Graphic Design

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Reading Notes: Hollis, Richard. Graphic Design: A Concise World of Art. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994.

History. 2001 ed,

Cindy Wong. Graphic design is the art of choosing and arranging visual images, including texts, to communicate an idea effectively. It has three main roles: to identify, to inform and instruct, to present and promote. From road signs to advertisements, we are constantly bombarded by graphic designs. Therefore, it has become increasingly difficult to break through the clutter to capture the audiences’ attention; and to accomplish this, we must learn the elements that combine to form an effective graphic design. Firstly, a good understanding of the audience is crucial. If we share Hollis’ view that “graphic design constitutes a language”, then it logically follows that in order for the audience to understand the design, we must “speak” their language. This includes understanding the audiences’ background, personality, taste, etc; since in a world full of visual images, the only way to attract attention is with designs that are relevant and appealing to the target audience. Secondly, an effective utilization of tools of visual communication may help create a gestalt effect, a psychological and aesthetic response that is greater than the sum of its parts, which is the ultimate goal or challenge of graphic design. In the realm of graphic design, even the smallest details are of great importance, since a change in size, weight, colour, position, etc. generates a different response. Typography is a great example. IT IS VERY DIFFICULT TO READ SENTENCES WRITTEN USING ALL CAPITAL OR UPPERCASE LETTERS, SINCE THERE IS LESS WHITE SPACE AROUND THE LETTERS. Certain typefaces give a casual feeling while others are formal. In addition to typefaces, we must also pay attention to other visual communication tools: dots, lines, shapes, volume, scale, spatiality, balance, direction, lighting, perspective, proportion, and colour. As illustrated in the example using typefaces, a small change may create a big effect in the viewer’s eyes. Thirdly, sensitivity to aesthetic trends is essential to effective graphic design since in order to create an appealing design, we must find out what the standard of beauty is. This, again, relates to understanding the audience, since the definition of beauty may be culturally different. However, aesthetic changes may be due to changes in technology, such as Modernism, where mass production of simple and clean lined industrial goods are preferred over traditional craftsmen’s work. It could also be fueled by social movements, such as Constructivism, where constructivists “rejected the idea of the unique work of art as belonging to the old bourgeois society.” (Hollis, 46)

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Last but not least, an ethically sound intention or purpose driving the design is important. It must be emphasized that graphic design is a powerful tool of communication. To the effect that seeing is believing, many peoples’ behaviour have been influenced by them: many advertisements have persuaded consumers to purchase their products; war propaganda has influenced many to take part in senseless killing on the battlefields. It would be a shame even if the graphic design was effective but with unethical intentions. Referring to the definition of graphic design at the beginning of this passage, though it may seem simple, the amount of consideration from conception to production of any graphic design is phenomenal; and it should be, since with power comes responsibility. NOTES: What is graphic design? “Graphics can be signs, like the letters of the alphabet, or form part of another system of signs, like road markings. Put together, graphic marks – the lines of a drawing or dots of a photograph – form images.” (Hollis, 7) “Graphic design is the business of making or choosing marks and arranging them on a surface to convey an idea.” (Hollis, 7) “Graphic images are more than descriptive illustrations of things seen or imagined. They are signs whose context signs them a unique meaning, and whose positioning can lend them a new significance.” (Hollis, 7) “By increasing or reducing the relative sizes, weights and position of the letters, their typography can give a voice to the text.” (Hollis, 7) “Although it is form may be determined or modified by the designer’s aesthetic preferences or prejudice, the message has to be put in a language recognized and understood by its intended audience. This is the first way in which graphic design is significantly different from art. Secondly, unlike the artist, the designer plans for mechanical production.” (Hollis, 8) “The relationship of the image and background, the inked and the non-inked, positive and negative space, became crucial to the aesthetics of the whole. The non-inked area can be just as important visually as the inked, and thus the background, its proportions and dimensions, its colour and texture, is an integral part of graphic design.” (Hollis, 9) “The primary role of graphic design is to identify: to say what something is, or where it came from (inn signs, banners)…Its second function…is to inform and instruct, indicating the relationship of one thing to another in direction, position and scale (maps, diagrams)…Its third role…is to present and promote (posters, advertisements), where it aims to catch the eye and make its message memorable.” (Hollis, 10)

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“Graphic design constitutes a language with an uncertain grammar and a continuously expanding vocabulary.” (Hollis, 10) “Posters belong to the category of presentation and promotion, where image and word need to be economical, connected in a single meaning, and memorable.” (Hollis, 10) Visual Communication “Our emotional states and our creative impulses need some kind of visual and symbolic expression to develop and maintain themselves” (Berger, 1) “Imagination refers to the remarkable power our minds have to form a mental image of something unreal or not present and to use this power creatively – to invent new images and ideas.” (Berger, 2) “The visual image, we see, has the capacity to...lead people to perform selfless acts of bravery or cruel acts of barbarism. It is not the image or symbol itself that is responsible, but rather the ability of the image to evoke responses in people that are connected to their beliefs and values.” (Berger, 4) “This power means, of course, that those who create images and symbols must think about the moral implications of what they do…To the extent that seeing is believing, we must make sure that the images we create do not generate beliefs that are individually or socially destructive.” (Berger, 5) According to art historian Alan Gowans, arts have always performed one or more of the following functions: substitute imagery, illustration, persuasion/conviction, and beautification. (Berger, 6) “The very structure of the eye, Hall points out, has an effect on the way we design and use space. As he notes, in Western countries, we tend to focus our attention on objects, not on the spaces that separate them. By contrast, in Japan, for example, ‘spaces are perceived, named and revered as the ma, or intervening interval.’ We all have the same eyes, but what we see, or perhaps what we focus our attention on, differs from culture to culture.” (Berger, 16) “E. H. Gombrich argues that perception ‘is always an active process, conditioned by our expectations and adapted to situations. Instead of talking about seeing and knowing, we might do a little better to talk about seeing and noticing. We notice only when we look for something.” Perception is not automatic…we have to look for something in order to see it.” (Berger, 16) Cognition and Visual Images

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“It is estimated that 75 percent of the information entering the brain is from the eyes, and that 38 percent of the fibers entering or leaving the central nervous system are in the optic nerve. Current research indicates that the eyes have 100 million sensors in the retina, but only five million channels to the brain from the retina. This means that more information processing is actually done in the eye than in the brain, and even the eye filters out information…” (Berger, 20) “Robert E. Ornstein explains, in The Psychology of Consciousness (1972:27), that our eyes are always active: ‘Our eyes are also constantly in motion, in large eye movements (saccades) as well as in eye tremors (nystagmus). We blink our eyes every second, move our eyes around, move our heads and bodies, and follow moving objects.’ The term saccades is French and means ‘the flick of a sail.’ Each saccade takes about one-twentieth of a second – the same amount of time needed to make possible persistence of vision, the process that enables us to connect the frames of a film and ‘see’ the film as continuous.” (Berger, 20) “When we scan a fixed image, our vision fades after a few seconds, and we sweep it again and again to signal our brains to keep the image in our minds; when we following a moving object, our eyes follow it and keep it fixed on our retinas.” (Berger, 20) “If we ‘saw’ an ‘image’ on our retina, the visual world would be different each second, sometimes one object, then another, sometimes a blur due to the eyes moving, sometimes darkness due to blinks. We must then construct a personal consciousness from the selected input, and in this way achieve some stability of awareness out of the rich and continuously changing flow of information reaching our receptors.” (Berger, 21) “…we must learn to select from all the information that is available to us and, in a sense, construct the world we see.” (Berger, 21) “…of applied aesthetics, taste reminds us that we must always know our audience and keep it in mind.” (Berger, 24) “We must be ever mindful of our responsibilities toward those who will see what we create and, in many cases, believe what they see.” (Berger, 26) Elements of Visual Communication (Berger) Basic elements: Dots • A small circular point in space. • Can be used to indicate lines and thus shapes • Can be used to create virtual shapes as well as actual ones Lines • A succession of these dots or points in which the dots are not distinguishable forms a line

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Sometimes formed on their own, but they are also formed as the edge of shapes • Each variation: smooth, liquid, delicate, heavy, or rough, generates varying responses Shapes • According to Donis A. Dondis, in A Primer of visual Literacy, there are three basic shapes: the triangle, the square, and the circle. All other shapes or figures can be thought of as being variations on these three basic shapes. • Shapes have the power to generate certain feelings and responses: o The square: dullness, honest, straightness, and workmanlike o The triangle: action, conflict, tension o The circle: endlessness, warmth, protection • Figure-ground relationship: the relationship between an object and the background against which we see the object o E.g. A drawing of two faces in profile or of a vase  It is impossible to see both the profiles and the vase at the same time. o Important concept because the ground, or context, helps determine the meaning of a figure or object, in the same way that the context in a word is found often helps us understand how the word is meant to be understood. Volume • Shape is a two-dimensional figure (length, and width); add a thirddimension – depth – we get an object that has volume. • Our eyes are used to a world where objects have volume Scale • Refers to relationships in size between shapes and objects. • Without a scale of reference, we cannot know how large or small something is just by seeing it. • Scale carries emotional impact: the feelings we have when we are in a small room are different from those we have when we are in a gigantic space where we are “dwarfed” and seem insignificant. Spatiality • The way space is used in a composition tells us something and generates specific responses: we have learned to associate large, open spaces with wealth and class and small, cramped spaces with the opposite. • Our attitudes or feelings about what space means are quite likely based on associations and are metonymic. • White space becomes associated with upper-class or upscale products and lifestyles Balance • Two kinds of balance: axial and asymmetrical o Axial or formal balance: the elements of the composition are arranged equally on both sides of imaginary axes in the composition.  Formal and static •

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Associated with antiquity, formality, sophistication, and elegance Asymmetrical or informal balance: there is no desire to have balance – in fact, imbalance is deliberate  Generates stress, energy, and visual excitement;  Suggest dynamic movement 

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Direction • Lines and shapes direct our eyes to move in certain directions. • When we look at an image, our eyes tend to start in the upper left corner and then move around the image as we are directed by lines, shapes and other phenomena. • In most visual phenomena, direction is often used to focus attention on certain kinds of information (textual, pictorial) that is of central importance. • By using vectors for directing our eyes, it is possible to give a kind of life to the advertisement. Perspective • Linear perspective is a relatively recent development; it was “discovered” during the Renaissance. • Perspective involves representing things the way they look, with parallel lines converging on some point (imaginary or real) on the horizon line via the process of psychological closure. • Psychological closure refers to the way our minds “complete” incomplete visual material that is given to us. We fill in the blanks. • We also form a gestalt or “whole” out of pieces of information – unifying them into something that is more than the sum of the parts. Proportion • Proportion involves the relationships of elements in an image or some other visual phenomenon. • One of the most famous “laws” of proportion: Pythagoras, which states that in a line, the relationship of a small segment to a large segment should be the same as the relationship of the large segment to the entire line. This relationship is found all through visual phenomena, because the eye finds it naturally pleasing. • When dealing with proportion, the following factors should be considered: size, shape, axis, and colour Colour • Colour is an enigma. It is generated by electromagnetic waves; various wavelengths or combinations of wavelengths reflected off an object send messages to our eyes. Our eyes then interpret these wavelengths as a given colour or combination of colours. • Rainbow or spectral colours (between 400-700 nanometers): red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet; the sequence never changes. Each colour has a different wavelength and travels at a different speed: red travels the faster than blue since it has a longer wavelength. • A white object is one that reflects back most of the light falling on it. A black object is one that absorbs most of the light falling on it. Neither

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black nor white are true colours; along with gray, they are neutral or achromatic – that is, without hue or chroma.) Hue: the colours themselves (and, indirectly, their location in the colour spectrum or in a colour wheel). The primary hues are red, yellow, and blue, and mixing any two of them gives the secondary colours: orange (red + yellow), green (yellow + blue), and violet (red + blue). Saturation: the strength, intensity, or purity of a colour. It is a function of the degree to which a colour is not adulterated by having white or black mixed into it. (The Greek term chroma means “colour” and is sometimes substituted for saturation.) Brightness: involves luminance – the lightness or darkness (or tonal gradations) of an image. It is related not the colour itself, but to the intensity of light generated by an object. Warmth and coolness: By mixing elements of cool colours (blue and green) into warm (red, orange, and yellow), we can cool down the warm colours and vice versa. Contextual relationships: Colours are affected by other colours near them. A given colour can be made to seem weaker or stronger, depending on the colours that are placed next to it. Joseph Albers, a painter and colour theorist, argued that figure and ground colours affect each other simultaneously. Studies by psychologists have revealed that colour affects our emotions and feelings and can be used to shape people’s behaviour. One colour researcher, Faber Birren, suggests that different personality types tend to like particular colours o Active people like red o Friendly people like orange o High-minded people like yellow o Fastidious people like blue-green o Introverted Nordic people like cool colours: greens and blues o Extraverted Latinos like warm colours: reds and oranges o Black is generally associated with death o Transparency suggests purity o White stands for goodness

Typography and Graphic design (Berger) “The typeface is the trigger part of that tool, so to speak, because it determines the way the message looks to the reader -- pleasant, pretty, messy, painful or threatening – and this in tern affects the reader’s reactions to the print message.” (Berger, 147) “Typography is, the art of selecting and arranging type or – in broader terms – using type in various graphic designs to obtain particular effects.” (Berger, 147) “The typeface is the medium and the words set into print are the message”. (Berger, 147)

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Typefaces • The size of type in points and picas, not inches. • There are 12 points to a pica and approximately 6 picas to an inch. • Design of the letters involves: basic shape, stance (lean), dimensions, size of letter, width of letter, quality of line, proportion of the parts, weight or blackness, contrast among parts, contour or outline, alignment along reading line, kinds of strokes • Basic Classifications: o Text vs. Display  Text: designed to be easy to read and are used for text in books, magazines, newspapers, etc.  Display: are used to generate a graphic idea or attitude; found in titles, and headings, etc. o Serif vs. Sans serif  A serif is a short cross-line found at the ends of letters. Some believe that serifs are easier to read than sans serif faces because serifs help tie the letters of a word together.  Sans serif lack serifs and have a cleaner, more contemporary look o Old English and Roman  Old English: similar to the one used by Gutengerg in printing his Bible. He developed it out of the manuscript letter style used by medieval scribes. It is beautiful but very difficult to read for long periods of time.  Roman: developed in the 15 th century and were modeled after the writing styles of Roman scribes. • Old Style: with somewhat rounded serifs and little variation in line thickness • Transitional: more open letters and rounded serifs • Modern: more contrast between thick and thin lines and thin, straight serifs o Light, Bold, and Italic  Bold: heavier and blacker than regular faces  Light: lighter than regular faces  Italic: slanted face, modeled after handwriting; often used for emphasis o Capital vs. lowercase letters  The capital (uppercase): generally larger and taller than the lowercase letter and is used at the beginnings of sentences and four titles, proper nouns, and display purposes; difficult to read long passages of material set in uppercase  Lowercase letters: are not just smaller than uppercase, but have a different design; have ascenders (letters that extends above the height of a typical lowercase letter; e.g. b vs. a) and descenders (letters that descend below

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the baseline; e.g. g, j, p) that give variety and facilitate distinguishing between letters. Readability is not always a function of the size of the type, instead it is connected to the way the combination of letters that create a quickly perceived word image.

Points  The point system was developed in France in 1737 by Pierre Simon Fournier.  A point is about 1/72 inch. 12 points are known as a pica. o Condensed and Expanded  Condensed: very narrow letters; allow one to print more compared to regular faces.  Expanded: very wide letters and use more space than regular faces Typographers often say that typography should be “invisible” and should not be noticed by the reader; that is, it should not call attention to itself because the purpose of printing is to produce material that is read. Maximizing the Impact of Type: o Typeface: different typefaces have distinctive personalities; each typeface is a means of managing impressions in the minds of readers; and it must coordinated with any drawings or photographs being used in the visual field. o Type size: size affects the way we respond to the design of individual letters. o Leading: the amount of white space between the lines of print. Humans respond, unconsciously, to extremely minute changes in the amount of leading, because the leading can give printed material a light and open look or, conversely, a heavy dense look. o Letterspacing: small differences have major consequences; this is especially true for display type, where the letters are relatively large and the eye can see when letters are too close to one another, or the reverse. o Margins: in recent years, the notion of having ragged-right margins (margins that do not line up) has become popular; it conveys a different feeling than a flush-right (or justified) margin does – it has a less formal and more contemporary feel. The size of top and bottom margins and the way text is placed relative to photographs, drawings, or other graphic material also affects the final image. o Design: refers to how the different elements in a visual field are placed in relation to one another. o

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General Principles of Design (Berger) • Balance: o Refers to the way basic elements in a design relate to one another around imaginary vertical and horizontal axes.

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Axial or formal balance vs. dynamic or informal balance; each generates a different kind of response. o Elements have different weights, depending on such things as size, shape, and colour; and these weights must be tied together to generate a visually functional balance. Proportion: o Dealing with the size of different elements in a design. o Involves how elements relate to one another in general, relative to the size or area of the visual field being utilized o E.g. magazine cover  If the size of the title is too large and the typeface is too heavy (out of proportion), the cover seems top-heavy and is disturbing. o We all have a sense of proportion; when visual phenomena violate these notions or codes, we are bothered. Though, sometimes, codes are violated on purpose, to achieve a particular effect. o Taste also comes into play, since aesthetic standards change accordingly over time. Movement: o Refers to the way elements in a composition lead our eyes along an force them to scan the composition for information. o Involves vectors, and is accomplished by various means, such as line, shape and colour. o The eye tends to favour the upper left corner in any visual field; it can then be drawn to various parts of the field by shapes and lines and other design elements. o When scanning a sculpture, the eye tends to trace over the outline or a visual and follow lines and shapes. o We seek movement and that visual phenomena can generate visual excitement and more or less “force” our eyes to move in certain directions is of considerable use. Contrast: o It is through contrast, differences in size, shape, colour, and so on – that elements in visual field acquire meaning. o Opposition being the most important relationship. o Figure-ground relationship o When we want an element to stand out: simple standing against busy, dark against light, etc. o Contrast generates attention. Unity: o Refers to the way all the elements in a composition or visual field relate to one another and produce a sense of completeness and wholeness. o Gestalt effect, a psychological and aesthetic response that is greater than the sum of its parts. The entire image may produce a response that is greater than would be produced by adding the various elements in the visual field. o

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The opposite of unity is fragmentation, which suggests that the elements in the composition don’t relate to one another, producing a sense of incompletion. Supergraphics • A change in scale leads to a change in identity • A word – that is, a group of letters – become an art object, when it is enlarged into a supergraphic. • The aesthetic components of each letter, which tend to be neglected when the letter is seen normal size, suddenly become visible. • The space and shapes created by huge letters are visually interesting and exciting. o

Technology that influenced graphic design (Hollis) • letterpress: in black ink from type with occasional woodblock illustrations • lithography; lithographic printing stones • chromolithography: allowed the reproduction of the complete range of tone and colour of oil paintings • photography • silhouette treatment • computer Computers and Graphics (Berger) The Nature of the computer • A device that manipulate symbols or visual data rather than as adding machines or calculators. • The most important symbol the computer can manipulate, as far as graphics are concerned, is the pixel (short for “picture element” or, in essence, a dot) which can be used to create lines, shapes and other visual phenomena. • The computer images offer “an entirely new form of visual communication, one that permits the individual viewer to adapt to and interact with the image itself.” • Special effects enabled by computer technology: o Mirroring: the computer takes an image and creates a mirror image of it. o Mosaic: the computer takes an image and maps squares onto the image, simulating a mosaic o Strobe: A freeze effect of an image is held for a short time and released as another is frozen. o Cut and paste: capture sections of an image and place them elsewhere on the image, while manipulating colour, shape and size. o Painting: A still image is overlaid with colour in many different ways, using many different brush techniques o Shattered image: an image is fractured into slivers or other shapes and shown in this state

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Posterization: involves increasing image contrast (luminance value), which produces, at the extreme, a cartoon-like quality Stenciling: a shape, regular or irregular, can be created to protect areas of the screen from a given effect; or it can be used in the reverse to dictate where the effect goes. Chroma-key: this process electronically removes red, blue, or green from an image and replaces it with a different colour or image.

Art movements (Posters) (Barnicoat) Formal Modern: • springs from the idea of function, which replaced the single word 'ornament' that had described the design of the 19th century • represents that forward-looking design that links art with industry and the age of technology • to find a synthesis in the work of the Bauhaus, decorative modern in tow periods - the first between the end of Art Nouveau in about 1900 and the rise of Bauhaus influence in the early thirties, the second after the Second World War in the first decorative era of the consumer society. • Only two major connections between the war and art: The Futurists movement seemed to anticipate the nature of mechanized warfare; and the Dadaists were born as a result of the despair produced by the hopelessness of it all. • The most important element in early twentieth-century design was the search for a new structural order, which was most apparent in what we call here 'formal art movements', such as Cubism, De Stijl and Constructivism, which took place between 1908 and 1917. •

Cubist o The first cubist works of Picasso and Braque appeared in 1908. o Cubist paintings presented a new language of pictorial art which tended towards abstraction; yet it was always an art concerned with the real. o The Cubists made the artists' approach to reality both intellectual and sensual. o The Cubist made an analysis of what he knew to be in front of him; and the object was represented from all viewpoints simultaneously. o To take reality to pieces and to re-assemble its fragments in a new structural form. o Paintings become more obviously a concept of the artist's intellect, and in the work of art a new language of form was developed to describe space. o Cubism was both an intellectual and a sensory revolution. To this double revolution one must therefore add a third element - the invention of the technical device of collage. Together, these developments were to be responsible for changes in the style of posters during the twentieth century.

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De Stijl o In 1917 De Stijl, the Dutch progressive movement, was founded by Van Doesburg. o In the early stages of their development had looked to Cubism for pictorial reference o De Stijl design was restricted, in its orthodox form, to the use of primary colours and simple square or rectangular shapes.

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New techniques influenced by the cinema: montage, trick, photography, camera angle. Insight into the use of typography: Whereas typography, from Gutenberg up to the first posters, was merely a (necessary) intermediary link between the content of a message and the recipient, a new stage of development began with the first posters…one began to count on the fact that form, size, colour and arrangement of the typographical material (letters and signs) contain a strong visual impact. The organization of these possible visual effects gives a visual validity to the content of the message as well; this means that by means of printing the content is also defined pictorially…This is the essential task of visual-typographical design. Type without capitals New Objectivity: originated from Swiss poster design; consisted, on the one hand, of a realistic image – usually very precise – of the object together with simple, formal lettering, and on the other, a twodimensional simplification of the object reduced to a symbol. According to Zurich Tonhalle, “The concert posters done before 1960 were designed with strict formal elements and simple design media. They were intended as the symbolic expression of he innate laws of music. The thematic, dynamic, rhythmic and metrical factors in music were illustrated by corresponding optical forms and form sequences, and the tone colours by the selection of visual colours interpreting the emotional content of the composition concerned in each case.” “The designs and colours of these posters were largely selected on emotional, subjective grounds and considerations. However, it was then felt desirable to restore to the posters the greatest possible power of imparting information, without secondary objectives or decoration. This entailed dropping colour and working purely by typographical methods.” “The concert posters from the period subsequent to 1960 represent a conscious departure from formally symbolic shapes and return to poster advertising based on pure typography. These tasks previously assigned to design forms – the illustration of dynamic rhythm, tone colour and so on – have now been taken over by typography. This enables the available space to be integrated and brought into rhythm. Lettering applied in various colours and integrated logically can produce a poster laden with musical atmosphere and tension.”

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Decorative Modern: • regarded as a backward-looking style by Le Corbusier and his supporters - thrived in times of affluence • represented the work of the individual and was usually connected with painting Postmodern Design: (Berger) • Postmodernism, literally means “after modernism”. • Involves putting different styles together, and essentially, it is ironic as well as eclectic. • Kevin G. Barnhurst discusses the impact of postmodernism: the postmodern style invaded graphic design from its origins in art and architecture. Postmodernism ransacks history, combining disparate stylistic effects whit a mix of nostalgia and irony. It is a conservative movement that concentrates on illusion and surface effects.

References: Barnicoat, John. Posters: A Concise History. New York: Thames & Hudson world of art, 1972. Berger, Arthur A. Seeing Is Believing: An Introduction to Visual Communication. California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 1989. Hollis, Richard. Graphic Design: A Concise History. New York: Thames & Hudson world of art, 1994.