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Richard Side
and
Guy Wellman
Grammar AND
Vocabulary for
Cambridge Advanced and Proficiency
with key
Vocabulary for
Cambridge Advanced and proficiency
•v\
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t
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Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
CM20
Essex
2JE
England
and Associated Companies throughout
the world
www. longman-elt.com
©
Pearson Education Limited 1999
The
right
of Richard Side and Guy Wellman
authors of this
Work have
to be identified as
been asserted by them in accordance
with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved;
may
no part of this publication
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording,
or otherwise without the prior written permission
of the Publishers.
published 1999
First
Second impression 2000
ISBN
41963 8
582
Acknowledgements Designed by
First Edition
Illustrations
by Noel Ford
Cover design by Andrew Oliver Project
The
managed by
publishers
Christina Ruse
would
like to
thank the following for their kind
permission to adapt excerpts from original
texts:
Oxford Today (passage, page 29); The Independent, from article by
William Hartson, 13.12.97 (passage on global warming, page
Newsweek 23.11.1987 (passage on twins, page 151); Quartet N Worral (1980) (passage, page 153); Seeker and Warburg, from Neither Here Nor There by Bill Bryson 133);
Books, from Sudan by
(1991) (passage
from Set in
Citizens
on
travelling in Europe,
page
155);
Penguin,
by Simon Schama, p.21 (passage, page
Monotype Dante
Printed in Spain by Graficas Estella
194).
Contents Syllabus
map
6
i
Introducti on
11
vocabulary SECTION 4
Possibility, probability
and
56
certainty 1
Unit one
16
section
Exam
Problem tenses Entry test
16
OVERVIEW
17
5
Obligations
practice
58
3
60
Unit four
62
Present Perfect
18
Modal
SECTION 2
Other Perfect forms
20
Entry test
62
SECTION
Continuous forms
22
overview + Meanings of modals
63
The
24
section
68
SECTION
I
3
SECTION 4
future
verbs 2
1
Intention, willingness, frequency,
habit
Vocabulary SECTION
5
SECTION 6
Exam
1 Unit
Stative verbs
26
Collocation: an introduction
28
practi ce
30
1
two
Special uses of should;
3
permission
70
modals
in
72
the past
Vocabulary SECTION 4
Frequency
SECTION
Ability, quality
Exam
Entry test
32
OVERVIEW
33
I
Ability,
section
74
32
Passives
SECTION
SECTION 2
5
practice
4
form
76 78
Unit five
•80
Agents and objects with the passive 34
and
and achievement
Subjunctives
and Unreal
Past;
SECTION 2
Infinitives
SECTION
Structures with get and have
38
Conditionals
Not using the
40
Entry test
80
OVERVIEW
81
3
SECTION 4
-ing
passives
passive: transitive
36
to intransitive
SECTION
Vocabulary SECTION
5
Verbs
we commonly
I
SECTION 2 use in
42
Subjunctives and Unreal Past
82
Likely conditionals in the past,
84
present and future
the passive
SECTION SECTION 6
Exam
Phrasal verbs; verb
practice
+
preposition
2
44
46
Unit three
48
verbs
1
SECTION 4
48
OVERVIEW
49
SECTION
i
SECTION 2
Predicting
50
True, untrue, possible: present
52
Past conditionals
5
Necessity, duty
and advice
54
88
Metaphor
90
Word
92
formation: prefixes and
suffixes
Exam
practice 5
94
Progress test
1
(testing contents
of Units
96
and past
SECTION 3
86
Vocabulary SECTION 6
Entry test
Unlikely conditionals in the
present and future
SECTION
Modal
3
1
-5)
CONTENTS
Unit six
Vocabulary
ioo
SECTION 5
Linking clauses
common
Entry test
100
OVERVIEW
101
SECTION 6
Exam
Time and Reason
102
SECTION 2
Result and Purpose
104
SECTION
Concession clauses
106
SECTION
I
3
Singular, plural uncountable:
1
Compounds
practice
138
phrases 140
8
142
Unit nine
144
Determiners and pronouns Vocabulary SECTION 4
Expressing purpose and effect
SECTION 5
Agreeing or not
Exam
110
6
practice
108
Entry test
144
OVERVIEW
145
SECTION
I
112
Unit seven
114
146
no, none
SECTION 2 1
whole, neither, either,
All, both, the
SECTION 3
Each and every
148
Ones, another, other(s), one
150
another, each other
and adverbs
Adjectives
SECTION 4
Entry test
114
OVERVIEW
115
SECTION
I
Adjective structures; adjective
Inversion after negative adverbs
118
SECTION
Making comparisons
120
Vocabulary
Amount and
SECTION 7
Groups of and parts of
Exam
practice
122
SECTION 5
Sentence adverbs
124
Unit ten
126
Noun
practice 7
eight
Nouns and
128
articles
OVERVIEW I
Using
the
or no article
130
134
Adjectives and verbs as
nouns
I
SECTION 4
Classifying
136
158 160
162
163
SECTION
SECTION
9
156
162
129
132
extent
OVERVIEW
SECTION 2
Singular, plural, uncountable
SECTION 4
154
clauses
128
SECTION 2 3
152
Entry test
SECTION
Entry test
SECTION
Any, some, somewhere, anywhere,
section 6
Differences and similarities
1 Unit
lot of,
most
etc.
SECTION 4
Exam
few,
(a) little,
Vocabulary
SECTION 2 3
SECTION 5
116
or adverb?
Quantifiers: much, many, a (a)
3
Thflt-clauses
164
Wh-clauses
166
To-infinitive
Reference:
and
-ing clauses
this, that, these, those;
168 170
such; so
Vocabulary SECTION
5
SECTION 6
Exam
Nouns from
phrasal verbs
172
Lack, shortage and excess
174
practice
10
176
Progress test 2 (testing contents of Units
i7il
1-10)
1
CONTENTS
H Unit
eleven
182
Unit fourteen
224
Verb complementation
Relative clauses
1
Entry test
182
Entry test
224
OVERVIEW
183
OVERVIEW
225
184
SECTION
SECTION
I
Words used with
relative
pronouns
SECTION 2
Omitting
relative
SECTION
Nominal
relative clauses
3
i
section 2 pronouns
226 228
Reflexive
and
186 188
and reciprocal verbs
Verbs followed by that-clauses
SECTION
3
adjectives
Verbs used with prepositional
230
and adverbial phrases
Vocabulary SECTION 4
Reference words
190
Vocabulary
SECTION
Problems and solutions
192
SECTION 4
5
Dependent prepositions and
232
prepositional phrases
Exam
1
194
Unit twelve
196
practice
Emphasis 196
OVERVIEW
197
i
Fronting Introductory There and
SECTION
Emphasis using What,
SECTION 4
200
It
All
and
5
14
236
238
Verb complementation 2 Entry test
238
OVERVIEW
239
SECTION It
i
202
Verbs followed by -ing and
240
infinitive
Nominalisation
204
Vocabulary SECTION
practice
234
198
SECTION 2 3
Exam
Expressing knowledge and belief
Unit fifteen
Entry test
SECTION
SECTION 5
Substituting one phrase for
206
section 2
Verbs followed by
SECTION
Verbs followed by as
3
infinitive
242
244
Vocabulary
another
SECTION 6
Exam
Intensifying
and emphasising
208
practice 12
210
Unit thirteen
212
SECTION 4
Competition, opposition,
246
disagreement
SECTION 5
Exam
and ending: creating and destroying Starting
practice
15
248
250
Reported speech 212
Entry test
OVERVIEW section
i
SECTION 2
213
Tenses in reported speech
214
Report structures
216
Vocabulary SECTION 3
Quoting, reporting and
218
interpreting
SECTION 4
Exam
Communicating
practice 13
220 222
Progress test 3 (testing contents
Key
252
of Units 1-15)
257
Syllabus Unit
map
one
Grammar
page 16
Problem tenses
OVERVIEW
_i
2
Other Perfect tenses Past Perfect Perfect infinitives and -ing forms
3
Continuous Perfect Continuous; Past Continuous for Continuous infinitives; Perfect Continuous passive
Perfect tenses; continuous tenses; the future
Present Perfect Present Perfect with other tenses; idiomatic phrases
4 The future Future forms;
common Vocabulary
will in
/
Future Perfect;
time and
plans, polite requests;
if-clauses;
phrases to refer to the future
5,
Stative verbs Uses in Continuous and non-Continuous tenses
6
Collocation Meaning; fixed and open; grammatical forms
Unit two
Grammar
page 32 1
Passives
Agents and objects Mention of agents; verbs with two
objects;
limitations of passive
OVERVIEW 2
Form, and reasons
for using,
Passive and infinitive Infinitives after certain passive verbs; passive infinitives; report verbs
the passive 3^
Get and have Causatives; Get +
4
Transitive to intransitive Changing subject without using passive;
-ed; I've
had
my
car stolen, etc.
meanings of ergative verbs
Vocabulary
5^
Verbs
common
the passive Verbs with no agent;
in
-ed adjective
or passive?;
prepositions with passives; phrasal verbs
6
Phrasal verbs Prepositions and particles; position of object; prepositions after passives
Unit three
Grammar
Modal
page 48 verbs
1
OVERVIEW
grammar; main uses of modals 1; alphabetical list
1
Predicting Certainty; possibility; expressing opinions
2
Truth and possibility True /untrue; expressing opinions; giving reasons; expressing annoyance
Basic
3
Necessity, duty, advice Must, have
to,
should, needn't, don't have to etc.;
other verbs for necessity and advice
of modals
4
Possibility, probability, certainty Likelihood: bound
5^
Obligations Legal
/
to, etc.;
improbability
institutional, moral, personal obligations;
freedom of choice
Unit four
Grammar
Modal
page 62 verbs 2
OVERVIEW
Main uses of modals 2; key difficulties with meanings
Vocabulary
j_
Intention, frequency, habit Intention
/
refusal; offers
2
Ability,
was
I
were able
permission Can
I
Could
v.
to;
/
requests; frequency
theoretical possibility;
permission; register 3
Should; modals
modal
in
the past Special uses of should; modals
in the past;
Perfects
4
Frequency Adverbs and phrases;
5
Ability, quality
adjectives; habits
and achievement Dependent
connotation; metaphor
and trends
prepositions; collocation;
SYLLABUS MAP flft
Unit five
Grammar
page 80
Subjunctives and
Unreal Past; Conditionals
i_
2
OVERVIEW Subjunctives; Unreal Past;
when and
conditionals;
if
Subjunctives and Unreal Past Present and Past subjunctive; Unreal Past Likely conditionals Verb forms; will I won't mixing time references; false conditionals
in (/-clauses;
3^
Unlikely conditionals Verb forms; would in if-clauses;
4
Past conditionals Verb forms; would
5
Metaphor Compound
6
Prefixes
have...
would
If...
have;
are to
I
omitting
were
to
if etc.
alternatives to if
Vocabulary
suffixes
and
suffixes
adjectives
and nouns;
Changing meaning;
and part of speech;
single words; idiomatic phrases
prefixes in non-existent words;
changing meaning
suffixes
Unit six
page 100
Grammar
Linking clauses
OVERVIEW Types of clause; reasons
£ Time and Reason Time
clauses: Ever since, etc.;
Reason
clauses: because, etc.
2
Result and Purpose Result clauses:
3
Concession clauses Position of linking words; background information; unexpected contrast
for
so, etc.;
Purpose
clauses: in order
to,
etc.
use; position
Vocabulary
4
Purpose and
5
Agreeing or not Not giving
effect
Purpose
/
intention; result, cause
in;
and
effect
weighing things up; giving
in
Unit seven
Grammar
page 114
Adjectives
and
i_
adverbs
Adjective structures Adjectives after nouns; structures after adjectives; late, lately, etc.
2
OVERVIEW 3^
Position of adjectives and adverbs; adverbs
Inversion After negative adverbs; uses
Making comparisons Comparatives; preferences; as
I like;
as if
I
similarities;
double comparatives;
though
from
adjectives; adverbial phrases
Vocabulary
4
Differences and similarities Collocation; synonyms; modifiers; linking phrases; idiomatic phrases
5
Sentence adverbs Definition; uses
Unit eight Grammar
page 128
Nouns and
1
The or no
2
OVERVIEW Countable I
nouns always
singular;
nouns without
Singular, plural, uncountable Always plural; uncountable with
There
a
article The with
articles;
general or specific: adding the
articles
/
is I are;
uncountable
/
-s;
collectives;
countable
uncountable:
an, the, or
no
article;
other determiners
Vocabulary
3^
Classifying Referring to groups: plural,
the,
a / an; special groups
4 Adjectives and verbs as nouns The unemployed, gerunds with / without the 5
Singular, plural
and uncountable
Common
the supernatural, etc.;
phrases: on foot,
in all weathers, etc.
6
Compounds Noun + noun; other combinations
adjective
+ noun;
adjective
+
adjective;
Up
SYLLABUS MAP
Unit nine
Grammar
page 144
Determiners
and pronouns
oil,
Each and every Differences
OVERVIEW
Pronoun
3 v.
in
meaning
/
none
Uses;
common
use; singular
/
phrases
plural;
common
phrases
One and
another, other(s), one another, each other Uses;
common
4
phrases
Vocabulary
much, many,
Quantifiers: formality;
singular, plural, uncountable;
common
(a) few, etc. Articles; use in negatives
/
questions;
phrases
common
5^
Any, some, somewhere, anywhere, etc. Uses;
6
Amount and extent
7
Groups of and parts of Describing groups; informal
phrases
Extent and degree; words expressing quantity phrases; collocation
Unit ten
Grammar
page 162
Noun
clauses
i_
That-clauses After nouns omitting
OVERVIEW 2 Definition; types; position
adjectives
/
report verbs; as subject;
relative clauses
W/7-clauses Uses; with prepositions; with
and
To-infinitive
adding subjects;
4
Reference:
infinitives;
whether and
if;
5^
6
-ing clauses Sentence position; differences;
common
phrases those; such; so
this, that, these,
referring back;
Vocabulary
/
comparison with
that;
exclamations 3_
common
Nouns from phrasal verbs noun v. phrasal verb Lack, shortage
Time
/
distance;
phrases Position of particle; transitive
and excess The
haves;
The have
/
intransitive;
nots
Unit eleven
Grammar
Relative clauses
page 182 _i_
Words used with relatives after
relative
pronouns
/
pronouns
determiners
OVERVIEW 2
Defining relative
/
phrases
determiner;
using determiners together;
common
both, the whole, neither, either, no,
j_
2
non-defining;
Vocabulary
wh- words
to omit; replacing clauses;
descriptive clauses
pronouns; position
of pronouns
When
Omitting relative pronouns
Prepositions; /
3_
Nominal
relative
what before
a
pronouns
Definition; uses; followed
by
to-infinitive;
noun; contact clauses
4
Reference words Types of reference: specifying, arranging, focusing,
5_
Problems and solutions Facing problems, finding collocation; idiomatic phrases
solutions, etc.;
etc.
SYLLABUS MAP
Unit twelve
Grammar
Emphasis
page 196 i_
2
OVERVIEW
Fronting Definition; uses; fronting noun clauses; introduction phrases Introductory There
and
It
Dummy
subjects;
+
clause
/
am
going
to
it
+
report verb;
referring forward Stress
/
intonation; stronger
words; repetition; sentence
3
Emphasis using What, All and was Tim who ran into the office.
It
What
I
All I
do
is
etc.;
...
It
adverbs; passives; other
grammatical changes
Vocabulary
4
Nominalisation Definition; uses; have a
5^
Substituting
one phrase
for
talk,
make a comment,
another Using adverbs
nouns
/
etc.
/
adjectives
/
phrases; multiple changes
6
Intensifying
and emphasising
Adjectives; collocation; adverbs of degree;
exaggeration; adverbials, etc.
Unit thirteen
Grammar
Reported speech
page 212 i_
Tenses
in
reported speech Tenses of report verb; reporting past
OVERVIEW
2
Grammar / vocabulary changes; orders flexible
/
present
modal verbs
tenses; reporting
Report structures Types of clause;
infinitive
and
-ing;
impersonal reports;
summarising; personal comments
questions;
/
changes
Vocabulary
3
Quoting, reportingjand interpreting Referring
doubting;
directly;
interpreting
4
Communicating Ways of speaking; phrasal
verbs; idiomatic phrases
Unit fourteen
Grammar
Verb
complementation
page 224 _i
2
Verbs + f/jaf-clauses and adjectives Verb +
/
intransitive;
structures after verbs;
/
commonly
reflexive;
3^
4
that-clause;
/
adjective
Verbs + prepositional
/
adverbial phrases Verbs of movement /position;
verb
link verbs
+
noun
verb Transitive
and reciprocal verbs Use; verbs always
meaning changes
l
OVERVIEW
Reflexive
+
describing
phrase
/
+
adverb
/
+ way
Dependent prepositions Verb
/
adjective
/
noun +
preposition;
prepositional phrases 3_
Expressing knowledge and belief Collocation;
common phrases
Unit fifteen
Grammar
Verb
page 238 t_
2
OVERVIEW
Verbs followed by bare
Using two verbs; preposition
Verbs followed by ing or infinitive Differences; perfect
+
Vocabulary
-ing;
verb
+
-ing
or bare infinitive
complementation 2
3^
-ing
infinitive; for
+
infinitive
Verb +
to-infinitive
I to
be
I
Perfect Infinitive
object
Verbs followed by as Defining a
role or function; as
+ noun
/
adjective;
defining objects; similar structures
4
Competition, opposition, disagreement Collocation; word formation; prepositions
5^
Starting
/
ending; creating
/
destroying
Common phrases;
phrasal verbs
/
Acknowledgements This book
is
dedicated to John Eckersley.
The authors would
like to
thank the following:
Sue and William, Sally and Claire for their untold patience.
John Eckersley Clive, Judith
The
staff
for his generosity
and the
staff
and support.
and students
at
BEET Language
Centre, Bournemouth.
and students of The Eckersley School of English, Oxford.
Introduction
ABOUT THIS BOOK
frequently with others are a particular focus. This involves a consideration of collocation (see Unit 1.6) as well as
Who
is this
book for?
what grammatical
structures
we can
use
with certain words.
Each Unit has two Sections dedicated to vocabulary, This book it is
is
for
any advanced student of English but
particularly relevant to people studying for the
Cambridge
Certificate in
Advanced English (CAE) or
the Certificate of Proficiency in English (CPE)
also a lot of vocabulary in the
is
Sections: groups of
words often share
grammatical patterns,
assume that anybody using this book has knowledge of and ability to use English, up to Cambridge First Certificate standard.
Unit
14.2),
Grammar
similar
verbs that are
e.g.
followed by thflt-clauses or
We
exams.
but there
commonly
to-infinitive structures (see
commonly followed by it The Sections often end with
or verbs that are
a reasonable
+
at least
examples of
clause (see Unit 12.2).
common
phrases and idioms which use
the grammatical structures. Vocabulary Sections
What this
sort of grammar
complement
in
is
book?
Syllabus
This book covers the main areas of English
grammar
and concentrates on areas you need It looks, for example, at verb and noun structures, adverb and adjective structures, and ways of linking complex sentences and texts. It also provides information on style and register, for example whether some structures are more typical of written or spoken English. Although grammar and at
advanced
level
to pass the exams.
vocabulary are obviously important in
advanced exams, special attention
is
all
given to
which are frequently tested in Paper 3 Use of English. For example, modal verbs (see Units 3 and 4) and relative clauses (see Unit 11) have occurred in virtually every Paper 3 in the CPE exam in recent years. Some areas of grammar, such as relative clauses and determiners (see Unit 9), occur most frequently in the cloze test (see page 14 below), structures
common
in
sentence
gapped sentences - the practice exercises in the book reflect this. Other areas of grammar, such as articles (see Unit 8), may cause you more difficulty in Paper 2 - Composition. Again, the practice exercises in the
book
map
(pages 6-9) shows
reflect this.
this
is
in
such as legal or technical jargon or academic or literary usage, is not included because is not tested in the exams. specialised,
How can
I
level,
use this book?
Several options are available to you. References
within the Sections will point you in the direction
of explanations of related areas of grammar or vocabulary in other Sections or Units.
THE ENTRY TEST Each Unit begins with an Entry test. Each exercise is related to one of the Grammar Sections within the Unit. If you have difficulties with an in this test
is
a cross-reference to the relevant
vocabulary to learn. all. It is
also
you need.
exercise easy,
there
is
an enormous amount of
No book can
much more
hope
to cover
in the
exams. This book
focuses on areas of vocabulary that are useful in a
wide range of situations, e.g. agreeing and disagreeing, frequency, problems and solutions, starting and ending, etc. Words that combine
On
all
the explanation and
the other hand,
if
you
find the
may mean that you are perfectly that area of grammar and you may
it
competent in wish to ignore that Section.
it
difficult to predict
vocabulary which will occur
it
There are many different ways to use this book. You can use the Contents or Syllabus map to look up a particular area of grammar or vocabulary that you want to study. Or, you may want to study complete Units in the order in which they appear.
practice
book?
At advanced
The
language that would normally be considered
Section which will provide
sort of vocabulary
topics.
this.
Some of the grammar or vocabulary in the book may be formal or used in limited contexts, though
exercise, there
What
Sections where
with separate
areas of the
-
while modal Perfects are very
Grammar
the preceding
possible, whilst others deal
THE OVERVIEW The Overview provides which students
a
summary of the grammar
advanced classes should already be familiar with. For example, with relative clauses (see Unit 1 1) you should already know about the differences between defining and non-defining in
11
©
INTRODUCTION
relative clauses
- these
are
summarised
THE PROGRESS TESTS
in the
Overview. The Watch Out! boxes highlight areas that
After Units
often continue to cause difficulty. If you have any
CAE
difficulties
with the points covered in the Overview,
Grammar and Vocabulary for First Luke Prodromou (Longman). look
at
Certificate
by
Will I pass Proficiency if I do
THE GRAMMAR SECTIONS Each Unit has between two and five Grammar Sections which deal with aspects of a particular area of grammar. These Sections contain explanations and descriptions with many of example sentences. The page ends with a short exercise so that you can check whether you have understood the main
grammar
points.
Opposite
is
page of related practice
a
practice
is
exercises.
always a straightforward
understanding the main
test
The
of
grammar points in the more complicated and
Section; the later practices are
reflect the level and style of the advanced exams. These practices can be done in class or for homework. If you are doing them in class, you may want to discuss your answers with other students or with your teacher before checking the correct answers in the Key at the back of the book (in 'with Key' editions). Discussion helps everybody to understand and remember the main facts or issues.
THE VOCABULARY SECTIONS Each Unit has two Vocabulary Sections. These deal with a particular area of vocabulary such as words connected with differences and similarities (see Unit 7.4) or competing (see Unit 15.4). Lexical areas such as collocation,
word formation,
phrasal verbs,
prepositions and idiomatic phrases are also covered, specifically in particular Sections
and generally
in
other Vocabulary Sections. There are several short Pre-practices within the explanations.
Practice exercises contain
much
The main
of the vocabulary
presented in the explanations but also add other related items.
THE EXAM PRACTICES At the end of each Unit there is an Exam practice which revises the grammar and vocabulary in the whole Unit using CAE and CPE-type exercises. Each paper has the same score so that you can monitor your general progress as you work with different Units.
12
everything in this book? One textbook
is
never enough to become fluent.
We recommend that you
read widely in English
(books, magazines, newspapers...) as well as take
every opportunity to listen to English
(satellite
and speak the language, so that you can use it naturally and easily. Everybody can learn a language (we have all already learned at least one!), but it takes time, patience and hard work.
television, film, radio...)
PRACTICES first
5, 10 and 15 there are Progress tests in and CPE-exam format. They revise the grammar and vocabulary of the previous five Units together with any other previous Units.
INTRODUCTION
ABOUT THE EXAMS
PAPER 3 This
What CAE
is
level are
Cambridge
many
CPE
is
between English and CPE.
at
more widely recognised
as well as
being a qualification
teach English.
you should be
A
CPE - Use It is
British Universities for English
Language entry requirements
pass at
CPE
is
undergraduate
for the in
many
Paper
for
essential for
at a level
First Certificate in
recognised by
book concentrates on grammar and vocabulary
needed
CAE and CPE?
an advanced exam
level.
same purpose countries to
an indication that
The
all
although
this
information
is
of English (2 hours)
four different
on
3,
the other Papers in the exams.
part of this paper, Section A, consists of
first
grammar and vocabulary tasks based and sets of sentences. The second
a short text
part, Section B, asks
you
to read a passage,
number of comprehension and vocabulary
answer a questions,
and summarise a specified aspect of it.
CAE -
able to follow lectures in English,
English
in
Use
(1
hour 30 mins)
write essays, understand the books you need to read,
This paper focuses on grammar, vocabulary and
and contribute effectively in undergraduate seminars and classes. In other words, it is quite a high level. For both exams, grades A, B and C are passes. D is a narrow fail and E is a fail.
register,
and includes
tasks such as
gap
filling,
PAPER 4 CPE -
of the other papers.
45 mins)
PAPER
four different spoken situations, such as (1
hour)
of twenty-five
multiple choice vocabulary questions.
The second
part, Section B, consists of fifteen multiple choice
comprehension questions on three CAE - Reading (1 hour 15 mins)
texts.
CAE -
texts followed
approximately
fifty
Listening Comprehension (approximately
CAE
and
CPE
consist of recordings of three or
conversations, interviews, extracts from radio programmes, recorded telephone messages, etc., and a variety of matching, completion and multiple
choice tasks.
PAPER 5
by a total of matching and multiple choice
There are four
Listening Comprehension (approximately
40 mins)
Both 1
proof
reading and text completion.
Both exams consist of five papers. The first three papers are normally taken on the same day. Papers 4 and 5 may be on different days within a week or two
CPE - Reading Comprehension The first part, Section A, consists
A
CPE - Speaking CAE - Speaking
(approximately 15 mins) (approximately 15 mins)
questions.
This part of the exam consists of a conversation with
PAPER 2
photographs, give opinions and discuss some
CPE - Composition (2 hours) You must complete two writing
The examiner
something such
you
an examiner. You are asked to talk about some
tasks of 350 words each out of a choice of five topics. These usually include a discussion of a topic, a description of
letter.
You
also
and a have the option to write about one of as a festival or city, a story
issues.
your pronunciation, fluency, range of vocabulary, grammatical accuracy and general ability to hold a natural conversation in English. CAE interviews are conducted in pairs will assess
will be asked to discuss things both with the examiner and the other candidate.
three prescribed reading texts, usually novels.
CAE -
Writing
(2
hours)
You must complete two writing including a
letter, report,
memo,
tasks usually
infomation sheet,
review, article, etc., but not a story. Section
A
is
a
compulsory task based on reading information with a maximum of 450 words. Section B consists of one task from a choice of four.
13
INTRODUCTION
What
Sentence transformation sentence transformations which ask you to rewrite a
sentence using a different beginning. Example: 1
Multiple choice In Section A, there are twenty-five multiple choice
vocabulary items in a question
In this
example:
like this
On your
answer sheet, indicate the against the number of each
C 25
letter A, B,
item
to
1
or
Even the
B
(Answer:
C
portion
speck
inversion,
In Section A there is a short passage (under 200 words) in which twenty words are missing. You must decide what the words are. Example:
of the
numbered blanks
in
the passage
suitable word.
gull's ability to eat
from
the young of
its
that into account before
own
before you went and spent
has
kind,
modern
in
life.
made
Britain to
commonly
Areas
tested in this question include
verbs, conditionals
and idiomatic phrases.
A
ends with eight sentences which must be
rewritten using a given it
word
is
changed
be
a by-product
For each of the sentences below, write a
new
sentence as similar as possible in meaning to the original sentence, but using the word given. This
...
word must not be altered
(Answers: eat almost
(1)
anything from
fish to...
(a)
of the (2)
that cannot be
any way. Example:
have
(3)
which
account
into
your money.)
all
r
,
recent years because of the increasing of edible refuse
(4)
Its
you
your money.
all
Word transformation
almost (1)
species
of the (2)
gapped sentences where
(Answer: You should have taken that
in actually thriving at this time.
six
are missing in each gap. Example:
You should
Section
The herring
one
continues with
each of the blanks with a suitable word or phrase
modal
THE HERRING GULL
of
A
went and spent
in
etc.
etc.
(a)
multiplied
have contact with
I
changing verbs to nouns,
words
several
Cloze test
one
people
Gapped sentence
Fill
fish to
few
Nobody
else
in
in
any way.
the country possesses his
skills
species... etc.)
on the trumpet.
unmatched
Words relative
gapped include pronouns (including pronouns), articles, determiners and linking
typically
words such
as however, but, such... that.
collocation and prepositions.
It
can also
test
(Answer: anybody)
His skills on the else (or
This question
anyone
tests
trumpet are unmatched by
else)
in
the country.)
your knowledge of common
phrases and changing verbs to nouns,
14
J
|
Areas tested include conditionals, reported speech,
D
shred
PAPER 3
one
have contact with disapprove of
damage
of dust can
meanings of words, collocations,
with
I
(Answer: None of the
Section
each
the people
for the
This question tests your knowledge of the different
Fill
it.
None
D)
1
such a way
in
as similar as possible to the sentence
approve of the changes.)
tiniest
piece
All
D
delicate electrical equipment.
A
is
the changes.
to each question. 1
each of the following sentences
it
(a)
one answer only
or phrase you choose. Give
Finish
that
printed before
word or phrase
section you must choose the
which best completes each sentence.
word
second part of Section A, there are eight
In the
CPE?
expect in PAPER
we
types of questions can
etc.
INTRODUCTION
What
types of questions can
What
we
CAE?
expect in
six Parts
and
a total
about the other exercises
and papers
The CAE has been revised from December 1999. In CAE, specific grammar and vocabulary questions are all in Paper 3 - English in Use. The Paper includes of 80 questions.
in
CAE and CPE? you will need to be wide range of grammar
In addition to the above tasks,
able to recognise
and vocabulary
and use
in
order
a
to:
•
understand the reading passages in Paper 1 write letters and compositions in the Paper 2 answer the questions in Paper 3 Section B
This consists of a passage with fifteen gaps. For each
•
understand what
gap you must choose one word from
•
understand and speak to the examiner and other
• •
MULTIPLE CHOICE CLOZE a choice
of
four.
candidates in Paper
The only
being said in the Paper 4 5.
in this
book
will
be
a
great help.
exercise that
similar to
is
gapped passage). There exam.
test (a
CAE
is
The grammar and vocabulary
OPEN CLOZE
%
ERROR CORRECTION A text about sixteen lines
long
CPE
is
the cloze
are fifteen gaps in the
is
provided.
Most
lines
have either an extra, unnecessary word which you
must find, or a spelling or punctuation mistake which you must correct.
WORD FORMATION FCE but the base words and may involve more changes. There are two passages in which you are required to new more
This
task
are
difficult
is
similar to
write the missing
using the
word
word
in the correct part
of speech
given. For example, transform
becomes transformation. Remember to check whether you need to make a noun plural, an adjective negative, etc.
There are
fifteen gaps.
INFORMATION TRANSFER This consists of a gapped text in which you are asked to rewrite information
from another text in a For example, you may have
different style or register.
to
fill
the gaps in an informal letter with information
make any grammar so
taken from an advertisement. You must necessary changes in vocabulary and that the style
is
appropriate. There are thirteen gaps.
DISCOURSE CLOZE
A
text is provided from which various phrases have been omitted. From a list of these phrases, you are asked to put back the correct phrase in each gap. there are six gaps and three distractors.
15
Unit o
Problem tenses Entry test way
that
it
as similar
is
all
a What all
through the
b
thefwst time
is
had
I've
to
work
ait
to
I
fix
through
Next summer, d He claimed c
Most of us became salesmen when we
last
the engine
morning, but
all
finally
had to admit defeat.
the night.
a
doing with yourself over the
couple of days?
night before.
This
have been writing this composition
I
evening.
to
it.
work
example: I've never had to
each of the blanks with a suitable word
example:
such a
in
meaning as possible
in
the sentence printed before
Fill
or phrase.
each of the following sentences
Finish
1
3
left
somehow
university.
e
Most of us have Our current manager started working here ten b
I
here for ten years.
living
I
meaning
to
tell
me
about
it
but
forgot,
was
asking her
if
she'd
like to
come
to the
races on Saturday.
years ago.
Our current manager has c
I
FOR CONTINUOUS TENSES, SEE SECTION
3.
haven't heard from Sarah for a couple of months.
The last d used to I
4 find
computers
before
difficult
I
started
Fill
each of the blanks with a suitable word
or phrase.
taking these lessons.
example:
Look
out!
We're going to
the car
hit
in
Since
e Michael
Owen
front! is
the best player
I've
seen so
far in
a At
this competition. I've
we
yet
this rate,
we're
b The minute the try to find
FOR PRESENT PERFECT, SEE SECTION
1
c
:.
be exhausted by the time
finish.
train
standstill,
get on and
a seat,
By December,
working there for
he'll
eighteen months.
2
Fill
d They claim to be
each of the blanks with a suitable word
a When
I
off
b She'd c
d
It's
the
We
were
just
about
the house
when Sue
electricity.
for this
company,
I
six years.
FOR FUTURE FORMS, SEE SECTION
studying marine biology but she
decided on geography,
They
on the road for a mere
when
achieving
called.
started working
an architect for
finally
e
As soon as he saw what had happened,
he switched
on
everything they set out to do.
or phrase. example:
virtually
five
minutes
they had a puncture.
almost half past nine:
I
would think they
got there by now.
e
My
intention
is
finished
my
studies by June.
FOR FUTURE PERFECT, PAST PERFECT AND OTHER PERFECT FORMS, SEE SECTION
16
2.
finEsa_
4.
PROBLEM TENSES
OVERVIEW
It
USES OF PERFECT TENSES
Present Perfect use Present Perfect to talk about things that
•
tell
me
he's
bought another new
with an
in the past
•
my
gone
was improving every day. I grow older.
that describe a short action, e.g. is
been ringing him
all
morning but he never seems
key.
activity begins or ends, they give the
you
jo had been working
impression
all
morning and was now
spending a happy half hour doing nothing more taxing
out.
was looking forward
to
her holiday in Scotland in a few days' time.
use Past Perfect to talk about things that took
3 EXPRESSING THE FUTURE
place:
before something else in the past (see Section I took the decision after I
•
to
are arriving in the middle of a scene:
than staring into space. She
•
hit,
repeated rather than
often use Past Continuous and Past Perfect Continuous to set the background to narrative events. Because it may not be clear when the
Past Perfect
We
don't
We
•
car!
with the time adverb just meaning 'a short time ago' (American English uses Past Simple here): She's just
we
be in.
effect or result in the present:
I'm afraid I've forgotten
(=
the rain started
continuous: I've
but we're not saying exactly when:
in the past,
when
think I'm getting more forgetful as
knock, blink, the action
took place: • during a period that includes past and present: They've been waiting here for an hour. Don't
the building.
will finish)
With verbs
•
•
it
William's piano playing I
We
left
aren't interested in
that are in the process of changing:
• 1
was raining when we
know or or when
had spoken
to John.
during a period before an event in the All
day
I'd
2.1):
English does not have one future tense. Instead,
past:
future (see Section
been feeling nervous but the feeling
vanished as soon as
I
saw
we
use other tenses and modal verbs to refer to the 4):
This time next week we'll be sitting our exams.
her.
(= we'll be
When you
middle of them) you are to go straight
in the
arrive,
to the
Future Perfect registration desk.
We •
use Future Perfect to talk about:
something that
will
be finished before a specified
time in the future (see Section I'll
For, since, already, yet,
We •
2.2):
have signed nearly a hundred still,
letters
by tonight.
watch out!
We
often, etc.
don't use Present Perfect
time often use Perfect tenses with these time words.
Note important variations
We
still
We'd
still
X not
heard from her by the time evening arrived. (= formal)
I
her absence yet.
She's
We've been
/ We went
more •
haven't heard a convincing explanation of
phoned already?
phoned already. Has she
It's
•
•
use Continuous tenses to talk about things:
don't need to say
when
it
don't
know
London
London
in
in
1
1997
.
997.
much work
six.
today.
been raining for ages.
We
use Past Perfect for something that happened before something else. We can only it with another Past tense: went to see him because his wife had asked me to. We omit will in time clauses (see Sections 1.4 and 4.2): X I'll phone you as soon as we will have arrived y I'll phone you as soon as we have arrived.
I
Continuous tenses show that we either view the
we
to
use
continuing over a period, and temporary. event as incomplete, or that
to
haven't done
already phoned, has she?
We
exact past
no connection with
We've been here since half past
She's already phoned. She hasn't
OF CONTINUOUS TENSES
when an is
But we can use the Present Perfect if the period mentioned includes the past and present: I
2 USES
mentioned and there
the present:
in their position:
haven't heard from Olga.
is
or
started or finished:
•
.
We're studying Shakespeare at school at the moment.
(= temporary activity during these weeks) 17
GRAMMAR
SECTION
4 USE WITH FUTURE FORMS
I
In time clauses (after when, as soon as, until, before, etc.)
Present Perfect
we
don't use
have done
and so the Future Perfect
will,
we
not possible. In these cases
is
will
use the
Present Perfect to refer to the future:
Present Perfect often combines with other tenses in the
1
•
5 USE WITH SINCE
use Present Perfect with other Present tenses:
with report /comment verbs or phrases
with the phrase This
is
second /only, etc. time
•
This
is
time
I've ever really
they're
event
is
somebody who Princess
is
to be here?
met anyone yet who can run
and
who
It's the
only
They've made
life
You've had
ever or never): so absent-minded.
is
else will
a Past tense to refer to
it!
etc.
I've
complain strongly about)
That's torn
it!
Now you've
done
point: I've
lost
(= He's lost his
it.
You've got
me
there!
no idea what the solution
is)
with appear, seem,
etc.):
He sounds It
Good
He's
last)
when commenting on
in the past (usually
had
(= She's achieved fame, success,
acceptance, etc. at
(=
something
I've
do any more)
have done something that someone
patience or self-control) the present results of
to
(= You've done something seriously wrong)
She's arrived.
most extraordinary person
want
(= You're in trouble)
it!
(= You, we,
don't
I
ever read about.
sound,
as fast as him.
...
(= They've succeeded)
it!
enough. (= I'm fed up.
dead: the
meet anyone who
COMMON PHRASES
6
unusual or unique in your
Diana was
haven't
or: I've yet to
got angry with him.
never met anybody
yet:
/ It's / That's the first/
However, we commonly use
•
meant
I
...:
(often with a superlative I've
Do you
traffic.
the first time he's been late
when an
AND YET
learned that she's in Rome.
reckon Gloria's been held up in
suppose they've forgotten •
he's recovered his
Note the position and emphatic uses of since and There was no news this morning but we've since
(guess,
imagine, suppose, etc.): J
when
composure.
USES WITH OTHER PRESENT TENSES
We
We'll continue the meeting
same sentence.
as if he has run
all the
way
here.
seems they've already decided without consulting
us.
2 USES WITH PAST TENSES
We •
use Present Perfect with Past tenses:
to describe states or events that have continued
^
since a time in the past (with since, ever since, etc.):
He's been a
Ever since
bit
more
I first
careful since he
heard
it
I've
had
*/&
7//
that warning.
been trying
to
find a
~~.
til
recording of that song. •
to describe long-term or repeated feelings
V l^/m.
\
(Jk^^^<
and
thoughts about past events: I've often
wondered why he decided
teacher.
I've
we took
to
become a
? check
always felt we did the wrong thing when
her on as an assistant.
Correct these sentences.
3 USE WITH
We •
ANOTHER PRESENT PERFECT
use Present Perfect with another Present Perfect:
to describe
two
states that
have existed since a
time in the past: Since I've sweater.
known
him, he's always
worn
the
a
It's
the third time he missed a meeting.
b As soon as he will finish, he's going home. c This is the best lasagne I ever have. d Since we've known each other, he always shows impeccable manners,
same e
Since I've
temper. 18
met
her, I've never seen
her lose her
4
PRESENT PERFECT
Q
Practice
each of the blanks with a
Fill
word or
suitable
Q Tick
Example: I'm not going to go out
(/) the sentences that are correct. Correct those that
again until the storm has blown
are not. a
Do you
think Vicky's always
known
over.
the truth about us?
b That's been the second time you've forgotten to post something
d Ever since e
In
my
all
we
never spoke to
b
girlfriend,
me what prefer someone who is quite
met, you never asked
life, I
new I
to do. c
d
much
j
e
f
friendly.
says he hasn't yet
Q
Fill
often
come
to a final
(1) that Stefan's success as a teacher
much
time he ever
as his
knowledge of the
(2) into a
him. They've probably
subject.
is
due to
From
his
the
first
classroom, students have always loved (3)
met anybody who
displays such an
(4) also
I
probably the
first
time they've
always wears a leather jacket and
I
I've
a scarf
she
hard time
new
to the it
pizzeria last
does the
eaten.
Finish each of the sentences in
way
meaning
that
it is
as similar in
as possible to the sentence it.
Example:
Make
sure
you
book
before
you
start
at the height
finish this
on
the
others.
did
you
really begin to feel at
'Oh, you've feel
(1)
you
truly
colleagues and then (3)
it
with
made all
(5)!
I've often
(6)
But
why
come back I
do.
As
I've
it!
the next day, time after time.
far as
(8) it!",
know
you've
"Oooh,
now
it.
No
This
longer before they built the
Channel Tunnel. you've
and the boss comes (9)
has seen Jo for over a
one has asked me that before. is the first time d The journey to Paris took much c
the boss goes, just wait until will go
Nobody
this one.
I've yet
times, often over quite trivial
Your colleagues
you. Then you'll
have
you
out with your
the times I've said to myself - That's
or "Urn, that's
just smiles at
you'll definitely
(2)
up several times. Over the summer
it
I
replied. 'Let's just say
start the other books until you
have finished
month. Jo was b Bergkamp's goal was the most extraordinary one I have ever seen.
here?' Paul asked.
you've
them countless
of
a major mistake.
(7) it!"
home
John
there!'
until
(4) of
had
you make
me
belong
things. I've lost
and
a
It
somebody
(5)
even
Q
a
I've
yet.
never understood what
Don't
won't
last night:
had
went
such a
each of the gaps in this passage with one suitable word.
'When
it
time he
seeing her there.
of summer. Fill
across first
spoke to Sylvia
printed before
extraordinary mixture of enthusiasm and great personal warmth.
Q
the
football so popular,
each of the gaps in this passage with one suitable word.
eccentricity as
who
isn't
g Since he got home from the camp, he but sleep. h I've yet over the shock of
decision.
I've
This
night:
They'll join us after they'll get a bite to eat.
He
as
recently,
g This is the only occasion that I've seen him wearing a tie. h Since he's lived here, he was usually extremely
soon
these letters.
looked for that book everywhere
sounds
of each other of late,
i
I
just as all
away from home,
don't think Paul and Carol have seen
I
phone him
but I'm afraid
so stupid, f
I'll
typing
haven't seen Peter since he begins seeing his
I
a
me.
for c
phrase.
in
Since the e
Then
It's
almost a year since
I
stopped
smoking. I
(10).
f
gave
/
This cafe used to be a lot more
popular before they opened the
new one
next door.
Since
19
GRAMMAR
Predicting
SECTION 2
We
can also use
done to say what
will have
we
think
has probably happened:
Other Perfect forms
There's no point phoning: they'll have •
1
PAST PERFECT
we
period before a time in the past.
because
we
use
When
I arrived, they'd
started. (=
I
I
are talking about a If
is
some
to
gone
out.
may I might
or
instead
uncertainty about the
both Past Simple
after),
When
See Unit
We •
4,
think
I
use Perfect
I
this
cake by the time
will have,
Section 3.2 for
OF PERFECT
3 USES
but I'm not
modal
Perfects)
INFINITIVES
infinitives:
after link verbs like seem
and appear to
refer to a
previous time period (an ordinary to-infinitive will
already started. (— they
arrived)
should have finished making
sure.
usually refer to the present or future):
I arrived, they
There seems to have been some sort of mistake.
arrived before they started)
I
there
Sue comes home. (=
the time sequence
and Past Perfect are possible. At other times Past Perfect is essential to understanding the sequence, and we often add already, as soon as, or until: I got to work after Simon arrived / had arrived. started before
if
ought
I
prediction of present or future:
Past Perfect emphasises that
clear (e.g.
can use should
of will
Not always necessary
is
We
•
With definite time
after phrases expressing
emotions and
feelings:
I'm sorry to have kept you waiting.
Unlike Present Perfect,
we can
use Past Perfect with
She was felt not to have met the standards required.
a definite time reference:
nine o'clock but he had got there at eight.
J arrived at
4 PERFECT -ING FORMS
When
With before
talking about results and time,
Perfect -ing
There
is
one exception to the time sequence rules on
Past Perfect.
When we
use
before,
form
to emphasise that
we
can use a
one thing
happens before another:
the verb in Past
remember having met her before. Having grasped what I meant, he got down to work.
I didn't
Simple can refer to something that takes place before the verb in Past Perfect. The first action may prevent
finally
the second from happening:
The waiter took my plate away before
watch out!
I'd finished
eating. I
was blamed for
it
before I'd even
had a chance
Perfect passives can
to
because
defend myself.
we
sometimes be confusing
use both be (= passive) and have
(= Perfect) as auxiliaries: Unfulfilled plans
The
We
country.
use Past Perfect with report verbs and with hope,
intend, expect, etc. to talk
yet
been
with I
fulfilled.
Had
is
refugees have been prevented from entering the
This picture
is
thought to have been painted
by a pupil of Rembrandt's.
about plans that have not usually stressed in speech
this use:
had hoped
to talk to
him but he was
? ch
too busy
to listen.
I
had thought of phoning him but decided against
it.
Which of the examples
'How did you become a teacher?' 'I'd intended to J. be an actor, but things didn't work out.' b I turned on the computer, but before I had / a
2 FUTURE PERFECT With by
We
points in this Section do these
illustrate?
can often use Future Perfect with the preposition meaning 'at some point
managed
to log
on
there
me what
was
a
power
we
cut.
by or the phrase by the time
c
before the time mentioned or indicated':
about the plans for the next day. d The exhibition will have finished by the time I get around to seeing it. e They appear to have accepted most of your terms.
It's
taking her so long to write that book that by the
time
she's finished
incident
20
it's
it
people will have forgotten the
based on.
After he told
he wanted,
°) of
because
occasion
it's I
just a habit
decided
Q Write
new
I
sentence as similar
meaning
to the
original sentence, but using the
word
given.
(i/) /
to drive
a
It
was
the way. going to drive all the
occurred to
like to
me
that
come round
way.
you might
this evening.
wondering b Our arguments over
politics
go
back years. arguing
>
<
c
My
son has
that there's
>
(
original intention
all
was going
I
e
I
think he's at last beginning to
agree with me.
round
going again. 23
J>
GRAMMAR
SECTION 4 The future 1
WAYS OF REFERRING^© THE FUTURE
The following
table
summarises the
Form
Example
will
I'll
different structures
we
use to talk about the future.
Meaning and
just go
get
my
= an immediate
coat.
are going to will
You'll be sick if you eat
be going to
I'm going
be going to
Look out! We're going
to stop in
more
chocolate.
a minute. to hit the car in front.
Present Continuous
We're going
Present Simple
The coach leaves
wiH + Continuous
Don't phone too early because
to the cafe.
in ten minutes. I'll
=
a general prediction
—
a
=
a prediction after looking at
=
Won't you join us?
be putting
+ Continuous
I'll
give
him
+
will
+
your
be
+
letter to
him -
I'll
He
is to
some
in the future
period in the future
a
action that will
happen because
it is
regular or decided
we get
= an
event that will be finished before a
specified time in the future
there.
=
a state of affairs in progress for a
period up to a specified time in the future
next May.
to-infinitive
arrangements
an activity that will be happening
= an
be seeing
is
action that will be in progress
later.
We'll have been living here for ten years
Perfect
Continuous
/
during
by the time will
fixed plans
what
= an =
We'll have driven over five hundred miles
Perfect
now
time
We'll be working on this until the end of
+ Continuous
will
happening
unalterable arrangement or fact
the year.
you
personal intention
= an
the baby to bed.
will
decision about what
do
=
be given an award.
an
official
arrangement or order
You're to stay here until you've apologised.
•
We
shall with I or we with the same meaning as However, it is becoming increasingly formal most common current use is in polite offers or to
use
•
its
ask advice (see Unit
3,
Section
Shall I open the door for you?
1.1):
What
shall
We
omit
will in
AND
/F-CLAUSES
time clauses after when, as soon
to
when we want emphasis and
will
If you will insist on the best, then
more for
if,
it all
out.
if I
would
help
him
weekend.
COMMON PHRASES (just)
about
to
go
out.
(= in
a
very short time)
were on the point of leaving when We're due to meet in half an hour.
unless,
the bell rang.
? check
makes an intention
you must expect
to
pay
Match the examples with the meanings
-
will
means
'be willing to':
in the table.
a Are you going to the match tomorrow? b Are you going to go out this evening or not?
it.
in polite requests
If you'll hold these bags for me, I can open the door.
24
They promised they would work on
We
or promise stronger:
•
reported speech
speak to her until she's apologised.
However, with conditional clauses (after providing, etc.) we can use will, but only: •
will in
Harry asked me
I'm as,
until, before, etc:
I'm not going
use would instead of
we do now? 3
2 WILL IN TIME CLAUSES
We
and conditionals:
will.
c
My
driving licence expires in 2030.
d
I've
had enough.
e
We'll be sending you
I'll
finish this
more
tomorrow
details in the post.
THE FUTURE
%f Fill each of the gaps in the following sentences with a suitable word or phrase.
Practice
O
Example:
Tick (/) the most appropriate of the underlined words. a
She looks very
pale.
think she'll
I
/
she's
Sue
faint-,
b c
ril /
I'm going to do that for you,
be
I'll
grow
/
I'm going to be a rocket
e
when
scientist
at the door.'
'I'll /
to
I
home
the
early today so
I
leave
am
/
not
/
will
g She asked her a
traffic
would / will be so kind
I
boy
carries
on
he
like that,
law for
I
six years.
over by a multi-national.
missing from most of the numbered
is
Mark the place with a and write the missing word on the right. If a pair of lines does not need a word added, put a tick (•/). The first two have been done for you. pairs of lines in the passage.
do you think you will do / will be few years time? By the time you get back, all the food will have gone / will go The two Prime Ministers are to / shall discuss the current economic crisis. sort of job in a
line /,
Despite
.
j
bill.
little
%f A word
as to give
lift,
h What doing i
f
not be too bad.
if
that
By the time I qualify, Our company is
•e
We'll be in plenty of time providing the is
If
accident before long.
leaving at 4.00. f
called.
I'm going to see
d
be
cup of coffee when
just about to have a
b Our builder told me he best to get the materials as soon as he could, c I think we'd better leave this restaurant as soon
like,
it is.'
need
I
you
up.
d 'Somebody's
who
if
was
He was resigning when the news of his promotion came through,
a
going to
I
the lessons
all
we
have learned
from history it is
../....
conceive what people are
difficult to
likely/be doing Fill
each of the numbered gaps in this passage 1
with one suitable word.
'Remember
2
are (X?4£-(l) to leave before
J^>
^t
'Yes. Yes,
I
when you
know.
was
I
3
about to pack
(2)
rang.'
of leaving
(3)
5
(4)
you want
to pay for another
'It
I'll
(5)
7
out by twelve,'
I
stammered.
does say very clearly on your door that
guests are the voice
rooms by
vacate their
(6)
went
an integral part of our
lives
has
than ever. For a
start, in
ten
innovations will probably have
on, quite unnecessarily,
little
doubt that many of our
activities
such as shopping and going to
school will disappeared by 8
growth
the year 2100, largely due to the
all
of electronic media. But what 9 we have little idea about is how
midday,'
thought.
I
There
habitual, taken-for-granted
week,' the voice continued. 'No. No,
new
about become
out of date. 6
is
is
years' time, today's
'I know. As I said, I was on the - packing, then leaving.'
'That
taken place that any idea as to what
become more of a guessing game 4
^ai.
this century,
many changes have
invention
|jf4 'Midday,' the voice repeated.
jW&
hundred years/how. During
so
by the terms of the contract you midday' the voice said.
that
a
...to
this affect
our personal relationships.
/^ ^*
'Look. I've told you,'
I
shouted,
'I'll
have
before the clock strikes twelve! I'm
than fifteen minutes. The
flies,
cockroaches will soon
(9)
ants
y.
'I
remember
(10) in at
and
1
new
fear.'
12
screamed, and threw
down
rather,
left this earth.
not ours as
concerns us
is
Will people
this will
be long
after
What how our great-great-
still
living.
talking to each other face
to face, or
occupants 13
I
Or
we
grandchildren/be
...'
know! Midday!'
phone.
that the
10
partying in a
punctually vacated apartment. Have no 'Kindly
(7) (8) in less
only via computers? Will they
still
be able
to find a friendly shoulder
the
14
to cry
on when they feeling low? who knows?
In the
long run,
25
Unit one
I
Vocabulary
when
•
when More
they emphasise change or development:
syllabuses.
Sometimes using Simple or Continuous involves
•
Stative verbs
in
reach a decision)
Some
IN
THE CONTINUOUS
(=
Continuous. They describe states that stay the same
The most
rather than actions or events that change.
•
verb
stative
emotional states
We
•
My
(e.g. smell): I
want
only
Do you •
to
ask you a simple question.
should.
I
I
understand)
use verbs that refer to physical feelings
(e.g.
Simple or Continuous with
or no difference of meaning:
How are you feeling / do
head aches / is aching.
understand /-am-
acceptable: a
think I'm
I
we have
now
recognising the extent of the task
taken on.
b Shakespeare's plays
understanding everything you're saying. •
have an appointment)
I
about. (=
2 Tick (/) if the verb forms in these sentences are
mental processes (e.g. believe, feel, remember): Do you realise / Arc you realising what they're doing? I suspect / am suspecting we're not making as much
we
brilliant.
you feel now?
prefer to travel by bus or by train?
profit as
=
later. (
what you're on
little
and senses
Hamlet. (= trying to
to see
think Shakespeare's
hurt, ache, feel) in the
Others include:
is be.
(e.g. love, doubt, care),
see
J
J
opinion)
I'm seeing her
verbs are not normally used in the
common
my
a
meaning:
I'm thinking about going
NOT NORMALLY USED
salt.
schools hvill be including Shakespeare on their
change
1
enough
this to see if there is
She's being rather obstinate at the moment. •
SECTION 5
they have an active meaning:
I'm tasting
small
are involving a relatively
number of female
parts.
verbs that describe a sense of permanence because
they are not actions:
How many cars
does /is your family own / owning? what we need / arc needing for the trip depends / is depending on the weather. Who is- / does I
this
book belonging / belong
fitting
is
me perfectly.
This dress fits /
to?
What
is-/
does that lorry
We
use can or could with
see, hear, taste, smell,
understand and remember to describe what
happening
1
at
I
bed last night.
to
The summary included In
my
if
they are
all
the
I
all
Q
In the following pairs of sentences decide if
the criticism
Example: I'm owning over 200 CDs.
article,
opinion she deserves
prefer to use
I
my
old computer at
home
to 1
2
WHEN
STATIVE VERBS
CAN BE USED
IN
THE
CONTINUOUS
We 26
in the
one or both are acceptable. Tick (/) those that are and put a cross (/) by those that are not.
the ones at work.
2
them
main points
she gets. c
don't use
Practice
Tick (/) the verbs underlined below
contained in the
b
We
or was
stative. a
activity, e.g. admit, agree, deny, promise, etc.,
act like stative verbs.
couldn't smell anything burning
That's strange:
went
small group of verbs with meanings related to
mental
the time:
when
I
is
A
Continuous except for emphasis: Are you actually denying that you took my pen?
containing / contain? •
watch out!
think
can use some
own
over 200 CDs.
a I'm not liking ice-cream.
b
I
a
The
don't like ice-cream. verdict
Continuous:
depends on whether the jury
believed the key witness.
b The verdict stative verbs in the
/
/
is
depending on whether the jury
believed the key witness.
-
STATIVE VERBS
a
3
Q
can see somebody moving in the trees over
I
b 4
keep seeing somebody moving
I
a
b
in the trees
sentence as similar as possible in meaning to
the original sentence but using the
word
given.
over there.
This word must not be altered in any way.
He He
Example:
believing that aliens kidnapped his daughter.
is
I
believes that aliens kidnapped his daughter.
a She has a
5
For each of the following sentences, write a
new
there.
baby
may go
to
work
overseas.
thinking I'm thinking of going
boy.
work
to
overseas.
b She's having a baby boy.
you still feeling sick? Do you still feel sick? I've been thinking about you for some time. I think about you all the time. This box is containing all the relevant documents. This box contains all the relevant documents. He's an idiot.
a Are
6
b 7 a
b a
8
b a
9
I
honeymooners sounds c
I
how
understand
I
do
to ask Richard to help
out.
suppose b Reading between the
lines,
I
think the
are enjoying themselves.
work without your
can't possibly finish this
d The new receptionist
is
help.
certainly has plenty of
confidence.
essential in this job.
b
was wondering whether
me
depending
b He's being an idiot. a Understanding how to use the computer
10
a
to use
computers and so
lack
can
I
this job.
'..'
My
young niece was always tired because she was found to be without enough iron.
e
.'
Decide whether the underlined verbs are in the best tense. Tick (/) those that are acceptable and correct those that are not.
lacking
O
.
.
Tick (/) the word or phrase that best
completes each sentence. 1
someone you
Topic: Describe I
like or dislike
don't like to admit to disliking anyone, but
confess that there
one
is
particularly disliking
the that
same I
(1
of
my
We
).
have been having
have studied
few years and
class for the last
(4)
enough.
begin
unpleasant person, in fact in other circumstances
when you have such an
we would
sure that
feeliftg (5)
sat (6)
artificial
get
on
fine.
next to someone
environment
that the smallest thing can start to get
3
in
question -
his real
let
us
call
him George, though
that he really wasn't
was not
fact that
explanations. a text
was
(
1
a problem but
he refused (14)
The exercise was
6) that
know what
to stop
5
I
what he
in
C,
d deserve three practising
c
this
is
entails
is
made up
nothing that
you.
d complicates with everything you say.
c
concerns
c agreeable
agreement doubt whether he
I
not
a highly
immediately
talked (12)
what annoyed
to listen to
will actually carry
out
(13)
sounding (19) rude. So
and
it
was going
in the
me
(
I
1
am
end
I
7) the text.
just sat (20)
may be
b deeply
c absolutely
raining, but I'm
d seriously enjoying myself.
unfortunate events.
not
to tell (18)
It
a thoroughly b highly c extremely d desperately hope there won't be a repetition of these 7 I
my
consisting (15) of reading
he had been reading to say.
is
with an
him
being so stupid but that would have been
said nothing.
b
As always, I am b agreeing
I
6
realising (10)
(11)
and answering questions on
thinking didn't
I
knowing
that
me
trying (9) to help
exercise in our text book.
was the
him
his threats.
name - had been
about. This
c possess
b comprises
Don't worry:
d
on your nerves.
realise
a agree
find (7)
thought (8) about this only the other day after the person
b
a matters 4
long in
you
as a classroom,
great to see
d encloses
just that
It is
for so
it is
The review committee a consists
an
is
am
I
years,
lawyers and a retired businessman.
(3) to feel
not that he
It's
2
together in
(2)
I
a get
am
I
many
his ambitions.
have to
I
who
classmates
After so
and
b strongly c sincerely d thoroughly That voice sounds I'm sure I know her. a known b usual c familiar d remembered 9 He finally got the reward he so richly a owes b earns c deserves d justifies -0 10 What happens next entirely on you. c trusts a depends b revolves d relies a deeply
8
I
:
27
VOCABULARY
is often no logical reason why some words collocate and others don't:
words, but there
SECTION 6
We
an
Collocation:
introduction
can talk about a fragile peace, or an uneasy
an unsteady peace or
peace, (but not a tender peace,
a weak peace )
WHAT
1
Words Words try,
X
COLLOCATION?
IS
Sometimes choosing which collocation to use depends on the position of the word in the
•
that occur together frequently 'collocate'. that don't collocate never occur together. If
sentence:
we
We may
they sound unnatural and wrong:
agree unconditionally, but we don't normally
unconditionally agree
.
Time speeds / travels / rides / moves. (= they don't
Discussions can be productive or
a studying year) fruitful, (but •
We
not
and using
it
-
in the
same way
it,
learning
timing just as the gang were
The police arrived with leaving the bank.
a best b perfect c immaculate d total e exquisite
4 GRAMMATICAL FORMS
prolific )
learn a collocation by discovering
in
this sentence:
by /wears on /passes. (= they collocate)
There are no rules we can use to learn collocations. There is often no logical reason why some words are possible and others are not: We can talk about an academic year, (but not
•
words we can combine with timing
2 Circle any
collocate)
S Time flies /goes
+ noun:
remember
my formative years.
•
adjective
•
adverb
•
noun + noun: The government
it
as other vocabulary.
+
I
adjective: I'm hopelessly addicted to coffee.
have just unveiled
their policy review.
2 FIXED COLLOCATIONS
verb
•
In 'fixed' collocations, particular
words occur
+ noun: We
will
honour our pledge
to
reduce
unemployment.
and the combination has a special meaning. Other words are not possible and so we can learn these compounds and common phrases as a combination of words. We can also think of idiomatic expressions and dependent prepositions as types of together,
collocation: I
had
to
arrives at 8 o'clock
We
to learn
and sound.
on the
dot.
My I'll
Spanish.
part of a longer phrase:
•
mean
the
same
boss usually
b totally d lovingly c earnestly Nothing you say will make a of difference
thing:
to
Paul
3
is
b scrap
a with
I
want you back
here
on the
Please arrive in
b by
his
d against
c to
precise dot of
word
Practice that completes the fixed
b great
Q Underline
time for the meeting.
In 'open' collocations,
we
(a
or b) that collocate in
There's a time
for
completing
this task.
b limit 2 Wine growers in Bordeaux recorded a a barrier
can choose from a limited
of words to combine with another word.
the words
these sentences.
d good
c best
OPEN COLLOCATIONS
a full
d grain
of the property
1
set
gram
Will they honour their election pledges?
Circle the only
a fine
c
a real introvert in contrast
grammatical forms or making additions:
collocation in this sentence.
28
decision.
brother Andrew.
eleven.
3
my
a fragment
Fixed collocations can be changed by using different
market.
in
a genuinely 2
a flash.
1
word which fills the gap. moved by the photographs
the newspapers.
be back in a flash.
You're in danger of pricing yourself out
always interesting to
People were
1
She was back in a flash or: She was back (as) quick as
•
It's
delve into the past.
The
can sometimes choose between fixed
collocations that
Personally, I think they
should be ashamed of themselves.
3 Circle the
go on a crash course
children arrived safe
•
dependent preposition:
•
We
need
understanding of the meanings of individual
this year.
a
bumper
b
boom
harvest
COLLOCATION: AN INTRODUCTION
whether they like
c
f
1
weekend. a
I
each of the gaps with must or a form of
have to followed by a suitable verb.
b You
e
A
h Doctors should respect their patients' wishes, i Are you saying we needn't have gone to all this trouble anyway? He'd better not be late again! j
A
9^0.0
s^^W
me down, is
computer, give
„
-ed.
need to buy me flowers. J^®^^^S^3 ' b It's a good job we didn't c^jf^ySfiSMoESpa need to be here earlier. /f^Wjj3r^5£rS>/^fc c It was strange that we Jzm W**v^£ j •>¥> c -> *^* didn't need to show ^v,' ^«^w^?s3y2
got a
d Having to get up so early every morning getting
^oq
sweet of you, but you really
didn't
disallowed,
e
It's
paint
b You must be joking, c It must have been offside because the goal was
4
AND ADVICE
a
It
may
for
you
to
go there without
a
all.
not
b You might not 6 Don't you think it's time we made our excuses and left? a Hadn't
?
b Oughtn't
?
benefit,
longer and
my homework
moment just
to keep up. 55
:
Unit three 2 IMPROBABILITY
Vocabulary
We
number of words and phrases
use a
unlikely
it is
how
to say
that something will happen.
Here
are
some examples: •
SECTION 4
verbs and verbal phrases:
wouldn't bet on her coming first.
I
Possibility, probability
I
doubt
if we'll
In situations like that, climbers don't stand
meet again.
a chance of surviving. He hasn't got a cat in chance of winning. (= informal)
and •
certainty
adjectives
and
hell's
adjectival phrases:
She's highly unlikely to have survived the earthquake.
Instead of using modals (see Section
2),
we
•
can
noun
phrases:
The prospects of them surviving are slim. I have my There's very little /no chance / likelihood doubts.
express ideas of possibility, probability and certainty in
other ways.
There's a slight/
that the exchange rate will improve.
slim possibility of her coming back. Hopes are fading / Fears are growing as to their chances of survival.
LIKELIHOOD
1
We
number of words and phrases
can use a
how
likely
it is
something
that
will
to say
The odds are against them coming out of their comas.
happen. Here are
examples:
2
verbs and verbal phrases:
•
I bet
you never write
honesty.
I'd
stake
my
life
on
his
adjectives
and
I
changing much in the
assume he knows what
9.
coming down.
Presumably,
Maybe
he'll be back.
In all probability, today.
even this morning - conceivably within the next
half an hour.
d Don't bet on him staying
Doubtless
Which of these is likely
Q Tick a
to happen? really
happened,
hitting this
region,
can't see
why
little
doubt that the project has great
I
must confess
to a
few reservations concerning the
I have my doubts as to the wisdom of going ahead with such a project, d There's every chance that the doubts being expressed about the project will be unfounded,
they shouldn't
all
pass.
The odds
are against such a project getting off the
ground,
be having our weekly meeting on
Friday, I
have
ultimate success of the project,
e we'll
I
c
what
she?
presume
(/) the sentences in which the speakers
potential,
sentences suggest that something
b There's an outside chance of a tornado
d
end of the week.
are optimistic that the project will go ahead.
he'll ring first.
a She's hardly likely to tell us
I
until the
Practice
b
c
of the government doing a
There's a strong /a distinct
adverbs and adverbial phrases:
is
at
that interest rates will fall in the near
possibility that interest rates will be reduced.
1
bus
U-turn.
There's every chance / likelihood of interest
future.
•
a
time of night,
phrases:
The chances are rates
this
c There's every likelihood
He's bound / certain / sure to arrive at some point.
noun
unlikely to
b There's not much chance of us catching
he's doing.
adjectival phrases:
He's highly unlikely to arrive before
•
a
I don't doubt that he could do the job.
foreseeable future. •
sentences suggest that something happen? It seems odds on their getting married before the end of the year,
is
to her.
I can't see the situation
Which of these
f
It's
g
I
odds on that the project will
do
fall flat
on
its
face,
believe that, contrary to public opinion, the
project has every chance of success,
h There's no way this project of day I assure you.
56
is
going to see the
light
i
I
wouldn't bet against
this project
O
being the best
thing to happen to us since the Euro. j
Barring a miracle, this project
is
reckon there's a good
chance
you
talk so loudly,
Q
Fill
each of the numbered blanks in the passages with one word.
0-
you don't mind.
Q Rewrite
Just
each of the following
Thank you
subjunctive.
The commanding
officer
gave the order for them to go forward. The commanding
officer
I
gave the
(1)
agree that
it is essential you be fully (1) with the facts of the case. They are as follows. It was agreed six months ago that, come what (2), the above residence (3) decorated inside and out before the end of June. This has not happened and my solicitor has recommended (4) with legal
sentences using the Present
Example:
for your e-mail.
(2)
for a
week (3)
you
not eaten or
two and
absolutely
starving and the only
food that
(4)
available to
you was
a
trapped rat that you
I
order that they go forward.
a
Their decision that he should be
promoted
is
a
May
good one.
we
It is
c
informed of any developments, The UN's insistence that he accepts the terms of the cease-fire
seemed inflexible, d Whether the referee
I
suggest that you
as a matter of
b
essential that
(5)
action forthwith.
some
me
(5)
urgency.
noway
of
cooking anyway, would
you be tempted?
are kept fully
c|
Dear Maria,
I
I'm afraid I've got
that Stavros is
right or
not, the decision cannot be
overturned.
we
e
Whatever she
f
change our plans. She insisted that I didn't talk to anyone else about what I saw.
decides,
cannot
my
some bad news. know we agreed it was advisable (1) the summer holidays with you. Unfortunately I
parents have changed their minds and are (2) to Athens to stay with Aunt Sotiria
now
insisting (3)
it
he to say,
they are not allowing any discussion! Athens it is, although he really wishes he (4) at least share the period between you and his aunt. Dimos is going to England for the summer. If only life (5) so simple for all of us. Kind regards,
83
GRAMMAR
SECTION 2
watch out! we
Apart from the meanings above,
Likely conditionals in the past,
X
and future
present
If the weather will be fine tomorrow,
VERB FORMS
IN
we can go for a
walk.
/ 1
don't normally
use will in if-clauses to indicate the future:
THE /F-CLAUSE
If the
weather
is fine
we can go for a
tomorrow,
walk.
Present or future
To
talk
we
think are likely to happen,
about conditions in the present or future that we use Present tenses or modals. This is the most common form of conditional sentence:
comes
If he
•
To
talk
into the room, don't mention the party this
'Can
evening.
I leave early today?' 'If you
about the future,
we
must.
'
can also use going
to
in the tf-clause.
Even
if we're
not going to go swimming, we'd
Can
for ability
is
common
are:
Present
to indicate certainty of the result:
Simple
If you
will
to predict future events,
promises,
still
also
common
will have
in if-clauses:
The
early, we'll be able to
the 6.30 performance.
about events
in the past,
Perfect or Past Simple
/
red,
what
I'll tell
we can
train will have left if we don't get there
it
that
way
wouldn't recommend
going
to
for predictions or intentions: If you do that again, I'm
conditionals in the past):
to the present or future,
if
If he's read that report, he'll
know what
all the fuss is
if you like, but I
it.
4 MIXING TIME REFERENCES
going
to leave.
sometimes possible to have an if-clause referring and a main clause referring to the past, especially with must have and can't have
It is
for deductions:
about. If you've
him.
to express ability, permission, etc:
use Present
Continuous. This suggests
are not sure
make
have happened:
will
something happened, or we are assuming it did and want to draw a conclusion from it (see Overview for false conditionals, and see Section 4 for unlikely that either
you get purple.
etc:
You can do
we
and
soon.
can
talk
blue
to predict
Past
To
mix
Provided I see him,
Assuming you can leave work
make
THE MAIN CLAUSE
IN
Verb forms in the main clause follow the normal rules for tense and modal use. Some of the most
better take a towel. •
FORMS
3 VERB
been telling the truth,
we
need
If he's here already, he
to act quickly.
must have
set off very early.
Provided that she caught her flight, she'll be landing
5 FALSE CONDITIONALS
any moment now.
False conditionals (see
2 WILL /WON'T IN THE /F-CLAUSE
We
sometimes use
will
and won't
when mixing time T
in the if clause with
the meanings of refusal (won't), polite request
Overview) are very
common
references:
don't eat red meat.
'
'Well, if that's a
problem we'll
have to find another restaurant.
(will),
or strong disapproval at someone's insistence on
doing something (will): If he won't go, there is nothing you can do about (= refusal) If you'll hold this end,
Tick (/) the sentence that I'll
take the other one.
(= request) If you will drive so fast,
accidents.
? check it.
you must expect
to
a
We'd
b
If
have
I
is
incorrect.
better get ready if he's
have
to,
I'm going to
tell
coming round soon, him what I think of
him.
(= insistence) c
If
the film will be uninteresting,
we
can leave
before the end.
84
you don't understand, why
d
If
e
If you'll just
wait a
moment,
didn't I'll
see
you ask me? if
he's in.
LIKELY CONDITIONALS IN THE PAST, PRESENT
Q
Practice
Finish each of the following
sentences in such a
Om If
you
leave
surprised
b c
if
lose
If you wait / will wait here a moment, here - assuming hej> / will be in. If
you
trust
/
will trust
providing you have
me,
take
I
/
I'll tell
Mr Brown
you should be what it's like.
you're
If
will take the
money
have
you Ve been
be able to
to him, a
with you now. d If the unit fits / will fit in the corner there, I think it is / will be the best place, unless you can / will think of anywhere else, e If you help / will help me work out whether we need to make another order at the moment, I spend / will spend some time tomorrow helping you with your statistics, if you like / will like will
/
it is
meaning it.
Example: Having been to London,
will lose
/
that
to the sentence printed before
your things lying around, you shouldn't be them,
will leave
/
you
way
as similar as possible in
each of the following sentences, cross out any of the underlined verb forms that we cannot use. a
AND FUTURE
it
tell
able to
tell
us
to
London, you should
us
what
it's like.
Assuming everything goes according to plan, we'll be with
you by
six o'clock.
Unless
b The Finn
is
almost certain to
win, unless his engine blows out
.
during the race. Either
two or
main
three of the
all
clauses (a-c) can complete
the sentences (1-6). Put a cross (X) next to those that cannot. 1
2
3
Do
and
that again
I
c
you would be
a
tell
will
c
he
the boss
is
If Paul's
been to
a
he'll
b
Australia,
If
you're
you
will gossip
right.
about
can't have
If
f
you your dinner
New
Zealand.
If
g
I
you
I
can do
leaving.
you're determined
think
I'll
go swimming
after
school, despite the likelihood of
listening.
c
it's
a
you've got to expect people to gossip
rain at that time.
about you.
Even
other people,
in the
you
There's clearly nothing to stop
been concentrating.
you weren't
clear
did
You'll find
oven.
probably have acquired an accent.
he would certainly go to
b you If
e
a you hadn't been following.
not sure,
still
Why
feel the
think you should go there.
I
c 5
again.
complete recluse.
same way. b the inspection will go all c it would be a bad sign. all
it
If you'll pay for d You giving him your number suggests you did want to see him
sorry.
him about the meeting. you give him a message from me?
can't be a
we
a
feeling
car for your
serviced afterwards.
can't help you.
b
relaxed,
4
b
to see him,
The only way I'll lend you my
holiday on condition you get
I'm leaving.
a
Assuming you're going
If
c
if
b people are gossiping about you. c you can't expect others not to gossip about you.
Q
Fill
each of the numbered blanks in the passage with one word.
'A cat?
...
All right,'
you feed
(2) that
clear
up
after
fed
it
If
it.'
(5)
said, 'on
I
I
do
months ago
and
(6) for
(7)
I
known
poor thing
ignored by them
(9)
they
I
to
as
it
arrived,
(10) ask for a dog,
me,
I
it
after
it,
me
you don't expect
firm!
The animal
would have
is
to
never
starved to death
that the children's interest in the beast I
would have answered (8)
kidnap the thing,
you look
(3) as
had been more
I
it;
as
is
as
(4)
would wane
soon
(1) that
;
I
if it
differently.
The
springs into their laps.
don't think they
think I've got
my
would
notice. Should
answer ready.
85
GRAMMAR
4 SHOULD
SECTION
3
We
Unlikely conditionals in the
and future
present
/F-CLAUSES
IN
can use should in
if-clauses instead
of a Present or
suggests that the condition
Unreal Past.
It
but
unlikely.
We
the
main
possible
is
use will or would or other modals in
clause:
If they should agree the contract,
we'd have
to
work
twice as hard.
VERB FORMS
1
IN
THE /F-CLAUSE
•
Present
formal and roughly equivalent to
is
the phrase by any chance:
When we
If by any chance what happened.
about unlikely or impossible situations the present, we use Past subjunctive or Unreal
in
This structure
talk
Past (see Sections 1.2 and 1.3) in the if-clause to indicate that the opposite
is
I
In
more formal
contexts
we
tell
can also omit
them
if or
other conditional words and start the sentence
true:
know you so well, I'd say you were do know you well)
If I didn't
(= but
•
they do turn up, we'd better
with Should:
lying.
Should you change your mind, please
let
me
know.
If only he weren't so stubborn, he'd agree with us.
(= but he
is
5 IF
stubborn)
We
Future
When
talking about the future,
talking hypothetically
we
use an Unreal
we
are
and think the condition
is
unlikely to be fulfilled:
use be
to in a fairly
will tell
or not. Are
may be
I
don't think
IN
am
to,
and
Were
is to
to (or,
suggest the condition
informally, is
was
to)
very unlikely:
spend the money?
We
can omit
start the
We commonly use when
to,
fulfilled.
of him, who will tell him? Supposing you were to win the lottery, how would you
•
THE MAIN CLAUSE
to express
If we are to get rid
him)
FORMS
way
formal
suggests that the speaker has no
influence over whether the condition will be fulfilled
Suppose your car broke down, what would you do?
2 VERB
It
emphasises that the condition
If you told him, he'd never believe you. (=
clause
ARE TO I WERE TO
conditions.
Past tense in the if-clause to indicate that
you
...
would and could in the main there is an Unreal Past or Past
with
if or
other conditional words and
sentence with Were. This
Were we to take on more pay them?
subjunctive in the if-clause:
is
not possible
are: staff,
how
could
we
afford to
If I weren't so busy, I'd take a long holiday.
If you lent
We
•
me
£10, I could
buy
it
today.
also use might:
She might stay longer if you asked her
nicely.
WOULD IN /F-CLAUSES We use would and wouldn't in if-clauses 3
requests and strong wishes that
for polite
someone would do
following sentences refer to conditions
in the present (P),
something: If you
Which of the
would
be kind
enough
to lend
could finish this very quickly.
down for a moment, you'd
see
me
If you
a hand,
talking about.
If you asked him nicely, he'd you have the day off. b If you were a bit more
a
considerate, you'd offer
watch out!
We
don't use would in if clauses to indicate simple
X
I think
you'd be
jou
-
tottery
IN
viou\d ^ou do?
vihai
each of the numbered blanks with one
suitable word.
we
In accordance with your recent request,
are pleased
supply the following reference. Miss Baiocci
to
(1),
I
organisation,
way
am
sure, be a real asset to your
knowing
company such
a
few duties here
that
could
I
entrust her with, and
you
she does a great deal about the
as
(2)
(5)
organisational and interpersonal
not clear that she area,
is
you,
a
skills. If it
everything
(7)
keep her here. Assuming
happy
to
we know
or phrase.
her
we
(9) to lose her,
c
I
(11)
required, please do not hesitate to contact me.
a
way
that
as similar as possible in
it is
Example:
I
don't
know
if
meaning
f
remember where I am. If that wisdom tooth is
a
I
Nico's not very
to
don't
know whether we were
I'd
good
at
maths so he
can't
g
If
become
an accountant.
h
If
we
to
make you change your
know.
Supposing the world was going to end tomorrow, what would you do tonight?
1
Were
down
so
you would can't go and work
can explain what
I
I
mean.
2
in
France because
I
3
can't
speak French very well. 4
If
f
I
think you should complain to the manager.
If
5
h
I
we
think not having school on
Mondays and having good idea.
shorter holidays sounds quite a I
think
it
might be quite nice
if
with a
if
you need me,
j
Thank you. Yes, please do.
a
I'm sorry
b
I
c
If
d
I
I'm sure you would.
I
couldn't
it.
think
best
said yes?
e
Could you let me know you change your mind? You'd feel better if you
f
if
I
might be
it
some
fresh
air.
Why
7
Don't you think
didn't
we were I
would
you
tell
me?
it's
time
Well, actually,
rather
Do you
6
8
i
Would you mind if I asked them along?
got
it
are
left (1-8)
i
if
If
g Supposing we do go ahead with the building, can't be before June.
from the
a sentence
be next door.
make
If I
some overtime may
Friday deadline,
10 Should I'll
e
out,
this note?
+j io + Would it be all right we sat here?
If by
d Kindly calm
I
Mrs Hebden while you're
into
Examples: q
b Should anything happen
c
giving you trouble,
response on the right (ah).
9
me
by any
Q Match
late.
Were let
fit
be necessary.
had a watch,
mind,
you weren't
out.
have a watch. If
that
of a helping hand,
could you give her I
you
react?
Should you ever
it.
we're late because
told
e
Finish each of the following sentences in such
the sentence printed before
to if
I
d Considering his age and the seriousness of the operation, it would be a survived it.
(12) any further information be
enjoy.
were you. Supposing someone to do your job, I
being taken on by a company with a reputation such as
you
ground, everyone will have to
b Your brakes are making an odd noise;
this
(8) to
that she
scheme
If this
pull their weight,
(6)
determined to move away from
we would (10) be
(3) join
to
each of the blanks with a suitable word
Fill
confidently
she were
if
soon come
(4)
There are very
as yours operates.
we
I'd
didn't.
wish you had. only
I
had!
suppose
Far be
it
it is.
from
me
to
discourage you.
g Of course I will. h Perhaps I would.
leaving? if
I
could,
you
know. 87
GRAMMAR
SECTION 4
•
For Past conditionals that have results in the
we
present or future,
use mainly would, could or
might:
Past conditionals
wouldn't be 1
VERB FORMS
We
use Unreal Past Perfect
in
we know what happened
the if-clause to indicate •
but are speculating
you
I
could be Prime
known my
If I
number, she would have phoned.
know
(= but she didn't
If you
3
Had
I
if and start
WOULD HAVE
some
believed her for one moment, I wouldn't have
we
use Past
don't use Unreal
...
visit?
WOULD HAVE
idiot, I
considered incorrect by
known how
expensive
was,
it
I
wouldn't
have gone. •
the past:
wasn't / weren't such an
It's still
people:
If I'd have
Occasionally, something that is generally true although we wish it wasn't - can have results in
done
We
were in the area, why didn't you come and
written English.
with Had:
refused to help.
If I
clause.
The use of would have in both if-clause and main clause is becoming very common in spoken and even
hadn't been standing outside the supermarket, we
can omit
main
it)
might never have met.
We
false conditionals in the past,
Past Perfect in the if-clause:
conditional: If she'd
With
tenses in the
about what would have happened if the opposite had been true. This is sometimes called the 'Third'
•
carefully to his directions,
now.
Minister now.
that
•
lost
If only I'd entered politics earlier,
THE /F-CLAUSE
IN
more
If you'd listened
wouldn't have
sometimes difficult to hear Past conditionals spoken at speed because of short forms: Fd've come at once if only you'd've rung me. It's
that.
4 PAST CONDITIONALS WITHOUT CONDITIONAL If it
hadn't been
This phrase means 'without her, your,
etc. help,
We can use the phrase If
interference, etc.'.
wasn't for... to refer to the present, though
reference
is
clear,
WORDS We often
for...
it
weren't
it
if
the time
can occasionally refer to the
If it wasn't for the parking problem, I'd drive
I
to
But for your
past:
work.
help,
we'd never have managed.
We'd have been completely lost without you. You should have come - you'd have loved it.
The film would have been just as
time. it
not been for Wagner, modern classical music
would sound very
like if or
unless:
If it hadn't been for you, we'd never have got there on
Had
use a Past conditional structure without
using a conventional 'conditional word'
effective in black
and white.
different.
If it wasn't for / hadn't been for those delays on the
motorway we'd never have missed
the wedding.
Were In formal English we can use conditional structures beginning with Were + Perfect infinitive:
Were you
seen the error of your ways.
2 VERB FORMS
? check
and considered, you'd have
to have stopped
Tick
IN
use modal Perfects (would
I
could
I
might have,
etc.):
Had you about
told
me
which
refer to the past.
earlier, I
could have done something
If
I
wasn't so tired
all
the time,
made such an elementary
For Past conditionals that have results in the past,
we
the sentence that has both an if-clause and a
clause
THE MAIN CLAUSE a
•
(
GRAMMAR
SECTION
•
3
We
use the pattern adjective
+
though
subject
Hard as they
Concession clauses
managed
unexpected way. These clauses can be introduced with conjunctions such as although, (even) though, however, etc. Some of these words and phrases introduce the known or background information; others introduce the unexpected contrast.
•
We
Much see •
it
The
two
tried, the
meaning
as,
as
I detest the
POSITION OF LINKING
WORDS AND PHRASES
Concession clauses can come as the part of a sentence: I
stayed until the end, although I
first
I
was extremely
(— focus on
idea of punishing children, I can
prepositions in spite of and despite can be noun phrase or -ing form:
•
We
use a family of words ending
bored, I stayed until the end.
staying)
3 INTRODUCING THE
UNEXPECTED CONTRAST
•
important to use the conjunction with the
She
may
We
often add another
be
He
was much too hot, even though I went out Even though it was much too hot, I went out. .
left
me
for him.
•
often express contrast or opposition by
second sentence with an adverbial: The weather was terrible. Nevertheless, we decided to go ahead with the picnic. Personally, I'm dead against
and phrases can come
adverbials
saw my
know standards have
all the
can't come.
I
at the
use
We
was
We
many
loving him. she's been
Nevertheless
Even so, I - however,
I
continued dancing.
went on dancing. I carried
same,
I
on dancing.
refused to stop
dancing.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
different patterns
and structures to
She's decided to travel alone, even
though
warned.
I see
your point,
I still
There were minutes left to the deadline, even though we refused to panic. b Our project is meeting with considerable success, much as we might like it. c I spent hours on the Internet even so I knew I was wasting my time, d Despite of his youth, he had a very mature
think you're wrong.
Whilst Anne's usually pleasant, she can often be badtempered.
Correct the following sentences. a
While and whilst (formal) can replace although:
106
a full-stop, a semi-colon or a
(-):
I felt really tired; all the
didn't speak, though.
use the conjunctions although, though and even
While
They follow
I felt really tired.
nice of you to invite me,
though followed by a verb phrase: Although she knew about his past, she couldn't help
•
use a range of adverbs and adverbial phrases to
dash
end
express concession. •
changed, but even so
acceptable.
same.
2 INTRODUCING
We
It
TV aren't
I felt really tired
ex-fiance last night.
I'm afraid
to
in the lurch, but still I have tender feelings I
I felt really tired.
of the second sentence: /
We
contrast.
the plan. However, I think I'm in the minority.
Some
I love her.
word or phrase
introduce a second sentence that introduces a
starting a
•
most frequent word to
strengthen the contrast:
ft
We
the
annoying sometimes, but
such scenes on •
is
introduce a contrast:
right part of the sentence:
/
-ever, e.g.
matter how, what, who, etc.': However many times you ask me, I'm not moving. Whichever day you visit, I won't be at home.
bored.
watch out!
X
car.
Max went swimming.
however, whatever, whoever, to express the idea 'no
In everyday English, but
It's
'although', with verbs
In spite of the price, I've decided to buy the
(= focus on being bored)
Although
a peace
was, they finally
it
followed by a
or second
was very
sides couldn't agree
its uses.
Despite feeling dreadful, 1
as or
to talk about strong feelings:
like, hate, etc.
has
+
reach a compromise.
to
use much
such as
adverb
/
verb in emphatic sentences:
Difficult though
settlement.
Concession clauses give information that contrasts with or opposes the facts in the main clause in an
+
approach to e
life,
good way of punishing people, however they are of no use if they cannot be Fines are a
paid.
CONCESSION CLAUSES
Q Combine
Practice
word
linking
Q Rewrite each of
the following sentences using
Make any necessary changes
the words given.
Nevertheless,
to
I
We've got no money but we're very happy, (even) b The wind blew all the time, but we still managed like her new boyfriend but I don't trust him. (however) d I know there's an economic recession, but our profits should still be higher, (all the same) e Reorganisation is a good idea but it would cause friction in this department, (while) f I love Sting's music, but I still thought his latest I
My grandad's
feef
something for Alan even though
There has been strong European competition. have secured the order, all the same. yet
many who
there are
we
think
should
d
I've
still
manages
e
(even so)
each of the numbered blanks in the
Human
nature
worked I
type
1
(1)
I
to
I
(3)
for a
man my
who'd agree
he was
is
1
summer
(6) a quiet
I
Q
I
know
to be pleasant, the
know
there
is
a
Even
(2),
work
to
he turned out for.
matter
never enough
b
I
job,
man, he manages
(7)
of the day.
1 I'm
not.
genuine desire
he tears them
do a good
to
of the season
I
(9)
liked to,
I
staff who left know what to do
to
seem, in for
as possible to
(13)
it
didn't matter
how
him
I
love chips, but
them However e
I
f
hard
Even
we
so,
I
tried,
look dull
we
in
it.
still
to lower the price.
my
doctor says they're bad for
sell their
land even
if
you
substantial sums.
I'm not working overtime, however often they ask
car
still
runs surprisingly well considering
it is
over ten years old. have
that
may
isn't it?
My
really
(15) of him, the cafe has a reputation
being a very friendly place. Strange,
year's colour.
me.
his
you might put (14)
It
offered
never admit
him about
Grey is this Although
No
(12) as I'd
cowardice. Incredible
five
(10),
(11), he'd
didn't think confronting
temper would work,
down
meaning it.
Much
though
on working there every evening. And he
didn't
as similar in
d They'd never agree to
(8)
he forced
they were perfectly competent. All the
it.
it is
me.
every hour
off a strip
You may think I'm exaggerating
During the height
missed the
that
Hard c
such an
to project
waitresses to hand in their notice
carried
Finish each of the following sentences in such
way
couldn't get
hours of him. Despite
for
a
hard you
(4)
how many
(5) it's
their best, out of fear or a
and
moral code with regard to I think in this case we might
so,
the sentence printed before
aggressive image in his cafe. His employees try to do
1
You, on
go ahead.
a
always unsatisfactory,
overtime you do,
my feelings.
always been honest about
have coffee with you even
to
terribly busy.
1 work and
I
family
be the most impossible person
you do
do.
spite
a strange thing. This
is
we
whereas
to
passage with one suitable word. I
think as
the other hand, have not.
customers. Even Fill
he's
despite
I still
over ninety, but
active,
still
b The future for rain forests looks bleak. However, no one is giving up. although c There are many dissenters, yes. At the same time,
was disappointing, (much)
In spite of her inexperience,
remain
something for him.
We
take her on. (and yet)
h
feel
behaved terribly towards me. a
to enjoy ourselves, (nevertheless)
CD
I still
even
a
g
given.
Example: Alan's behaved terribly towards me.
punctuation.
c
each pair of sentences using the
Even
g
I
like
the
lyrics,
despite the fact that
music is dreadful. While h His daughter has startling
I
think the
intelligence,
though she
wastes most evenings playing computer games. Intelligent
107
Unit six
I
2
Vocabulary
each of the blanks with one suitable word. to sell with a view
Fill
a They're
making b
a quick profit while the going's
I'm intent c
SECTION 4 Apart from linking clauses, and result in other ways. 1
•
we
my
notice.
AND EFFECT
Noun
Verb
Money
Money has an
affects attitudes.
can use vocabulary items with meanings related purpose and intention in different parts of speech.
We
often express purpose and intention using
mean /plan / intend / aim / hope
Peer pressure has
teenagers.
influence on teenagers.
shape/
Statistics will
to retire before
Statistics will
on
This will entail / involve/
We
necessitate further
can also use nouns: hope /
There will be a need for further research as a result / in consequence.
research.
aim / (stated) intention / (overriding) ambition is to jump over 16 metres. (ultimate)
This will have long-term
repercussions /
far-reaching implications.
Adjectives can also express such ideas:
I'm eager/ keen / determined / resolved / tempted
•
world before
Noun and
I settle
Stress
to
down.
Stress
has
many
things.
its
roots in
verbal phrases can likewise express aims 3
Pam
has high hopes of winning. They've no intention of backing down. John has no thoughts of marrying. I've half a mind to resign. I'm toying
with the idea of moving.
I've
made up my mind
He's set his heart on getting a moped.
Which of these words noun and a verb? result
influence
stem
is
not both a
affect
effect
need
mould
to
She
Practice
harbours a dream of getting married in the Seychelles. •
stems from many
things.
and intentions:
leave.
have a bearing
policy.
dictate policy.
I'm 45.
see the
an
Peer pressure influences
determine / mould /
My goal / dream / (short-term) plan / (sincere)
•
on
effect
attitudes.
verbs:
•
becoming qualified. tell him that I've no thoughts
Verb and noun structures, as well as adverbial phrases, can express result, cause and effect.
can express purpose
PURPOSE AND INTENTION
J
to
2 RESULT, CAUSE
effect
We to
I'm of a
giving in
Expressing purpose and
good,
of completing the course because
every
I've
Prepositional phrases can also express purpose and
Q
Fill each of the numbered blanks in the passage with a verb from the list.
motive:
She did the course in the hope of getting / with a
view to getting/ with the aim of getting a job in
causes
means
results
leads
affects
graphic design. 1
aim
rapid
point
be able b The
reason
to use
of learning a language
The
growth
108
many
in the
beautiful
tourism industry
towns and
villages
(2)
to
latter's
the
way
have
local people regard their visitors,
arrogant dismissive behaviour often
it?
announce the coming fiscal year,
for this broadcast
ultimate
is
the
changes in taxation for
promote
(1) that
ceased to belong to their inhabitants. This naturally
a Surely the whole
c
The recent
each of the gaps below with one of these nouns. Fill
is
to
of the organisation
international understanding.
(3) friction. (4) to
'invaders' is
to
open
which
atmosphere that
Indeed, this friction sometimes hostility
between
(5) in is
'natives'
an inhospitable
to neither side's advantage.
and
and
EXPRESSING PURPOSE AND EFFECT
Tick
(
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