Hartman - Ch 3

Chapter 03 - Philosophical Ethics and Business

True / False Questions

1. (p. 98) Ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but do not give reasons to support their answers. FALSE Ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but they also give reasons to support their answers.

2. (p. 98) Philosophical ethics provides justifications that must be applicable to all people regardless of their religious starting points. TRUE Unlike religious ethics which explains human well-being in religious terms, philosophical ethics provides justifications that must be applicable to all people regardless of their religious starting points.

3. (p. 100) Deontological ethical traditions direct us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life. FALSE Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life.

4. (p. 100) Utilitarianism has been called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social policy. TRUE

Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by considering the consequences of our actions. In this sense, utilitarianism has been called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social policy.

5. (p. 100) The ultimate ethical goal of deontology is to produce the best consequences for all parties affected by the decisions. FALSE The ultimate ethical goal, according to utilitarians, is to produce the best consequences for all parties affected by the decisions.

6. (p. 101) Utilitarianism opposes policies that aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority. TRUE The emphasis on the overall good, and upon producing the greatest good for the greatest number, make utilitarianism a social philosophy that opposes policies that aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority.

7. (p. 101) It is possible to argue on utilitarian grounds that child labor is ethically permissible because it produces better overall consequence than the alternatives. TRUE Child labor can have beneficial results for bringing foreign investment and money into a poor country. Thus, one might argue on utilitarian grounds that such labor practices are ethically permissible because they produce better overall consequences than the alternatives.

8. (p. 103) The "administrative" version of utilitarianism considers competitive markets to be the most efficient means of maximizing happiness. FALSE

One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith and claims that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. This "market" version would promote policies that deregulate private industry, protect property rights, allow for free exchanges, and encourage competition.

9. (p. 104) The "market" version of utilitarianism argues that questions of safety and risk should be determined by experts who establish standards that the business is required to meet. FALSE The "administrative" version of utilitarianism argues that questions of safety and risk should be determined by experts who then establish standards that business is required to meet

10. (p. 106) Utilitarians would object to child labor as a matter of principle. FALSE Utilitarians would object to child labor, not as a matter of principle, but only if and to the degree that it detracts from the overall good.

11. (p. 107) The idea behind deontological ethics is commonsensical. TRUE The language of "deontology" and "deontological ethics" is very abstract and is likely to strike many students as so much academic gobbledygook. But the idea behind this approach is commonsensical.

12. (p. 108-109) A social contract functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. TRUE Rules can be thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals.

13. (p. 111) The concept of a human or moral right is central to the consequencebased ethical tradition. FALSE The concept of a human or moral right is central to the principle-based ethical tradition.

14. (p. 114) Employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, and to bargain collectively as part of a union. These rights are examples of contractual agreements with employers. FALSE Legal rights are granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings. Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth. 15. (p. 117) An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about who a person is, to what that person should do. FALSE An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a focus on who that person is. 16. (p. 119) Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character. TRUE Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character.

Multiple Choice Questions

17. (p. 97-98) Ethical reasoning falls into three major categories. Identify them. A.Utility, virtue, and values B.Universal rights, values, and moral principles C.Universal rights, cultural norms, and mores

D. Personal character, consequences, and principles

The three categories are consequences, principles, and personal character. 18. (p. 100) An ethical tradition that directs us to decide based on overall consequences of our acts is: A.deontological ethics. B.spinozism. C. utilitarianism. D. virtue ethics.

Utilitarianism is an ethical tradition that directs us to decide based on overall consequences of our act.

19. (p. 100) Identify the ethical tradition that directs us to act on the basis of moral principles.

A.Deontological ethical tradition B.Utilitarianism C.Virtue ethics D.Spinozism

Deontological ethical traditions direct us to act on the basis of moral principles such as respecting human rights. 20. (p. 100) The study of various character traits that can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life is part of: A. philosophical ethics.B. virtue ethics. C.deontological ethics. D.utilitarianism.

Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct a happy and meaningful human life.

21. (p. 100) Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by: A.considering the moral character of individuals. B.thinking rationally and following rules and regulations. C.following our instincts. D. considering the consequences of our actions.

Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by considering the consequences of our actions. 22. (p. 100) Utilitarianism has been called a(n): A.commonsensical approach to ethics. B.behavioral approach to ethics. C. consequentialist approach to ethics. D. intuitive approach to ethics.

Utilitarianism has been called a consequentialist approach to ethics and social policy.

23. (p. 100) Which of the following traditions is commonly identified with the principle of producing "the greatest good for the greatest number"? A.Deontological B.Kantian C.Virtue D. Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the greatest number." 24. (p. 101) Which of the following principles of utilitarianism indicates its support for democratic institutions and policies? A. The greatest good for the greatest number B.Doing the right thing C.Fairness is a matter of opinion D.Obey the law, keep your promises

The emphasis on the overall good, and upon producing the greatest good for the greatest number, make utilitarianism a social philosophy that opposes policies that

aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority. In this way, utilitarianism provides strong support for democratic institutions and policies.

25. (p. 101) Which of the following traditions would support child labor because it produces better overall consequences than the available alternatives? A.Virtue ethics B.Deontological ethics C.Utilitarianism D.Classicism

One might argue on utilitarian grounds that child labor is ethically permissible because it produces better overall consequences than the alternatives. 26. (p. 101) The utilitarian tradition has a long history of relying on _____ for deciding on the ethical legitimacy of alternative decisions. A.intuition B.experience C.variable analysis D.social sciences

Deciding on the ethical legitimacy of alternative decisions requires that we make judgments about the likely consequences of our actions. Within the utilitarian tradition, there is a strong inclination to turn to social science for help in making such predictions.

27. (p. 102) The "market" version of utilitarianism would promote all of the following policies except: A.deregulation of private industry. B.protection of property rights. C.regulation of advertising. D.allow for free exchanges.

Utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith, claiming that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. This "market" version would promote policies that deregulate private industry, protect property rights, allow for free exchanges, and encourage competition.

28. (p. 103) Economists that view profit maximization as a central idea to corporate social responsibility are following the: A.kantian framework of ethics. B.deontological framework of ethics. C.utilitarian framework of ethics. D.virtue-based framework of ethics.

One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith, claiming that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. Given this utilitarian goal, current free market economics advises us that the most efficient economy is structured according to the principles of free market capitalism. This requires that business managers, in turn, should seek to maximize profits. This idea is central to one common perspective on corporate social responsibility.

29. (p. 104) Which of the following would be advocated by the "administrative" version of utilitarianism? A.Abolition of private enterprise B.Reliance on free and competitive markets C.Profit maximization of private enterprises D.Government regulation of business

The "administrative" approach to public policy underlies one theory of the entire administrative and bureaucratic side of government and organizations. This utilitarian approach would be sympathetic with government regulation of business on the grounds that such regulation will insure that business activities do contribute to the overall good. 30. (p. 106) The essence of utilitarianism is its:A. focus on personal character. B. reliance on consequences. C.focus on principles. D.reliance on moral systems.

The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences.

31. (p. 106) The statement, "the end justifies the means," reflects the principle of: A.utilitarianism. B.kantian ethics.

C.virtue ethics. D.deontology.

In utilitarianism, ethical and unethical acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means. 32. (p. 106) Which ethical framework goes against the ethical principle of obeying certain duties or responsibilities, no matter the end result? A.Deontological framework of ethics B.Kantian framework of ethics C.Virtue ethics framework of ethics D.Utilitarian framework of ethics

The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means.

33. (p. 107) The idea behind deontological approach to ethics is: A.intuitive. B.consequentialist. C.behavioral. D. commonsensical.

The language of "deontology" and "deontological ethics" is very abstract and is likely to strike many students as so much academic gobbledygook. But the idea behind this approach is commonsensical. 34. (p. 107) Which of the following approaches to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad consequences? A.Classicism B.Utilitarianism C.Deontological D.Virtue ethics

The deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad consequences.

35. (p. 107) Which of the following statements reflects the deontological ethical tradition? A.Obey the law B.Ends justify the means C.Maximize the overall good D.Survival of the fittest

Ethical principles can simply be thought of as a type of rule, and the deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad consequences. 36. (p. 107) "All of my friends trust me because I never back down on my word and I never break promises, no matter what." Identify the ethical approach that reflects this line of thought. A.Classicism B.Utilitarianism C.Deontological D.Spinozism

Ethical principles can simply be thought of as a type of rule, and the deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad consequences. Rules or principles (e.g., "obey the law," "keep your promises," "uphold your contracts") create duties that bind us to act or decide in certain ways.

37. (p. 108) "We ought to stop at a red light, even if no cars are coming and I could get to my destination that much sooner." Identify the ethical approach that follows this line of thought. A.Virtue ethics B.Utilitarianism C.Classicism D.Deontological

The deontological approach to ethics tells us that there are some rules that we ought to follow even if doing so prevents good consequences from happening or even if it results in some bad consequences. 38. (p. 108) Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, bankers have important roles to play within political and economic institutions. These roles insure the

integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system and are termed as: A.initiating functions. B.authentic roles. C.critical path functions. D.gatekeeper functions.

Professionals within business have important roles to play within political and economic institutions. Many of these roles, often described as "gatekeeper functions," insure the integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system.

39. (p. 108-109) No group could function if members were free at all times to decide for themselves what to do and how to act. Which of the following functions to organize and ease relations between individuals? A. Gatekeepers B.Social contracts C.Social mores D.Personal norms

Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be thought of being a part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. No group could function if members were free at all times to decide for themselves what to do and how to act. 40. (p. 110) According to Immanuel Kant, there is essentially one fundamental moral duty: A.always speak the truth. B.remain loyal to your family. C. respect the dignity of each individual. D. you should never steal.

The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially one such fundamental moral duty, one categorical imperative: respect the dignity of each individual human being.

41. (p. 110) Immanuel Kant claimed that the duty to respect human dignity could be expressed in several ways. One version directs us to act according to those rules that could be universally agreed to by all people. This is the first form of the: A.Kantian hypothetical imperative.

B.Kantian decisive correlations. C.Kantian categorical imperative. D.Kantian moral objectivism.

Kant claimed that the duty to respect human dignity could be expressed in several ways. One version directs us to act according to those rules that could be universally agreed to by all people. (This is the first form of the famous "Kantian categorical imperative.") 42. (p. 111) Which of the following is also known as the Kantian tradition in ethics? A.Utilitarianism B.Virtue ethics C.Classicism D. Deontological ethics

Deontology is also known as the Kantian tradition in ethics.

43. (p. 111) The concept of moral rights is central to the: A.tradition of virtue ethics. B.consequence-based ethical tradition. C.behavior-based ethical tradition. D. principle-based ethical tradition.

The concept of a human or moral right is central to the principle-based ethical tradition. 44. (p. 112) The Kantian tradition claims that humans do not act only out of instinct and conditioning; they make free choices about how they live their lives, about their own ends. In this sense, humans are said to have a fundamental human right of: A.dignity. B.rationality. C.autonomy. D.equality.

The Kantian tradition claims that our fundamental human rights, and the duties that follow from them, are derived from our nature as free and rational beings. Humans do not act only out of instinct and conditioning; they make free choices about how they live their lives, about their own ends. In this sense, humans are said to have a fundamental human right of autonomy, or "self-rule."

45. (p. 114) Which among the following is a legal right? A.Right to select a specific health care package. B. Right to bargain collectively as part of a union. C.Right to select a particular pension fund. D.Right to select the number of paid holidays.

Legal rights granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings are a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth. 46. (p. 116-117) Which of the following approaches conceive of practical reason in terms of deciding how to act and what to do? A. Utilitarianism and deontology B.Utilitarianism and virtue ethics C.Kantian ethics and virtue ethics D.Virtue ethics and deontology

Utilitarian and deontological approaches to ethics focus on rules that we might follow in deciding what we should do, both as individuals and as citizens. These approaches conceive of practical reason in terms of deciding how to act and what to do.

47. (p. 117) Which of the following traditions seeks a full and detailed description of those character traits that would constitute a good and full human life? A.Kantian ethics B.Deontological ethics C.Utilitarianism D. Virtue ethics

Virtue Ethics is a tradition within philosophical ethics that seeks a full and detailed description of those character traits, or virtues, that would constitute a good and full human life. 48. (p. 117) Identify the view which holds that people act only out of a selfinterest. A.Altruism B. Egoism C.Epistemic D.Solipsism

Egoism is a view which holds that people act only out of a self-interest.

49. (p. 117) Identify the approach to ethics that shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a focus on who that person is. A.Classicism B.Deontological C.Utilitarianism D.Virtue ethics

An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a focus on who that person is. 50. (p. 119) Virtue ethics emphasizes the more _____ side of our character. A.affective B.cognitive C.conative D.intuitive

Virtue ethics emphasizes the more affective side of our character.

51. (p. 120) Which of the following focuses on the concept of practices and what type of people these practices are creating? A. Virtue ethics framework of ethics. B.Social justice through fairness framework of ethics. C.Utilitarian framework of ethics. D.Deontological framework of ethics.

Virtue ethics reminds us to look to the actual practices we find in the business world and ask what type of people these practices are creating. Fill in the Blank Questions

52. (p. 100) Virtue ethics directs us to consider the _____ of individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct a happy, meaningful life. moral character Virtue ethics directs us to consider the moral character of individuals and how various character traits can contribute to, or obstruct, a happy and meaningful human life.

53. (p. 100) _____ is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the greatest number." Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is commonly identified with the principle of "maximize the overall good" or, in a slightly different version, of producing "the greatest good for the greatest number." 54. (p. 101) The emphasis on producing the greatest good for the greatest number makes utilitarianism a _____. social philosophy The emphasis on producing the greatest good for the greatest number makes utilitarianism a social philosophy that provides strong support for democratic institutions and policies and opposes those policies that aim to benefit only a small social, economic, or political minority.

55. (p. 101) People endorsing child labor by justifying that it brings in foreign investment within poor countries are mostly _____. utilitarians Child labor can have beneficial results for bringing foreign investment and money into a poor country. In the opinion of some observers, allowing children to work for pennies a day under sweatshop conditions produces better overall consequences than the available alternatives. Thus, one might argue on utilitarian grounds that such labor practices are ethically permissible because they produce better overall consequences than the alternatives. 56. (p. 104) The " _____ " version of utilitarianism would be sympathetic with government regulation of business on the grounds that such regulation will insure that business activities do contribute to the overall good. administrative The administrative version of utilitarianism would be sympathetic with government regulation of business on the grounds that such regulation will insure that business activities do contribute to the overall good.

57. (p. 106) One problem associated with utilitarianism is that the essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on _____. consequences One challenge goes directly to the core of utilitarianism. The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. 58. (p. 108) Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules, all form a part of a social agreement called the _____, which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. social contract Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. 59. (p. 110) The basis of the ethical principle emphasized by _____ is to respect the dignity of individuals. Immanuel Kant The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially one such fundamental ethical principle: respect the dignity of each individual human being.

60. (p. 114) Right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union, and to be free from sexual harassment are examples of _____ rights. legal Legal rights are granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings. Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth. 61. (p. 117) _____ is a view that holds that people act only out of self-interest. Egoism To understand how virtue ethics differs from utilitarian and deontological approaches, consider the problem of egoism. Egoism is a view that holds that people act only out of self- interest.

Essay Questions

62. (p. 98) What is an ethical theory and how do they help? An ethical theory is nothing more than an attempt to provide a systematic answer to the fundamental ethical question: How should human beings live their lives? Not only do ethical theories attempt to answer the question of how we should live, but they also provide reasons to support their answer. Ethical theories seek to provide a rational justification for why we should act and decide in a particular way. 63. (p. 100-101) Explain how child labor may be justified in the eyes of a utilitarian. Utilitarianism's fundamental insight is that we should decide what to do by considering the consequences of our actions. One might argue on utilitarian grounds that child labor practices are ethically permissible because they produce better overall consequences than the alternatives.

64. (p. 102-103) According to one version of attaining the utilitarian goal, and with reference to Adam Smith's ‘an invisible hand', how is it possible to have the most efficient economy? One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith and claims that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. Given this utilitarian goal, current free market economics advises us that the most efficient economy is structured according to the principles of free market capitalism. 65. (p. 102-103) Explain how the branch of utilitarianism claims free and competitive markets can help maximize the overall good? Utilitarianism answers the fundamental questions of ethics - what should we do? - by reference to a rule: Maximize the overall happiness. One movement within utilitarian thinking invokes the tradition of Adam Smith, claiming that free and competitive markets are the best means for attaining utilitarian goals. This version would promote policies that deregulate private industry, protect property rights, allow for free exchanges, and encourage competition. In such situations, decisions of rationallyselfinterested individuals would result, as if led by "an invisible hand" in Adam Smith's terms, in the maximum satisfaction of individual happiness.

Current free market economics advises us that the most efficient economy is structured according to the principles of free market capitalism. This requires that business managers, in turn, should seek to maximize profits. This idea is central to one common perspective on corporate social responsibility. By pursuing profits, business insures that scarce resources go to those who most value them and thereby insures that resources will provide optimal overall satisfaction. Thus, these economists see competitive markets as the most efficient means to the utilitarian end of maximizing happiness.

66. (p. 105-106) Briefly highlight the problems associated with utilitarian thinking. If utilitarianism advises that decisions be made by comparing the consequences of alternative actions, then we must have a method for making such comparisons. In practice, however, some comparisons and measurements are very difficult. A second challenge goes directly to the core of utilitarianism. The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means. But this seems to deny one of the earliest ethical principles that many of us have learned: The ends do not justify the means. Utilitarian reasoning demands rigorous work to calculate all the beneficial and harmful consequences of our actions. Perhaps more important, utilitarian reasoning does not exhaust the range of ethical concerns. Consequences are only a part of the ethical landscape. Responsible ethical decision-making also involves matters of duties, principles, and personal integrity. 67. (p. 106) How does utilitarianism directly go against the fundamental ethical principle? The essence of utilitarianism is its reliance on consequences. Ethical and unethical acts are determined by their consequences. In short, the end justifies the means. But this seems to deny one of the earliest ethical principles that many of us have learned: the ends do not justify the means.

68. (p. 108) Briefly explain how the concept of role-based rules works in business. As an employee, one takes on a certain role that creates duties. Every business will have a set of rules that employees are expected to follow. Sometimes these rules are

explicitly stated in a code of conduct, other times in employee handbooks, still others simply by managers. Likewise, as a business manager, one ought to follow many rules in respect to stockholders, employees, suppliers, and other stakeholders. Perhaps the most dramatic example of role-based duties concerns the work of professionals within business. Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, and bankers have important roles to play within political and economic institutions. Many of these roles, often described as "gatekeeper functions," insure the integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system. 69. (p. 108) What are the roles enacted by professionals within business termed as, and what do they entail? Lawyers, accountants, auditors, financial analysts, and bankers have important roles to play within political and economic institutions. Many of these roles, often described as "gatekeeper functions," insure the integrity and proper functioning of the economic, legal, or financial system.

70. (p. 108-109) What is the social contract? Legal rules, organizational rules, role-based rules, and professional rules can be thought of as part of a social agreement, or social contract, which functions to organize and ease relations between individuals. 71. (p. 110) What is a moral right? Moral right is the right to be treated with respect, to expect that others will treat us as an end and never as a means only, the right to be treated as an autonomous person. 72. (p. 110) Explain how Immanuel Kant means that humans are subjects, and not objects. German philosopher Immanuel Kant, argued that there is essentially one fundamental ethical principle: respect the dignity of each individual human being. One way to do so requires us to treat all persons as ends in themselves and never only as means to our own ends. In other words, our fundamental duty is to treat people as subjects capable of living their own lives and not as mere objects that exist for our purposes. To use the familiar subject/object categories from grammar, humans are subjects

because they make decisions and perform actions rather than being objects that are acted upon.

73. (p. 111) How is the concept of moral right central to the concept of deontological ethics? The concept of a moral right is central to the deontological tradition since the inherent dignity of each individual means that we cannot do just anything we choose to another person. Moral rights protect individuals from being treated in ways that would violate their dignity and that would treat them as mere objects or means. Moral rights imply that some acts and some decisions are "off-limits." Accordingly, our fundamental moral duty (the "categorical imperative") is to respect the fundamental moral rights of others. Our rights establish limits on the decisions and authority of others. 74. (p. 114) Distinguish between legal and contractual employee rights. Legal rights are those granted to employees on the basis of legislation or judicial rulings. Thus, employees have a right to a minimum wage, equal opportunity, to bargain collectively as part of a union, to be free from sexual harassment, and so forth. Employee rights might refer to those goods that employees are entitled to on the basis of contractual agreements with employers. In this sense, a particular employee might have a right to a specific health care package, a certain number of paid holidays, pension funds, and the like.

75. (p. 117-118) Briefly explain the concept of virtue ethics. Virtue ethics is a tradition within philosophical ethics that seeks a full and detailed description of those character traits, or virtues, that would constitute a good and full human life. An ethics of virtue shifts the focus from questions about what a person should do, to a focus on who that person is. This shift requires not only a different view of ethics but, at least as important, a different view of ourselves. Implicit in this distinction is the recognition that our identity as a person is constituted in part by our wants, beliefs, values, and attitudes. A person's character—thosedispositions, relationships, attitudes, values, and beliefs that popularly might be called a"personality"—is not a

feature independent of that person's identity. Character is not like a suit of clothes that you step into and out of at will. Rather, the self is identical to a person's most fundamental and enduring dispositions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. Note how this shift to an emphasis on the individual changes the nature of justification in ethics. 76. (p. 117) What is the biggest challenge posed by ‘egoism'? The biggest challenge posed by egoism and, according to some, the biggest challenge to ethics, is the apparent gap between self-interest and altruism, or between motivation that is "self-regarding"and motivation that is "other-regarding." Ethics requires us, at least at times, to act for thewell-being of others.