sagittal MRIs of the Head Pituitary (hypophysis)
Optic nerve (CN II)
Septum pellucidum
Superior sagittal sinus
Ethmoid air cells and sphenoid sinus
Corpus callosum
Straight sinus Fourth ventricle Confluence of the sinuses
Frontal sinus Nasal bone
Basilar artery
Nasopharynx
Rectus capitis posterior minor Nuchal ligament
Hard palate
Dens of axis (C2) and anterior arch of atlas (C1)
Tongue
C2/C3 intervertebral disk
A
Body of mandible
Internal carotid artery, syphon
Uvula
Oropharynx
Semispinalis capitis
Caudate nucleus, head
Thalamus Corpus callosum Superior sagittal sinus Tentorium cerebelli Frontal sinus Confluence of the sinuses Clivus
Ethmoid air cells and sphenoid sinus
Vertebral artery
Nasopharynx Atlas (C1), posterior arch
Inferior nasal concha Hard palate
Semispinalis capitis
B
Sublingual gland
Uvula
Fig. 14.37 Sagittal sections through the nasal cavity Left lateral view. A Midsagittal section through nasal septum. B Sagittal section through inferior and middle nasal conchae. These sections demonstrate the relationship of the nasopharynx to the oropharynx.
342
Oropharynx
Longus capitis
The optic nerve (CN II) is visible as the optic chiasm in A. The pituitary (hypophysis) can be seen inferior to it, just posterior to the sphenoid sinus. The syphon of the internal carotid artery is beautifully displayed in B.
Sectional Anatomy
Basal ganglia
Thalamus
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Precentral gyrus
Roof of orbit Lateral ventricle
Corpus callosum Superior rectus
Lambdoid suture
Optic nerve (CN II)
Tentorium cerebelli Maxillary sinus
Transverse sinus Anterior and posterior lobes of the cerebellum
Medial pterygoid and levator veli palatini
Splenius capitis Levator labii superioris
Rectus capitis posterior major
Maxilla
Semispinalis capitis
Orbicularis oris
Obliquus capitis inferior Longus capitis
Mandible
Internal carotid artery
Mylohyoid
Digastric
Hyoglossus
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
Fig. 14.38 Sagittal section through the orbit Left lateral view. This view exposes the superior and inferior rectus muscles within the periorbital fat. The course of the optic nerve (CN II) within the orbit can be seen. Note the proximity of the maxillary dentition to the maxillary sinus. Roots of the maxillary dentition may erupt into the maxillary sinus. The major forceps of the corpus callosum can be seen just posterior to the lateral ventricle.
343
Sectional Anatomy
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Sagittal MRIs of the Neck Middle nasal concha
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid air cells
Sphenoid sinus
Palatine tonsil
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
Longus colli
Dens of axis (C2) Nasopharynx Atlas (C1), posterior arch Orbicularis oris Suboccipital fat Hard and soft palates Oropharynx Longitudinal muscle of the tongue
Ligamentum flavum
Genioglossus and lingual septum
Nuchal ligament Interspinalis muscles
Mandible
C5 vertebral body
Transverse muscle of the tongue
C7 spinous process
Geniohyoid and mylohyoid Hyoid bone
Esophagus and anterior longitudinal ligament
Epiglottis Vestibular and vocal ligaments of the larynx
Lamina of cricoid cartilage
Thyroid gland
Brachiocephalic artery
Fig. 14.39 Midsagittal section Left lateral view. This section illustrates the relations between the nasal cavity and ethmoid air cells. The nasal cavity communicates posteriorly (via the choanae) with the nasopharynx, which is separated from the oral cavity by the soft palate and uvula. Inferior to the uvula, the nasopharynx and oral cavity converge in the oropharynx. Air continues
344
Trachea
T2 vertebral body
more anteriorly into the laryngopharynx and ultimately the trachea, whereas food passes into the esophagus, posterior to the lamina of the larynx. Note how closely opposed the esophagus is to the anterior surface of the vertebral bodies. This section also reveals the cervical vertebrae and ligaments.
Sectional Anatomy
Superior rectus
Inferior rectus
Lateral pterygoid
Medial pterygoid
14. Sectional Anatomy of the Head & Neck
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Atlas (C1), transverse process
Rectus capitis posterior minor Optic nerve (CN II)
Rectus capitis posterior major
Maxillary sinus Obliquus capitis Buccinator
Semispinalis capitis
Stylohyoid
Levator scapulae
Digastric
External carotid artery
Mandible
Semispinalis cervicis
Facial vein Splenius capitis
Submandibular gland External jugular vein
Scalenus posterior
Common carotid artery Internal jugular vein
Brachial plexus
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Scalenus medius Rhomboids major and minor
Clavicle
Left subclavian vein
Left subclavian artery
Left lung
Interspinalis muscle
Multifidus
Fig. 14.40 Sagittal section through carotid bifurcation Left lateral view. This section shows the common and external carotid arteries, as well as the internal and external jugular veins. The craniovertebral joint muscles are visible along with the nuchal muscles. Note the position of the brachial plexus between the medial and posterior scalenes. The extent of the submandibular gland can be appreciated in this view.
345
Appendix References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
References
Becker W, Naumann HH, Pfaltz CR. Otorhinolaryngology [in German]. 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1983
Schmidt F. Innervation of the Temporomandibular Joint [in German]. Gegenbaurs morphol. Jb. 1067:110;554-573
Faller A, Poisel S, Golth D, Faller A, Schuenke M. The Human Body [in German]. 14th ed. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2004
Tillmann B. Color Atlas of Anatomy Dental Medicine — Human Medicine [in German]. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1997
Kahle W, Frotscher M. Pocket Atlas of Anatomy [in German]. Vol. 3. 9th ed. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2005
Vahlensieck M, Reiser M. MRI of the Musculoskeletal System [in German]. 2nd ed. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2001
Lippert H, Pabst R. Arterial Variations in Man. Munich: Bergmann; 1985
Vahlensieck M, Reiser M, eds. MRI of the Musculoskeletal System [in German]. 2nd rev. ed. Berlin: Springer; 1959
Platzer W. Pocket Atlas of Anatomy [in German]. Vol. 1. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1999
von Lanz T, Wachsmuth W. Applied Anatomy [in German]. Vol. 2, Part 6 (Loeweneck H, Feifel G, eds.), Berlin: Springer; 1993
Platzer W. Topographic Anatomy Atlas [in German]. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1982
von Lanz T, Wachsmuth W. Applied Anatomy [in German]. Vol. 1, 2: Hals, Berlin: Springer; 1955
Rauber A, Kopsch F. Human Anatomy [in German]. Vol. 1–4. Stuttgart: Thieme; Vol. 1, 2: 1997; Vol. 2, 3: 1987; Vol. 4: 1988
348
Index
Note: Tabular material is indicated by a “t” following the page number.
A Abdomen muscles (internal/external obliques) of, 242 vagus nerve branches to, 91t Abducent nerve (CN VI), 66t, 72, 72t, 114t emergence from brainstem, 114 eye movement and, 140 function of, 67t Abducent nerve palsy, 72t, 113, 114t Abducting nystagmus, 141 Accessory lacrimal glands, 122 Accessory meningeal artery, 45t, 47t Accessory parotid gland, 218 Accessory spinal nerve (CN XI), 66t, 92 anterior cervical triangle and, 281 course of, 92t in deep lateral cervical region, 283 function of, 67t in lateral neck, 278 nerve lesions of, 92, 92t in nuchal region, 276 nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution of, 92t spinal contribution to, 291 on transverse MRI of head, 333 in transverse section of head through C5 level, 328 through nasopharynx, 326 Accessory visual system, 137 Accommodation, pathways for, 138 Acoustic neuroma, 87, 165, 168 Acromion, inferior boundary of neck and, 273 Action potential, 306 Adam’s apple. See Thyroid cartilage Afferent impulses, in gustatory pathway, 222 Afferent (motor) fibers, 54, 66t, 291 brainstem reflexes and, 137 facial nerve and, 82t Afferent nuclei, 68t, 69 Afferent tracts. See Sensory (afferent) pathways Age-related changes in cranial sutures and fontanelles, 3, 3t in mandible, 23, 192 in spinal cord segment levels, 299 Ageusia, 222 Air pressure equalization, 161 Airways, on coronal MRI of neck, 317 Alae, 142 Alar cartilage, 142 Alar ligaments, 236, 237 Alveolar arteries, 44, 45t Alveolar bone, 182, 182t Alveolar processes of teeth, 23
Alzheimer disease, neurofibrils in, 306 Amacrine cells, 133 Amaurosis, 136, 139 American Academy of Otolaryngology, deep cervical lymph node groups and, 268 Ampulla, 174 Ampullary crest, 174 Amygdala, in sagittal section of head, 340 Anastomosis arterial, in face, 97 in arterial supply to auricle, 157 Anesthesia, epidural and lumbar, 299 Angular vein, infection transmission and, 52t Anosmia, 222 Ansa cervicalis, 270, 282 Anterior auricular arteries, 157 Anterior cerebral artery, 305 Anterior cervical triangle, 272, 272t dissection of, 280–281 Anterior communicating artery, 305 Anterior cranial fossa, 310 Anterior ethmoid nerve, 76, 77t Anterior jugular vein, 50–51, 51t Anterior olfactory stria, 152 Anterior rhinoscopy, 151 Anterior tympanic artery, 44, 45t, 47t, 166, 166t Apical ligaments of the dens, 237 Aqueous humor, drainage of, 131 obstructed, glaucoma and, 131 Arachnoid, 296 Arcuate eminence, 155 Argyll Robertson pupil, 138 Arterial grooves, in calvaria, 10 Arterial supply to brain, 304 stenoses and occlusions of, 305 to thyroid gland, 265 Artery(ies). See also individually named arteries of auricle, 157 in circle of Willis, 305 of ear, 166–167, 166t of infratemporal fossa, 102–103, 102t laryngeal, 261 ligation sites for nosebleed, 151 of neck, 266, 266t of pterygoid canal, 45t, 46, 47t of right lateral nasal wall, 148, 149 superficial, of head, 99 of tongue, 220 Articular disk in temporomandibular joint, 37 on coronal MRI of neck, 319 on transverse MRI of neck, 334
349
A
Aryepiglottic fold
Aryepiglottic fold, on transverse MRI of neck, 336 Arytenoid cartilages, 256, 257 on coronal MRI of neck, 317 in transverse section of head, 328 Arytenoid muscles, 258, 258t Ascending pharyngeal artery, 41t, 43, 43t variants of, 284 Atherosclerosis, arterial supply to brain and, 305 Atlantoaxial joints, 233 median, transverse section of head through, 327 short nuchal muscles and, 250 Atlanto-occipital joints, 233 capsule of, 237 short nuchal muscles and, 250 Atlanto-occipital membrane, 237 Atlas (C1), 230 on coronal MRI of neck, 321 craniovertebral joints and, 232, 233 transverse ligament of, in transverse section of head, 327 Auditory apparatus, of ear, 156, 164, 170–171 key stations of, 172 Auditory ossicles, 156, 160, 162 Auditory pathway, 172–173 afferent, 172 efferent, 173 tonotopic organization of, 172 Auditory tube. See Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Auricle arterial supply of, 157 cartilage of, 157 muscles of, 157 sensory innervation of, 158 Auricular arteries, 157 Auricularis muscles, 25, 26, 27t Auriculotemporal nerve, 80, 81t, 160 TMJ capsule and, 37 Autonomic (visceral) nervous system, 54 motor pathways, 58, 62–63 parasympathetic, 63t sympathetic, 62t Axis (C2), 230 craniovertebral joints and, 232, 233 dens of on coronal MRI of neck, 321 in transverse section of head, 327 Axon bundles, in CNS and PNS, 306 Axon hillock, potential at, 306 Axons, 55, 306 in convergence and accommodation, 138 in gustatory pathway, 222 in olfactory tract, 152 in spinal cord, 292 in visual pathway geniculate part, 134 nongeniculate part, 137
B Baby teeth. See Deciduous teeth Back muscles. See also individually named muscles extrinsic, 240, 242 intrinsic, 240, 242–243, 248–249, 248t erector spinae and interspinales, 246–247, 246t
350
origins and insertions of, 38, 39 short nuchal, 250–251, 250t “Ballistic” eye movements, 140 Basilar artery, 305 in transverse section of head, 324 Basilar membrane, 170 Basilar plexus, dural sinus drainage and, 302 Bicuspids. See Premolars Bimanual examination, of salivary glands, 219 Binaural processing, 172 Bipolar cells, 133 Bipolar neuron(s), 55, 307 in afferent auditory pathway, 172 Bitemporal hemianopia, 136 Blind spot, 125, 127 lamina cribrosa and, 133 Blindness, 136, 139 Blink reflex/Blinking, 121 Blood supply/vessels. See Arterial supply; Artery(ies); individually named arteries and veins; Veins; Venous drainage Bone(s). See also individually named bones alveolar, 182, 182t in hard palate, 190–191 nasal, 5, 7, 11, 108, 142 of nasal cavity, 142 of nose, 142 of orbit, 108–109 of skull, 2, 5t anterior view, 2t, 6–7 lateral view, 4–5 posterior view, 8–9 of skull base, 12–13 Bony labyrinth, 164 Bony prominences, in neck, 273 Botulinum toxin injection, 24 Bouton en passage, 307 Brachial plexus, 279 anterior cervical triangle and, 281 in deep anterolateral neck, 282 deep lateral cervical region and, 283 on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 Brachiocephalic vein, 50, 267, 267t Brain arterial supply to, 304–305 developmental organization of, 295, 295t gross anatomy of, 294 meninges in situ and, 296 neuroanatomy of, 294–295 structures of, 297 Brainstem cranial nerve nuclei and, 63t, 168, 168t, 169 emergence of cranial nerves from, 114 oculomotor nuclei connections in, 140 structures of anterior projection, 297 lateral projection, 297 Brainstem reflexes, 137 Branchial muscle, 60t, 61 derivatives of, 61 embryonic development of, 60, 61t of head, 61t second arch, innervation of, 82, 84 Branchiomotor nuclei, cranial nerves, 68t, 69
Chorda tympanii
accessory spinal nerve, 92t facial nerve, 82t glossopharyngeal nerve, 88t trigeminal nerve, 75, 75t vagus nerve, 90t Bridging veins, in subarachnoid space, 296 Brodmann area, 134 Bruch membrane, 133 Buccal artery, 44, 45t, 47t Buccal fat pad, 312 Buccal muscles, in sagittal section of head, 341 Buccal nerve, 80, 81t Buccal tooth surface, 180 Buccinator muscle, 24, 28, 29, 29t Buccopharyngeal fascia, 274 retropharyngeal space and, 286 Buccopharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214
C Calvaria external and internal surfaces of, 10–11 layers of, 11 muscles of, 25, 26–27, 27t innervation, 27t scalp and, 11 sensitivity to trauma, 11 Canal of Schlemm, 124 Canines, 179, 184, 184t eruption patterns of, 188, 188t Cardinal directions of gaze, 113 Caroticotympanic arteries, 166, 166t Carotid arteries, variants of, 283. See also Common carotid artery; External carotid artery; Internal carotid artery Carotid bifurcation, 40 sagittal MRI of neck through, 345 Carotid canal foramen lacerum relationship to, 12 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t temporal bone and, 19 Carotid sheath fascia, 274, 274t Carotid triangle, in neck, 272, 272t deep anterolateral neck, 282 Cartilage of auricle, 157 of larynx, 256–257, 258t of nasal septum, 143 of nose, 142 Cartilaginous neurocranium, 2, 2t Cauda equina, 292 in vertebral canal, 298–299 Cavernous part/division, internal carotid artery, 48, 304 Cavernous sinus infection transmission and, 52t pterygoid plexus and, 53 Cementum, of tooth, 182, 182t, 183 Central lesion, vagus nerve, 263, 263t Central nervous system (CNS), 54, 290 information flow to and from, 291 location and direction in, terminology for, 291 neurons in, 55 synapses in, 307 Central paralysis, face, 84
C
Central scotoma, homonymous hemianopic, 136 Ceratopharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214 Cerebellar vermis, 323 Cerebellopontine angle, acoustic neuroma in, 87, 165, 168 Cerebral arteries, 305 Cerebral part/division, internal carotid artery, 48, 304 Cerebral veins, 302 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 300–301 circulation of, 301 meninges and, 296 Cerumen glands, 159 Cervical fascia, 274, 274t deep, 241 relationships in neck, 275 Cervical lymph nodes, in neck anterior, 268 deep, 268 lymphatic drainage from ear into, 158 relationship to systemic lymphatic circulation, 269 superficial, 268 systematic palpation of, 269 Cervical part/division, internal carotid artery, 48, 304 Cervical plexus, 270 auricle and, 158 motor nerves of, 271 sensory nerves of, 99, 271 Cervical regions (triangles), 272–273, 272t anterior, 272, 272t lateral, 272, 272t deep, 283 posterior cervical, 272, 272t lymph nodes in, 268 sternocleidomastoid, 272, 272t Cervical spine (C1-C7) joints of, 232–233 ligaments of, 234–235, 236 nerves of, 270 dorsal rami, 270, 270t motor nerves, 271 sensory nerves, 99, 271 ventral rami, 270 neurovasculature of, 233 in vertebral column, 226, 230 Cervical vertebrae (C1-C7), 230–231. See also Atlas (C1); Axis (C2) on MRIs of neck coronal view, 319, 320 sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 336 structural elements of, 227, 227t transverse sections of head through C5 level, 328 C6 level, 330 Chambers, of eye, 130 Choana(e), 147 in head sections midsagittal, 338 transverse, 326 of nose, 143 Chondrocranium, bone development in, 2 Chondropharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214 Chorda tympani nerve supply to, 83, 85, 161 temporal bone and, 18, 19
351
C
Choroid
Choroid, 124 Choroid plexus, 301 histology of, 301 Ciliary beating, paranasal sinus drainage and, 150 Ciliary body, lens and, 128 Ciliary ganglion, sensory root of, 76, 77 Circle of Willis, 304, 305 variants of, 305 Circle of Zinn (and von Haller), 127 Circumvallate papillae, 206, 207t Cisterns, subarachnoid, 301 Clavicle, inferior boundary of neck and, 273 Clivus, in transverse section of head, 324 Closed-angle glaucoma, 131 CN. See Cranial nerve(s); individually named cranial nerves CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS) Cochlea, 164 location and structure of, 170 spiral ganglia in, 165 traveling wave formation in, 171 Cochlear amplifier, 173 Cochlear duct, 170 Cochlear ganglion. See Spiral ganglia Cochlear nuclei, 86t, 87, 168 Coding, of teeth, 180 Common carotid artery in deep lateral cervical region, 283 on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 345 transverse view, 335, 337 in thoracic inlet, 281 in transverse section of neck, 331 Common facial vein, 50 Communicating arteries, 305 Concha(e), 147 nasal. See Nasal concha(e) paranasal sinuses and, 145 Condylar canal, occipital bone and, 20 Cones, 133 Confrontation test, in visual field examination, 135 Conjugate eye movements, 140 Conjunctiva goblet cell distribution in, 123 structure of, 121 Conjunctival sac, 121 Connective tissue in gingiva, 183 of nose, 142 Constriction, pupil, 130t Contralateral homonymous hemianopia, 136 Contralateral quadrantanopia, upper and lower, 136 Contralateral visual cortex, visual fields in, 134 Conus medullaris, in adult vs. newborn, 299 Convergence internuclear ophthalmoplegia and, 141 pathways for, 138 Cornea, 124 position of, 128 structure of, 129 Corneal reflex, 137 Corniculate cartilage, 256, 257 Corpus callosum
352
in midsagittal section of head, 338 on sagittal MRI of head, 343 Corrugator supercilii muscle, 24, 26, 27, 27t Cortex motor, 58t, 63t primary auditory, 172 in sagittal section of head, 341 somatomotor, 84 visual. See Visual cortex Cranial bones development of, 2–3, 2t ossification of, 2, 2t Cranial fossa(e), 14 anterior, 310 in head sections midsagittal, 338 transverse, 324 Cranial nerve(s), 54, 291. See also individually named nerves in anterior coronal cross section of head, 313 convergence and accommodation and, 138 emergence from brainstem, 114 entry into orbit, 118 fiber types, 66t functions of, 67t in internal acoustic meatus, 165 motor pathways in, 58t, 59 overview of, 66, 66t parasympathetic ganglia and, 63 sensory pathways in, 56t, 57 in skeletal muscle innervation, 61t Cranial nerve lesions accessory spinal nerve, 92, 92t glossopharyngeal nerve, 88t hypoglossal nerve, 93, 93t vagus nerve, 90t Cranial nerve nuclei, 68t in brainstem, 63t, 168, 168t, 169 facial nerve, 82t glossopharyngeal nerve, 88t location of, 69 oculomotor nerve, 140 topographic arrangement of, 68 trigeminal nerve, 74t, 75, 75t vestibulocochlear nerve, 86t, 87 Cranial sutures. See Craniosynostoses Cranial vault. See Neurocranium Craniosynostoses, 8 in adult skull, 3 closure of, 3t premature, 8, 9 neonatal, 3 Craniovertebral joints, 232, 233 ligaments of, 236–237 muscles of, on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 suboccipital muscles and, 251 Cranium. See Skull Cribriform plate in skull base, 15 neurovascular pathways, 94, 95t traumatic fracture of, 15, 21 Cricoarytenoid muscles, 258, 258t Cricoid cartilage, 256, 257
Epaxial muscles
on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 336 Cricopharyngeus muscle, 213t, 215 Cricothyroid muscle, 258, 258t Cricothyrotomy, 262 Crista galli, ethmoid bone and, 21 Cruciform eminence, 20 Cruciform ligament of atlas, 236, 237 CSF. See Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Curvature, spinal, 226 ligaments maintaining, 229 Cusp-and-fissure dentition, 181, 183 Cuspids. See Canines Cutaneous sensory innervation, 65 dermatomes and, 293 nerve lesions and, 65 of nuchal region, 277 by peripheral nerves, 64
D “Danger space” cervical fasciae and, 275 infection and, 286 “Danger zone,” venous, infection and, 97 Deciduous teeth, 188–189 coding of, 188, 189 eruption of, 188, 188t in 6-year-old child, 188, 189 Deep auricular artery, 44, 45t, 47t, 166, 166t Deep cervical lymph nodes lymphatic drainage from ear into, 158 in neck, 268, 283 Deep petrosal nerve, 161 Deep temporal arteries, 44, 45t, 47t Deep temporal nerve, 80, 81t Dendrites, 55, 306 Dens of axis (C2) on coronal MRI of neck, 321 in transverse section of head, 327 Dental arches, 183. See also Mandibular arch; Maxillary arch Dental panoramic tomogram (DPT), 181 Dental pulp, 182, 182t Dentate nucleus, in transverse section of head, 325 Dentine, of tooth, 182, 182t Dentition first, 188, 188t. See also Deciduous teeth second, 188, 188t. See also Permanent teeth in 6-year-old child, 189 Depressor anguli oris muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29, 29t Depressor labii inferioris muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29, 29t Dermatomes, 293 Descending palatine artery, 45t, 46, 47t Descending palatine nerve, 78, 79t Desmocranium, bone development in, 2 Diencephalon, 295, 295t Digastric muscles, anterior and posterior belly, 202, 202t, 203, 254, 254t, 255 pharynx and, 214 Dilation, pupil, 130t Diploë, of calvaria, 11
E
Diploic veins, 11 Direct light response, testing for, 139 Dislocation, of TMJ, 37, 195 Distal tooth surface, 180 Diverticula, pharyngeal, 215 Dizziness. See Vertigo Dorsal horn, spinal cord, 292 Dorsomedial margin of brainstem, motor nuclei in, 58t DPT (dental panoramic tomogram), 181 Drainage of aqueous humor, 131 of dural sinuses, 302 lacrimal, obstructions to, 123 lymphatic. See Lymphatics of nasolacrimal duct, 145t of paranasal sinuses, 144, 145t, 150 venous. See Venous drainage Dura mater, 296 outpouching in intervertebral foramina, 298 Dural venous sinuses, 297 accessory drainage pathways of, 302 cerebral vein tributaries, 302 neuroanatomy of, 302–303 occipital bone groove for, 20 occiput veins and, 53
E Ear arteries of, 166–167, 166t auditory and vestibular apparatus of, 156 external, 156–159. See also Auricle inner. See Inner ear middle. See Middle ear muscles of, 26–27, 27t innervation, 27t veins of, 167 Ebner glands, 223 Edinger-Westphal nucleus, 138, 139 lesion of, 139 Efferent (motor) fibers, 54, 66t, 291 brainstem reflexes and, 137 Efferent nuclei, 68t, 69 Efferent tracts. See Motor (efferent) pathways Electrochemical potentials, 170 Electron microscopy, of neuron, 306 Embryonic development branchial muscle, 60, 61t neuronal migration and, 68 peripheral nerves, 64 somatic muscle, 60, 60t Emissary veins, 303 dural sinus drainage and, 302 of occiput, 11, 53 Enamel, of tooth, 182, 182t Endolymph, 170 Endoplasmic reticulum, 306 Endoscopy of maxillary sinus, 151 semilunar hiatus on, 21 Endotracheal ossification, 2, 2t Epaxial muscles, 242
353
E
Epicranial muscles
Epicranial muscles, 25, 26 Epidural anesthesia, 299 Epiglottic cartilage, 256, 257 Epiglottic vallecula, in midsagittal section of head, 338 Epiglottis, innervation of, 222 Epipharynx. See Nasopharynx Epitympanum, 163 EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential), 306 Erb’s point, 270, 271, 278 Erector spinae, 242, 243 interspinales and, 246–247, 246t Esophagus, on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 337 Ethmoid air cells, 144, 310 relationship with nasal cavity, 343 in sagittal section of head, 339, 340 transverse MRI of head through, 332 Ethmoid arteries, ligation site for, 151 Ethmoid bone, 5, 7, 14, 21, 108, 142, 190, 191 cranial nerve passage through, 67t paranasal sinuses and, 145 Eustachian tube. See Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), 306 External acoustic meatus, temporal bone and, 155 External auditory canal, 156, 159 auricle and, 158 curvature of, 159 temporal bone and, 155 External capsule, thyroid gland, 264 External carotid artery, 283 blood supply to anterior face from, 96 branches of, 40, 41, 41t. See also individually named arteries anterior, 41t, 42, 43, 43t medial, 41t, 42, 43t in neck, 266, 266t posterior, 41t, 42, 43t terminal, 41t, 46–47. See also Maxillary artery variants in, 41 in carotid triangle, 282 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 External ear, 156–159. See also Auricle External jugular vein, 50–51, 51t on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 External laryngeal nerve, 91, 91t External occipital protuberance, superior boundary of neck, 273 Extracranial veins, infection and, 52t Extraocular muscles, 112 actions of, 113, 113t cranial nerves of, 72, 72t eye movement and, 140 innervation of, 112, 113t Extrinsic muscles of back, 240, 242 of eye. See Extraocular muscles of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Eye movement, coordination of, 140–141 Eye/Eyeball blood supply to, 126–127 chambers of, 130 coronal MRI of head through, 314
354
muscles of, 26–27, 27t innervation, 27t reference lines/points of, 125 in sagittal section of head, 341 structure of, 124–125 surface anatomy of, 121 Eyelids, structure of, 121
F Face anterior, superficial neurovasculature of, 96 arterial anastomoses in, 97 cutaneous sensory innervation of, 64 venous “danger zone” in, 97 Facet joint capsules, of vertebral arch, 228 Facial artery branches of, 42, 43t external carotid artery and, 41t nasal septum and, 149 ophthalmic artery and, 40, 41 Facial expression, muscles of calvaria, 26–27, 27t ear, 26–27, 27t, 157 eye, 26–27, 27t mouth, 28–29, 29t origins and insertions of, 38 superficial anterior view, 24 lateral view, 25 Facial motor nucleus, 82t Facial nerve (CN VII), 66t, 82–85 in anterior face, 96 auricular muscles and, 157 brainstem reflexes and, 137 branches of, 83 external, 84, 85 internal, 82, 83 in lateral head, 100 course of, 83 intraglandular, in parotid gland, 219 fiber distribution in, 82t function of, 67t ganglia, 82t, 85 in head sections sagittal, 341 transverse, 325 innervation by of auricle, 158 of second branchial arch muscles, 82, 84 of tongue, 221, 222 in internal acoustic meatus, 165 nuclei of, 82t parotid plexus of, 100, 101 in petrous bone, 161 temporal bone and, 18, 155 on transverse MRI of head, 332 Facial paralysis, facial nerve lesions and, 83, 84 Facial skeleton ethmoid bone integration into, 21 in midsagittal section of head, 338 Facial skin, facial muscles and, 24
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
Facial veins, 50, 51 False vocal cords, 260 Falx cerebri, 311, 313, 323 on coronal MRI of head, 315 ethmoid bone and, 21 Far vision/Farsightedness, 125, 129 Fascia(e) buccopharyngeal, 274, 286 cervical, 241, 274–275, 274t nuchal. See Nuchal fascia pharyngobasilar, 215 pretracheal. See Pretracheal fascia prevertebral. See Prevertebral fascia thoracolumbar, 241, 242, 243 Filiform papillae, 206, 207t Filum terminale, 293 in vertebral canal, 298–299 First molars, 186t, 187 eruption patterns of, 188, 188t Fissure palpebral, muscles of, 26–27, 27t petrotympanic. See Petrotympanic fissure superior orbital, neurovascular pathways through, 67t, 94, 95t, 118 Foliate papillae, 206, 207t Fontanelles, 3 closure of, 3t Foodways, on coronal MRI of neck, 317 Foramen(ina). See also individually named foramina intervertebral, 290, 297 jugular, 13, 20 for nerve supply to face, 6 of skull base, 15 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t of sphenoid bone, 16, 17 stylomastoid, 15 supraorbital, 6 Foramen cecum, 206, 207t Foramen lacerum carotid canal relationship to, 12 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Foramen magnum neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t occipital bone and, 13, 20 Foramen ovale cranial nerve passage through, 67t dural sinus drainage and, 302 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t pterygoid process and, 16, 17 Foramen rotundum, 16, 17 cranial nerve passage through, 67t neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Foramen spinosum neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t pterygoid process and, 16, 17 Force, lines of, in facial skeleton, 7 Forebrain, 295, 295t Fornical conjunctiva, 121 Fovea centralis, 124, 132, 135 macula lutea and, 133 Fracture(s) cribriform plate, 15, 21
G
midfacial, classification of, 7 skull base fracture lines, 14 temporal bone, facial nerve lesion and, 82t, 83 Frontal bone, 5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 108, 142 Frontal crest, in calvaria, 10 Frontal nerve, 76, 77t Frontal sinus, 144, 146 ethmoid bone and, 145 fluid flow in, 150 pneumatization of, 144 on transverse MRI of head, 332 Fungiform papillae, 206, 207t
G Galea aponeurotica, 24, 25, 26 Ganglion(ia) ciliary, sensory root of, 76, 77 cranial nerve parasympathetic, 63 facial nerve, 85 geniculate, 82t, 83, 161, 170, 222 inferior, 88t, 90t nodose, 222 otic, 80, 81t, 88t, 89, 89t, 161 petrosal, 222 in PNS, nerve tracts and, 55 prevertebral, 62t pseudounipolar ganglion cells, 222 pterygopalatine, 79t, 82t, 148 spinal, 290 spiral (cochlear), 86, 86t, 165, 170, 172, 173 submandibular, 80, 81t, 82t superior, 88t, 90t trigeminal, 340 vestibular, 86, 86t, 165, 174, 176 Gaps, pharyngeal, 214t Gastrulation, 60 Gaze, cardinal directions of, 113 Gaze centers, 140 Geniculate ganglion, 161, 170, 222 facial nerve and, 82t, 83 Genioglossus muscle, 204, 204t, 205 Geniohyoid muscle, 202, 202t, 203, 254, 254t, 255 Gennari, stria of, 134 Gingiva, 182, 182t connective tissue fibers in, 183 Glaucoma, acute and chronic, 131 Glenoid fossa, of TMJ, 36, 194 Glial cells, 133 Gliding movement, in TMJ, 34, 37, 196 Glomerulus, olfactory, 153 Glossoepiglottic folds, 207t Glossoepiglottic valleculae, 207t Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), 66t, 88–89, 88t branches of, 89, 89t course of, 88t function of, 67t innervation by of pharynx, 213t, 217 of tongue, 220, 221, 222 nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution, 88t on transverse MRI of head, 333
355
G
Glossopharyngeus muscle
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) (continued) in transverse section of head, 326 Glossopharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214 Goblet cell, in conjunctiva, 123 Granular foveolae, in calvaria, 10 Granule cells, in olfactory bulb, 153 Graves’ disease, 265 Gray matter, 292 Great auricular nerve in anterior face, 96 auricle and, 158 in lateral head and neck, 99 in nuchal region, 276, 277 Great vessels, on coronal MRI of neck, 318 Greater occipital nerve, 270t in lateral head and neck, 99 in nuchal region, 277 Greater palatine foramen, neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Greater palatine nerve, 78, 79t Greater petrosal nerve, 83, 85, 161 hiatus of canal for, 94, 95t Grinding movements, in TMJ, 34, 196 Gustatory pathway, 222
H Habenular nuclei, 152 Hair cells in auditory apparatus/pathway inner, 170, 172, 173 outer, 170, 171, 173 vestibular, categories of, 174 Hard palate bones of, 190–191 in midsagittal section of head, 338 nasal cavity and, 147 in skull base, 190 transverse MRI of neck through, 334 Head anterior face, 96–97 arteries of. See also individually named arteries overview, 40–41 superficial, 99 coronal MRIs of through eyeball, 314 through posterior orbit, 315 coronal sections of anterior, 310–311 posterior, 312–313 lateral intermediate layer of, 100–101 sensory innervation of, 99 superficial neurovasculature of, 98 muscles of origins and insertions, 38–39 skeletal, 61t rotation of, semicircular canals during, 175 sagittal MRIs of through nasal cavity, 342 through orbit, 343 sagittal sections of
356
lateral, 340–341 medial, 338–339 transverse MRIs of through orbit and ethmoid air cells, 332 through orbit and nasolacrimal duct, 333 transverse sections of caudal, 326–327 cranial, 322–323 through middle nasal concha, 325 through optic nerve and pituitary, 323 through orbits (upper level), 322 through sphenoid sinus, 324 veins of deep, 52–53 superficial, 50–51, 51t Hearing loss of, CN VIII lesion and, 168 sound conduction during, 171 Helicotrema, 170 Hemianopia bitemporal, 136 contralateral homonymous, 136 homonymous, 136 Hindbrain, 295, 295t Hinge movement, in TMJ, 34, 37, 196 Hippocampus, in sagittal section of head, 341 Histology of choroid plexus, 301 of nasal mucosa, 150 of oral cavity and pharynx, 209 of parathyroid glands, 265 of thyroid gland, 265 of vocal folds, 263 Homonymous hemianopia, contralateral, 136 Homonymous hemianopic central scotoma, 136 Horizontal cells, 133 Horizontal gaze movements, 140 Hyaline cartilages, 257 “Hyaloid canal,” 125 Hydrocephalus, 9 Hyoglossus muscle, 204, 204t, 205 Hyoid bone, 23, 192, 256 Hypaxial muscles, 242 Hyperacusis, facial nerve lesions and, 82t, 83 Hypercalcemia, 265 Hyperopia, 125 Hyperparathyroidism, 265 Hypoglossal canal cranial nerve passage through, 67t neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t occipital bone and, 20 Hypoglossal nerve (CN XII), 66t, 93 in carotid triangle, 282 course of, 93 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 function of, 67t lesions of, 93, 93t unilateral, 205 nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution of, 93, 93t in transverse section of head, 326 Hypopharynx. See Laryngopharynx
Internal jugular vein
Hypophysis. See Pituitary gland Hypothalamus, 62t Hypotympanum, 163
I Iliocostalis cervicis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Iliocostalis thoracis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Impedance matching, 162 Incisive canal, neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Incisors, 179, 184, 184t eruption patterns of, 188, 188t Incus (anvil), 160, 162 Indirect light response, testing for, 139 Infection parapharyngeal space and, 286 temporal bone and, 154 of tympanic cavity, 163 venous anastomoses as portals for, 52t venous “danger zone” and, 97 via pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, 18, 154 Inferior alveolar artery, 44, 45t, 47t Inferior alveolar nerve, 80, 81t Inferior ganglion, 88t, 90t Inferior longitudinal muscle, 204, 204t, 205 Inferior meatus, 143 paranasal sinus drainage and, 145t Inferior salivatory nucleus, 88t Inferior thyroid vein, 281 Inferior tympanic artery, 166, 166t Inflammation, conjunctival, 121 Infrahyoid muscles, 254–255, 254t Infranuclear paralysis, 84 Infraorbital artery, 44, 45t, 46, 47t Infraorbital canal, 310 on coronal MRI of head, 314, 315 Infraorbital foramen, 6 Infraorbital nerve, 78, 79t Infratemporal fossa blood vessels of, 102 dissection of deep, 103 superficial, 102 muscles of, 102 nerves of, 102–103, 103t pterygopalatine fossa and, 102, 105, 105t Infratrochlear nerve, 76, 77t Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP), 306 Inner ear, 156, 164–165 arteries and veins of, 167 sound conduction to, 171 Inner hair cells, 170, 172, 173 Innervation branchiomotor of laryngeal muscles, 263 of second branchial arch muscles, 82, 84 of infrahyoid muscles, 254, 254t of lacrimal gland, 85 of lingual muscles, 204, 204t, 205 of membranous labyrinth, 165
I
motor of extraocular muscles, 24 of facial muscles, 24 calvaria and ear, 27t mouth, 29t palpebral fissure and nose, 27t of larynx, 262 of muscles of mastication, 30, 30t, 198, 198t parasympathetic, of salivary glands, 82 of orbit, 117 of pharynx, 217 pharyngeal constrictor muscles, 213t pharyngeal levator muscles, 213t sensory. See also Cutaneous sensory innervation of auricle, 158 of face, 64 of larynx, 262, 263 of lateral head and neck, 99 of nuchal region, 277 peripheral, 65 segmental (radicular), 65 of temporomandibular joint, 37 of skeletal muscle, 60t of soft palate muscles, 213t of suprahyoid muscles, 202, 202t, 254, 254t of tongue, 207t, 221 Interfascial spaces, 274–275, 274t Internal acoustic meatus cranial nerves in, 67t, 165 facial nerve lesions and, 83 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t in skull base, 15 temporal bone and, 155 on transverse MRI of head, 332 Internal auditory canal, in sagittal section of head, 341 Internal capsule, thyroid gland, 264 Internal carotid artery, 48–49, 283, 313, 323 in carotid triangle, 282 in circle of Willis, 305 course in head, 40 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 divisions/parts of, 48, 304 foramen lacerum relationship to, 12 in head sections sagittal, 340, 341 transverse, 326 nasal septum and, 49 syphon of, in sagittal MRI of head, 342 temporal bone and, 18 Internal jugular vein, 50–51, 51t, 220 in carotid triangle, 282 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 in head sections sagittal, 341 transverse, 326 on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 345 transverse view, 335, 337 temporal bone and, 18 in thoracic inlet, 281 in transverse section of neck, 331
357
I
Internal laryngeal nerve
Internal laryngeal nerve, 91, 91t Interneurons, 55 Internuclear ophthalmoplegia, 141 Interspinales muscles cervical, 245, 246t, 247 erector spinae and, 246–247, 246t lumbar, 245, 246t, 247 Interspinous ligaments, 228 Intertransversarii cervicis muscles, 245, 248, 248t, 249 anterior, 248t posterior, 248, 248t, 249 Intertransversarii lumborum muscles, 248, 248t, 249 lateral, 248, 248t, 249 medial, 248, 248t, 249 Intertransverse ligaments, of vertebral arch, 228, 228t, 229 Intervertebral disks, 226, 228, 228t on coronal MRI of neck, 319 Intervertebral foramina, 290, 292, 297 outpouching of dura mater in, 298 Intracavernous course, of cranial nerves into orbit, 118 Intramembranous ossification, 2, 2t Intraspinous ligament, of cervical spine, 234, 235 Intrinsic muscles of back. See Back muscles, intrinsic of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Iodine deficiency, 265 IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential), 306 Iris, 124 ocular chambers and, 130 structure of, 131
J Jacobson’s organ, 153 Joints atlantoaxial. See Atlantoaxial joints atlanto-occipital. See Atlanto-occipital joints of cervical spine, 232 craniovertebral. See Craniovertebral joints of neck, 232–235 temporomandibular. See Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of vertebral column, 232 Jugular foramen, 13, 20 cranial nerve passage through, 67t neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Jugular vein(s). See also Internal jugular vein infection transmission via, 286 on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 Jugulofacial venous junction, lymphatic drainage in neck, 269 Jugulosubclavian venous junction, lymphatic drainage in neck, 268–269
K Kiesselbach’s area, 49, 149 Killian triangle, 215 Krause gland, 122 Kyphosis, 226
L Labial (facial) artery, nasal septum and, 149
358
Labial creases, 178 Labial tooth surface, 180 Labyrinthine artery and veins of inner ear, 167 in internal acoustic meatus, 165 Lacrimal apparatus, 122–123 Lacrimal bone, 5, 108, 142 Lacrimal drainage, obstructions to, 123 Lacrimal fluid, mechanical propulsion of, 123 Lacrimal gland innervation of, 85 maxillary nerve and, 79t nerve supply to, 161 Lacrimal nerve, 76, 77t Laimer triangle, 215 Lambdoid suture, 8 Lamina cribrosa, 133 Laryngeal arteries, 261 Laryngeal cavity, divisions of, 260t Laryngeal nerves, 261 lesions of recurrent nerve, 263, 263t superior nerve, 263, 263t recurrent in anterior cervical triangle, 281 lesions of, 263, 263t Laryngeal veins, 261 Laryngopharynx, 216, 216t, 313 on coronal MRI of neck, 317 in transverse section of neck, 330 Laryngoscopy, indirect, 259 Laryngotracheal junction, 256 Larynx. See also Laryngeal entries blood supply to, 261 bony structures of, 256 cartilage of, 256–257 innervation of, 261 motor, 262 sensory, 262 laryngoscopic examination of, 259 ligaments of, 256 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 317 transverse view, 336 muscles of, 258–259, 258t neurovasculature of, 260–261, 260t parathyroid glands and, 264–265 surgical approaches to, 262 thyroid gland and, 264–265 topography of, 262–263 Lateral cervical triangle, 272, 272t deep, 283 Lateral geniculate body, 134, 135 Lateral head intermediate layer of, 100–101 sensory innervation of, 99 superficial neurovasculature of, 98 Lateral horn, spinal cord, 292 Lateral neck, sensory innervation of, 99 Lateral olfactory stria, 152 Lateral pterygoid artery, 45t, 47t Lateral pterygoid nerve, 80, 81t
MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue)
Lateropharyngeal space, 286 Le Fort fractures, midfacial, 7 Lens, 124 ciliary body and, 128 growth of, 129 light refraction and, 125 position of, 128 reference lines/points for, 129 Leptomeninges, 296 Lesser occipital nerve, 270t, 271 auricle and, 158 in lateral head and neck, 99 in nuchal region, 276, 277 Lesser palatine foramen, neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Lesser petrosal nerve, 85, 89, 89t, 161 hiatus of canal for, 94, 95t Levator anguli oris, 24, 28, 29, 29t Levator costarum breves muscle, 248, 248t, 249 Levator costarum longi muscle, 248, 248t, 249 Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle, 24, 25, 27, 27t, 29t Levator labii superioris muscle, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29t on transverse MRI of head, 333 Levator scapulae muscle, 239t Levator veli palatini muscle, 212, 213t on transverse MRI of head, 333 Ligament(s). See also individually named ligaments of cervical spine, 234–235, 236 of craniovertebral joints, 236–237 of larynx, 256 of neck, 234–237 nuchal, 234, 235 periodontal, 182, 182t, 183 of temporomandibular joint, 36, 37 transverse, of atlas, 327 of vertebral column, 228–229, 228t vestibular. See Vestibular ligament vocal. See Vocal ligament Ligamenta flava of cervical spine, 234, 235 of vertebral arch, 228, 228t, 229 Light refraction, 125 Light response loss of, tests for, 139 of pupillary sphincter, 138 Limbs, peripheral nerves and, 64 Lines of force in facial skeleton, 7 in skull base, 14 Lingual artery, 41t, 43, 43t, 220 Lingual mucosa, 206 Lingual muscles, 204–205, 204t on coronal MRI of neck, 316 Lingual nerve, 80, 81t, 220, 221, 222 Lingual tonsils, 206, 207t, 216 Lingual tooth surface, 180 Lips, 178 Long ciliary nerves, 76, 77t Longissimus capitis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Longissimus cervicis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Longissimus thoracis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Longitudinal ligaments of cervical spine, 234, 235
M
of vertebral bodies, 228, 228t anterior, 229, 344 posterior, 229 Longitudinal muscles, of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Longus capitis muscle, 252, 252t, 253 on transverse MRI of neck, 335, 336 Longus colli muscle, 252, 252t, 253 on transverse MRI of neck, 335, 336 Lordosis, 226 Low transverse fracture, midfacial, 7 Lower quadrantanopia, contralateral, 136 Lumbar anesthesia, 299 Lumbar puncture, 299 Lumbar vertebra, structural elements of, 227, 227t Lung, pleural dome of, 331 Lymph nodes in neck deep, 268 regional vs. collecting, 268, 269 superficial, 268 of oral floor, 221 Lymphatics of ear, 158 of neck, 268–269 drainage directions, 269 superficial and deep, 268 of oral cavity, 209 system circulation and, cervical nodes relationship to, 269 of tongue and oral floor, 221 Lymphoepithelial tissue, histology of, 209
M Macula(e), saccular and utricular, 174 Macula lutea, 132 examination of, 127 fovea centralis and, 133 Macular visual field, 135 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of cervical spine, 235 of head coronal views through eyeball, 314 through posterior orbit, 315 sagittal views through nasal cavity, 342 through orbit, 343 transverse views through orbit and ethmoid air cells, 332 through orbit and nasolacrimal duct, 333 of neck coronal views, 318–319 anterior, 316–317 posterior, 320–321 sagittal views, 344–345 transverse views through C7 vertebra, 337 through C4 vertebral body, 336 through C6 vertebral body, 336 Malleus (hammer), 160, 162 MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue), 208, 209
359
M
Mandible
Mandible, 5, 7, 9, 22–23, 192 age-related changes in, 23 fossa of, 36, 194 movements in TMJ, 34, 196 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 319 transverse view, 334 ramus of, 23, 319, 334 superior boundary of neck and, 273 transverse MRIs through, 335 in transverse section of head, 325 Mandibular arch, 179 incisors of, 184, 184t molars of, 186t, 187 premolars of, 185, 185t Mandibular division, of trigeminal nerve, 80, 81t Mandibular fossa, of TMJ, 36, 194 Mandibular nerve, 80, 81t Mandibular ramus, 23, 319, 334 Masseter muscle, 24, 30, 30t, 31, 198, 198t, 199 pharynx and, 215 Masseteric artery, 44, 45t, 47t Masseteric nerve, 80, 81t TMJ capsule and, 37 Mastication, mandibular movement in TMJ during, 34, 196 Masticatory muscles, 311 deep, 32–33, 200–201 in head sections sagittal, 340, 341 transverse, 325 innervation of, 30, 30t, 198, 198t on MRIs of neck coronal view, 316, 317 transverse view, 334 origins and insertions of, 38, 39 overview of, 30–31, 30t, 198–199, 198t at sphenoid sinus level, 33, 201 Masticatory muscular sling, 32, 200 Mastoid air cells arteries of, 166 infection transmission and, 154 temporal bone and, 18 Mastoid foramen, neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Mastoid lymph nodes, lymphatic drainage from ear into, 158 Mastoid process temporal bone and, 18, 19 tip of, superior boundary of neck and, 273 Maxilla, 5, 7, 9, 12, 108, 142, 190, 191 in nasal cavity anatomy, 142 pterygopalatine fossa and, 104, 104t Maxillary arch, 179 dentition and maxillary sinus relationship to, 343 incisors of, 184, 184t molars of, 186t, 187 premolars of, 185, 185t Maxillary artery, 41t, 44 ligation site for, 151 nasal septum and, 148, 149 parts/branches of, 45t, 47t right lateral nasal wall and, 148, 149 variants of, 44 Maxillary division, of trigeminal nerve, 78, 79t
360
Maxillary nerve, 78, 79t Maxillary sinus, 144, 146 bony ostium of, 145 endoscopy of, 151 fluid flow in, 150 on MRIs of head sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 333 pneumatization of, 144 Meatus external acoustic, temporal bone and, 155 internal acoustic. See Internal acoustic meatus nasal structures and, 143. See also Middle meatus; Superior meatus paranasal sinus drainage and, 145t Medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), 140 course in brainstem, 141 internuclear ophthalmoplegia and, 141 Medial olfactory stria, 152 Medial pterygoid artery, 45t, 47t Medial pterygoid nerve, 80, 81t Median furrow, of tongue, 207t Medulla oblongata, 297 Membrane potentials, 306 Membranous labyrinth, 164 endolymph in, 170 innervation of, 165 Membranous neurocranium, 2, 2t Meningeal nerve, 76, 77t Meninges brain and, 296–297 layers of, 296 spinal cord and, 298–299 Mental foramen, 6 resorption of alveolar process and, 23 Mental nerve, surgical considerations and, 23 Mentalis muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29, 29t Mesencephalic reticular formation, 140 Mesencephalon, 295, 295t, 322. See also Brainstem Mesial tooth surface, 180 Mesopharynx. See Oropharynx Mesotympanum, 163 Metencephalon, 295, 295t Microcephaly, 9 Midbrain, 295, 295t Middle cerebral artery, 305 Middle cranial fossa, 105, 105t Middle ear, 156, 160–163. See also Ossicular chain; Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube; Tympanic cavity auditory ossicles in, 156, 160, 162 sound conduction from, 171 Middle meatus, 143 osteomeatal unit and, 145, 150 paranasal sinus drainage and, 145t Middle meningeal artery, 44, 45t, 46, 47t Middle meningeal nerve, 78, 79t Midline septum, of tongue, 207t Mirror examination, of larynx, 259 Mitral cells, in olfactory bulb, 153 MLF. See Medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) Modiolus, 170 Molars, 179 eruption patterns of, 188, 188t
Near vision/Nearsightedness
first, 186t, 187 second, 186t, 187 third. See Wisdom teeth Motor cortex, 58t, 63t Motor fibers. See also Afferent (motor) fibers carotid triangle and, 282 cervical plexus, 270 Motor neurons, 55, 58t, 59 facial paralysis and, 84 in parasympathetic pathway, 63t in sympathetic pathway, 62t Motor nuclei dorsal, 90t facial, 82t ventral horn of spinal cord, 58t Motor paralysis, facial nerve lesions and, 83 Motor (efferent) pathways, 56, 58–59, 58t fibers in, 138, 139 spinal cord development and, 292 Mouth. See also Oral cavity muscles of, 28–29, 29t innervation, 29t TMJ movements and, 35, 197 Mucosa laryngeal, 260 lingual, 206, 207t nasal, 147, 150 olfactory, 152 of oral cavity, 178 of pharynx, 210 of tongue, 206, 207t of tympanic cavity, 163 Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), 208, 209 Müller cells, 133 Multifidus muscle, 248, 248t, 249 Multipolar neurons, 307 Muscles. See also individually named muscles of abdomen (internal/external obliques), 242 of auricle, 157 of back. See Back muscles extraocular (extrinsic eye). See Extraocular muscles of facial expression. See Facial expression, muscles of of infratemporal fossa, 102 of larynx, 258–259, 258t lingual, 204, 204t, 205 of mastication. See Masticatory muscles motor lesions and, 64 of neck. See Neck, muscles of of nose, 26–27, 27t nuchal. See Nuchal muscles ocular, nerves supplying, 73 of pharyngotympanic tube, 212 of pharynx, 211, 212, 213t, 214–215 skeletal, development and innervation of, 60–61, 60t, 61t of skull, 24–33, 198–201 origins and insertions on, 38–39 of soft palate, 212, 213t thyrohyoid, 254, 254t, 255 of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Muscular sling, masticatory, 32, 200 Muscular triangle, in neck, 272, 272t Musculus uvulae, 212, 213t
N
Myelencephalon, 295, 295t Mylohyoid muscle, 202, 202t, 203, 254, 254t, 255 Myopia, 125
N Nares, 142 Nasal bones, 5, 7, 11, 108, 142 Nasal cavity, 310 bones of, 142 ethmoid cells relationship to, 343 lateral wall of, 143 mucosa of, 147, 150 nerves of, 161 neurovasculature of, 148–149 olfactory mucosa in, 152 overview, 146 paranasal sinuses and, 144, 145 pneumatization of, 144 pterygopalatine fossa and, 105, 105t sagittal MRIs of head through, 342 Nasal concha(e), 142, 143 ethmoid bone and, 21 inferior, 7, 12, 142, 190, 191 in sagittal section of head, 339 transverse section of head through, 325 Nasal mucosa, 147 functional states of, 150 histology of, 150 Nasal septum arteries of, 148, 149 bones of, 142 deviations of, 143 in midsagittal section of head, 338 midsagittal section of head through, 338 nerves of, 148, 149 neurovasculature of, 148 structures of, 143 vascular supply of, 49 Nasal visual field, 134 Nasal wall, right lateral arteries of, 148, 149 nerves of, 148, 149 Nasalis muscle, 24, 25, 27, 27t Nasociliary nerve, 76, 77t Nasolacrimal duct drainage of, 145t transverse MRI of head through, 333 Nasolacrimal gland, 122 Nasopalatine nerve, 78, 79t Nasopharynx, 210t, 216, 216t, 313 on MRI of head, sagittal view, 342 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 317, 318 sagittal view, 343 posterior rhinoscopy of, 211 pterygopalatine fossa and, 105, 105t in sagittal section of head, 339 soft palate and, 212 transverse section of head through, 326 Nausea, noxious smell inducing, 152 Near vision/Nearsightedness, 125, 129
361
N
Neck
Neck anterior, 280–281. See also Anterior cervical triangle arteries of, 266, 266t cervical spine and, 230–231 deep anterolateral, 282–283 fascial relationships in, 275 joints of, 232–235 lateral, 278–279. See also Posterior cervical triangle sensory innervation of, 99 ligaments of, 234–237 lymphatics of, 268–269 MRIs of coronal views, 318–319 anterior, 316–317 posterior, 320–321 sagittal views, 344–345 transverse views through C7 vertebra, 337 through C4 vertebral body, 336 through C6 vertebral body, 336 muscles of, 238–255 dissection of, 273 fascial planes, 241 posterior neck, 244–245 prevertebral and scalene, 252–253, 252t, 336 superficial, 238, 238t, 239t suprahyoid and infrahyoid, 202–203, 202t, 254–255, 254t neurovascular topography of, 266–287 palpable bony prominences in, 23, 273 parapharyngeal space in, 284–285 posterior cervical (nuchal) region, 276–277 root of, structures in, 281 transverse sections of caudal, 330–331 cranial, 328–329 vagus nerve branches in, 91 veins of, 50–51, 51t, 267, 267t Nerve lesions abducent nerve, 72t cutaneous innervation and, 65 facial nerve, 82t, 83 motor lesions, 64 oculomotor nerve, 72t sensory loss and, 64 trigeminal nerve, 75, 75t trochlear nerve, 72t Nerves. See also individually named nerves of anterior face, 96 of infratemporal fossa, 102–103, 103t laryngeal, 261 of lateral head (intermediate layer), 101 of nasal septum, 148, 149 neurons and, 55 of orbit, 115 of petrous bone, 161 of right lateral nasal wall, 148, 149 of tongue, 220–221 Nervous system. See also Autonomic (visceral) nervous system; Central nervous system (CNS); Peripheral nervous system (PNS) information flow in, 291 neuroanatomy of, 290–291
362
neurons in, 306–307 organization of, 54–55 topography of, 290–291 Neural crest, cranial bone development from, 2t Neural tube, spinal cord development and, 60, 292 Neuroanatomy of brain arterial supply and, 304 meninges and, 296–297 organization of, 294–295 of CSF spaces, 300–301 of dural venous sinuses, 302–303 of meninges brain and, 296–297 spinal cord and, 298–299 of nervous system, 290–291 neurons and, 306–307 of spinal cord meninges and, 298–299 organization of, 292–293, 293t Neurocranium in midsagittal section of head, 338 ossification of, 2, 2t Neurofibrils, 306 Neuroma, acoustic, 87, 165, 168 Neurons, 306–307 basic forms of, 307 in CNS and PNS, 55 in convergence and accommodation, 138 in gustatory pathway, 222 nerves and, 55 in sensory (afferent) pathway, 56t types of, 55 of visual pathway, 133, 134 Neurotransmitters, 306 Neurotubules, 306 Neurovasculature of cervical spine, 233 of larynx, 260–261, 260t of lateral nasal wall, 148 of nasal septum, 148 in optic canal and superior orbital fissure, 118 of orbit, 116–117, 116t of parapharyngeal space, 287 pathways through skull base, 94, 95t superficial of anterior face, 96 of lateral head, 98 of tongue, 220–221 in transverse section of neck, 331 Nissl substance, 306 Nodose ganglion, 222 Nonvisual retina, 132 Nose cavity of. See Nasal cavity glands of, innervation, 85 histology and clinical anatomy of, 150–151 muscles of, 26–27, 27t innervation, 27t overview, 146 paranasal sinuses and, 144–145 passages of, 143
Optic nerve (CN II)
skeletal structures of, 142–143 Nosebleed, ligation sites for, 151 Nostrils, 142 Nuchal fascia, 241, 274, 274t intrinsic back muscles and, 241, 242 Nuchal ligament, 234, 235 Nuchal muscles, 244. See also individually named muscles coronal MRI through, 321 muscle attachments and, 245 origins and insertions of, 38, 39 on sagittal MRI of neck, 345 short, 250–251, 250t Nuchal region, 276–277 Nuclei afferent, 68t, 69 branchiomotor. See Branchiomotor nuclei, cranial nerves cochlear, 86t, 87, 168 cranial nerve. See Cranial nerve nuclei efferent, 68t, 69 habenular, 152 motor. See Motor nuclei nerve tracts and, 55 oculomotor, 140 parasympathetic. See Parasympathetic nuclei, cranial nerves parvocellular, axons to, 137 somatomotor. See Somatomotor nuclei, cranial nerves thalamic, axons to, 137 vestibular. See Vestibular nuclei viscerosensory. See Viscerosensory nuclei, cranial nerves Nucleus ambiguus, 88t, 90t Nucleus of the solitary tract, 90t facial nerve and, 82, 82t glossopharyngeal nerve and, 88, 88t Nucleus prepositus hypoglossi, 140 Nystagmus, abducting, 141
O OAE (otoacoustic emissions), 173 Obliquii capitis muscles, 250, 250t, 251 inferior, 250, 250t, 251 superior, 250, 250t, 251 Obliquus oculi muscles, 112, 113t Obstruction of arterial supply to brain, 305 lacrimal drainage, 123 Occipital artery, 41t, 42, 43t Occipital bone, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 20 fusion with sphenoid bone, 16, 17 Occipital lobe lesion, 136 Occipital nerves, of nuchal region, 276, 277 emergence sites, 277 Occipital pole lesion, 136 Occipital triangle, 272, 272t Occipital vein, 50, 51 infection transmission and, 52t Occipitofrontalis muscle frontal belly, 24, 25, 27t occipital belly, 25, 27t Occiput veins, 53 emissary veins, 11 Occlusal plane, 183
O
Occlusion, of arteries supplying brain, 305 Ocular chambers, 130 Ocular conjunctiva, 121 Ocular muscles, nerves supplying, 73 Oculomotor nerve (CN III), 66t, 72, 72t brainstem reflexes and, 137 on coronal MRI of head, 315 emergence from brainstem, 114 eye movement and, 140 function of, 67t Oculomotor nerve palsy(ies), 72t, 113, 114t Oculomotor nuclei connections in brainstem, 140 topography of, 114 Olfactory bulb, 148 in midsagittal section of head, 338 synaptic patterns in, 153 Olfactory glomerulus, 153 Olfactory mucosa, 152, 153 Olfactory nerve (CN I), 66t, 70 foramina of skull base and, 15 function of, 67t lateral nasal wall and, 148, 149 nasal septum and, 148, 149 Olfactory striae, 152 Olfactory system, 152–153 Olfactory tract, 152 Olive, in auditory pathway, 173 Omoclavicular (subclavian) triangle, in neck, 272, 272t Omohyoid, 278, 279 anterior cervical triangle and, 280 Omohyoid muscle, inferior belly, 254, 254t, 255 Open-angle glaucoma, 131 Ophthalmic artery, 49, 126 branches of, 49, 117, 126 on coronal MRI of head, 315 course of, 149 internal carotid artery and, 40, 41, 49 lateral nasal wall and, 148, 149 nasal septum and, 148, 149 Ophthalmic division, trigeminal nerve, 76, 77t Ophthalmoplegia, internuclear, 141 Ophthalmoscopic examination, of optic fundus, 127 Optic canal neurovascular pathways through, 67t, 94, 95t neurovasculature in, 118 Optic chiasm, 134, 135 lesion of, 136 in sagittal MRI of head, 342 Optic disk, 124 examination of, 125, 127 lamina cribrosa and, 133 Optic fundus, ophthalmoscopic examination of, 127 Optic nerve (CN II), 66t, 71, 124, 135 arteries of, 127 brainstem reflexes and, 137 function of, 67t on MRIs of head coronal views, 315 sagittal views, 342, 343 transverse MRI of head through, 332
363
O
Optic radiation
Optic nerve (CN II) (continued) transverse section of head through, 323 unilateral lesion of, 136, 139 in visual pathway, 134 Optic radiation, 134 lesions of, 139 in anterior temporal lobe, 136 in parietal lobe, 136 Optic tract thalamic nuclei and, 137 unilateral lesion of, 136 in visual pathway, 134, 135 Optical axis, of eyeball, 125 Optokinetic nystagmus, 137 Oral cavity, 310 glands of innervation, 85 maxillary nerve and, 79t lymphatics of, 209 organization and boundaries of, 178 overview of, 178–179 pterygopalatine fossa and, 105, 105t structures of, on coronal MRI of neck, 318 transverse MRIs of through hard and soft palates, 334 through mandible, 335 through temporomandibular joint, 334 Oral floor, lymph nodes of, 221 Oral stage, in swallowing, 217 Oral vestibule, 341 Orbicularis oculi muscle, 24, 25, 26, 27t Orbicularis oris muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29, 29t Orbit, 310 axis of, eyeball and, 125 bones of, 108–109 communications of, 110, 111t cranial nerves entry into, 118 innervation of, 117 MRIs of head through posterior orbit, coronal view, 315 sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 332, 333 nerves supplying, 115 neurovasculature, 116–117, 116t ophthalmic nerve divisions in, 76, 77t pterygopalatine fossa and, 105, 105t sagittal section of head through approximate center, 341 inner third, 340 topography of, 118–121 deep layer, 120 eyelids and conjunctiva, 121 intracavernous course of cranial nerves, 118 middle level, 119 optic canal and superior orbital fissure, neurovasculature, 118 superficial layer, 120 surface anatomy of eye, 121 upper level, 119 upper level of, transverse section of head through, 322 veins of, 117 Orbital apex, coronal section through, 312 Orbital plate, 21
364
Orbital wall, sagittal section of head through, 338 Organ of Corti, 170, 172 deflected by traveling wave, 171 efferent fibers from olive to, 173 at rest, 171 Oropharyngeal isthmus, 207t Oropharynx, 207t, 216, 216t, 313 in midsagittal section of head, 338 on MRI of head, sagittal view, 342 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 317, 318 sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 335 palatine tonsils in, 208 soft palate and, 212 Ossicular chain, 156, 162 arteries of, 167 function of, 162 motion in, 162 in tympanic cavity, 163 Ossification centers, in temporal bone, 18 of cranial bones, 2, 2t Osteomeatal unit, 145 Otic ganglion, 80, 81t, 88t, 89, 89t, 161 Otitis media, 163 Otoacoustic emissions (OAE), 173 Otoliths, 174 Outer hair cells, 170, 173 Oval window membrane, 171
P Palatal tooth surface, 180 Palatine aponeurosis, 212, 213t Palatine artery, nasal septum and, 149 Palatine bone, 9, 12, 108, 142, 190, 191 pterygopalatine fossa and, 104, 104t Palatine glands, nerve supply to, 161 Palatine nerves, 78, 79t Palatine tonsils, 147, 216 abnormal enlargement of, 208 on coronal MRI of neck, 318 histology of, 209 location of, 208 vascular supply to, 287 veins of, infection transmission and, 52t Palatoglossal arch, 206, 207t Palatoglossus muscle, 204, 204t, 205, 212, 213t Palatopharyngeal arch, 206, 207t Palatopharyngeus muscle, 206, 207t Palpation, of cervical lymph nodes in neck, 269 Palpebral conjunctiva, 121 Palpebral fissure, muscles of, 26–27, 27t innervation of, 27t Palsy(ies). See also Paralysis abducent nerve, 72t, 113, 114t oculomotor, 72t, 113, 114t trochlear nerve, 72t, 113, 114t Papillae, of tongue, 206, 207t Paralysis. See also Palsy(ies) facial, facial nerve lesions and, 83, 84
Plexuses (nerves)
sternocleidomastoid, 92, 92t trapezius muscle, 92, 92t Paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF), 140 Paranasal sinuses, 7, 144. See also Frontal sinus; Maxillary sinus bony structures of, 145 drainage of, 144, 145t histology and clinical anatomy of, 150–151 nasal cavity and, 145 nerve supply to, 161 overview of, 146 Parapharyngeal space clinical significance of, 286 divisions of, 286 neurovasculature of, 287 structures of, 284–285 Parasympathetic nervous system, 63 Parasympathetic nuclei, cranial nerves, 68t, 69 facial nerve, 82t glossopharyngeal nerve, 88t vagus nerve, 90t Parathormone, 265 Parathyroid glands, histology of, 265 Parathyroid hormone (PTH; parathormone), 265 Paraxial mesoderm, cranial bone development from, 2t Parietal bone, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14 Parietal triangle, 272, 272t Parotid glands, 81t, 100, 218 facial nerve course in, 219 malignant tumor spread and, 219 nerves supplying, 161 on transverse MRI of neck, 335 Parotid lymph nodes, lymphatic drainage from ear into, 158 Parotid plexus, of facial nerve, 100, 101 Pars flaccida, 159 Pars tensa, 159 Parvocellular nucleus, axons to, 137 Peridontium, 182, 182t, 183 Periglomerular cells, 153 Perilymph, 162 sound conduction through, 171 Perimetry, visual field defect detection, 135 Periodontal ligament, 182, 182t, 183 Peripheral nerves, cutaneous sensory innervation by, 64 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 54, 290 neurons in, 55 Peripheral paralysis, of face, 84 Peripheral sensory innervation, 65 cutaneous, 64 Perlia’s nucleus, 138 Permanent teeth, 180–181 coding of, 180 eruption of, 188, 188t panoramic tomogram of, 181 in 6-year-old child, 189 surface designation for, 180 Petrosal artery, 166, 166t Petrosal ganglion, 222 Petrotympanic fissure neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t temporal bone and, 18, 19 Petrous apex, temporal bone and, 19 Petrous bone, in middle ear, 160
P
nerves of, 161 Petrous part/division, of internal carotid artery, 48, 304 Petrous pyramid, temporal bone and, 19, 155 Pharyngeal artery, 45t, 47t ascending, 41t, 43, 43t variants of, 284 Pharyngeal gaps, 214t Pharyngeal muscles constrictor muscles, 212, 213t, 214, 215 levator muscles, 212, 213t, 214 origins and insertions of, 39 in sagittal section of head, 340 Pharyngeal nerves, 78, 79t Pharyngeal plexus, 89, 89t, 91t Pharyngeal recess, on transverse MRI of head, 333 Pharyngeal stage, in swallowing, 217 Pharyngeal tonsils, 216 abnormal enlargement of, 208, 209 on coronal MRI of neck, 318 histology of, 209 location of, 208, 209 in posterior rhinoscopy, 211 Pharyngobasilar fascia, 215 Pharyngoesophageal stage, in swallowing, 217 Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tube, 18, 147, 154, 161 in head sections sagittal, 339, 340 transverse, 326 infection via, 18, 154 muscles of, 212 obstruction of, 216 in posterior rhinoscopy, 211 Pharynx, 286. See also Pharyngeal entries on coronal MRI of neck, 317 fascial space surrounding. See Parapharyngeal space innervation of, 217 levels of, 210t, 216t lymphatics of, 209 mucosa of, 210 muscles of, 211, 212, 213t, 214–215 topography of, 216 Waldeyer’s ring of, 208, 216 Phonation arytenoid cartilage movement during, 256, 257 vocal folds position during, 259 Photoreceptor cells, 133 Phrenic nerve, 279 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 in thoracic inlet, 281 “Pie in the sky” deficit, 136 Pigment epithelium, 133 “Pink eye,” 121 Pituitary gland coronal section through, 313 in midsagittal section of head, 338 in sagittal MRI of head, 342 transverse section of head through, 323 Platysma muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29t, 238, 239t Pleural dome of left lung, in transverse sections of neck, 331 Plexuses (nerves) brachial. See Brachial plexus cervical. See Cervical plexus
365
P
Plexuses (venous)
Plexuses (nerves) (continued) parotid, 100, 101 pharyngeal, 89, 89t, 90t, 217 Plexuses (venous) basilar, 302 choroid, 301 dural sinus drainage and, 302 external vertebral, infection transmission and, 52t pterygoid, 53 thyroid, 265 Pneumatization, of paranasal sinuses, 144 PNS. See Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Pons, 297, 323 Pontocerebellar cistern, in transverse section of head, 325 Posterior auricular arteries, 41t, 42, 43t, 157 Posterior auricular nerve, 84 Posterior auricular vein, 50, 51 infection transmission and, 52t Posterior cerebral artery, 305 Posterior cervical (nuchal) region, 276–277 Posterior cervical triangle dissection of, 278–279 lymph nodes in, 268 Posterior communicating artery, 305 Posterior condylar canal, neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t Posterior ethmoid nerve, 76, 77t Posterior rhinoscopy, 151, 211 Posterior superior alveolar artery, 44, 45t, 47t Posterior superior nerves alveolar, 78, 79t nasal, 78, 79t Posterior tympanic artery, 166, 166t Postganglionic neuron in parasympathetic pathway, 63t in sympathetic pathway, 62t Potential at the axon hillock, 306 PPRF (paramedian pontine reticular formation), 140 Preganglionic neuron in parasympathetic pathway, 63t in sympathetic pathway, 62t Premolars, 179, 185, 185t eruption patterns, 188, 188t Pretectal area, axons to, 137 Pretracheal fascia, 274, 274t, 275 in parapharyngeal space, 284–287 Prevertebral fascia, 274, 274t, 278, 279 cervical, 241 retropharyngeal space and, 286 Prevertebral ganglia, 62t Prevertebral muscles, 252–253, 252t. See also individually named muscles origins and insertions of, 39 on transverse MRI of neck, 335, 336 Primary auditory cortex, 172 Procerus muscle, 24, 26, 27t Prosencephalon, 295, 295t Pseudounipolar neuron, 55, 57, 307 Pseuodunipolar ganglion cells, 222 Pterygoid arteries, 45t, 47t Pterygoid canal, 45t, 47t Pterygoid muscles, lateral and medial, 30, 30t, 32, 198, 198t, 200 Pterygoid plexus, 53
366
Pterygoid process plates, on transverse MRI of head, 333 Pterygopalatine fossa, 16, 17, 104–105 borders of, 104t communications of, 105, 105t infratemporal fossa and, 102, 105, 105t Pterygopalatine ganglion, 79t, 148 facial nerve and, 82t Pterygopharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214 PTH (parathyroid hormone), 265 Pulvinar of thalamus, axons to, 137 Pupil size, 130 changes in, 130t Pupillary constriction, 138 Pupillary light reflex, 139 pathway lesions and, 139 Pupillary reflex, 137 Pupillary resistance, 131 Pupillary sphincter light response, 138 Purkinje cell, 307 Pyramid fracture, midfacial, 7 Pyramidal cell, 307
Q Quadrantanopia, contralateral upper and lower, 136
R Ramus(rami) of cervical nerves dorsal, 99, 270, 270t in nuchal region innervation, 277 ventral, 270 mandibular angle of mandible and, 23 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 319 transverse view, 334 ventral, of spinal nerves, 290 Rectus capitis muscles, 252, 252t, 253 anterior, 252, 252t, 253 lateral, 252, 252t, 253 posterior, 250, 250t, 251 major, 250, 250t, 251 minor, 250, 250t, 251 in sagittal section of head, 340 Rectus oculi muscles, 112, 113t inferior on sagittal MRI of head, 343 in sagittal section of head, 340 lateral, in sagittal section of head, 340 in sagittal section of head, 340 superior, on sagittal MRI of head, 343 Recurrent laryngeal nerve, 91, 91t pharyngeal innervation and, 213t, 217 right, in anterior cervical triangle, 281 in thoracic inlet, 281 Red nucleus, 322 Reference lines/points of eyeball, 125 of lens, 129 Reflex(es)
Sinus(es)
brainstem, 137 pupillary light, 139 salivary, 222 stapedius, 173 Reissner membrane, vestibular, 170 Respiration, position of vocal folds during, 259 Respiratory epithelium, 150 Reticular formation, mesencephalic, 140 Retina, 124, 132–133 layers of, 132 light refraction and, 125 neurons of, 133, 134 nonvisual, 132 structure of, 133 Retinal projection, 135 Retrobulbar space, coronal section through, 311 Retromandibular vein, 50, 51 on transverse MRI of neck, 335 Retropharyngeal space, 286 Retrovisceral/retropharyngeal fascial space, 274, 274t Rhinoscopy, 151 posterior, of nasopharynx, 211 Rhombencephalon, 295, 295t Rhomboid minor muscle, 239t, 240 Rima glottidis, 260 Rima vestibuli, 260 Risorius muscle, 24, 25, 28, 29, 29t Rods, 133 Rotational movement, in TMJ, 34, 37, 196 Rotatores brevis muscle, 248, 248t, 249 Rotatores longi muscle, 248, 248t, 249 Round window, 171
S Saccades, 140 Saccule, 156 macular structure of, 174 Sacrum, structural elements of, 227, 227t Salivary glands bimanual examination of, 219 major, 218 minor, 219 Salivation, 219 afferent impulses and, 222 facial nerve lesions and, 82t, 83 stimulation of, 152 Salpingopharyngeal folds, 208, 209 Salpingopharyngeus muscle, 212, 213t Scaffolding, trigeminal nerve and, 74t autonomic, 79t Scala media, 170 Scala tympani, 170 Scala vestibuli, 170 Scalene muscles, 252–253, 252t. See also individually named muscles on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 345 transverse view, 336 in transverse sections of head, 329 of neck, 331 Scalene anterior muscle, 252, 252t, 253
S
in transverse sections of head, 252, 252t, 253 of neck, 331 Scalene medius muscle, 252, 252t, 253 on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 345 transverse view, 336 in transverse sections of head, 329 of neck, 331 Scalene posterior muscle, 252, 252t, 253 on MRI of neck, sagittal view, 345 in transverse sections of head, 329 of neck, 331 Scalp, calvaria and, 11 Schlemm, canal of, 124 Schwannoma, vestibular, 87, 165, 168 Sclera, 124 Scoliosis, 226 Scotoma, homonymous hemianopic central, 136 Sebaceous glands, in ear, 159 Second molars, 186t, 187 eruption patterns of, 188, 188t Secondary sensory cells in auditory pathway, 172 in vestibular system, 176 Segmental (radicular) sensory innervation, 65 Sella turcica, 16, 17 Semicircular canals, of ear, 156 during head rotation, 175 in thermal function tests, 164 Semilunar hiatus, 21 Semispinalis capitas muscle, 248, 249, 249t Semispinalis cervicis muscle, 248, 249, 249t Semispinalis thoracis muscle, 248, 249, 249t Senses smell, 152–153, 222 sound. See Hearing taste, 221, 222 Sensory cells, secondary in auditory pathway, 172 in vestibular system, 176 Sensory fibers, cervical plexus, 270 Sensory neurons, 55 Sensory (afferent) pathways, 56–57 spinal and cranial nerves, 56t, 57 spinal cord development and, 292 Septal cartilage, 142 Serratus posterior superior muscle, 239t Short nuchal muscles, 250–251, 250t Shrapnell membrane, 159 Sigmoid sinus, 297 infection transmission and, 52t, 154 on transverse MRI of head, 332 in transverse section of head, 326 Signal transduction, 170 Sinus(es) cavernous. See Cavernous sinus dural. See Dural venous sinuses frontal. See Frontal sinus
367
S
Sinusitis
Sinus(es) (continued) maxillary. See Maxillary sinus paranasal. See Paranasal sinuses sigmoid. See Sigmoid sinus sphenoid. See Sphenoid sinus superior sagittal. See Superior sagittal sinus transverse. See Transverse sinus venous. See Venous sinus(es) Sinusitis, 150 Skeletal muscle development and innervation of, 60, 60t of head, 61t Skull, 4–5. See also Cranial entries basal aspect of, 13 bones of, 2, 5t. See also individually named bones anterior view, 6–7 development of, 2t lateral view, 4–5 posterior view, 8–9 cranial nerve passages through, 67t inner ear projection into, 164 muscles of, 24–33, 198–201 origins and insertions on, 38–39 regional divisions of, 310 Skull base cranial fossae in, 14 ethmoid bone integration into, 21 external view of, 12–13 hard palate in, 190 internal view of, 14–15 lines of force in, 14 neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t occipital bone integration into, 20 pharyngobasilar fascia at, 215 Skull base lesion, 263 vagus nerve, 263, 263t Smell, 152–153, 222 Soft palate, 312 in midsagittal section of head, 338 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 317 sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 335 muscles of, 212, 213t nasal cavity and, 147 transverse MRI of neck through, 334 Somatic muscle embryonic development of, 60, 60t of head, 61t Somatic sensation, tongue innervation and, 221 Somatomotor cortex, 84 Somatomotor nuclei, cranial nerves, 68t, 69 accessory spinal nerve, 92t hypoglossal nerve, 93t Somatosensory nuclei, cranial nerves, 68t, 69 trigeminal nerve, 75, 75t Sound conduction apparatus for, 156. See also Auditory apparatus, of ear during hearing, 171 Sound waves capture and transformation of, 156 conduction from middle to inner ear, 171
368
ossicular chain and, 162 traveling, 171 Speech, position of vocal folds during, 259 Sphenoid bone, 5, 7, 9, 14, 16–17, 108, 142, 190, 191 occipital bone fusion with, 16, 17 pterygopalatine fossa and, 104, 104t in transverse section of head through middle nasal concha, 325 through sphenoid sinus, 324 Sphenoid sinus, 16, 17, 144, 146, 147 on MRIs of head sagittal view, 342 transverse view, 332 muscles of mastication at level of, 33, 201 in sagittal section of head, 339, 340 transverse section of head through, 324–325 Sphenomandibular ligament, 37 Sphenopalatine artery, 45t, 46, 47t ligation site for, 151 Spinal cord development of, 292 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 321 transverse view, 337 neuroanatomy of, 292–293, 293t organization of, 292–293 parasympathetic pathways in, 63t in transverse section of head, 327 in vertebral canal, 298 Spinal cord segments, 293 levels of, 293t age-related changes in, 299 numbering of, 293, 293t organization (functional and topographical) of, 292 Spinal ganglion, 55, 290 Spinal nerves, 54 coronal MRI through, 320 intervertebral foramina and, 290, 291 motor pathways in, 58t, 59 in sagittal section of head, 339 sensory pathways in, 56t, 57 in transverse sections of neck, 331 Spinal nucleus, of CN V, 88t, 90t Spinalis cervicis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Spinalis thoracis muscle, 245, 246t, 247 Spine. See also Vertebral entries curvature of, 226 regions of, 226 “Spine synapse,” 307 Spinous process of C7 vertebra inferior boundary of neck and, 273 on MRI of neck coronal view, 321 transverse view, 336 in transverse section of head, 328, 329 spinal cord segments and, 293t Spiral canal. See Cochlea Spiral ganglia, 86, 86t, 165, 169, 170, 172, 173 Spiral lamina, 170 Splenius capitis muscle, 248, 249, 249t Splenius cervicis muscle, 248, 249, 249t
Taste
Stapedial nerve, 83 Stapedius, 163 nerve supply to, 161, 163 Stapedius muscle contraction, 173 Stapedius reflex, 173 Stapes (stirrup), 162 Statoliths, 174 Stenosis(es) arterial supply to brain and, 305 subclavian steal syndrome and, 305 Stereocilia bowing of, 171, 172 sound transduction and, 175 specialized orientations of, 175 Sternocleidomastoid muscle, 25, 26, 238, 239, 239t anterior cervical triangle and, 280 origins and insertions of, 38, 39 posterior cervical triangle and, 278, 279 Sternocleidomastoid paralysis, 92, 92t Sternocleidomastoid triangle, 272, 272t Sternohyoid muscle, 254, 254t, 255 Stria(e) of Gennari, 134 olfactory, 152 Stria vascularis, 170 Striate area, 134. See also Visual cortex Styloglossus muscle, 204, 204t, 205 Stylohyoid muscle, 202, 202t, 203, 254, 254t, 255 Stylomastoid artery, 166, 166t Stylomastoid foramen neurovascular pathways through, 94, 95t in skull base, 15 temporal bone and, 19 Stylopharyngeal aponeurosis, 286 Stylopharyngeus muscle, 89t, 212, 213t Subarachnoid cisterns, 300–301 Subarachnoid space, 296 CSF in, 300–301 infection transmission via, 286 Subclavian artery branches in neck, 266, 266t in thoracic inlet, 281 Subclavian steal syndrome, 305 Subclavian vein, 281 Sublingual glands, 81t, 218 Submandibular ganglion, 80, 81t facial nerve and, 82t Submandibular glands, 81t, 218 on MRIs of head, coronal view, 315 of neck, sagittal view, 345 in sagittal section of head, 340 Submandibular lymph nodes, 268, 269 Submandibular triangle, 272, 272t Submental lymph nodes, 268, 269 Submental triangle, 272, 272t Suboccipital muscles, 250–251, 251t. See also individually named muscles Suboccipital nerve, 270t Suboccipital triangle, 277 Substantia nigra, 322 Sulcus terminalis, 206, 207t
T
Superficial cervical lymph nodes, in neck, 268 Superficial neck muscles, 238, 238t, 239t Superficial temporal artery, 47 auricular arteries and, 157 parts/branches of, 47t Superficial temporal vein, infection transmission and, 52t Superior colliculus, axons to, 137 Superior ganglion, 88t, 90t Superior labial glands, nerve supply to, 161 Superior laryngeal nerve, 91, 91t lesions of, 263, 263t Superior longitudinal muscle, 204, 204t, 205 Superior meatus, 143 paranasal sinus drainage and, 145t Superior ophthalmic vein, dural sinus drainage and, 302 on coronal MRI of head, 314 Superior orbital fissure, neurovascular pathways through, 67t, 94, 95t, 118 Superior sagittal sinus, 297, 311, 313 groove for, 10 infection transmission and, 52t Superior thyroid artery, 41t, 42, 43t Superior tympanic artery, 166, 166t Suprachiasmatic nucleus, axons to, 137 Supraclavicular nerves of lateral head and neck, 99 in nuchal region, 277 Suprahyoid muscles, 202–203, 202t, 254–255, 254t Supranuclear paralysis, 84 Supraorbital foramen, 6 Supraorbital nerve, 76, 77t on coronal MRI of head, 314, 315 Supraspinous ligaments of cervical spine, 234, 235 of vertebral arch, 228 Suprasternal notch, inferior boundary of neck and, 273 Supratrochlear nerve, 76, 77t Surface designation, of teeth, 180 “Surgical capsule,” thyroid gland, 264 Sutures, cranial. See Craniosynostoses Swallowing hyoid bone and, 23 phases of, 217 Sympathetic nervous system, 63 Sympathetic trunk in carotid triangle, 282 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 Synapses in CNS, 307 neurons and, 306 patterns in olfactory bulb, 153 Synaptic patterns, 307 Syndesmosis. See Craniosynostoses
T T4 (thyroxine), 265 Tables, outer and inner, of calvaria, 11 Taste, 222 facial nerve and, 85 nerve lesions, 82t, 83 mandibular nerve and, 81t
369
T
Taste buds
Taste (continued) maxillary nerve and, 79t qualities of, 223 tongue innervation and, 221, 223 Taste buds, 222, 223 facial nerve and, 85 Taste receptors, 223 Tear film, structure of, 123 Tectorial membrane, 170 Teeth alveolar processes of mandible shape influenced by, 23 resorption of, 23 coding of, 180 deciduous, 188–189, 188t permanent, 180–181 structure of, 182, 182t surface designation, 180 types of. See Canines; Incisors; Molars; Premolars Telencephalon, 295, 295t structures of, 297 Temporal bone, 5, 7, 9, 12, 14, 18–19, 154–155 clinically important relations in, 154 fractures of, facial nerve lesion and, 82t, 83 ossification centers of, 18 parts of, 154 in transverse section of head, 324 Temporal crescent, 135 Temporal nerve, posterior deep, TMJ capsule and, 37 Temporal visual field, 134 Temporalis muscle, 30, 30t, 31, 198, 198t, 199 Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) biomechanics of, 34–35, 196–197 dislocation of, 37, 195 glenoid fossa of, 36, 194 ligaments of, 36–37, 194–195 in lateral TMJ, 36, 194 in medial TMJ, 37, 195 mandible head in, 36, 194 mandibular fossa of, 36, 194 movements of, 35, 197 mandibular, 34, 196 MRIs of neck through coronal view, 319 transverse view, 334 open, 37, 195 sensory innervation of, 37, 195 Temporoparietalis muscle, 25 Tensor tympani, 163 Tensor veli palatini muscle, 212, 213t on transverse MRI of head, 333 Tentorium, 323 Tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine), 265 Thalamic nuclei, axons to, 137 Thermal function tests, of vestibular apparatus, 164 Third molars. See Wisdom teeth Thoracic inlet structures, 281 deep anterolateral, 282 Thoracic muscles (external intercostals), 242 Thoracic vertebra, structural elements of, 227, 227t Thoracolumbar fascia, 241, 242, 243 Thorax, vagus nerve branches to, 91t
370
Thyroarytenoid muscle, 258, 258t Thyroepiglottic ligament, 256 Thyrohyoid muscle, 254, 254t, 255 Thyroid arteries, 265 in deep lateral cervical region, 283 right inferior, branching patterns variations, 281 Thyroid cartilage, 256, 257 on MRIs of neck coronal view, 317 transverse view, 336 Thyroid gland, 264 histology of, 265 topography of, 264 on transverse MRI of neck, 337 in transverse sections of neck at C6/C7 level, 330 at C7/T1 level, 331 at T1/T2 level, 331 Thyroid veins, inferior, 281 Thyroid venous plexus, 265 Thyropharyngeus muscle, 213t, 214, 215 Thyroxine (T4, tetraiodothyronine), 265 Tinnitus, 165 TMJ. See Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) Tongue innervation of, 221 mucosa of, 206, 207t muscles of, 204, 204t, 205 neurovasculature of, 220–221 papillae of, 206 regions and structure of, 207t taste buds of, 85, 222, 223 unilateral hypoglossal nerve palsy of, 205 Tonotopic organization of auditory pathway, 172 in basilar membrane, 170 Tonsilla tubaria, 216 swelling of, 216 Tonsils lingual, 206, 207t, 216 palatine. See Palatine tonsils pharyngeal. See Pharyngeal tonsils Tooth. See Teeth Trabecular resistance, 131 Trachea on MRIs of neck sagittal view, 343 transverse view, 337 surgical approaches to, 262 Tracheotomy, 262 Translational movement, in TMJ, 34, 37, 196 Transverse ligament, of atlas, 327 Transverse muscle, of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Transverse sinus infection transmission and, 52t in transverse section of head, 325 Trapezius muscle, 25, 26, 38, 238, 239, 239t anterior cervical triangle and, 281 origins and insertions of, 39 paralysis of, 92, 92t posterior cervical triangle and, 278, 279 Trauma. See also Fracture(s)
Vertebrae
calvarial table sensitivity to, 11 dislocation of TMJ, 37, 195 Traveling wave formation in cochlea, 171 organ of Corti deflected by, 171 “Tribasilar bone,” 16 Trigeminal ganglion, in sagittal section of head, 340 Trigeminal nerve (CN V), 66t, 74–75 of anterior face, 96 emergence of, 97 brainstem reflexes and, 137 divisions and distribution of, 74, 74t in infratemporal fossa, 102–103, 103t mandibular division, 80, 81t maxillary division, 78, 79t ophthalmic division, 76, 77t on transverse MRI of head, 333 in transverse section of head, 325 function of, 67t in lateral head and neck, 99 nasal septum and, 148, 149 nuclei and lesions of, 75, 75t of right lateral nasal wall, 149 in sensory innervation of auricle, 158 of face, 64 in transverse section of head, 324 Triiodothyronine (T3), 265 Trochlear nerve (CN IV), 66t, 72, 72t, 114t emergence from brainstem, 114 eye movement and, 140 function of, 67t Trochlear nerve palsy, 72t, 113, 114t Tubal artery, 166, 166t Tumors of inner ear, 165 malignant parotid, spread of, 165 Tympanic arteries, 166, 166t Tympanic cavity, 154, 159 arteries of, 166, 166t clinically important levels of, 163 communications with, 160 infection of, 163 mucosal lining of, 163 ossicular chain in, 163 temporal bone and, 155 walls of, 160 Tympanic membrane, 159 arteries of, 167 quadrants of, 159 stapedius reflex and, 173 temporal bone and, 18 Tympanic nerve, 89, 89t, 161
U Umbo, in tympanic membrane, 159 Uncinate process, 145 Uncovertebral joints, 232 Unilateral hypoglossal nerve palsy, 205 Unilateral optic nerve lesion, 136, 139 Unilateral optic radiation lesion
V
in anterior temporal lobe, 136 in parietal lobe, 136 Unilateral optic tract lesion, 136 Upper quadrantanopia, contralateral, 136 Utricle, 156 macular structure of, 174 Uvula. See also Soft palate nasal cavity and, 147 on sagittal MRI of neck, 343
V Vagus nerve (CN X), 66t, 90–91 branches of, 90, 90t in carotid triangle, 282 course of, 90t in deep lateral cervical region, 283 function of, 67t laryngeal innervation and, 261, 262 lesions of, 263, 263t nuclei, ganglia, and fiber distribution of, 90, 90t, 91 pharyngeal innervation and, 213t, 217 in sensory innervation of auricle, 158 tongue innervation and, 221, 222 on transverse MRIs of head, 333 of neck, 335, 337 in transverse section of head through C6 vertebral body, 329 through nasopharynx, 326 in transverse section of neck, 331 Vallecula(e) epiglottic, in midsagittal section of head, 338 glossoepiglottic, 207t innervation of, 222 Veins. See also individually named veins of auricle, 157 of head deep, 52–53 superficial, 50–51, 51t of infratemporal fossa, 102–103, 102t of inner ear, 167 laryngeal, 261 of neck, 50–51, 51t, 267, 267t of orbit, 117 of tongue, 220 Venous “danger zone,” in face, 97 Venous drainage of head and neck deep, 52–53 superficial, 50–51, 51t of thyroid gland, 265 Venous sinus(es). See also Dural venous sinuses infection transmission and, 52t thrombosis and, 52t, 302 Ventral horn, spinal cord, 292 motor nuclei in, 58t Ventral rami, of spinal nerves, 290 Ventricles (brain), 297 choroid plexus and, 301 Vertebra prominens, in transverse section of head, 328, 329 Vertebrae. See Vertebral body(ies)
371
V
Vertebral (neural) arch
Vertebral (neural) arch, 226 ligaments of, 228, 228t Vertebral artery, in head sections sagittal, 339 transverse, 327 Vertebral body(ies), 226 cervical. See Cervical vertebrae (C1-C7) ligaments of, 228, 228t spinal cord segments and, 293t structural elements of, 227, 227t transverse section of head through at C5 level, 328 at C6 level, 329 Vertebral canal, spinal cord in, 298 Vertebral column joints of, 232 ligaments of, 228–229, 228t regions of, 226 Vertebral junction, transverse sections of neck through C6/C7 level, 330 C7/T1 level, 331 T1/T2 level, 331 Vertical gaze movements, 140 Vertical muscle, of tongue, 204, 204t, 205 Vertigo, 156 CN VIII lesion and, 168 thermal function tests for, 164 Vestibular apparatus, of ear, 156, 164, 174–175 thermal function tests of, 164 Vestibular folds, 260 Vestibular ganglion, 86, 86t, 165, 167, 169, 174, 176 Vestibular ligament, 256, 260 on sagittal MRI of neck, 344 Vestibular nuclei, 86t, 87, 177 of CN VIII, 168 efferent fiber targets and, 176, 177 role in maintaining balance, 177 topographic organization of, 177 Vestibular Reissner membrane, 170 Vestibular schwannoma, 87, 165, 168 Vestibular sensory cells, stimulus transduction in, 175 Vestibular system, 176–177 Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), 66t, 86–87, 86t, 168–169, 168t brainstem reflexes and, 137 central connections of, 176 function of, 67t in head sections sagittal, 341 transverse, 325 in internal acoustic meatus, 165 lesions of, 168t nuclei of, 168, 168t in brainstem, 169 temporal bone and, 155 on transverse MRI of head, 332 Vestibulo-ocular reflex, 137 Viscerocranium boundaries of, 6 ossification of, 2, 2t Viscerosensory nuclei, cranial nerves, 68t, 69 glossopharyngeal nerve, 88t vagus nerve, 90t
372
Visual cortex, 134, 135 contralateral, visual fields in, 134 convergence and accommodation and, 138 lesion of, 139 Visual field(s) in contralateral visual cortex, 134 defects, 136 perimetry detection of, 135 examination of, 135 hemifields, 135 Visual pathways geniculate part, 134, 135 convergence and accommodation and, 138 topographic organization, 135 lesions of, 136, 139 nongeniculate part, 134, 137 overview of, 134 Visual perception, lateral geniculate body and, 134 Visual system. See Visual pathways Vitreous body (vitreous humor), 125 VNO (vomeronasal organ), 153 Vocal cords/folds, 260 examination of, 259 false, 260 histology of, 263 laryngeal divisions and, 260t nerve lesions affecting, 263, 263t positions of, 259, 263 Vocal ligament, 256, 258t, 260 on sagittal MRI of neck, 344 Vocalis muscle, 258, 258t, 260 Vomer, 9, 12, 142, 190, 191 Vomeronasal organ (VNO), 153
W Waldeyer’s ring, 208, 216 “Watery eyes,” 122 Whispered speech, position of vocal folds during, 259 White matter, 292 in head sections coronal, 310 sagittal, 341 transverse, 325 Wisdom teeth, 186t, 187 on dental panoramic tomogram, 181 eruption patterns of, 188, 188t Wolfring gland, 122 Wormian bones, 8
Z Zenker diverticulum, 215 Zones of discontinuity, 129 Zonular fibers, ciliary body and, 128 Zygomatic arch, in transverse section of head, 325 Zygomatic bone, 5, 7, 12, 108 Zygomatic nerve, 78, 79t zygomaticofacial nerve, 78, 79t zygomaticotemporal nerve, 78, 79t Zygomaticus muscles, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 29t
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