Hand Book of Biofertilizers & Vermiculture

HAND BOOK OF

BIOFERTILIZERS & VERMICULTURES Written By :

EIRI Consultants and Engineers

© Copy Reserved by Sudhir Gupta, Delhi

ISBN : 978-81-86765-01-9

4449, Nai Sarak, Main Road, Delhi-110 006 (India) E-Mail : [email protected] Website: www.eiriindia.org

Preface The book ‘Hand Book of Biofertilizers & Vermiculture’ covers various methods including The Living Soil, Organic Sources and Dynamics, Vermiculture, Application of vermiculture Biotechnology, Composting of Agricultural and Industrial Wastes, Biological Fertilizers, Microbal Inoculants for Nitrogen Fixation, Mechanism and Estimation of Nitrogen Fixation, Biological Mobilization of Phosphorus , The Cyclic System of Nutrient Management, Perspectives, List of Bio-fertilizers Units in India and Abroad, Plant Economics of Agrofertilizer from Leaves, Plant Economics of Biofertilizers from Chicken Refuges, Oil Cakes, Bone Mills, Plant Economics of Biofertilizers from Cowdung & other Wastage, Plant Economics of Biofertilizers (Organic Fertilizers) from Garbage (MSW), Plant Economics of Organic Manure, Plant Economics of Sea Weed Liquid Fertilizer, Plant Economics of Vermi-Composting The book has been written for the benefit and to prove an asset and a handy reference guide in the hands of new entrepreneurs and well established industrialists.

Director 4449, Nai Sarak, Main Road, Delhi-110 006 (INDIA) E-mail : [email protected]

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CONTENT AND SUBJECT INDEX

Page No. Chapter 3.

Chapter

Page No. Chapter 1.

THE LIVING SOIL . .......................... 1 - 14 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

Biological Management of Soil Fertility . 1 Sustainable agriculture: Needs of the Hour . ............................................... 1 Evolution of Sustainable Agriculture . ... 2 Sustainable Livelihood . ........................ 4 Making of Sustainable Farming Systems . .............................................. 5 Management of Organic Inputs . .......... 6 Regulation of Nutrient Dynamics by resource Quality Control . .................... 6 Environmental Regulation of Organic ... 9 Matter Management . ............................ 9 Organic-inorganic Interactions . ......... 10 Nitrogen . ............................................. 10 Phosphorus . ....................................... 10 Nutrient Mixture . ................................. 10 Need For Organic Inputs . .................. 11 Long-Term Effects . ............................ 11 The Farming Systems Context . ........ 12 2.

ORGANIC SOURCES AND DYNAMICS . .................................... 15 - 33 — — — —

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Organic Material Use . ........................ 16 Composting to Enhance the Usefulness and . ................................. 16 Acceptability of Organic Materials . .... 16 Special Management Practices for Utilization of Organic Materials on Land . ................................................... 17 Bulky Organic Manures/Animal Manures/ Crop Residues/Composts . 17 Type of Bulky Organic Manures . ...... 17 Farmyard Manure . ............................. 18 Composted Manure . .......................... 20 Urban Compost . ................................. 20 Bulky Organic Manures . .................... 20 Farm Yard Manure (FYM) . ................ 20 Compost . ............................................ 21 Aerobic method . ................................. 21 Anaerobic method . ............................. 22 Enrichment of Manure and Compost . 22 Enriched farmyard manure . ............... 22

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Enrichment of compost with microbial inoculants . ........................................... 22 Super digested compost . .................... 23 Sheep and goat manure . .................... 23 Poultry manure . ................................... 23 Sewage and Sludge . ........................... 23 Night Soil Poudrettes . .......................... 24 Concentrated Organic Manure . ......... 24 Oil cakes . ............................................ 24 Meal group of manures . ...................... 24 Crop residues . .................................... 25 Agro-industrial wastes . ....................... 25 Rice husk . ........................................... 25 Bagasse . ............................................. 25 Pressmud . ........................................... 25 Tea wastes . ......................................... 26 Coir waste . .......................................... 26 Green Manuring . ................................. 26 Green Manuring in Situ . ...................... 26 Green Leaf Manuring . ......................... 27 Poultry Manure : An Efficient Organic Manure for Rice . ................... 27 Formation Mechanisms of Complex Organic . ............................................... 28 Structures in Soil Habitats . ................. 28 Organisms Involved in Organic Matter Formation . ................. 28 Chemohetertrophic amimals . .............. 29 Saprophytic Bacteria, fungi and protozoa . ............................................. 29 Oxidoreductive enzymes . .................. 29 Classes of Mono-phenol monooxygenases . .............................. 30 Synthetic Reactions in Soil . ................ 30 Degradative Processes . ..................... 30 Types of Plant Material for Decomposition . ................................... 31 The pathway of lignin decomposition .. 31 Microorganisms for Lignin biodegradation .............................................................. 31 Acquired stability . ................................ 32 Synthetic Processes for Humus Formation . ........................................... 32 The Role of Oxidative Coupling in Humus Formation . .............................. 32 Theories of Humus Formation . ........ 32 Modern theories of humification . .............................................................. 33

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VERMICULTURE . ......................... 34 - 57

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Earthworms as Indicators of Soil Fertility . ......................................... 35 Soil enrichment . ................................... 35 Earthworm : The Natural Biosector . ....36 Interaction of Vermicompost- ..............37 Earthworm-Mulch - Plantroot (Vemp) .

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Recycling of Wastes Through Vermitech .............................................................. 38 Earthworms and Plant Growth . .......... 38 Advantages of Organic Manure and the Role of Earthworms . .............. 38 What is Vermicompost . ....................... 39 Vermiculture and Pollution Hazard . .... 39 Advantages of Vermicompost . ........... 40 Adverse Effects on Crops . ................. 40 Economic Viability ................................41 Vermiculture Process ..........................41 Selection of Suitable Species . ............. 41 Epiges . ................................................. 43 Endoges . .............................................43 Aneciques . ........................................... 43 Basic Characteristics of Suitable Species . ............................................... 43 Fixing Earthworms for Identification .... 44 Trasport of Fixed Worms to Laboratory . ..........................................44 Description of Suitable Species . ..........44 Family: Lumbricidae .............................45 Bimastos parvus [= Allolobophora (Bimastos) parvus Eisen] ....................45 Eisenia foetida (Sav.) . ......................... 45 Family: Eudrilidae . ............................... 46 Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinb.) . ................... 46 Family: Megascolecidae . .................... 47 Lampito mauritii (Kinb.) . ...................... 47 Metaphire anomala Mich. (= Pheretima anomala) . ...................... 47 Metaphire posthuma (= Pheretima posthuma) . .................... 48 Perionyx excavatus E. Perr. . ............. 48 Perionyx sansbaricus Michaelson . .... 48 Maintenance of Base Culture ..............49 Vermicastings as Inoculant .................49 Vermicomposting Materials .................49 Animal dung . ........................................ 49 Agricultural waste . ............................... 49 Forestry wastes ...................................49

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City leaf litter . ..................................... 50 Waste paper and cotton cloth etc. .... 50 City refuge . ........................................ 50 Biogas slurry ......................................50 Industrial wastes ................................50 Preliminary Treatment of Composting Material ..........................50 Pre-treatment of leaf litter and agricultural waste . ............................. 50 Small Scale or Indoor Vermicomposting . ............................. 51 Large Scale or Outdoor Vermicomposting . ............................. 52 Requirments for Vermicomposting .... 53 Container . ..........................................53 Bedding material . ............................... 53 Moisture content ................................53 Temperature ......................................53 Successful Adoption of Vermiculture 53 Initiation of Vermiculture in India . .......56 Successful Applications in India . .......57 Composting of waste . ....................... 57 Use in agriculture . ............................. 57 4.

APPLICATION OF VERMICULTURE BIOTECHNOLOGY .... 58 - 73 — — — — — — — — — — — — —

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Vermiculture Biotechnology . ............. 58 Earthworm for Nutrient Management 60 Effect on soil fertility . ......................... 60 Nitrogen . ............................................ 60 Phosphorus . ...................................... 61 Potassium . ......................................... 62 Earthworms for Water Management . 63 Earthworm castings . ......................... 63 Earthworms Act as Biopump . ........... 64 Earthworms for Effective Waste Management ......................................64 Composting of Municipal and Industrial Wastes . ............................. 65 Earthworms for Disease and Pest Management . ............................ 65 Earthworms for Nutritional Crops ...... 66 Earthworms for Sustainable Agriculture and Waste Land Development ..........67 Earthworms As vectors of Beneficial Microorganisms . ............................... 67 Successful Applications . ................... 68 Harnessing Vermiculture BioTechnology ........................................ 69

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Selection of proper species . .............. 69 Use of vermicastings for inoculation .. 69 — Earthworms and land use practices .. 69 Effect of organic manure and NPK fertilizers on earthworm activity . ....... 69 — Cultivation . .......................................... 70 — Mulching . ............................................ 70 — Irrigation . ............................................. 70 — Biocides . ............................................. 70 — Procedure to Prepare Vermicompost . ................................... 71 — Culturing technique . ........................... 71 — Culture bed . ........................................ 71 — Feed composition . .............................. 71 — Feed application . ................................ 71 — Wormcast production and collection .. 71 — Application of Vermicomost . .............. 72 — Conclusion . ......................................... 72 — Future Research Needs . ................... 73 —

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5. COMPOSTING OF AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES .............. 74 - 90 — — — — — — — — — — —

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Definition . ............................................ 75 Principles of Composting . .................. 75 Agricultural Wastes . ........................... 76 Methods for composting of Agricultural wastes . ............................ 77 Indore Method . ................................... 77 Activated compost . ............................ 78 Banglore method . ............................... 78 Nadep Compost . ................................ 79 Coimbatore method . ........................... 79 Synthetic Compost . ............................ 79 Windrow composting (leaf compost) .. 80 Accelerated composting and enrichment ............................................................. 80 Vermi-composting . ............................. 80 Animal waste composting . ................. 81 Oil palm waste composting . ............... 81 Phospho-compost . ............................. 82 Re-inforced compost from sugarcane trash and pressmud . ....... 82 Enriched FYM (EFYM) . ..................... 82 Weed composting . ............................. 83 Composting of parthenium . ................ 83 Hints for composting agricultural wastes . ............................ 84 Industrial Wastes . .............................. 84 Composting of coir pith . ..................... 87

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Composting of Pressmud . ................. 88 Using distillery effluent . ...................... 88 Using microbial inoculum ....................89 Using pressmud and Distillery effluent . ............................................... 89 Conclusion . ......................................... 89 Future Needs . ....................................90

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BIOLOGICAL FERTILIZERS . .... 91 - 107

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Soil Biota in Ssustainable Agriculture . 91 Bio-Diversity of Soil Biota ....................92 Possible Management Strategies . ..... 92 Importance of Biological Sources of Nutrients . ......................... 93 Overcoming Soil Deficiencies Nature’s Way ......................................94 Bio-Fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture . ......................................... 96 History of Bio-Fertilizer Research . .... 99 Economicla and Environmental Benefits . ........................................... 103 Development of Bio-Fertilizer Industry . .......................................... 105 Groups of Bio-Fertilizers . ............... 105 Conclusion . ...................................... 106

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MICROBAL INOCULANTS FOR NITROGEN FIXATION . ... 108 - 177

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Nitrogen Fixing Organisms and Plant Associations . .......................... Azotobacter . .................................... Beijerinckia . ..................................... Azospirillum . .................................... Other Bacteria . ................................ Asymbiotic Blue Green Algae . ........ Frankia . ........................................... Rhizobium . ....................................... General Taxonomic Characteristics of Legumes . .......... Characteristics of the family Plants, shrubs, woody vines, and annual and perennial herbs . .... Characteristics of the sub-families Mimosoideae: Plants, shrubs, woody vines, a few perennial herbs Caesalpinloideae: Plants, shrubs, rarely . ..............................................

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108 110 110 110 111 112 112 113

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Scandent, rarely herbs . .................... 118 Papilionoideae: Plants, shrubs, annual or perennial herbs ..................119 Techniques to Enumerate Rhizobia .. 119 Plate Count Technique . .................... 119 Flourescent Antibody Technique (FAT) ................................120 Enzyme linked Immunosorbant Assay (ELISA) ...................................120 Plant Infection Technique ..................121 Growth system for MPN methods .... 122 Suitable test host for MPN technique 122 Distribution of Rhizobial Population ... 123 Rhizobium culture ..............................125 Genetic modifications in Rhizobium strains ..............................127 Rhizobium in Root Nodule .................127 Agrobacterium (A. radiobacter, A. tumefacions) . ................................ 128 Structure and Function of Nodule . ....128 Formation of Nodule in Leguminous Plants .............................128 Leghaemoglobin .................................131 Site of Nitrogen Fixation in Nodules .. 131 Leguminous Plants/Rhizobiaceae Symbiosis . ......................................... 131 Isolation and Identification ..................132 Mass Production ................................134 Carriers for Rhizobiuminoculants . .....134 Method of Inoculation . ....................... 135 Crop Response . ................................ 135 Factor Affecting Crop Response . .....136 Confirming Nodulation ........................136 Field Methods for Identification of Plant Actually Fixing Nitrogen . .......137 The Need to Inoculate .......................138 Selecting and Handling Inoculoants .. 140 Inoculation ..........................................141 Methods of application .......................141 Bio-Fertilizers and Their Usage in Field Crops .........................................143 Seed treatment ...................................143 Seedling root dip .................................143 Soil Application ...................................143 Optimizing Nitrogen Fixation in NFS . 144 Effective and Ineffecive Strains . ........144 Establishment of Inoculated Rhizobium . ......................................... 145 Production of Rhizobium Biofertilizer .. 145

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Selection of strains . ......................... Carrier materials and their sterilization . ...................................... Suitable nutrient broth . .................... Suitable packing material . ............... Suitable adhesive material . ............. Fermentation . .................................. Rotary shaker method . ................... Bioreactor . ....................................... Frankiacease Symbiosis . ............... Azospirillum Biofertilizer . ................. Major Species . ................................ Isolation . .......................................... Mass Multiplication . ......................... Method of Inoculation . ..................... Conditions Needed for Successful Inoculation . ...................................... Crop Response . .............................. Azotobacter Biofertiuzer . ................ Isolation . .......................................... Mass Production . ............................ Method of Application . ..................... Crop Response . .............................. Methods of Application of Azospirillum and Azotobacter . ........ Blue-Green Algae Inoculant . ........... Distribution . ...................................... Isolation . .......................................... Mass Production . ............................ Methods of Field Application . .......... Crop Response . .............................. Blue Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla Mass Production and Applications .. Crop Response . .............................. Factors Affecting Response . .......... BGA Production Technology . ......... Trough method . ............................... Pit method . ....................................... Mass Multiplication of BGA in the Field . ...................................... Dual Cropping of Azolla with Rice ... Azolla-Anabaena Symbiosis . .......... Multiplication of Azolla . .................... Propagation . .................................... Cement Cisterns . ............................ Mass multiplication in nursery plots Enhanced Crop Production . ...........

147 149 151 151 152 152 152 153 154 155 156 156 156 156 157 157 157 158 158 159 159 160 162 163 163 163 164 164 165 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 169 170 170 170 170 171 171

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Page No. Chapter 8.

MECHANISM AND ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN FIXATION ............. 178 - 212 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

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Diazotrophic Microorganisms . ......... 181 Biological Nitrogen Fixation . ............. 181 Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation . .......... 182 Microorganisms . .............................. 182 Mechanism of Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation . ............................. 184 Requirments of Nitrogen Fixation . ... 185 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation . ............ 185 Mechanism of Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes . ........................ 186 Theory of Virtanen . .......................... 186 Theory of Burn’s and Wilson . .......... 187 Nitrogen Converters in the Soil . ...... 188 Cyanobacteria and Nitrogen Fixation . ............................................ 188 Nitrogen Fixing Fungi . ...................... 188 Bio-chemical Aspects of Diazotrophy . ..................................... 188 Nitrogenase Producing E. Colicells .. 189 Genetics of Free-living and Symbiotic Diazotrophs . .................... 191 Organization of Nitrogen-fixation Genes . .............................................. 191 Nod-Genes for Nodulation . .............. 192 Regulation of Nitrogen-fixation Genes . .............................................. 192 Genetics of Symbiotic Diazotrophs . ..................................... 194 Transfer of NIF-Genes to Microorganisms . .............................. 195 Transfer of NIF-Genes and Development of new Nitrogen-Fixing .... Plants . ............................................... 195 Estimates of Nitrogen Fixation . ........ 196 N Based Methods . ........................... 196 Nitrogen Balance Studies . ............... 197 Acetylene Reduction Assay . ........... 197 Quantifying Nitrogen Fixation in NFSS . ............................................... 197 Quantities of Nitrogen Fixed . ........... 201 Factors Influencing Biological Nitrogen Fixation . ............................. 201 Biological Factors . ............................ 202 Oxygen . ............................................ 204 Water stress . ................................... 204 Temperature . ................................... 205 Age . .................................................. 206

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pH and soil nutrients . ...................... Combined soil N . ............................. Salinity . ............................................ Lack of suitable bacteria . ................ Recovering form Stress . ................ Nitrogen Fixation Research in India

206 208 209 209 211 211

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BIOLOGICAL MOBILIZATION OF PHOSPHORUS . .................. 213 - 249

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Forms of P Available in Soil . ........... P Availability Issue . ......................... Mode of Action of PSMs . ................ Organic Acids and P Solubilization .. Enzymes and P-solubilization . ........ Effect of PSMs on Growth and P economy . ..................................... Duel Inoculation of P-Solubilizers and Nitrogen Fixes . ......................... Isolation . .......................................... Crop response . ............................... Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) . ........................ Roots as Sinks and Sources of Nutrients and Carbon in Agricultural Systems . ...................... Importance of Mycorrhiza . ............. Benefits to Plants . ........................... Other Roles in Ecosystems . .......... Values of People . ............................ Mycorrhizal Interaction with Plants and Soil Organisms in Sustainable Agroecosystem . .......... Symbiosis . ....................................... Root System form . .......................... Soil and site Factors influencing Mycorrhizas . ................................... Mycorrhizal Inoculum . .................... Soil Disturbance . ............................. Soil Fertility . ..................................... Adverse Soil Conditions . ................. Characteristics of Fungal Isolates .. Manipulating Mycorrhizal Fungi . ..... Types of Associations . ................... Types of Mycorrhiza . ...................... Ectomycorrhiza . .............................. Ectendomycorrhiza . ........................ Endomycorrhiza/Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) . ............... Arbutoid mycorrhiza . ....................... Monotropoid mycorrhiza . ................

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Ericoid mycorrhiza .............................235 Orchidoid mycorrhiza ........................235 Host Plants .........................................236 Place of Availability of Mycorrhizal Plants . ................................................236 Mycorrhizal Fungi ..............................236 Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) .......................................237 Establishment of Symbiosis ...............237 Classification of AMF . ....................... 238 Ectomycorrhizae (ECM) ....................239 Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) ..............................240 How mycorrhizas Work .....................241 Nutrient Depletion Zones . ................. 241 Hyphal Activity ...................................241 Mycorrhizal Dependency ..................242 Obligatorily Mycorrhizal Plants . ........ 243 Facultatively Mycorrhizal Plants . ..... 243 Non-mycorrhizal plants .....................243 Mycorrhizal Fungi and Pathogen Interaction ..........................243 Nitrogen Transfer in Mycorrhizal Plants .............................244 Nitrogen Nutrition in Mycorrhizal Plants .............................245 Forms of Nitrogen Used by Mycorrhizal Associations ..................245 Mycorrhizal Effects on Nodulation and Nitrogen Fixation . .....245 P Response Curves ..........................246 Inoculation Methods ...........................247 A. Trasplanted crops . ....................... 247 B. Plant directly sown in the field ....... 247 Mycorrhizal pellets .............................247 Fluid drilling .........................................248 Inoculation in furrows . ....................... 248 Pre-cropping ......................................248 Appropriate VA mycorrhizal Technology .........................................249 A. Transplanted crops .......................249 B. Field sown crops ...........................249 10.

THE CYCLIC SYSTEM OF NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT . ..... 250 - 306

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Geographical Nutrient Transfer . .......250 Natural transfers (nutrient flows in landscapes) . .....................................251 Nutrient transfer into cities .................251

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Export into other countries . .............. 252 The Concern ......................................252 Future nutrient shortages . ................ 253 From Nutrient Flows to Cycles . ....... 254 Organic Farming and Waste Recycling . ..........................................255 The Cyclic System For Nutrient Management ......................................256 Minimizing Nutrient Losses . .............. 256 Changes in soil slope . ....................... 257 Soil cover ............................................258 Harnessing Untapped Nutrient Sources ................................259 Exploring Internal Nutrient Sources . ............................................ 260 Better use of Nutrient Sources . ........ 261 Soil nutrient and soil fertility aspects ...................................261 Optimum soil reaction . ...................... 262 Soil organic matter .............................262 Organic Materials . ............................. 263 Crop residues and farm manures . ........................................... 263 Commercial and industrial waste products . ........................................... 264 Other organic fertilizers . ................... 264 Better Nutrient Management for — Crops and Crop Rotations . .............. 264 Adaptation of crops and crop rotations to nutrient supply . .............. 264 Adaptation of crop rotations to nutrient supply . .................................. 265 Nutrient Management for Quality Products and Stress Resistance ...... 265 Higher quality of food and fodder products . ........................................... 265 Nutrient management of grass land for fodder quality . ...................... 266 Higher stress resistance of crops due to better nutrition . ............. 266 Nutrient Management in Farming Systems . ............................. 267 Efficient Nutrient-Recycling with Agroforestry . ..................................... 267 Recycling paths: short-term and longer-term . ................................ 270 Agroforestry Systems .......................271 Role of Agroforestry . ......................... 271 Agroforestry for soil enrichment . .......272 Ecological balance .............................272 Organic matter and nutrient

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addition to soil . .................................. 273 Biological Nitrogen fixation . .............. 273 Nutrient cycling . ............................... 274 Conclusion . ....................................... 274 Exploitation Cropping vs Sustinable Agriculture True at Different Yield Levels . ..................................... 275 Exploitation cropping . ....................... 275 Sustainable agriculture at low to medium yield level . ................ 276 Extensive sustainable farming . ........ 277 Bio-or-ecofarming (deliberate extensive farming) . ........ 277 Sustainable agriculture at high yield level . ................................. 277 Nutrient Management on Arid Lands . ....................................... 278 Saline soils . ....................................... 280 Nutrient Management in Humid Tropics . ................................. 280 Rice cropping on paddy soils . ......... 281 Agroforestry . .................................... 281 Intergrated Nutrient Management .... 282 Integration of fertilizers with bulky organics . ................................. 282 Green manuring with inorganic fertilizers . .......................................... 283 Bio-fertilizers with inorganics . .......... 284 Integrated Approach In Bio-fertilizer Use . .............................. 286 Low-Cost Technology For Enrichment of Compost . .................. 286 Sugarcane trash compost . .............. 287 Biogas slurry . ................................... 287 Vermicompost . ................................. 289 Industrial wastes . ............................. 289 Municipal and sewage wastes . ........ 289 Management of Major Nutrients (N, P, K) With Organic Sources . ..... 290 Nitrogen . ........................................... 290 Synchronization . .............................. 292 General Properties of Nitrogen from Organic Sources . ..... 293 Cover Crops and Ridge Tillage in Sustainable Farming . ....................... 294 Phosphorus . ..................................... 294 Mycorrhiza . ...................................... 296 Potassium . ........................................ 297 Biological Approach for Secondary and . ..................................... Micronutrients Acquisition ............... 298

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Vam . ................................................ Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) . ................... Organics . ......................................... Organic Farming vs Biodynamic Farming . ...................... Principles of Biodynamic Farming ... Rules for using Biodynamic Agriculture . ...................................... Few Biodynamic Preparations . ....... Conclusion . ......................................

299 301 301 302 303 304 304 305

11. PERSPECTIVES . ....................... 307 - 318 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

Constraints in Bio-Fertilizer Use ..... Production Constraints . .................. Unavailability of appropriate and efficient strains . ........................ Unavailability of a suitable carrier .... Mutation during fermentation . ......... Lack of standards in packaging . .... Market Level Constraints . .............. Lack of awareness of farmer . ........ Inadequate and inexperienced staff . ......................... Lack of quality assurance . ............. Seasonal and unassured demand . ........................................... Limited scope for marketing . .......... Resource Constraints . ................... Limited resources generation for BF production . ........................... Limited risk taking capacity of farmers . ....................................... Field Level Constraints . .................. Soil and climatic factors . ................. Native microbial population . ............ Faulty inoculation techniques . ........ Crop management . ......................... Quality control . ................................ Research and Development Needs . ............................................. Widening Research Base . .............. Screening New Efficient Strains . .... Improvement in Production Technology . ..................................... Preparation of Bio-fertilizer Map . .... Quality Assurance . ......................... Improving Distribution System . ....... Improving Technical Support System . .............................

308 308 309 309 309 311 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 312 312 313 313 313 313 313 313

Chapter

Institutional Support for 16. Research and Development . ............ 316 — Quality Control . ................................. 316 PLANT ECONOMICS OF BIOFERTIL— Promotional Strategies . ..................... 318 IZERS (ORGANIC FERTILIZERS) FROM — Future Thrusts . ................................. 318 GARBAGE (MSW) . .................... 340 - 341 — Plant & Machinery . ............................ 340 12. — Fixed Capital ......................................341 LIST OF BIO-FERTILIZERS — Raw Materials . .................................. 341 UNITS IN INDIA AND ABROAD 319 - 333 — Total Working Capital/Month ..............341 — Total Capital Investment ....................341 — List of Bio-Fertilizer Units in India . .... 319 — Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 341 13. 17. PLANT ECONOMICS OF AGROPLANT ECONOMICS OF FERTILIZER FROM LEAVES . ... 334 - 335 ORGANIC MANURE . ................. 342 - 343 — Plant & Machinery . ............................ 334 — Plant & Machinery . ............................ 342 — Fixed Capital . .................................... 334 — Fixed Capital ......................................342 — Raw Materials . .................................. 334 — Raw Materials . .................................. 342 — Total Working Capital/Month . ............ 334 — Total Working Capital/Month ..............342 — Total Capital Investment . .................. 335 — Total Capital Investment ....................343 — Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 335 — Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 343 14. 18. PLANT ECONOMICS OF PLANT ECONOMICS OF SEA BIOFERTILIZERS FROM WEED LIQUID FERTILIZER . .... 344 - 345 CHICKEN REFUGES, OIL CAKES, BONE MILLS . .............. 336 - 337 — Plant & Machinery . ............................ 344 — Fixed Capital ......................................344 — Plant & Machinery . ............................ 336 — Raw Materials . .................................. 344 — Fixed Capital . .................................... 336 — Total Working Capital/Month ..............345 — Raw Materials . .................................. 337 — Total Capital Investment ....................345 — Total Working Capital/Month . ............ 337 — Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 345 — Total Capital Investment . .................. 337 — Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 337 19. 15. PLANT ECONOMICS OF BIOFERTILIZERS FROM COWDUNG & OTHER WASTAGE . ................................. 338 - 339 — — — —

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Plant & Machinery . ............................ 338 Fixed Capital . .................................... 338 Raw Materials . .................................. 338 Total Working Capital/Month . ............ 339 Total Capital Investment . .................. 339 Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 339

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Plant & Machinery . ............................ 346 Fixed Capital ......................................346 Raw Materials . .................................. 346 Total Working Capital/Month ..............346 Total Capital Investment ....................346 Turn Over/Annum . ............................ 346