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Hopes for the future: demographic and personal resources associated with self-perceived employability employabil ity and actual employment among senior year students Jonathan Kasler, Leehu Zysberg & Nofar Nofar Harel To cite this article: Jonathan Kasler, Leehu Zysberg & Nofar Harel (2017) Hopes for the future: demographic and personal resources associated with self-perceived employability and actual employment among senior year students, Journal of Education and Work, 30:8, 881-892, DOI: 10.1080/13639080.2017.1352083
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JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND WORK, 2017 VOL. 30, NO. 8, 881892 https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2017.1352083
Hopes for the future: demographic and personal resources associated with self-perceived employability and actual employment among senior year students Jonathan Kaslera
, Leehu Zysbergb and Nofar Harela
a
Department of Education, Tel Tel Hai College, Kiryat Shemona, Israel; bDepartment of Psychology Psychology,, Tel Tel Hai College, Kiryat Shemona, Israel
ABSTRACT
ARTICLE HISTORY
Undergraduates approaching completion of their studies may embrace the Undergraduates prospect of entry into the world of work as a challenge or conversely, may view it with trepidation. This study explores three major personal resources that may be associated with how young undergraduates view their future employability:: perceived hope, grit and emotional intelligence. Demographics employability
Received 5 April 2015 Accepted 27 June 2017
associated in the literature with perceived chance of employment – gender ge nder,, age and having a learning disability – were also included in the study. The participants were college students in their senior year (n (n = 584), studying in a variety of undergraduate programmes. programmes. Results show that perceived hope and grit were positively associated with perceived employability whereas the relationship with emotional intelligence was more complex. None of the demographics associated with perceived employability.
KEYWORDS
Employability; hope; grit; emotional intelligence; positive psychology; college students
Introduction
The last three decades have seen an exponential increase in job-market dynamics and shifting shif ting career patterns. The literature (see Smelser 2012 2012 for for a review) identifies a few trends shaping the current job market worldwide. The first has to do with the demise of traditional job security. In a business world characterised by constant change, organisations often rise and fall, and organisational structures change to meet the requirements of an ever-changing market (Shaw (Shaw 2013 2013;; Tengland 2013 2013). ). The second trend is that of increasing competition among organisations and companies for market-share, technology and client base, which translates into competition between candidates, vying for jobs in organisations. The third trend is that of academisation: in an information age, as jobs become more and more demanding and expertise-based, academic degrees become the basic norm expected of individuals entering almost any professional career. Academic education (at least at the undergraduate and in some fields – graduate levels) is no longer a substantial advantage – but a basic requirement. As a result of the above-described trends, job seekers meet ever-growing challenges in securing and maintaining a job. In such a context, the obsolete concept of job security is replaced by the concept of employability: employability is a term typically used in vocational and organisational psychology to describe a set of abilities, potentials, and skills that make an individual attractive to potential employers (McQuaid and Lindsay 2005 2005). ). However, Tomlinson (2007 (2007)) suggests that exploring what he calls the subjective dimension of dimension of employability has been absent from the discussion of employability.
CONTACT
Jonathan Kasler
[email protected]
© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
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Indeed, employability can also be used to describe individuals’ appraisal of their own chances of being employed in light of self-perceived skills, abilities, and resources associated with employment (Fugate, Kinicki, and Ashforth 2004 2004). ). For example, in a longitudinal study, Berntson, Näswall, and Sverke (2008 (2008)) found that self-perceived employability and self-efficacy were related but not identical. Bridgstock (2009 2009), ), who explored the concept of career management skills, concluded that graduates seeking to find their way in the modern employment landscape need need to hone navigation skills in order to manage their future careers successfully. The above directions point to the importance of self-navigation and self-management skills among young graduates embarking on their career. Moreover, studies have found self-rated self-management skills and perceived employability to be associated with various job-seeking outcomes (e.g. Tims, Bakker, and Derks 2012 2012;; Tseng 1970 1970). ). The question question of employability employability among young adults entering the job job market market is even more important, since they have little actual experience or work achievements to rely upon. In these settings, we raise the question: What demographic and personal resources shape young adults’ self-perceived self-perceived employability as they are about to embark on their career? To T o address address the above question, we assume assume that that in the absence absence of work experience and achievement achievement to build upon, young adults seeking jobs will heavily rely on personal resources. A body of literature emphasising personal resources associated with effective coping is offered by the school of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2000 2000). ). Traditionally, psychology has focused on pathology, impulses, and behaviours that undermine adaptive behaviour and require intervention (Peterson, (Peterson, Park, and Seligman 2005 2005). ). In contrast to this traditional focus, positive psychology focuses on factors associated with normative, adaptive, and effective everyday psychological ps ychological function and coping. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000 (2000)) explored the role of traits and competencies that foster resilience and thriving in human beings. They argued that this focus provides essential understanding of human behaviour that emphasises growth, strength, and prevention rather than cure. In this study, we focused on three central personal resources that are associated with positive psychology: perceived hope, grit, and emotional intelligence. i ntelligence.
Hope The concept of hope is an essential element of positive psychology (Peterson (Peterson 2000 2000). ). Snyder, Cheavens, and Sympson (1997 (1997)) defined the psychological concept of hope as a reasoning reasoni ng pattern involving agency and pathways to goals. They argued that human beings are innately oriented towards goals with the potential of using their abilities to reach their goals. Therefore, hope expresses an inherent positive future orientation to life with the expectation of goals being attained by the individual. Though discussed on two levels, situational and predispositional, our interest is primarily in predispositional, or trait hope as an individual characteristic that underlies employability. This entity is shaped and crystallised cr ystallised in the same way that personality predispositions are, from an early age, through formative experiences and exposure to modelling from significant others, as well as other factors (e.g. McAdams and Olson 2010). 2010 ). That being said, like most predispositions, hope is i s also amenable to change across the lifespan in light of events and experiences. experi ences. Consequently, Consequently, we may observe limited changes in hope level within the same individual across time. In addition, some evidence suggests that hope can be taught (Gillham and Reivich Reivich 2004 2004). ). However, However, while fostering or teaching hope may potentially be a valuable practice in school, as well as the workplace, this area of research remains beyond the scope of the present study. To T o date, researchers have explored the role of hope in happiness and well-being, and for physical
as well as mental health. A recent study associated hope with success in personnel selection batteries, demonstrating the potential importance of this resource in the world of career psychology (Zysberg 2012). 2012 ). Snyder et al. (1991 (1991)) formulated the Adult Hope Questionnaire, which assesses the agency and pathways factors of the concept: agency embodies innate motivation to achieve the individual’s desired goals, and pathway represents the ability to imagine and set out alternative ways of getting there (Babyak, Snyder Snyder,, and Yoshinobu 1993 1993). ). Snyder’s emphasis on cognitive aspects of the predisposition
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toward hope suggests that the ability to determine goals and the accompanying belief that one is capable of achieving them is a basic human predisposition that focuses attention on planning for the future.
Grit Ryans (1938 (1938)) suggested that the characteristic of persistence is critical in determining performance. Sixty-nine years later, Duckworth et al. (2007 ( 2007)) presented research on the concept of grit, which can be understood as perseverance and commitment to the achievement of long-term goals. Their research echoed the claims of Ryans, as well as other researchers in the field of human abilities, who sought to develop a general measure of perseverance p erseverance and commitment to achieving long-term goals that would be independent of specific situations. They asserted that individuals high in grit, a concept related to personality structures associated with hardiness and motivation, were more likely to achieve success in long-term endeavours endeavours than those with low levels of grit. Much in line with other personality constructs, grit seems to emerge from the individual’s healthy, healthy, adaptive sense of self, shaped early in life through diverse life experiences, interpersonal interactions, and feedback from the environment (Duckworth and Quinn 2009 2009). ). The extent to which grit is amenable to change, intervention, and development later in life is still a matter of debate (Duckworth et al. 2011 2011). ). In today’s workplace, careers require resilience, perseverance, and determination to make it through the long haul that transforms ambition into achievement. Therefore Therefore,, the trait known as grit should contribute to explaining long-term performance in attaining life goals, especially when the path ahead may be obscured by difficulties and distractions. While preliminary results of a series of studies supported the claims of Duckworth et al. (2007 ( 2007), ), their findings suggested that more evidence is required to better understand how grit interacts with wi th other factors to explain the achievement of long-term goals.
Emotional intelligence Researchers have long suggested that emotional and social abilities shape the way we think and function alongside cognitive abilities (e.g. Thorndike and Stein 1937 1937). ). More recently, the notion of emotional intelligence (EI) offered a framework that allows the study of this direction in diverse settings. Models of EI fall largely into two groups: Trait EI and Ability EI (Mayer, Roberts, and Barsade B arsade 2008 2008). ). It is generally assumed that while traits and behavioural b ehavioural predispositions are best measured by self-report methods, the measurement of abilities requires performance-based per formance-based testing methods to measure emotional intelligence (Zysberg, Levy, and Zisberg 2010 2010). ). Regardless of measurement mode, most current definitions of EI focus on the following core components of the concept: emotion identification/awareness, using emotions to facilitate and enhance reasoning, effectively processing complex emotional information, and regulating behaviour to effectively attain goals. A growing body of research has associated ass ociated EI with a broad range of outcomes, from effective work and school performance to effective leadership and general well-being (e.g. Gannon and Ranzijn 2005 2005;; Mayer, Roberts, and Barsade 2008 2008;; O’Boyle et al. 2011). 2011 ). As the individual’s capacity to work with others in often intensive and vital interactions are an
ever-increasing aspect of most areas of work (Carnevale, Gainer, and Meltzer 1988 1988), ), the study of the role of EI in the workplace environment requires further fur ther investigation (Zeidner, Matthews, and Roberts 2004 2004). ). In the frame of the current study, we suggest that EI plays a role in processes that are not only related to work performance, but also in processes related to obtaining a position, namely, ‘employability’ ‘employability’. To the best of our knowledge, no studies examined this association to date.
The current study Basing our investigation into self-perceived employability on the literature briefly reviewed above, this study focused on a combination of resources that have received much attention in the positive psychology literature, but little attention so far in the literature on career planning and development:
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Figure 1. The study model.
perceived sense of hope (Snyder et al. 1991 1991), ), grit (Duckworth et al. 2007 2007), ), and emotional intelligence (Mayer,, Caruso, and Salovey 2000 (Mayer 2000;; Schutte et al. 1998 1998). ). Research has shown each of these resources to be a major factor in coping, meeting challenges, and attainment in various settings. We also included demographic variables associated in the literature with employability: we used age to represent differences between ‘traditional’ and ‘non-traditional’ ‘non-traditional’ students, students, who may enter the job market at different stages in i n life (e.g. Treuren Treuren and Anderson 2010 2010). ). We also referred to the programme of study, acknowledging differential expectations characteristics of the nature of various academic and professional programmes (e.g. economics majors may have different employment expectations than philosophy majors; see e.g. Gedye, Fender, and Chalkley 2004 2004). ). In addition, we included current employment as a demographic that indicates experience and job-seeking skill sk ill acquisition (e.g. McQuaid and Lindsay 2005 2005). ). Finally, we included learning disabilities (LD), based on literature suggesting that
LDs affect individuals employment employment patterns (e.g. Madaus 2006 2006). ). Employability was represented by two measures: work search self-efficacy (Solberg et al. 1994 1994), ), and an adaptation of the Self-Perceived Employability Scale (Rothwell and Arnold 2007 2007). ). Based on the above reviewed literature, we proposed a model in which demographics mentioned in the literature on employability (age, programme of study, current employment, and having LDs), together with personal characteristics and resources associated with positive psychology and vocational psychology frameworks (hope, grit, and emotional intelligence), account for variances in two indicators of self-perceived s elf-perceived employability: job search self-efficacy self- efficacy and perceived chance of employment (see Figure 1). We tested our model in a sample of students about to graduate and enter the job market, in Israel. Is rael. Method
Settings Israel is considered a developed economy, economy, with an advanced and dynamic job market. With per-capita GDP about 66% that of the US, Israel’s economy is growing steadily at 3–4% annually, and is highly
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ranked by the World Bank. The Israeli economy as well as the job market showed s howed relative resistance and stability during the recent recession taking place in the US as well as many EU economies (CIA 2013 2013). ). The Israeli labour market is dominated by information technology technology,, service, and advanced manufacturing industries led by high-tech initiatives (Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2013 2013). ). While the high-tech sector has absorbed large numbers of highly trained professionals, Israel’s largest employer remains the public sector. s ector. Relatively high income inequality has created added pressures on individuals of employment age, especially among the more educated, to compete for limited opportunities in better paid private sector jobs or or relatively relatively stable public sector professions professions.. The result is an ever-inc ever-increasing reasing need to find the the means means to maintain and enhance individual employability.
Participants We conducted the research with a convenience sample of 584 students in their senior year of studies (139 males, 439 females, and 6 who did not disclose their gender), of whom 197 were students with learning disabilities and 376 were students who did not have learning disabilities (with 11 undisclosed), matched on programme of study, gender, and approximate age. Participants came from the following programmes of study: education (32%), social work (15%), economics (16%), interdisciplinary studies (12%), computer science (4%), nutritional science (12%), ecology (2%), and biotechnology (5%). One per cent of the participants par ticipants did not note their programme of study. All the participants were attending a medium-sized college in northern Israel. The age range was 18–51 ( M = 24.32 ± 4.50). About 82% were Jewish, 6.50% were Muslim, 6% were Druze, and about 5.50% were Christian. Forty-seven per cent reported being employed in addition to their studies. This percentage refers to students working in their field of studies or field of intended employment; the others were either not working or worked in non-professional capacities and jobs.
Measures Job search self -efficacy was was assessed using the Job Search Self-Efficacy Scale (Solberg et al. 1994 1994), ), a 35-item, self-report aimed at assessing perceived ability to search and find employment. We utilised the total score only in this study. Higher scores represent more positive work-search efficacy. Empirical
evidence proposed by the authors of the questionnaire supports its high reliability and appropriate validity (Solberg, Good, and Nord 1993 1993). ). Self - perceived chance of employment was was measured using an adaptation of Rothwell and Arnold’s (2007 2007)) Self-Perceived Employability Scale. This scale was originally created to measure employability among persons already employed in a given profession; we adapted the items from it to suit the popp opulation of the present study: undergraduates assessing their employability in their chosen professions before their first job placement. From the original 16-item scale, a 9-item questionnaire was constructed for this research study, to assess the participants’ perceived ease or obstacles in their future work-search process. Examples of items included are: The skills I have gained are transferable to a variety of occupations, occupations, and People with the training I am receiving are highly valued in the job market. In market. In this study, the internal consistency of the scale was 0.78. Hope was Hope was measured using the Adult Dispositional Hope Scale (Snyder et al. 1991 1991), ), a 12-item self-report measure widely accepted in hope-related studies as a general measure of trait hope. The items produce a general score as well as two subscale scores: agency and pathways to solutions. Higher scores represent higher levels of trait-hope. Reliability and validity have been demonstrated to range in the good to high values in various settings: test-retest reliability was report to range from 0.85 to 0.73 and internal consistency ranges 0.74 through 0.85. Concurrent validity has been demonstrated in numerous studies using this measure (Snyder et al. 2002 2002). ). Grit was was measured using the short Grit Scale (Duckworth and Quinn 2009 2009), ), a 17-item measure used to evaluate individual perseverance and passion for long-term goals. The higher the score, the higher
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the grit reported by the respondent. Several studies have shown an acceptable reliability for scale (an internal consistency for the scale of 0.84; see Duckworth and Quinn 2009 2009). ). Emotional intelligence intelligence was assessed using two separate measures: SEIS (Schutte et al. 1998 1998)) is a 33-item self-report measure of EI, based on the ability model of the concept. The questionnaire yields a total score that was used in this study. The measure is often used in current studies; it has been shown to have acceptable reliability and psychometric attributes (reliability indices above 0.80; see Schutte et al. 2001 2001). ). AVEI (Zysberg, Levy, and Zisberg 2010 2010)) is a 27-item computerised test of EI that focuses on emotion recognition in simulated social settings. The test has been shown to have acceptable psychometric properties in educational and health-related settings, with reliability in the range of 0.65-0.70 and impressive predictive validity in various settings (e.g. Zysberg, Levy, and Zisberg 2010 2010). ). The demographics included demographics included in this research included age, programme of study, status of employment, having a learning disability, and additional information. These data were collected in a separate demographic questionnaire, designed especially for this study.
Procedure The local IRB approved the administration of the research materials. We recruited participants from campus-wide courses to cover as many fields of study as possible. Participants were asked to take part par t in a study about ‘thoughts and perceptions about employment and future employment’. Completion of the questionnaire packet took approximately 30 min per participant. par ticipant. Participants were not compensated in any way. Anonymity was ensured by allowing the participants to return their questionnaires in an unmarked blank envelope.
Data analysis After examining the distribution of our main variables, we used multiple regression analyses to exam-
ine the unique associations of resources alongside demographics with our two t wo outcome measures of self-perceived employability. employability. We We later used a logistic regression to test the associations of the same factors with actual employment (which was assessed dichotomously; see description in the next chapter). Results
Before testing our model, we examined the descriptive statistics of our focal variables and of the simple associations between them. The results of these analyses are summarised in Table Table 1. Most of the focal variables showed normal or near-normal distribution. The results also suggested good distribution and variances, allowing us to conduct further parametric analyses. The preliminary association patterns showed only partial support of our model. Before testing our hypotheses, we tested for potential differences based on programme of study in our sample: We did not find significant differences in the outcome measures among students from different programmes. We then proceeded to test our model using two multiple linear regression analyses, using the perceived chance of employment score and the job-search self-efficacy score as criteria, respectively. The results of the analyses are presented in Tables 2a 2a and and 2b 2b.. The results support our model only partially. Hope and grit were the only factors that were associated with measures of self-perceived employability of the students. Together Together they accounted for 32% of the variance in job-search self-efficacy self-efficac y and 23% of the variance in perceived chance of employment. Significant effects were not shown for any of the other demographic and personal factors. We also tested our factors against the criterion cri terion of current employment. We added this analysis, which was not specified in our original model, in order to test our factors against an employment-related criterion that was not based on subjective self-report. We created an employment indicator variable that differentiated participants who reported working within their field of study (thus career-related employment) from participants who reported not working or working part-time outside their field
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of study or vocational interest. Our goal was to predict career-relevant employment as a criterion in this analysis. We ran a logistic regression model using age, gender, programme of study, and personal factors, with current employment status (yes/no) as a dependent variable. The resulting regression coefficients are presented in Table 3. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and simple associations among the main variables (n (n = 587).
1. Age 2. Gender 3. LD 4. Emp 56.. SJSPSEES 7. SEISS 8. AVEI 9. Grit 10. Hope
Mean
SD SD
1
24.32 M = 24% F = 76% Yes = 41% No = 59% Yes = 47% No = 53%
4.50
–
3 6..4 74 7 2.04 16.64 2.58 0.67 6.25 0.91
0 1..6 480 0.49 3.15
2
3
4
5
6
0.–51** −0.29** −0.09 −0.27**
– −0.44** −0.09 −0.39**
7
8
9
10
– −0.06
0.02
–
−0.24**
−0.01
−0 0..0 004 0.10* −0.02 −0.06
0 0 0..0 01 4 0..0 16 4** ** −0.20 0.12** 0.05 0.10 0.00 −0.22**
− −0 0..0 05 4 0.02 0.24** 0.03
−0.04
−0.09*
0.01
0.05
0.12**
–
0.45**
– 0.13 – 0.24** −0.10
–
0.48** −0.35** −0.11 −0.34**
–
Notes: LD = learning disability; Emp = employed; SPE = Self-perceived chance of employment; JSSES = Job Search Self-Efficacy Scale; SEIS = Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale; AVEI = Audio-visual test of emotional intelligence. AVEI correlations were based on a sub-sample of 117.
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Table 2a. Regression analysis summary for the dependent variable of employment self-efficacy (n ( n = 576). Source of variance Beta
Constant Gender Age LD Employment Hope Grit AVEI SEIS
[6.25] 0.05 −0.08 0.09 0.06 0.33 0.22 −0.09 −0.09
t
2.40** 0.05 −0.84 1.00 0.68 3.13** 2.27* −1.09 −0.99
Notes: Constant b values are presented in brackets. LD – learning disability; AVEI – Audio-visual test of emotional intelligence; SEIS – Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.
Table 2b. Regression analysis summary for the dependent variable of perceived chance of employment (n ( n = 576).
Source of variance
Beta
Constant Gender Age LD Employment Hope Grit AVEI SEIS
[2.81] −0.13 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.34 0.16 −0.03 −0.08
t
2.61** −1.27 0.24 0.63 −0.84 3.04** 1.40^ −0.38 −0.81
Notes: Constant b values are presented in brackets. LD – learning disability; AVEI – Audio-visual test of emotional intelligence; SEIS – Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale. ** p < 0.01; ^ p = 0.07.
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Table 3. Logistic regression to explain the variance in current employment status.
Factor Age Gender LD Hope Grit SEIS AVEI
B
−0.06 −0.36 −0.23 0.17 0.15 −0.28 −0.17**
SE of Beta
Wald coefficient
0.08 0.61 0.45 0.32 0.35 0.27 0.06
0.59 0.34 1.90 0.26 0.18 1.22 5.23**
OR – – – – – – 1.20
Notes: OR = odds ratio. The OR was calculated and presented only for significant effects. ** p < 0.01.
The results show a surprising pattern in the explanation of variance in actual current employment: of all the background and personal factors, only the AVEI (test-format) EI measure showed a significant relationship. Participants with higher EI tended to report repor t being employed more often than those with lower EI.
Discussion
In this study, we set out to examine the role of selected resources often associated with positive psychology as factors associated with perceived employability, in a sample of college students about to graduate and embark on their professional career. We hypothesised that hope, grit, and emotional intelligence would account for variance in perceived employability beyond that accounted for by demographics, programme of study, current employment, and the like. Our results provided p rovided only partial support for our model. Surprisingly, none of the demographic factors, including programme of study, learning disabilities, age, and others, had a unique association with our measures of perceived employability. Of the personal resources, only hope and grit were found to account for the variance in perceived employability measures, resulting in 32% of explained variance. Indeed, there is a robust body of evidence supporting the role of these two factors in job search s earch and employment effectiveness (e.g. Duckworth et al. 2007 2007;; Zysberg 2012 2012). ). Contrary to our expectations, neither of the emotional intelligence measures, which are often mentioned in the literature as key in employment settings, had a unique association with self-perceived employability. Another unexpected finding was the lack of association between current employment status and perceived employability. Our last surprising finding fi nding came from the additional analysis we ran to examine the factors vis-à-vis actual current employment. We suggest that using actual current employment may help in further examination of our model with a non-self-report measure, especially in light of the numerous biases involved in self-report (e.g. Urbina 2004 2004). ). This analysis showed that only the test-format EI measure (AVEI) (AV EI) was associated with wi th current employment, while all other factors remained non-significant. The odds ratio for the analysis showed moderate effect size for EI. These results add to to our our understanding understanding of employability as a concept and as a subjective subjective perception perception among young adults preparing for the job market, both in its confirmation of some of the existing evidence and in its addition of some surprising surp rising new directions for future exploration. First, the current study took the ‘personal-resource’ ‘personal-resource’ approach toward employability (Harvey 2001 2001). ). This is a more recent perspective compared with traditional approaches, which view employability as either an organisational or a factual outcome (being hired vs. not being hired). Our results lend some support suppor t to this approach, showing that only personal resources (hope and grit) played a significant role in accounting for self-perceived employability. The findings reconfirm the valuable role of these concepts in our understanding of adaptive behaviour and effective coping with challenges (in this case, finding and securing a job). They also contribute to our knowledge about the sources of hope and grit: the association we found with measures of specific-domain self-efficacy and perceived chance of employment suggest that both hope and grit may have underlying ingredients of self-efficacy and optimism. The massive body
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of literature on self-efficacy teaches us about its genesis, based in early life and then on-going life experiences, and especially feedback received regarding success and failure, either experienced by the individual or taught through modelling (Bandura 1981 1981). ). Optimism, a trait associated with a relatively stable positive expectation of life events and situations is also described describ ed in the literature as relevant to the constructs described here, and has been shown to be associated with effective career management (e.g. Mohanty 2010 2010). ). The result pattern suggests commonalities in the developmental basis of hope, grit, self-efficacy, and optimism; however, this is beyond the scope of the current study. Further research may help clarify clari fy and map the concepts within the ‘positive ‘positive psychology domain’. Second, our findings emphasise the contribution of positive psychology to the literature on employability:: recent researchers of employability have included consideration of elements of individual behavability iour that pertain to proactive adaptability (Duckworth et al. 2007 2007;; Fugate, Kinicki, and Ashforth 2004 2004). ). These fit conceptually with the notions of hope and grit, which were found to be associated with perceived employability in this study. In this respect, our results support the personal adaptability
component of employability as a personal construct. Third, our findings regarding demographic and background factors may shed new light on existing claims: the literature on students with learning disabilities has associated various conditions under this umbrella with ongoing difficulties in establishing a professional career, job search, and career management (e.g. Adelman and Vogel 1990 1990). ). Our study did not support this argument. Indeed, a deeper look at the current literature indicates inconsistent results in this respect; in some of the research, college graduates with learning disabilities did not differ from non-disabled peers (e.g. Madaus 2006 2006). ). In addition, there was a lack of association between programme of study and perceived employability. Numerous approaches, popular and empirical alike, argue that some academic fields promise better employment chances and conditions than others (Crosby and Moncarz 2006 2006;; US Department of Labor 2008 2008). ). The students in our sample came from diverse programmes, spanning a range from general studies to economics and computer science. We did not observe any association between programme of study and perceived employability. employability. This may also support suppor t the current notion of employability as a personal quality, dependent on human capital, potential, and effective adaptation rather than declarative knowledge (Cassidy 2006 2006;; Fugate, Kinicki, and Ashforth 2004 2004). ). Recent organisational studies have demonstrated the importance of human capital (e.g. the added value of human qualities such as knowledge, performance, cognitive style, and personal and interpersonal predispositions) in understanding employee-performance organisational outcomes (e.g. Crook et al. 2011 2011). ). Our results might suggest that certain personal resources (relevant to the acceptable definitions of human capital in employment settings) are associated with perceived employability above and beyond the perceived effect of background variables. We find the results regarding the role of EI to be of special interest for two reasons: recent literature mentions EI as a human potential that is highly relevant to career and job effectiveness (e.g. Higgs 2004;; Mayer, Roberts, and Barsade 2008 2004 2008;; Slaski and Cartwright 2002 2002). ). We used two measures of EI in this study; both follow the ability–EI perspective, but one is a self-report questionnaire and the other, a test-format measure. This was an opportunity to match two different measures of a relatively new concept and test their applicability in this context. Although there were simple associations between the self-report measure (SEIS) and both measures of employability, these disappeared once other variables were included in the analyses, suggesting an overlap between the self-report EI measure and personality resources (hope and grit). The test-format measure of EI (AVEI) was not associated with any of the perceived-employability measures, but in a separate analysis it was the only factor that was associated with actual employment among our participants – suggesting its potential to account for actual behaviour associated with the concept of employability. However, since these analyses were conducted outside of the scope of our original design, further research will be needed to test the use of EI measures to explain other measures of employability.
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Limitations While considering and interpreting our results, the reader should bear in i n mind the study’s limitations. First, our sample was taken from a single medium-sized college in northern Israel. Israel, in general, is characterised by a relatively stable job market, which is also much smaller, and slightly more government-regulated than those in the EU and the US in recent years. Therefore, the ability to generalise career decisions and outcomes when considering consider ing different job markets and career-search tactics may be limited. The use of self-report measures for most of our variables, though common and acceptable
in research in this field, may have resulted in biased responses, so that the associations might reflect the measurement method and medium rather than the essence, an artefact mentioned in the methodological literature (e.g. Coolican, McMullen, and Lecky 2008 2008). ). This suspicion may be somewhat supported by the differential effects we saw for the self-report vs. test-type measures of the same variable (EI) in our study. Further research should replicate replicate and re-examine our results in various settings and samples, using additional measures to add to the generalisability of our results. That being said, notwithstanding these limitations, limitations, our our results do echo findings offered offered in the literaliterature, while adding new direction for consideration and future research. In this respect, we believe they add to the current discussion of the notion of employability among entry level and aspiring professionals professi onals (college students and graduates) in a number of ways: While our results reaffirm existing evidence of the centrality of hope and grit as representatives of positive coping resources for perceived employability, they also point to the relevance of personal potential beyond demographic denominations, denominati ons, such as gender, programme of study, and even learning disabilities. Our evidence suggests that personal resources may be more important than traditional background variables inand determining self-perceived The results also add toassociation our understanding of the genesis possible sources of hopeemployability. and grit as personal resources. The found suggests the existence of a common denominator of self-efficacy, self-efficac y, optimism and hardiness – all are personality predispositions associated with career performance and success. Additional research is needed to further fur ther examine the potential associations and differences between the roles that each of the above concepts plays in accounting for effective coping and adaptation in face of the challenges of modern careers. The implications for professional career training and career development may be vast (should future research support the same trend): a focus on personal strengths s trengths and self-perceived resilience, and a problem-focused approach to overcoming obstacles seems to correlate with the notions of hope and grit as operationalised in this study. Competency development is a field that is currently enjoying popularity in both research and practice (e.g. De Vos, De Hauw, and Van der Heijden 2011 2011). ). Our findings also support its importance in career counselling and development. The role emotional intelligence seems be more association complex and indirect usually inferred. However, at of least one measure of EI showed anto interesting wi th with actual than employment, lendin g lending support to the concept’s relevance. This again demonstrates the importance of self-regulation, effective utilisation of emotion, and interpersonal abilities in the process of embarking on one’s career path. Our results fit well with the general view of career planning p lanning and finding employment as a challenge requiring effective coping. In this case – it may be personal resources that matter most, beyond social labels and attributes. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors Jonathan Kasler is is currently a lecturer in the department of Education in Tel Hai College, Israel. He has served in a number of positions at Tel Tel Hai College, Israel, including head of counselling services and head of the English department. His research interests include: social emotional and character education, career counselling for adults with learning disabilities, and education and minorities.
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Leehu Zysberg is a faculty member at the graduate school, Gordon College of education and chair of the research authority in the same institute. His fields of interest include I/O psychology with emphasis on vocational assessment and measurement, emotional aspects in individual behaviour, coping in everyday life and health. Nofar Harel recently recently completed an MA in social psychology at Haifa University, Israel. She earned her BA in psychology and
education at Tel Hai College, Israel. She currently works as a teaching assistant at Tel Hai College and Gordon College in Israel and she is also actively engaged in research in several areas, including the use of treatment for children with anxiety disorders, humour and emotion, and moral development in children. She has also worked for the Seeds of Peace Trust.
ORCID Jonathan Kasler Kasler
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2480-587X
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