God - A Brief History

GOD A BRIEF HISTORY

john bowker

THE HUMAN SEARCH FOR ETERNAL TRUTH

GOD a

brief

I

I'rom

history

he Daert

liitrodiiclioii,

page 27

Y*»v-

Al^

GOD a

brief

history

JOHN BOWKER

)nriil>a C r-'rom

;)a'r/r)/(s

page

DK

antiig

Introduction

.

page 25

I'UBLISIIINC;, INC.

Hiiiuble Servant Iriiiii

India, page 81

London

•

New

York • Stutlgart •

Moscow

Contents LONDON. NEW YORK, SYDNEY, DELHI. I'.XRIS. MLINIClL.ind JOII,\N\ESIiUHG

DK

Sen Moore

Creative Director

I'ln.i

Chuck

Editorial Diivctor

lor

INTRODUCTION The Death Rejecting

Wills

Chris. Vuhcrinr,s

Pnidiiclion

DK

Cod

Speaking of

d

Cod God

ot

Experiencing the World Experiencing

Manager

Project

.Art

Sharon Rudd Donna Wood

liditor

Cod

Phenomenology

Kate Grant

Prnjecl Editor

8

Cod

of

The Images

FiihlishinR. Inc. hy

stutd io cactus

Project

6

Three and

One God

64

Critcisms of

68

The

72

Fierce Deities

\augh.in

Kaufman

Dirk

.\n Director

Produced

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

I'lihl.shiiig. Inc.

I'uhlislK-r

Cod and

Values

The Death and

Life of

Cod

10

Amitabha

12

Early Philosophies

76

14

Rama and

78

16

flanuman

80

IH

The Puranas

82

74

Puiiuariuia

20

The Upanishads

84

22

Philosophers

86

24

Vishnu

90

26

Krishna

94

Krishna and Radha

96 98

Vishnu and Krishna Krishna and Devotion

100

Sex and Tantra

102

I'lihlishea in ihe L nited States hv

DK s:s

Ne«

I'lililishins.

Inc

lliKisi.n Slreet

NV

V.rk.

Shiva's C (ipyrifiht

:?•

A >^^

ft

/9

^-.-r-'-'^

^

f^

*

In the Besinnin Early in hi pcrsisiiuo foitinhitions in the lunumi senrch lor

ik

*"

;<

\

(^,()d.

In the Beginning THE HUMAN SEARCH

l-OR

GoD

began long

before the invention of writing and

(much

and

beliefs

had

remembered and passed on by word

Much

(oral tradition).

w hich there are many

be

it is

makes

what the

it

about

or

it

how

world) were

what they meant

them. From the known

times

beliefs

and practices of the

may have been, but

certaint\ about

to the people

we

can be seen only from the

mean

Many of these when suniving

used or

w hat the

out over nearly 400 square

They

are so

extensive and complicated that the overall design

God and Goddess

texts suggest built

laid

miles of desert in Southern Peru.

unco\er the remains of buildings. later periods

lines

(sometimes called "the eighth wonder of the

is

were. Archaeologists recover artefacts and

resemble those of

in the case of early beliefs

To take onlv one example; the Nasca

but

equally impossible to know

earliest beliefs

or inscription, there

about God.

is still

\\a\",

old

to

mouth

has changed over time.

it

Ihis

in this

know how

impossible for us to

much

information

and transmitted

preser\'ed

of

te.xt

can be wild guesses and extreme statements, of

later) of printing. In the earliest stages,

therefore, ideas, stories,

For the earliest periods, therefore, without the controlling record of

w ho

to those

who

air.

What

did they

created but could never see

them? Some have claimed that they were runways made for visitors from outer space w ho were then believed to be supernatural beings first gods. The archaeologist Anthony Aveni mapped them onto water supplies and suggested

the

infer

earlier

there cannot be any

that they

demarcated access

auspices of guardian

it.

spirits

to

water under the

(man\ designs are of

XS!^-

\ m

1Sl

S^i

India The name Hinduism was

given in the l^th

beliefs

exists in India.

The word comes from

Persian hindii. Sanskrit sindhii.

meaning

the

It

therefore

more than one

means

Indian.

billion people,

Of

characteristics, but they are expressed

in different

ways: village religion, for example,

Historically, Indian religion

misleading, because

about 80 per cent

more dispersed no single "Hinduism The

some

seen as

day and may be

have lasted

affected by later innovations.

is

to the present

The

AFGHANISTAN '^^

©Amritsar

,

,

oKailasa

o /^o Kedarnath ^ ,

oLhasa

Tibet

Punjab .

Delhic

Brinaban

A^^

.^^^

(Vrindaban)®^.., .,%

Mathura

c

njliului. hnt nuiui ludhiii rcii,^,nus

Innv ihcn

owu

M/ti'Ci/ Liiiiiiuiucs nichhliiifi llic

o/

Dnivid'uiii ;;)('i((

"Brahmanism" (from Brahmans, controllers of

sec sciipl. iihovc^

/(ii(ui(ii' are

jnd what ihev can become on the basis

ot that

knowledge.

I

III

I

!

wiMi

in the Upanishads, llie word Hrahman came to mean the source of power, and Supreme One that alone truly is, who (or

and then

In SlhitujHitu llnthiinnia,

look on a dilTerent meaning. ihcielore the impersonal.

It

'which") creates, supports, and rules the whole universe. According to

pammam", "Brahman is Supreme One that does not change [or 'perish']." Brahman is thus the Supreme Lord (Parameshvara, para, "supreme + ishviini "Lord") oF all things including the Gods. Brahman brings all things into being through the power known as maya, which means that all things reveal what Brahman is. People do not usually see Brahman ihc elliptical Brahnuisiitni 8.3, "alishamm bruhina the

'

(.lirectly

because thev impose their own interpretations on what they

see. In that wa\,

Brahman

also a cloak that prevents the realization ol

is

i;/(/V(/

as the only truth, the reality of

that

all

people

is:

look at a piece of rope on a path and superimpose on that to

is

it

a snake.

see what

and also how

of salvation and release

such

to live in

own person

one's

The way

way

actually the case (the

is

(the

way

a

way

This realization

Brahman

is

(CIreat Sayings of the Iraiii-asi),

Sell

is

in the

Upanishads) All this

is

""You are

is

not (nor

is

{tat;

see box,

N4ahavakyas That

Brahman,

Brahman, Pure Consciousness

Pirahman

one has

to realize that

because there

is,

summed up

am Brahman,

I

how

realizes the truth in

e\er has been) anything else but that - or That left).

to learn

is

of yoga).

ways one eventually comes

In these

always been whatever

may

the belie

of knowledge, jwin^d

one

that

it

Itat-

This

Brahman

'".

without attributes {nirguna) and

is

cannot be described but only attained. Ol Brahman

one can only say what Brahman "not this, not this".

If,

then.

unprodueed Producer of

all

not,

is

Brahman that

is,

iieii.

iieti.

is

the

including the

Cloddesses and Gods, the question immediately arises:

what

is

the relationship between

Brahman

and God and Goddess? lb that question the great Indian philosophers turned their attention.

What In origin,

Brahman?

is

Brahman

is

connected with power:

Brahmans

The word brahman comes perhaps from "to increase", "to strengthen". in

which

of those

sacrifices

who

offer

and

It

rituals act

them. In the

especially in Atharva Veda, the

beings

p.

become

great.

grow great

",

have referred to the way

use of the word

meaning of Brahman It is

Only

"'to

almost magically to increase the power

is

in

the Vedas, and

the mysterious

also the sacred utterance or chant

129) through which rituals

(dei'as)

meaning

initially to

earliest

force behind a magical formula.

{mantra,

seems

a root

become

later is

it

effective,

and the heavenly

the Source of

all

that

is.

Bnihmans

(often in English

Brahmins) were custodians of ritual and intermediaries

between

God and

the world.

\ns

Philosophers Shaiiluim Ch.\NDOGYA Upanishad, Uddalaka teaches his son, Shvetakctu, all manifestation is an expression of

INabout the way in which Brahman: only,

"In the beginning, dear one, this

without a second. True, some people

was non-being

one

(asat) alone,

without contingent existence;

was produced.' But

only,

being be produced from non-being?

without a second

[i.e.,

how

On

that

I

hhvara

How

could this be?

Would

that

extend myself.

It

me

were many! Let

I

God, hhvara, in one of Shankara's temples reflects the TrUuurti {p.90} action of

God in the universe. But God is God only to those still in ignorance: to know Brahman is to know that Cod

follows that

It

forth fire.

many

all

appearance

sparks that

seem

sent forth

individual, but they are

known

as

Atman)

Brahman. To think otherwise

Gaudapada

According

it

in his

and

fire,

all

fire

sends

expressions of (the inner

is

Atman

wrong idea, commentary on Miindaka

impose on our

to

is

in

thought,

things).

not different from Brahman.

is

(8th century CE) put

Upanishad (see box, top

only a form of appearance.

all

This means that the essential nature of what a person

self or soul,

It

not different from Brahman:

is

could

extend myself

(6.2.1-3; the sequence extends itself into the creation of

The three-headed fonn of

is

me

were many! Let

the fire thought.

essence

the contrary', dear one, this

the beginning was Being alone, one only, without a second.

Would

one

alone,

(sut)

the beginning this

pp.268f]: from that non-being, being

cf.

dear one,

in truth,

was Being

say, 'In

self a

is

as

right).

to tradition,

Gaudapada was the teacher

of the great

philosopher, Shankara (788-822CE). Shankara developed this nondualistic is

way

Brahman and appearance,

of understanding

no duality between the two except

perception. This philosophy

is

therefore

Brahman

dualism). For Shankara,

When Brahman

extends

is

which

known

is

in

which there

superimposed by

false

as Advaita (a-dvaita, non-

Absolute Being without any

in which no distinctions and of which nothing can be said.

Brahman),

attributes or qualities (nirguna

between subject and object

that

exist,

itself into

manifest appearance, clearly some

Sat-Cit-Ananda Absolute Being. Pure Consciousness, Complete Blis Sat-cil-aiunida characterizes the essence of

Brahman

as

known

(incompletely) in

human

preceding cause.

C'it,

experience. Sat, "being" or "truth", emphasizes the

Brahman

unchanging nature of Brahman

luminous essence of

existence preceding

all

as pure unqualified

other existence and

experience, so that (following Samkhya, effect

p.

77) the

must necessarily be carried within the

"consciousness", emphasizes

Brahman experience: way of knowing, the knowing which makes

the conscious nature of

possible "bliss

".

is

all

the ultimate

self-

other derivative experience. Ananda,

emphasizes the sublime \alue of the

experience of Brahman.

Brahman as way is known

things can be said From a limited perspective.

characterized in a provisional and incomplete

saguna Brahman (Brahman with characteristics): example, that Brahman

For

Consciousness

(cit)

is

absolute Being

and complete

or sacchidanaiida (see

(iiiaiida,

To come

to the

below

"A rope not clearly seen in the

as

dark

said,

like a

pure

(sat),

Bliss (ananda),

bo.\,

can be

it

i.e.,

leFt).

to

is

transcend ignorance and misperception and to see things For what they truly are -

p. 92) as

supreme way

to

knowledge

not an abstract intellectual assent.

is

moksha

(release

From endless

oneselF the union that has always (because

been the case but oF that union

is

As

salt

is

Atman

is

grasped as a personal truth.

ecstatic joy, since

awareness that one bliss.

now

is

it

is

is

absorbed

is

only a

Self

Brahman) result

absorbed and

whose nature

itselF,

it,

its

Many

maya. Ishvara or

different

is

the ocean sustains

appearance, but

is

to

immanent

the Lord oF Maya,

ish, "to

Brahman

be

in the

name Antaryamin. But Ishvara is also transcendent, because as Brahman, however much conditioned and reflected obliquely in our is

the

then destroys the universe (see caption, top accessible and

is

Not

the end oF his short

God:

and

praise,

surprisingly, thereFore,

According

liFe

and the guide

to restore

age oF 32 he

set out For Kailasa, the

seen no more. Even

leFt

was

to

Kedarnath

abode oF Shiva

so, there

Far,

to

is

is

the object

good and moral

much

toward;

temples and monasteries

move

in the

closer to

Himalayas,

(pp. lObF^

and was

were others who thought

that the non-duality oF Shankara's system

too

creates, sustains,

Because Ishvara

leFt).

Shankara did

to tradition, his last act

at the

things.

our only access to Brahman, Ishvara

oF worship, devotion, liFe.

all

One who

had reduced God

and they oFFered diFFerent interpretations

ol

Vedanta:

many

size

the)'

and

are all

brought them into being and

the

In relation to the world, Ishvara

not

identical with the ocean that

universe which he governs From within - and as the inner ruler receives

perception, Ishvara necessarily transcends

is

from Brahman:

waves of different

Being creatively into appearance through

and Ishvara thus allows Brahman

God

Wax'es

All appearance

rellected (experienced directly but not immediately, p. 20) through the veil oF

is"

sustains them.

then identiFied aparaTiirahman with Ishvara (From

(p. 85),

with

so

in

Brahman extends

as

it is

is

indistinguishable From

is

have power"), the Indian word For Lord or God. Ishvara the power oF maya

So

(Mandukyalumlui 2.170

perceived in provisional and approximate ways).

Shankara

rope'.

the discernment ofivhat the

Brahman (Chandogya Upariiihad 4.13.1-3). Does this account eliminate God? Shankara thought not. He argued that, strictly speaking, it is not Brahman oF whom one says Sat-citaiiamla, because iF Brahman really is beyond language and description, to say anything about Brahman is to speak about less than Brahman. Shankara thereFore distinguished between para-Brahman (Supreme Brahman) and apara-Brahman (saguna Brahman as above. Brahman

Atman

oj water.

brings into conscious

not other than Being

put in water

"This

to realize For

The

be things

non-duality with the recognition,

the

rebirth), but that It is

to

consciousness becomes aware oj

not other than Brahman. Advaita thcreFore

i.e.,

emphasizes jwflMa-yoga (the way oF knowledge,

imagined

The Self is misperceived in the same way. But when the rope is seen for what it is, false perceptions are dissolved, and

sat-cit-

knowledge and experience oF Brahman

is

snake or a trickle

j?^--«--^5^ Z-,^—"^l?"

Philosophers Raman uja and Madhva HANKARA DID NOT DENY the importance of dexotion to Cod; he came from South India where Bhakti flourished (p.9S).

S:Even

so,

Ramanuja

(1

1th- 12th centuries CE), also from

South India, believed that Shankara had

gi\'en too little status to

God. As a philosopher, he pressed home the logic of Shankara s arguments about Brahman. He agreed that Brahman is real and indeed is the only realit\ Poitiible

Worship

\'ish)ui the Perxculer is

worshipped

iti

all places.

Sviall shrines

which can be

carried about

mean

is

that he

present to be worshipped

there

But, in that case, the conclusion that

is.

cannot be a conclusion about "less" to be.

To

posit

less

apara-Brahman

anv statement about Brahman

Ramanuja argued

pp.l6f).

is

that

Brahman

is

Sat-cit-anaiuki

than Brahman, because there (p. 87) is a

approximate, corrigible, and is

it

is

no

clumsy way of saying

that

fallible (ct.

nevertheless an appro.ximate and

Brahman - not something less than Brahman. agreed that Brahman is the unproduced Producer of all

corrigible statement about

ei'er^ii'here.

Ramanuja that

is,

also

whom

in

effects are always contained in their causes,

and

that

consequenth- there cannot be anything that does not come from Brahman. This means that matter and conscious selves are inseparable from Brahman e.xist apart from Brahman. The inseparability of this relationship he called aprithak-sicUhi - but the relationship is not one ol complete

and cannot

Just as consciousness relates to a

identitv'.

and yet

is

not identical with

it,

so

body and

Brahman

is

relates to

inseparable from

it,

sehes and their bodies

by being inseparable from them and yet not identical with them. Just as a person

world as

its

is

a self

unqualified identity but

is,

in-difference, an identity in

sustaining the other. So multiplicity here",

rather,

its

body, so

which one part predominates, controlling and the Upanishads declare, "There is no

when

Ramanuja took

of apparent objects dualit}'),

Brahman has the Brahman is not an an organic unity made up ot identity-

(Atman) with

body, inseparable but not identical.

is

that to

mean

but that the multiplicity of objects

would be unable

not that the multiplicits

in fact illusory (as in Advaita

to exist apart

(i.e.,

where there

of creation)

is

is

no

real

but

from Brahman.

By arguing that Brahman is present in the uni\erse as its body, Ramanuja qualified the non-dualism of Shankara, so that his own system is known as V'ishishtadvaita, qualified non-dualism. As with Shankara, Ishvara (Brahman as God) is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of all universes, but for Ramanuja, Brahman is realistically present in the lorm of God (not present in a partial and reflected way). This means that lor

Ramanuja the knowledge and worship

of

God

gain e\en greater

importance, because they are the knowledge and worship of Brahman, not of apara-Brahman. Not only Kjnaiia (knowledge) a

(moksha), so too

is

dc\otion or Bhakti, along w

ith total

way

to release

surrender to

God

I'iiii

(callcil

his follow CIS pnipiiili).

l)\

leads lo w

It

diirsliuini-suiiuniiiliimi-jiinihi, a direct

H\cn lurthcr than

that,

sensing

people to worship God, but

means

in

God that God is not

approach

that the

to

to the three higher castes:

is

it

ol

Cod.

basis ol the widely

rooted not in the ellort ot

is

the purpose

by the grace of

is

It

the reality

Ramanuja claimed, on the

reported experience of Bhakti, that Bhakti

possible.

liaiiiaiiLija callcil

lial

ol

(iNoniLKs

God

ol

make Bhakti

to

people see and worship God. This

Brahmanic

limited, as in

possible lor

who

all

receive and

religion,

welcome

the grace of God.

Madhva

(1

197-1276CI;), a Brahman also from South India,

started at the opposite

end and took the

difference to be the most fundamental

can be observed

ol all that

the universe.

in

rise

w a\ and wane with the coming and going of an\ subsequent universe.

Brahman

is

God, and God

God

(pp.91ff).

The

is

distinct

is

and different Irom

God

iil

iiiolisliii

will aiui

one fall,

and

this

is

that

that

.ill

(release)

nuisl begin with

detachment Irom the world and attachment The

and of

identified with Vishnti

has been created, so that the wav to

and the altammenl

at

and

Madhxa

truth for

fact ol diversity

act

Brahman

cannot be identical with the universe, not even remove, since otherwise Brahman would

I

to

God.

determination to take this basic step

come most revealed,

easily from study of what God has namely the Vedas. From the realization

nature and immensity of God, the next step

devotion to God, and that implies doing

all

ol

the

is

things

(including one's worship) without any concern lor the

consequences - except that

this

is

done

for

God.

Instead of desiring molisha, one desires God. By realizing that

relationship

God

is

wholly other and different, a

becomes

possible,

one that pervades ever\

moment and eveiy aspect of life. At the final stage, God removes the veil of misperception altogether, and the one who worships is left alone with the One. All these philosophers

since each of

them

were interpreting the Upanishads

arrived at different (and in

incompatible) results,

it

is

is

to

(pp.tS4l

but

),

respects logically

obvious that the Upanishads do not contain a

coiierent system of philosophy.

purpose

some

As with

virtually all Indian religion, their

important thing

is

to

then supremely important to

live

is

the truth in the practice

and that includes recognizing and worshipping God in one of the many forms in which God becomes manifest in India. Two major forms of God are Shiva (worshipped especially by Shaivites) and Vishnu ol life,

(worshipped especially by Vaishnaivites).

H'l/s ull-iiiii'iirltiiil

Here, worshippers

ip.n?)

captivity of this world.

trLily real. It is

worship

u\iil in

enter the Temple oj

prompt and support those who seek release from the

The major enemy is ignorance, so the most l

dissuKcil ,ind

iC.itagovinda 4.9\6(, 21)

(Citagovinda 12.24.24)

iK-slrivrs

developments,

laler

III

junliculady in the teaching

and ;i/). \ (

tradition of

Caitanya

love as the union

?>6j),

between Kridiiia and l^adha heciiiiies the iiilcriur

meaning oj Urahiiniiis nature - i.e, one wilhoiil differentiation.

"So the encounter in love began,

when

the shudderino of

bodies I

he perfect union between Krishna and Radha

Brahman

(p. 85) is.

is

exactly

what

hindered jinn embrace:

The formula sat-cit-ananda (p. 86) is made Radha as the embodiment of bliss,

where die joy

m>inifest in their union, with llu'

Madini-shakti of Krishna: the relationship

cf. p. 86),

and

way

lose (cf. the

about

God

vet

it

in

is

non-dual {advaita:

a unity constituted in the relationship of

is

which Christians

felt

compelled

to

speak

where the mutual sipping of the honey of each other's

To enter into this divine nature of union-in-relatcdncss

became

Rupa (16th century CE) showed how, within

the confines of the physical body, a spiritual body can be

dc\eloped (/;/(/),

in

which

appearance

w hich

is

God

and the source of

even these seeming hindrances

enhanced the delight

the universe. His contemporary, Krishnadasa

Kaviraja, wrote Govindalilamrita to

show how

Imv-play.

the old discipline

of visualization (pp.72f) can be adapted so that worshippers, careful training, can lose themselves in the

lo\

Though entwined though crushed

and Radha and Krishna (in other words, can lose their own selves God). It takes them far beyond the Vedic imagination of the Gods, even beyond the Creator, Brahma: "I surrender in

after long

of small love-cries. Yet

all

e ot in

astonishment to Shri Krishna Caitanya, the compassionate one

who has cured the world of the madness of ignorance and then maddened it again with the nectar of the treasure of sacred love for himself. The ultimate goal of spiritual development, the

snake on which Vishnu

rests]

and others,

is

through intense longing by those absorbed Vraja [the pastures

(Delmonico, It

was

p.

this

achieved only

in his activities in

where Radha and Krishna met]

in

.

in her

fcr

arms

ihe Height

of her breasts

though smitten by her fifigenuiih though bitten on the

lips t>\

her small teeth

though overwhelmed by the thirst

of her thighs

his locks seized by her

hands

inebriated with the neclur oj

loving service of the lotus-like feet of the friend of the heart of

Radha, though unattainable by Brahma, Ananta [the cosmic

her

lips

he drew immense pleasure jrom

such

siveei torments.

Strange indeed are the

ways of

love!

248).

yearning for God, seen on earth

brought into being the poets

known

in

Krishna, thai

collecti\eiy as the Alvars.

lips

was impeded by the utterances

possible to enter into the divine "play"

the nature of

is

in

it

with searching looks

was interrupted by blinkings;

as Trinity, p. 247).

the goal of devotion.

oj cmitcniplalino

one another

(GitagovimLi

1

2.2.^.1 Of)

Vishnu and Krishna The Ahars ABOUT the 8th century

TiMi; IN

SOME born \\

js

Tirukkuruhur

in

South

saw something unusual

his parents to the local

in

temple dedicated

to Vishnu.

CE, a boy called India. in

The

Maran

story goes that

him, so they took him

He was

placed in the

courtyard under a tamarind tree (the tamarind being the lartfara/incarnation form of the snake

on which Vishnu

rests,

and there he remained for the ne,\t 16 years in a state of deep meditation and trance. He was woken when Madurakavi (later his disciple) asked him a question: "When that which is little p. 90),

is born among the dead, what will it eat and where will it lie?" Maran answered, "It will eat the dead and lie on it." At that moment, Maran awoke and began to sing the hymns that ha\e become known as "the Tamil Veda" (by some, all four of his works are

Butter Thief

lumps

Kriihiia daiichiu uith

of butter he

said to have

is

When

stolen.

Nainiiudvnr

regarded as the Tamil Veda, by others

sang of the episode, he Jell

Maran became known

unconscious at the pain of

human Jault.

cord

to

"He

He

poetry^ the

bemud our

is

is

this

philosophy;

knowledoe.

trul^

not be

is

Naravana (the unproduced Producer and origin of in creation and especially in

-A\atar/incarnation),

and Antarvamin (God guiding within) - the

One

those on their way towards enlightenment and nir\ana would learn to leave behind.

For the Alvars, that was to

"God, the "infinite mystery that distant

day

measured the ivorld with his stride.

Hou'?

But

lias I

come

to

me.

do not know;

life is

that they are.

allowing space for the worship of God, but only in a form that

sivooning in

siveetness

experience. Ihev and the Nayanars (devoted to Shiva, see pp.1 lOf) led the \\a\ in a revival of God-centred devotion. In Nammakars poems, Narayana (Tirumal for the Tamils) God beyond anything that can be said, the One who is the

source of Goddesses and Gods as than words can

But

God

tell

humans know them,

(see box. above

is

greater

left).

as Vishnu perxades the universe, as in the

famous

description of X'ishnu ccnering the universe in three strides; and

since "he (Periya Tiruvandadi 56)

God and negate the God that humans can

tri\ialize

profound and life-changing love of

This day

is

liis

(Tiruvaymoli 2.5.9)

on

and

put into superb

The 12 Tamil AKars lived between the 5th and 8th centuries, when Jains and Buddhists, still numerous in South India, were

form

Wlw

who

Vishnu (God manifest

three being necessarily only the

turn

llnit nici\

God

things).

this.

to liini.

.And yet

Tiruvaymoli alone).

("our immersed-in-God"),

God that Ramanuja (pp.88f) expressed in Nammalvar is the body, the others are his limbs. "AKar means "one who is immersed" in the love of God. For

the 12, all

and not

conies in the form those seek

who

is

understanding of

U'ith a

a stone mortar.

He

it

Nammalvar

the most revered of the 12 Tamil Alvars, the group

Krishna being punished tied, for

as

is

as

much

within as without" (Tiruvaymoli 1.3.2), he

always close (see box,

when \ishnu becomes

left).

That "closeness" takes visible form

incarnate lor

human

rescue:

is

AND

N'lSllNU

The Lord taking Accepts

Coming To

birth as a hniiuni

with

this life

kRISflNA

all its sorroiv,

here within our grasp

raise us

through suffering

To his Being as God" {Tintvayinoli 3. 10.6)

"I'he stories

of Krishna's love of

all

the Gopis express both his love for

all

people and the joy of union with him (samshlesha, the Bhakti of union).

The pain of his parting from them becomes the poetry of absence {viraha

and

ihc Bhakti of yearning

desire).

Nammalvar's hymns express both

conditions, as part of the victon,' of God:

"Glory he! Glor]' he! Glon' he!

The dark weight in life is lifted, Decay is decayed, hell is harrowed: There

Even

"O Lord, measureless in

your

no space here for death.

is

1 hcii'e

the age of Kali will end.

in

Do

crowds over the earth. I

Dancing and singing

not change,

do not desire

his praise"

liniviiytuoli 5.2.

1

I

to

rct|uired of

humans

God

is

to desire

is

the free

do not desire

to

be your

onK

treasure

I

gift

God, not

desire

is

serx'init

in heaven.

of God. All that

is

Not

to forget

I

desire

is

you"

for the sake of reward,

but simply for the sake of God: "Lord measureless in box, right], the

set free

)

Tlie only treasure

This reunion party with

beg you! he

jroin rebirth, I

(

lost iinself in

your grace:

Look! You can see the senKints of the Lord...

Running, racing ever)nvhere

ijloiy,

nnd

uron'u

(Periya [irunuuladi 58)

gloPi' [see

not to forget you".

Nammalvar's Poems Niiiuuudnir

the avatara nf Seiuii

/s

S TIRUVIRUTTAM:

Mudulim: the lender

(God-Filled'or "good"

S TIRUVACIRIYAM:

God, beginning:

To save us I'o

in

troin

tlo all this

e\il

down

being born again and again,

of

to give us life

here, taking birth in

3S

many wombs

and taking many forms: Accept,

my

()

heart."

Lord,

my

submission,

{aciriyappu

PERIYA TIRUVANDADI: "great",

Vou. Lortl ol those beyond death, Claine

3S

the body.

and

u'njte four iror/i>

is

the metre), ol dillercnt

stones told about Cod.

"To deliver us from ignorance, unci Ironi

and pollution

He

seven poems arising Irom a number

verse), 100 Four-line verses express the longing

of the soul for

of the '^en'cnits of Ciod.

made Irom

andadi

is

a style in

one verse becomes the

TIRUVAYMOLI:

(IWiya means

which the first

last

word

of the next).

("The Divine Word"), 1,102

poems exploring the five major themes ol Visbishtadvaita (pp. 880 philosophy: the nature of Brahman as God; the soul seeking Ciod: the means {sadhana) of attaining God; the goal to be attained; and the impediments on the way

Krishna and Devotion Mindmi

THE God

BilAKTI P01£TS

for

is

Ol-

DliVOTION TO

GOD make

without reserve of any kind. Those

it

clear that their love

in lo\'e forget all else

and race to God, much as a woman ma\ drop the cc'

the Trinity ot

in

(p. 90),

"Narayana, the origin oj

CIS

then

God

and extended through other Gods and Goddesses who come from Narayana as

the source and origin of

Shini

to experience

forms, summarized

Narayana, Vishnu, and Antar\'amin

Vishnu

How

Nammalvar, only because Narayana

to in

come

or

God

as Narayana,

beyond word or imagination.

an anyone worship

becomes accessible

One

the

(Tiruvaymoli 5.2.8)

destroys the universe: the

one hand summons

ilniiii in

universe into being, the

llic

follows that

It

lliiuic in

the otiier destroys

it.

Narayana can p. 90)

hiivc ntiulc nil the niiitiy

through

the

the fruitjuliiess oj

forms of religion -

n; eoiiflict thoiigli ihcy arc

the

niiiii]

-

(w/i/s in nil

of

them. Atid so In countless

forms you have

you

Producer of

nho have none

other near

uho have none

is

jor

all

unproduccd

things, the

What looks superficially like many Gods/Goddesses) is a way

polytheism

is.

in

which

God,

in

you that

I

means

kind of coalescence

ot ol

in a

inimenscK

that

some forms

of God's appearance

(some Gods prominent

and Varuna,

my

God

forms of

the process described on pp. 58-9.

significance

yenrn in

It

practical

has allowed also the "migration'of the forms

attract to itself other

to cottiparc

with you: It

that

and practised in Indian life (see box, far right). This has not always been put into practice, and conflicts have occurred. Even so, it is this fundamental understanding of God that allows any particular form ot God to

rhis

or nearer you.

)ou

all

monotheism becomes

imagination.

extended yourself. ()

the worlds"

iitiagitiatioii,

iiKiiiy

\iiil .

areas, a

symbol of

his desire to

open up

a piilh to Ciod:

"Hands, join in worship, strew jragni lit flowers

OH the Lord who hinds the hooded snake round his waist!

Hamls.

join in worsJiip!

Of what thai never

use

is

the hody

walked around

ihe temple of Siiii. offerin;^ hint jlowers in ihe

Oj what use

is

litis

worship hodr^'

(Peterson, p.2S6)

rite?

"

.

1)1-

Just as the Vcdic

hymns and many

were sung

praise (stotras)

hvmns became part h\mns were f)ftered

ol

ihc

latci'

Sanskrit

poems

of the offerings of

(worship, p.94f).

piijii

The

Shiva

and

lo us singijig soiius in

varied rhythms,

and took

make ornaments,

"Flowers

SHIVA

not a remote king:

is

"He came

garlands of flowers:

like the

IC)

ot

the eontext of sacrifice, so the Tamil

in

V (.11 KIN

He

sJiot

so does gold;

us

force.

lr\

the arrows of his eyes at us;

yet if

who

our Lord

were

to desire

an ornament

simple heart, with

tlie

sweetly abides in Anir

us

let

ornament

for himselj,

stir

up

passion

honour him

of

(Peterson,

with speeches that

he

seduced

skillfully

made

us,

us

sick with love.

lumil song!"

The skullhearer god [p. 106 box] has mounted his s^vift bulk

p. 265)

wearing a skin, his body covered I

he hymns celebrate Shiva's appearance and deeds, and often

names and

recite his

much

attributes,

as the poet

Kalidasa had done two centuries earlier. But

now

images were linked both to the local shrines and

the mvths and to the

individual worshippers, to bring Shiva closer to them.

Campantar makes

this transition

with white ash,

and dramatist

a sacred thread adomitig his form.

come, see the Master as he goes riding

A hymn

by

from the general attributes of

where

all

can see him.

The Lord of Amattur is a handsome man, indeed!"

Shiva (androgynous, matted-haired, riding a bull) to the local (Peterson, p. 2 10)

person and place:

"They praise him, calling him the Lord

who

is

The

love

half woman.

god who rides the hull. who stole my heart. Lord who lives in Piramapuram,

Lord with the matted

He

He

is

the

Famed

On

hair,

"Mr

the thief

is

as the shrine

is

passionately

returned: heart melts with love

for the handsome god

who

bears the river [Ganges] in his hair.

which once floated

the dark ocean's cosmic flood"

.

sweeter than sweet

Iruit.

raw

cane sugar. (Peterson,

loveh

p. 247)

women ill

As images

in

temples help worshippers

to see

Ciod directly. e\en though mediated through

suct'/t'i" //)((;; s(jIc

thi

worshippers to see Shiva

directiv,

even

dominion oier

vast lands

form of the image, so the hymns are designed to help

with fresh flowers

their hair,

is

to

Itciiinnrutu

those

who

s

Lord

reach him"

though mediated through the words and nuisic.

They

emotions rel

lection

(ct. p. 40).

(Peterson,

are intended to reach the

directly, left, for

pJiOl

with the intellectual the

According

moment, on one

Darshana

side

To cume before the

to a popular saying,

"No words can move those who do melt when they hear these hymns.

-^*

not

representation of the Deity is

called darshana,

i

("seeing"). Tlxe

So often did

this

happen

that a

new

kind of Bhakti poetry developed, one

which the connection with Temple and rilLial was deliberatelv abandoned. in

comes into the I

if

Cod

worshipper

real presence

through the image,

not that the iviuvc

uleutifwd with

is

(;l

ihc

banishing him from his bel()\cd

icmplf - "pulhng away the earth From under

I'he

lailhtiil."

man

a

and cutting the throat ot the next night, in another dream, Shi\a

from the

killing

sky,

lold l!asa\anna to

come

to the sacred bull in the

when he

k'lnple the ne\l da\, and

appeared from the mouth

did so, Shi\a

bearing a linga

of the hull

which he bestowed on Basavanna. Carrying the Basavanna knew that Shiva would be with

liiiga.

and from that moment he was

him

in all places,

Iree

from dependence on

As word

rituals

set

and temples.

ot Basavanna's passionate devotion to

Shiva spread, a community of followers gathered

round him, and these became the new Virashaivites - called also Lingayats because their only ritual

symbol

is

a linga

worn constantly round the neck:

God

no other focus or reminder of loss

necessarv.

is

Its

the equivalent of spiritual death, a reminder

is

that the

body

is

the true temple.

The new community regarded all as equal before Shiva, and its members abandoned caste and ritual other than its own. They banned child marriage,

came

to

unclean Shiva

and approved of widows remarrying.

Women

and

SvDibols uj

men

the time of menstruation. Because the one

in this

way

is

believed to be united with him

at

power of Shiva and

creative

Shakti as the source of

be regarded as equal, and the former were no longer regarded as at

Shim

Liiiga unci Yoni represent the

as seen here in a

who worships tiic moment of

cenlun

I

iiuaiic in Jiiiii

death, Virashaivites do not even follow the rituals of cremation and of

commitment

A

of the dead to the ancestors. Instead, they bury the corpse.

follower of Shiva in this

convention (see box,

left)

way was Mahadeviyakka. She threw

and delighted

Shakti, female energy in the form of

in Shiva's association

Goddess

and

its

conxcntions

in

off

with

(see box, right). In

a brief life of great struggles, she cut herself off

from the world

"Loclis of shilling red hair

order to be one with God:

crown

a

of

diamonds

small beautiful teeth

"Why do

I

need

this

dummy

and

eyes in a hiughing ftice

that light lip fourteen worlds

of a dying world?

1

Illusion's

chamberpot,

Hasty passion's

And 1

ivJiorehoitse,

saw the

This crackpot

who

(Ramanujan,

p.

I

For millions

ol

Indians

who

is

it

is

Shakti

in

the forms of Mahade\i, the

the focus of their devotion.

LjiwU todax

my

eyes...

One

(ireat

plays at love

original to the irorW. /

3.-!)

saw

and

Great Goddess,

I

with Shakti,

'

leaky basement?

his iihny

he jaminc in I

And

saw

scciii:^.

(

his statice

begini to live"

l^anlanuian,

life,

Sth-

p.

I

20)

Goddess and Shakti Divine Female Eueroy

THE

LINGA AND THE VONI are the male and the female counterparts

and

in the creation s\

origin of

They

life.

mbols of God/Goddess understood

from w horn

are, consequently,

The One, the names (Brahman, Brahma, Narayana, Vishnu,

creation comes.

all

identified by different

Shiva, etc.), but

it

is

supreme

"One w ithout second" source of all being, may be

as the

recognized that the essential nature of the

One

lies

beyond names and words. Even so, humans can only approach the One be\ond words in the wavs in which the One becomes accessible to far

human

and thought. Given the mutual dependence

feelings

One

initiation of life, the

or

male

p.

105).

ol

male and female

(or a fusion of both, as in the

From the absolute Source of

identified,

come

the

many

The female source

for the

form may be either female

in accessible

androgynous form of Shiva,

all

being,

however

manifestations of Goddess and God.

of energy'

is

known

in general as Shakti,

and those who worship Goddess as Shakti are known as Shaktas. Shakti

becomes manifest in nature itself (praferifi, p. 76), in the power w ithin natural phenomena to create, sustain, and

restless

destrov (those three functions associated with the Trimurti and

Gods, e.g., Shiva, pp.90, 106). Shakti is power used by Gods such as Brahma, Vishnu, and

indi\iduall\ with se\eral

therefore the

Shiva to bring anything into being or effect. But Shakti herself

can be approached

in

worship through the forms

(supreme Goddess) or Mahadexi

(great

ot

Bhagaxati

Goddesst.

Shakti/Mahadevi then becomes manifest in the form ol many Goddesses w ho exercise particular aspects of power in the iinixerse - powers that express the two wa\s in which the forces (if nature work, either to create or to destroy. The two apparent opposites are in fact aspects of the one

iMkshmi Lak^hnii accompanies \ ishiiii

hi all of his

incarnations Avatars) i

and

brings good jortune to those

who worship

her

-

this

other.

Of

Both come from, and are united

and

acknowledged her power ^he

is

widely w(jrshipped in

India, not so

much

in

temples as in homes.

are:

* Lakshmi: she is the power of Vishnu and bringer of good torlune: she is therefore known as Sri (Shri, auspicious; see caption, left). Par\ati;

hinved before her

and both require each

iMahade\i and Shakti.

the creative and benign manifestations in the form ot Goddess,

two important examples

includes Shiva according to the Vaishnavites. because he

reality, in,

she

is

the daughter of the mountain, klimalaya, from

whom

She became the wife of Shiva when be was mourning the death of his immolated wife Sati, of whom Pandli is a reincarnation. .According to Mutsya Piiraiia 154, 289-92, sustenance and strength flow

forth.

Shi\a withdrew to meditate on

Mount

Kailasa,

and the demon Taraka

took advantage of his absence to terrorize the world. Brahma then sent the god

(if l()\e,

Kama,

to stir Lip in Sbi\a loxe lor

Panali

in oriler that

1

AM) MiAK

(.onni.ss

,1

son might be

hcirii

who

woiikl Jcstrov the

demon. But Shiva, having renounced the world

in

Kama

asceticism (tapas), destroyed

with a ray from his third eye and scorned the dark complexion of Parvati. She then

took on the asceticism in order to win his love,

and she succeeded. Their son Kumara

(also

known

as

Skanda or Karttike\a,

then destroyed Taraka; and

p.

I

()"-))

later the

elephant-headed god Ganesha

(p.

1

08) was

born to them.

On

the opposite side are the tierce and

destructive forms of Goddess,

who

are

embodied statements of the fact that death, fear, and pain are as much the product of nature as everything that pleasing,

is

benign and

and that Goddess can be found

the midst of them: the terrifying

in

is

made

is

Kali. Kali

into

a holy terror.

Of is

these, particularly revered

linked with Kala, time, and represents

devouring nature. She

all-|iowerful,

its

is

depicted as having a terrifying appearance,

naked or wearing

a tiger skin, emaciated,

rolling with intoxication.

human

She

is

w

ilh

and eyes

lang-like teeth, dishevelled hair,

garlanded w

ith

heads, sometimes girdled with severed

arms; laughing and howling, she dances, wild

and frenzied,

in

the cremation grounds with a

sword and noose or

Human

skull

upon

a staff.

were made

to Kali in the past (e.g., KaUluipumna more recent times goats are usually substituted, and such sacrifices are made at the main temple of her cult, Kalighata (Calcutta). Devotees of Kali, were known as Thugs. Thev offered worship to Kali before committing murderous theft. A widely told story relates how the Gods were unable to defeat a host ol demons and asked her to do so. In the version recorded in Devimahatmya, she became angry, and Camunda leapt from her brow, crushing the demons in her jaws and decapitating the demon heroes Canda and Munda, taking their heads back to Mahadevi as a gift. Kali also defeated Raktabija - thought to be invincible because if he was wounded, exact replicas of himself sprang from each drop of blood; Kali simply devoured each one as it appeared. Kali is worshipped as the One who has already embodied and defeated the worst that time and nature can produce. Those who worship Kali share in her victory over the dark and the terrifying that she so graphically, in story and sculpture, embodies. The same is true of Durga.

71

),

sacrifices

though

in

Fearsome Kali As the

lerrifyiiiv

Shakli. Kali dcpiclcil as

is

nspccl of „s;i„//v

hiack with

anus - two

jnitr

ofii'hicli Imlil

severed, hleedinv

licails.

while the other two hniinlish

adaooeraiulasword.A necklace of skalls festoons her neck, and her

lotii;tie.

dripping with the hlood

o/

those she has cannihalistically

consumed,

hangs from her mouth. She is

even shown holding

Iter

own head and drinking her own hhiod as spurts from a it

neck-wound.

1

Goddess and God Uniting the Cults

I

o;

^LL THE DEMONS, the most dangerous was Mahisha the buffalo demon), or Mahishasura [asuras are

opponents of the Gods/Goddesses*.

He was

considered invincible because Brahma had promised that he

would ne\er be killed by a human, nor e\en by a God. The ston goes that when .Mahisha had subdued the world, he decided to conquer Heaven as well and sent out a challenge to Indra. Indra gave battle, but

Brahma '^

-

In terror

Poiverfiil Diirga file iiiime

Diirgn weatts "the

me uho

difficult to find'

I

is

nr "who deals uith adiersity S/ie rode to defeat

on

nl;.

also

toorlhrr hv thr

lillh

Cod which

(anu. Aijan. and

ihe .\di Chtiiilh:

\luih(ids (songs) by Kabir

The Mul Manlra

iraiislalc.

InU

whose Name «a'

(if

which includes 22u himsell.

ol llic .\i/i

Cniiilli Suhih. ]^.\lh). the

coll.'clion olllu' \\,,als Mispircd In u.ilJuTc-tl

hecanie the fouudatiiiu maiitni

is

impossible to

mcins roughK: "There is

is

One

licing,

Inilh, Source. cUul C'rcalor.

wilhoul

Icar, williout hoslilil\,

unborn,

scll'-cxisti-nl,

timeless

ihc i;iacc

ol

in

lorm,

ihc Cluru,"

caiint; lor wluil

tiiowing (.Ad' p. 765), but CioJ

is

conriiscd with tbe garden:

"He

outside time:

which shines

light

in

is

is

it

his light

is

mil lo be

completely other, and he

is

e\er\one and exenthing" (AG

in creation, p.

"As the Primal Being willed,

is

llie

devotee was, ushered into the

and that

Divine Presence. Tlien a cup

579):

of

amrit fthe drink of immortalitx.

"Yon alone are the Creator,

fundamental

All that exists comes from yon.

Without you, nothing

else

could

Ever creating, you see and know

Nanak

Says

command, 'Nanak,

exist:

the slave, Ihrough the iUiru

remembers you

and teach

is

God

absolute transcendence,

known. The Word of God creates

be makes

is

the expression of

part of creation that

means

is

be

1

nothing

{AG

p. 4).

the

hmv m\

in

my

nanie

others to do so...

of my Name. Let calling.

of God: "Ail that is

is

have bestowed upon you the

known and

and therefore

things,

all

not that self-expression"

that C!od can be

'

Nanak

salutations

any

This

this

I

gift

be \our

offered his

and stood up

(Bhai V\r Singh, p.! 61

encountered and discerned e\er\\\here:

"You are the ocean, embracing

How can

wills to

Name, p. 24) his Name. There

creation mediates the nature (or

will

favour. Go, rejoice, in

(Evening Praver, Rahinis) this

this

cup of Name-adoration. Drink it: I mil u///; \f>u, and I bless mid exidt ]i/u. Whoever

idl things.

\bu are revealed"

Despite

Sikh rituals]

in

was given him with the

all,

knowing and seeing

all.

a fish in the ocean, ever perceive the limit of

I,

what you are?

Wherever

I

look, there you are.

you.

Ij I leax'e

I

gasp und die"

Sikh Practice In contrast to Kcihir. Ciuii

Nanak

(AG

p.25)

did organize his

followers.

When

he settled

eventually in Knrtapur he

Guru Nanak bad cume At Sultanpur,

in

to

know the

truth ol this In direct experience.

about 1499ci^, he was bathing

disappeared beneath the water for three da\s. spent a further day

in silent

meditation,

and then proclaimed, "There there

is

not that there biit

is

no Hindu,

no Muslim", meaning, probably, is

one universal

that there are

taith completely.

none who

A

religion,

live their

biography of Nanak

written at a later date records

how he

recei\ed a direct commission from Ciod (see bo.\, top right).

Guru Nanak gave away

his possessions

and spent the next 24 years travelling tlnrougb India

and beyond, pointing

to

tbe truth of God. In this simple way.

discarding such things as caste and sacrifice, the

the story ol

Sikh religion began, and

God

took a new turn.

in

tbe Ri\er Bein, and

When

be emerged, he

and

they

obsenvd a daih

routine oj bathing, luiiinsingnig.

and eating together

Sikhs The Name Of God Sikhs, the supreme symbol of God.

FOR

Onkar, or Ikk (p. 122).

This

the numeral the sion tor

Oan Kar It is the is made up of:

shown on the

first line

of the i\lul

left, is Ik

Mantra

1

Oan

which

("that

•:•

the word kar, "s\llable".

It

means

literally

truly

Oan

"the s\llable

is",

the Sanskrit

One

[is]

and uncompromised Oneness of Cod.

It

',

Aum.

p.

128)

emphasizing the absolute

summarizes (and, when spoken,

the reality of God.

is)

The

ne.\t line

of the

Mul Mantra

Naam, "True Name". For God comes the Name; the dynamic nature

Sat

is

Sikhs, as for Indian religion in general, the realization of

through the sound and the sounding of

God

is

Ik Oiikar

therefore, concentration Ihis

•.uiiiuuir)' oj (

ii

',(kl

luiidamcntal

;s //if

Sikh belief that

One, the source of all is.

It

contrasts with

though

is

not in ultimate

that

Cduflict ivith

I

of

(p. 129).

ol

For Sikhs,

and meditation on Nam, the Name {Nam The Sikh religion is sometimes called Nam

simaran). arc fundamental. Yoga, because

it

is

Sikhs meet the scll-re\ elation

in this \\a\ that

"Meditate ou the

name

oj

God and

tJiroiigh the Natiie

ol CJod:

enter

the state oj sitpretiie bliss"

the wider

lihluii! uihtcr-.lauding

sound of mantras

carried through the sacred

God

(AG

bccoiiiiug manifest in

p. 26)

different forms, such as the

many names (God, Rama, ,\llah, some way what God is, but Nam, the essence (essential nature and being) of God lies far beyond these appro.ximate names and words (see box, below left). Nam simaran is not simply a matter of reciting the name ol God. Guru

That which

Trimurti {p.90}.

is

iruK real has been gi\en

Vishnu, Shiva), and these

Nanak "I

linv

is

can

within

Nam lis,

be kuuivti? Nutn

how can Num

yet

be reached?

Nam

is

at ivork

everywhere, permeating the

nlwle of space. The perfect guru fCranth Sahib/ mrafeews yon la the vision of grave'

III

God

this

Nam.

It is i»v

enlightenment (.\C, p.

1

the

one comes

that

242)

to

is

said:

all

manifest in

"Anyone can speak the name of God, but speaking

not realization.

It is

only

when God

Guru's grace, that one gathers the

name aloud in a God have God hidden Clod's

when

frenzy, in

Guru Gobind Singh gave

settles within,

fruit...

those

by the

Why

are you shouting

who

ha\'e attained

the heartr the

same warning;

it

is

not reciting the

words that counts, but realization of the power within them: "^ou cr\ aloud to God five times; so does the wolf in winter II noli could attain

God

by repeating Thou, Thou', o\er and o\er again,

well! the birds are singing that cry all the lime.

(

Nam, the Name, is who is otherwise

)iie

alread\

deep withm

the point of contact lor far

iheir

humans

beyond knowledge, but who

own

nature. To

make

with the is

lound

the eonneelion

I

with Clod,

an

iK-ithc-r iiiecliulor (like

iiviilnni

or intarnalion) nor cxlernal

needed - though Sikhs often make use of a mala, similar to what called in Christianity a rosary. Music and dance are regarded with

riiu.il is is

suspicion: they do indeed create states

"//

is

(ct. pp.4()f

),

but

lLiiicl' itself into the state of through the Gurus word, meets

llw iiiiud that slioiiht

devotion so that with the

trance and joy

ol

Cod:

the\ ma\' well distract from

Name.

tlie itii)id,

who

Tliose

and scream and gynite the

sJiout

body are gatliering illusion and pain

ii'ithin"

U\lajhM3)

The

offering ot oneself to

God

the only ritual or sacrifice

is

mind

required. "The comings and goings ot the

one

Amar Das senses],

come

dawn

perpetual state of the

lives in a

put

"When you

it,

cease, and

of Bliss."

As Guru

close your nine doors [of the

and your interactions with the world cease, you

to rest within the tenth door,

your

home. Here,

real

w ilhout end, you hear the Guru's word although

way mean the

Linuttered." This does not in any

the world:

it

means recognizing God

is

it

rejection ol

places and

in all

therefore living in the world with responsibility and delight.

The union of the self with The soul, therefore, must

God

Sikh writer comments, "The Bride

God must

like the Linion ol loxers.

is

rid itself

of

and

lies

who

deceit.

As

a

seeks to be abed w

ilh

dress herself in the utter nakedness of the soul

(Gopal Singh,

p. 34).

point of \iew of the

The Gurus woman, the

m\

lover

come

ficjine.

am

/

liaiili

Tlic Reserve liauli of huliu

far axvu] in foreign lands.

is

llie Beloved does not

and

Dellii

mind and bod\ yearn

"Ail

but

frequently speak from the bride, awaiting her loxer;

(.'iini

sigfiing to deatfi,

Rant

in/s iislwil

In

slumU A„

the lightning strikes fear in me.

Diis, irlhii ii

In

iikiii

he

he

nihil Iw

s,/iv,/,

ciiisnciVil. "( hi mill npcii

alone on

I lie

motfier, \\'itlu)ut the

Divine

What

pain

One

wfien

sfie is

is

like deatfi to

lioiv

clotliing

Niuiali sa\s,

bed, tontiented;

tfie

can

can

tfie

tliere

bunk

emf^-aced

is

me.

wed

Hefoi'ed"

[Barah Mulni i)

The

pain ot absence increases the yearning for

p. 95),

as

and, in the end,

Guru Amar

God

I^as said:

will

"The world

whatever door people come

God

(cf.

always receive those

to sou.

is

on

fire:

sa\e

it.

viraha Bhakti,

who come

O

in trust,

God, through

ii

ami pnn jnr

\iiiir eiislijiiiers.

he sleep or Jiunger?

trufy

fy\ tier

Delhi,

'

sootfie the sfiin?

bride

III

Sikhi Guru Gninth Sahib \ I603cb;. Gl'RL Arjan, the ihe

Sikh Guru, realized that the

I;decided

coming from God through Ciuru He knew

that the re\elations

.\anak and his successors must be collected together. that the

growing community, the Khalsa. needed guidance, but that people could

understaiidino to the Word.

place to

and you

that spurious

will sail safely over

words might be claimed as re\elation.

The hvmns and poems were

God

it

no longer come phssically to one consult a single human Guru. He was concerned also

was clear

depth. Think, apply your

into

fifth

Sikh community (the Panth) was spreading rapidly, so he

Word one h coiuieiniwd to wander on a sen iincluirted. The thinos oj this world drag us down into the "\\ itliotit

organized into 31 sections,

sorted bv their musical measures, and then, within each of the (Kaur Singh. {!J9)

31 sections, ordered also according to the date, in succession, of

the Gurus.

because

it

The

was called simply Granth ("book"), but God through his new Guru, it

collection

contains the self-re\ealing of

became known as the Guru itself, worthy full narhe Guru Granth Sahib. It is called book. Adi Granth.

When

October 1708ct) he

human living

Guru. Each dav

When

Mam

compared

Guru

Sikhs keep the hring in their

own homes,

often in a separate room,

and

treat

it

with extreme

reierence. going to

guidance.

It is

speaking directh the helieier

it

for

Cod to

also the

first

or the primordial

the tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, died (in

would be no further

instructions that there

successors as Gurus, but that this Book would be in future the

Granth as the

Gods Word

left

hence the

of respect (sahib),

\

isible

Sikbs say; ".-\cknow ledge the CJuru

in their prayers

body

of the

Gurus."

the collecting was complete, there were great celebrations, at

On

the time to those of a splendid wedding.

16 August

Guru Granth was installed with great ceremony in the inner sanctuarv of the Temple in Amritsar - known later as the Golden Temple. That re\erence for the Guru Granth continues to the present day. Each Sikh communit\ has a place where it can assemble, and this place is known as "the gateway to the Guru". Guru-dwara ("door"), or, as it is more often spelt, the Gurdwara. Here the Guru Granth 1604cii, the

Sahib

is

enshrined. There are no sculptures or Images

cpresenting God, nor, usually, are there any chairs. sit

humbk

before the lixing Guru, which

higher platform abo\e them, and

it

is

reverence that Hindus express

is

I

he people

alwavs placed on a

treated with the in their

ow n temples

before the images of God. Sikhs bow in the presence of the book,

Each dav

w

ith

heads covered and shoes removed.

dawn, there

at

pralitisli

book

ktnna.

is

richlv

is

a

ceremony known

making the

as a

The

clothed and protected bv a

nopv. vsith a whisk ichauri) t

as

light manifest.

mark of respect and

insects from alighting on

waved over

to it.

keep I

he ,\rdas

I"l\-litiiin") t'luliniJ

Is

then recited, interspersed

the cry "VahigLirn",

v\itli

"Upiiu the

Guru belonus Guru belongs victory." The Guru", but it has come to be

with the words: "To the praiseworthy Lord

offer

the Khalsa, to the praiseworthy Lord cr\ "X'ahiijLirLi " ,1

n.inie tor

means

"praise to the

God. Then the Guru Granth

is

opened

the passage at the top of the left-hand page

passage

is

called vcik or

hidmm, the word or order

for the day,

as vak lao, "taking the Word". At the

comes

a ritual

called Sukhasan, "to

the

and

was that

in the

it

up, especially in the case of marriage.

Gurdwara the sharing of food

lundamental duty: but could Amritsar, with those the living

it

be shared,

who had been

Guru through vak

lao.

grace and union.

us, as sinners,

The problem

(cf. p. 94) is a

at least in centre of

outcastes?

It

was decided

The book was opened

at the

are unioiv^

has ih-awn us into that utiion of bliss"

(AC 6.«.S)

Golden Temple I'lic

Golden Temple

built in

called

as prasad

the service of

the least worth]: but the Tnte

Guru Through the Guru Granth Sahib, God as Word is present in community and of the world (see box, left). There may be no need for intermediaries or incarnations, but the (iuru Granth Sahib is a direct equivalent (see caption, left). There was a time, between the two World Wars, when large numbers of Hindu outcastes in the Punjab were becoming Sikhs (or, in some cases, Ghristians) to break out ol their wretched condition. There was a problem: GurLi Nanak had condemned caste, but Sikhs have found dilticult to give

is

Guru in remembering divine Name. It is God who offers

the midst of the

it

ihn

hestmvs grace. Raised

things

all

All of

carefully closed.

is

'/

the True

end of comfortably" -

sit

and prayers, the book

above

read aloud. The

is

known

alter a hirther reading

I'nic Ciiini

random, and

is

this practice

the day

at

U'li^i ii'f^i-//n'.

(/k'»;sc'/i'(". /;; sen'ici', llic

Sikh

life at

to consult

passage

shown above right. Whatever the feelings of Sikhs about outcastes might be, it was clear that the Guru Granth Sahib had accepted them.

iii/s

1601CE, ami

ii«>

Harimandir Sahib

("honoured temple of God") or Darlnir Sahib {"honoured royal court"). "»(tlden"

sheets

when

It

became

gilded copper

were added

in the

early 19th centiin:

Sound The Expression of God Sikhs,

R

Sound and Word

(Shabad) are

protoundly related. Without Sound formed into

FiWord humans

could not communicate with each

God. Through the Word, Ciod becomes

other, or with

known: "God has no form, no and

yet

But

God,

it

it

is

colour,

re\ealed through the true

Shabad

Word)

(the

no material

Word" (AG

identity,

597).

e.xpresses that inner nature of

follows that behind or preceding

Shabad

is

the

unspoken or "unsounded" sound, the soundless sound (anahad and

^hiibad), Oil! or Aiini

The yciid

and

or sung before

prayers

is

one's heart"

parts pointing to

in general,

end being a

folk

on the Itand

is

the essence of God. To repeat the

(AG

Name

ow n being, and

in one's

ol

in this

wa\

Nam

Shabad,

is

(Nam,

feel

it

and

to attain

enthroned

in

1242).

where Shabad appears

Name As

as Shabda.

is

important

in India

early as the \'edas,

sound was revered as the self-being and self-expression of God. Vac ( "speech") is Goddess embodying sound and creating speech. Probably

fourth expressing the

attainment of GodlBrahman. this ixinbul

is

tune oneself to that unsounded sound, to

This understanding of Sound, Word, and

the Trimurti (p. 90). with the silence at the

that to

complete union with God: "Bv means

after

made up of three

component

is

nothing else vibrating

symbol

cleriuil Hiiulii

God

124) of

p.

Goddess, she was integrated into Ar\'an

emphasis on the correct reciting of the

of Shiva ip.lOSl

which alone the

The

creative

pov\'er of ritual

power of Vac

is

and

(p. 60) belief

chants and hymns through

\'edic

sacrifice

is

released.

shared by humans:

words the\ become creators of truth and

when humans make

realitx that pre\ iously

had not

Sound and Meaning //

\ac

(S

nho

is

3J

SPHOTA:

I'ho

meaning

break forth (as

lo

lanced) from noise; relates

Shabda

the hearer of meaning:

is

it

hen

a boil

all

Cod

truth

is in

samgraha 3S

NADA:

I

is

or

order and

meaning: "The eternal Word called sphota uithout division and

'

{Sllrv^ldarshana-

lor

me. mint;,

Inil

as vet

die rishis

ANAHATA;

3S

AHATA;

who

Sound

sense the Xtdas as potential

(p. 60).

meaning but

not yet expressed, e.g., a thought

or not e.g.,

-^.M.

theconsKuil, undi\ idetl'sounding of

sound with polenlial

e.g.,

3S is

the cause ot the world

Brahman

ol

God/Brahman, perceptible only lo those Uained (above all through yoga) and attuned to it - as.

is

this capacity that

to the inner nature of

IValiman as the source of

and

simpiv the expression ot the inner nature

fundamental capacity of v\

nars in which sound

icaniiigless noise into tlie various

conrerts

Expressed sound of

humans can hear

it

all

kinds,

whether il

or understand

the sound of a forest or jungle at night in

which animals,

a

because of the

birds,

the crealivilv of Clod.

and insects participate

in

.

existed. \'ac

humans

.

therefore to be worshipped as the one w ho will enable

is

to use that

borrowed power

"When humans,

good and not

to

h)'

e\

etteet:

il

name-giving, "A

Brought forth the first sounds of Vac,

Both name

Secrets hidden deep, through love were brought to light.

When As

shadows

they created language with wisdom.

winnowing flour through

if

But

to

They are

who, is .

.

form is of less importance than the name, for without the

.

name you cannot come

to a

knowledge of the form, hut meditate on the name without seeing the form,

her husband...

and your soul

acts as

an interpreter between

and immaterial

the material

offer libations.

is

The name

filled with devotion.

Those who move neither fonvard nor backward,

Are not brahinans, do not

oj the Lord,

...

the

iniil jonii tire

Til e

another she reveals her beauty to

(is

inmied

;s

unspeakable and uncreated

Friends acknowledged the signs of friendship,

Like a radiant bride yielding

he re^cinted

rightly understood,

a sieve.

And their speech retained its touch. Many who see do not see Vac, Many who hear do not hear her.

uiDiic' iihiv

equivalent lu whal

Tilings that were excellent in them, that were pure,

forms of the deity, and is a guide (Hid an interpreter to both"

ineffective craftsmen, misusing Vac,

Ignorant, they spin out a useless thread for themselves' (Tuisi

(RV The repeating oF God's in

Name

is

important because Shabda

essence and manifestation: to sound (repeat) the

come

into union with

sound

is

in CIrovvse, p.

I

7)

(see box, right).

The

Name

Cod, both

is

God is to God through

link with

of

expressed through mantra ("instrument of thought"). Mantras

(at least as early as

used

God

Das

10.71)

the Vedas) are a verse, syllable, or series of syllables

express the nature of God. There are three kinds:

in ritual to

those that have meaning, such as

namah

Shivaya, "praise to Shiva", or

the Gayatri mantra, repeated by the twice-born daily: sva, tat savitur

pracodayat; Savitri,

Om,

hhur, bhuva,

varenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi dhiyo yo nah

"Om,

earth, space, sky;

worshipful God;

may he

we meditate on

the brilliant light of

illuminate our minds"

those that have no meaning, including the supremely important

Aum, known

Rija or "seed" mantras

thus krim

is

Om

or

as pranava, "reverberation" (see caption, left)

compress the essence into the simplest form;

the essence of Krishna;

Om

is

the bi]a of

all

mantras

Drum

oJ

Shiva

The douhle-sided drum

Because repetition of Ciod, so ot

it

a mantra, silently or aloud, leads to

union with

can only be imparted and learned from a guru. The right way

concentration leads to the consciousness of the worshipper taking on

the form of the Deity. attain the

A

text of the

supreme Brahman

Kashmir Shaivites

are steeped in the

says:

"Those who

sound of God

(sh(ihdabrahman) the unstruck sound [nada], vibrating without contact, ,

that

can be heard by the ear made competent by the guidance of a guru,

the unbroken sound rushing like a river" (Vijuanabhairava 38).

of

Sliiva ip.l04} sustains the

rhythms of life, luid

summons new being.

It

it

creation', into

contrasts with the

flame of destruction held Sliivd's

otlwr hand.

in

Mandala and Yantra The Essence

GOD

BECOMES MANIFEST

IN

and through sound, and equally

space, where the encounter with

mandalas (Sanskrit,

God

oj

"circle")

God

is

in

created through

and yantras ("instrument

for

supporting something"). These are symholic representations or pictures of the entire cosmos: just as mantras compress God's essence into sound, so

mandalas compress the essence of God encountered

Mandalas are diagrams painted on ground. Their shape

walls,

on

in the universe.

scrolls, or

on consecrated

way

basically that of a circle, indicating the

is

which God surrounds and includes everything. The outer

circle

ring of flames, indicating God's protective power;

is

and

in

often a as

yogins visualize their entry into the mandala, their impurities are symbolically burned.

weapons

(e.g., x^ajras,

A

second

circle consists of a ring of

or thunderbolts), symbolizing the

indestructible quality of union with God.

For Buddhists, this

is

the indestructible quality of

enlightenment, and for them, especially in mandalas of wrathful deities (pp.72f), there

cemeteries

modes

in

a third circle of eight

is

which die the eight

superficial

and distracting

of consciousness: a final ring of lotus petals signifies

the purity of the land they

Having

now

in their visualization

enter.

crossed these borders, the

yogins stand outside a "pure palace" (vima)w) which, by

representing the four directions in

with auspicious symbols) and includes within

centre

By

is

itself

its

four walls (adorned

its

four open gateways (dvara),

the whole external world.

Its

own

the centre of the world, the axis mundi.

visualizing themselves in the mandala,

and by

identifying with the central deity, the yogins enter into union

Chandra Chandra, the moon, offering of

Soma

with the

is

{pp.62}},

the sustenance of the sun

and

the

end

to

which

creation moves.

and

the

up

moon

all

The sun

together

make

or Goddess,

or,

in the case of Buddhists, into enlightenment.

particularly important in Tantra (pp.l02f),

carefully described in Tantric texts. For example,

and are

Lakshmi Tantra

(37.3-19) describes the mandala of nine lotuses. This

is

made up

way of exchange between life and

various deities are situated, particularly Narayana (p. 98) with

Lakshmi

(p.l 16) in the central lotus,

surrounded by the manifestations of

(the xjiihas of Vishnu, p. 90)

and other

(p.

62), to

which the

\}unida\a offers access.

deities

on the

petals.

of a

upon which

series of squares with nine lotuses within the central square,

the entire cosmic

sacrifice, the

death

God

Mandalas are

God

Other

manifestations of Shakti (pp.1 I6f) are placed on the other lotuses. This creates an entire picture of the into being

and sustain

it.

enters into those energies and the form of

God

cosmos and of the energies

The worshipper, by

becomes one with

or GoiIlIcss. In worship

that bring

it

entering into the mandala,

ipiijii, p.

their manifestation in

94), a

mandala

is

the

MANDALA AND

sacred place where a form of

God

or

Goddess

invoked by mantra. The

is

placing of mantras on the mandala (nyasa) gives is

and the mandala and not as a mere placing of mantras or sacred signs

then regarded, like mantra, as the Deity

representation. Nyasa

is

also the ritual

on the body as a mark of one's intention

and replace

it

hhutasuddhi, a preliminary

itself,

to destroy the

It is

part of the ritual

rite in virtually all

Bhutasuddhi ("purification of the elements")

prepare

it

visualization

for the realization of

God

is

is

in

known

Tantra -

as

the ritual dissolution of

is

fire, air,

space) in order

Through

or Goddess.

and mantra, each element

Each element

mundane body

forms of Tantric puja.

the five gross elements of the body (earth, water, to

it life,

with the body of the Deity, often - especially

identified with Shakti (p.l 16f).

VAN"! RA

systematically dissolved.

associated with a particular area of the body

(though correspondences vary

in different texts): earth

from

the feet to the knees, water from the knees to the navel, fire

from the navel

between the

eyes,

to the heart, air

from the heart

to

and space from between the eyes upwards

So beginning with the

feet

and working upwards, those seeking

union (sadhakas) dissolve the gross body, replacing realized in the

stage of this into their

form of the seed

ipu']a,

(hija)

(p.

it

with Shakti

129). In the ne.xt

they draw the divine mantra body of the Deity

own through

nyasa. Their bodies

body and the Deity possesses them,

becomes

mantra

possible, since only

at

become

the Deity's

which point true worship

God can worship God in an equal sharing of being of God which brings pure joy.

delight. Sadluduis enter into the inner

Painted Yogi Yoga (Sanskrit yuj, "yoke together")

Yantras

are, like

cosmos and enabling worshippers

God

the world to the being of

mandalas, they

the

mandalas, geometrical designs compressing the

may be constructed

to enter

Goddess

or

in three

from the outer edges of in the centre.

the

since they

embody

power of the

and they are the focus of meditation

Deity,

the real presence of God.

There are different yantras

all is

many

such as protection,

an enemy. Embracing them

the Shriyantra, important especially to Shrividya (p.l 19), but to others as well.

It is

made up

of nine intersecting triangles, five

"male" triangles (representing Shiva) pointing upwards - though is

reversed.

The

triangles represent the

interpenetration of Shiva and Shakti, the male-female polarity of the entire cosmos,

from which

all

triangles are five circles, the

existence

innermost

eight lotus petals, the next with 16.

is

derived. Surrounding the

circle

being embellished with

Beyond the

concentric rectangles with four gates.

A

circles are three

dot (hindu) in the centre

represents the source of manifestation. Goddess as Brahman. Mandalas are visual equivalents of mantras. or

Goddess

in

They

mind, and body. follou'S

A

yogi

one of the many

paths that lead to this "giving

up of all conditions of

also underlie the presence of

another form - that of the temple.

"royal yoga"

1.24),

God

(Yogadarshanam is

that condition

of freedom.

"female" triangles (representing Shakti) pointing downwards and four

sometimes the order

into a state

far beyond the ordinary

existence". In Patanjali's

for various purposes,

fulfilling desires, controlling others, or killing

the uniting of

possibilities of consciousness,

Unlike

dimensions out of stone or

metal plates. They often have a seed mantra inscribed on them, investing

them with

is

whole person

God

Temples of India God's Presence on Earth

IKE

L

MANDALAS, TEMPLES are the vehicle of the presence

Goddess on earth - so much so that temples the foundation and plan of particular niandalas. I£arl\' and common is the vastn-ptiriisba mandala, a square on to which the figure of Purusha, the unmoved of

God

arc

Mo\er,

is

or

hLiilt (in

mapped

(p. 76).

The

entire square

smaller squares, of which the central one

Brahma

the Creator.

The

is

is

divided into

the abode of

next inner squares are occupied by

the major Deities, with an outer set of 32 squares for the 32 Deities

(p. 63).

The

Deities at the four cardinal points and at

the corners guard the sacred space from irreverence or

contamination, send the power of the Deities out to the "four Linking Heaven and Earth I

his temple, ill

corners of the earth", and invite worshippers to approach from wherever

they are. For that reason, this mandala also underlies the layout of

from Matannii

Indonesia, shows the

towns,

shikhara (see text) linking

particular Deity, hut

can. without

to

disloyalt)', visit

as

own

to

Hindu

"womb"

Ganesh

lp.108], the terrible blood-

stained Kali

Ip.

1 1

Deity

Garuda

bird [p.ilOJ. daily.

iuvolwd

.

al all

and

involve

is

the

w hich the image of the major is

placed.

whom

the world turns and depends. the sbikbara, the tower or pillar

of llic

Dcil\

is

drawn

into the

the innermost shrine.

in

ways -

halls or

porches

in

dance,

in recitation of texts, in

hymns and

songs,

and

in

processions. Beyond these will be an outer fence or wall, or in large

humble

of Lord Shiva.

is

(matidapa): these are stages on which people honour the Deity in various

"

...

North and dravida of

the centre

Immediately outside the garbha-griba are one or more

in all

true

temples

prostration before the linga [pp. 114(1

in

resembling K'lount Meru, the bridge between earth and hea\en. Through

image

pilgrimage to the Sri

all else

,'\t

down

laid

styles developed,

the case of Shiva, the aniconic Linga, pp.1 14f)

(or, in

the shikhara, the presence and power

Meenakshi Temple would aboie

styles of the

common.

(garbha-griba) in

Directly above the garhba-griba

be adored

times

womb-chamber

one Deity on

petiti(med regularly,

I'laces. I'lUl ever)

between the so-called nagara

or

temples are carefully

7],

the celestial

to

by

Dark and mysterious, it is the centre of the world, the a.xis muiidi, since even if God or Goddess becomes present in other temples, there is only

Hiinumini the monkey Ipp.i^Of],

oi

and while different

the South, there are basic features in

Shiva's omnipotence. Each might have a personal deity -

the benign elephant

first

heaven.

in

is

The architecture and groundplan

especially

Madurai was

on acknowledging

intent

it

texts of authority (vastu-shastras),

described the temples of

coming

the centre, surrounded

humans, then by asuras (p.l 18), and sthaiidila mandala, with an even larger field of 60 squares, giving place to more Deities and therefore allowing e\en greater resemblance to God's kingdom on earth

devotion. Geoffrc)- Moorhoiise

S(nith India: "Every

South India, are padnuigarhha

in

at

Deities, then by

Hindus

DeitT oj their

some

at Jaipur.

mandala, which again has Brahma

a

leniples that are not dedicated to the

example,

Other mandalas, more common

heaven and earth. Temples

may he dedicated

as, for

in

,\

around which people can circumambulate Beyond the outer wall may be a further area

series of passages,

honour of the

Deity.

where the ordinan commerce

ol lilc conliniies

-

liLit

close to the

"

prcsfnce

From

ol C^od.

the garbha-grilui the

power of the Deity surges

consequence of God and Goddess in prolific carvings and sculptures on ahnost any available surface. They carr)' the power of Gods and Goddesses into the world and into the lives lurth into the creation of the

As

of worshippers.

and the symbols of

well as the Deities

their particular

power, other auspicious symbols are carved to bring to the worshippers

w hatever they need - such things as sons, crops, or

rain.

Fundamentally,

therefore, people go to temples, not because there are set times or

when they are expected God or Goddess.

services

need

f

—|~~lhe word

Deity

for "seeing" the

because Indian temples bring

I

_L

tangible, presence.

Much

which the Deity

many

there are

may be

is

Even

or

Goddess

which the Deity

woken each day and put

even

into a visible,

welcomed, or through

is

Bevond

to rest at night.

that,

individual acts of worship (piija. p. 94)

controlled by

w hich are not prescribed liturgy.

darshana, a basic word for worship

is

God

of the ritual in any temple consists,

therefore, in ceremonies through

that

because they want or

to go there, but

to see

so, there are

custom and in

tradition, but

tril is itriilerstood

koreci.

3^

^^^ \^^

in ihc

count lies of

and jiiViUi.

C'hiini,

I

III

KT

I

ir.lOXS

iM-

\M

\

The Religions of Asia MEANT

GEOGRAPHY HAS

that the reHgions

of China, Korea, and Japan are closely related: often, the religions of

ha\e been

(in

China

adapted forms) the religions

ol

"unproduced Producer of

and guarantee of

all

that

that there

all

Dao means going with

is"

the source

The "way"

is.

struggling against the tide. In religious Daoism,

those other countries. Even so, Korea and Japan

called Dao-jiao, the quest for immortality

ha\e indigenous religions that precede the

important; popular

arrival

many different religions and philosophies. Three are known as San-jiao, the three "ways", themselves made up of many different strands. Of the San-jiao, one is Chinese

religion

is

made up

the "way" of Confucius

does not emphasize

(p. 148).

God and

of

Confucianism

revelation, but

humanism open moral order known as

an agent or

teaches a kind of

to

principle of

Tian,

(p. 146).

guarantor of order gives stability to

Mandate

Heaven

Recognition of Tian as the source and

society. Rulers

human

The second "way"

is

China era,

third "way" at

is

Buddhism.

reaching

its

height during the

(618-907ce). Offering

to the

analysis of the transitory life, it

the

It

life.

entered

about the beginning of the Christian

also offered a

Tang dynasty

Chinese an

and suffering nature of

way of

release

- but

introducing the possibility that the ancestors

were being tormented

in hell.

Schools of

devotion and meditation appeared, notably Pure

beings, no matter

how depraved

attain the salvation of the

is

Daoism. Dao means "the way". The Dao

The

is

offers help,

Land and Chan/Zen. Pure Land

could claim to be exercising the

of Heaven.

Daoism

especially through Deities, in daily

of imports from China.

of

the flow and not

simple and complete faith

says that

all

or wicked, can

Western Paradise by in the

help of

i:?^

JAPAN

^r^A^^^^ Kamakura tioryuji

I\

Amitiibha/Amida. the Buddha

who

rules overr

A life,

fourth "way"

is

the popular religion ot

Timeline

d,ally

K(i|)l

Chhw,c

Asia

this Paradise (p. 158).

I

Xia

'(

AM)

IO\

1

ilynmtk-i

Onicic IjDncs

.

n

techniques of magic, and care of the dead

Mountains

and the ancestors. Chinese people do not

In C'hiiui.

they must choose only one They choose whatever seems most suitable or helpful - whether at feel that

rites ot

public

life,

or for

one of

mountains

"embody the basic

religion.

in

Ml LINK

g o o y

with dramatic festivals, spirit-worlds,

home,

I

bold

in

iire

I

principle of fertility that renews

their

and

sustains the world'

{Bembaum,

passage.

p. 24).

Shang

Zhou Xin

.

defeated

Zhou King

KingWu

.

Zhuang/i

•

Warring States

Han

&

^^'^^^^^^l ^^^^1

^H

Japan

Wei-jin

m

&

Southern

Norlhern

Japan

in

kingdom

.

1^

Paekche

.

I

Buddhism enters

-

-^

°?

Imperial line

.

rri

4-

in Kiirca

Wang Wei begins

o

lO to o^ -

Buddhism

.

1

^

Chma

Buddhism enters

strong

Mo/i

.

.Xun/i

.

Confucianism

.

enters Korea

^^^^^^^^H ^^^^^^^M ^^^^^^^^1

to

Li inscription

Confucius .

Lao^i?

.

— ? i: f _

Japan

Sui-Tang

|| ^^^Hf

Nara period

ttj^.

'

pKlk,.

I^^^Mfe'

(710-94)

Yomei

.

Taika reform

.

Taiho Code

.

Shotoku

.

Japan (794-1 lyf)

Koryo

.

Song

.

Confucian

H

Yuan

.

Civil service

'

yl^K' m^

jf'J

^

Vt

'

^%tm'£ ^('jM^

M

M

null jflEfl

rfWi

^^m. £ '

WWf

_^

Sf

Christian

missions

in

China

Xavier

Vi

.

_

o^S

Confucius .

— O ^ 2! ? to

revival

exams based on

Ming

I o

in

Korea (9.«-l 329)

AR.1^BH|

^H^^^^^l

00

.

&

Heian period

Nihongi

.

Temmu

.

Kojiki

in

VV

ifi

Horyu-ji

Japan

in

dynasty

)

t^

'^'dtilfl

^''''ijj^

MjM A^^*\^

Tian The Mandate of Heaven

DURING THE TIME OF THE Zhou

122-255bce), Tian became the paramount reality under whom, or under which, the world and its rulers were ordered and judged. The uncertainty of "whom" or "which" arises because it is uncertain whether Tian was understood as a (

1

personal agent, or as the impersonal process of the natural order. In fact,

seems as though both meanings were held to be true, with each being brought into play according to different circumstances - and this made it

both meanings available belief,

Under

"When

the Shaiig

Tian as

the

lost

v\'ere

Miindate of Heaven, we, the it. But I cannot

Mandate of Heaven

is \u)t

preserved, because difficult to discern. lost

the

Mandate

of

it is

if

The casih so

Those who

Heaven did

to correct the king.

it

way

My

one also who could would support the

themselves maintained order and justice, but all

support. This

was regarded

as virtually identical

is

it

known

as Tian-zi, the

Son of Heaven, and

child,

way

to

meaning of meanings

justice, the

of disaster. Tian

they did otherwise, Tian would withdraw

with Tian: he was

him would he

its

Tian was certainly regarded as all-powerful, the one

sacrifice. Eventually, the ruler little

that the personal

of the royal house did not even pray to Tian, let alone offer

present,

not possible for me, a

ouidi)ig

seems clear

away support, was known as Tian Ming, the Mandate of Heaven (see box, left). This means that the ruler was the vital link between the people and Tian. Under the Zhou, only the ruler approached Tian through ritual and sacrifice. Those who were not members

the splendid ways of the

As for the

it

the dominant one but, even so,

supervision, giving or taking

so because they did not practise

ancestors.

diverse.

rulers while they

our inheritance will stay alwuys .

the Zhou,

God was

bring punishment by

venture to say bejvnd douht that

.

the long history of Chinese thought and

w ho could guarantee peace and

Zhou, received

on the side of prosperity.

later, in

with major consequences for both.

was seen as Tian's presence on the earth. This relationship of harmony and inter-reliance is expressed in an inscription from

of

make

the time of King

possible to bring the splendour of the ancestors to help the

"Fhe King

young king

said,

ceasing, hy day

the kings

{The Book of History)

c.HSOlKK;

Li,

am

I

and

only a

h)>

siiicill

night,

[who ruled] before me

of majestic Tian.

make

1

of old

ii'ho

are

May

now

it

in order to he

this food

sacrifice..., in order to sustain those

splendid ancestors.

child, hut without

act in hutiiioii] witli

I

worthy

container for

mighty exemplars,

draw down

my

men Di and who

those exemplar)'

sen'niits in the court of

execute the mari'elhnis Mandate of Heaven

This meant that the ruler had to take great care to

Tian and

biit for

lo the ancestors.

He

the licnefit of the people.

to

maintain

did this, not just for his It

meant

rituals

own

also that the palace

both

benefit,

and the

became an inereasingK maunelle centre

Lcn-'inonlal sites

people

at large, especially

when

lor

the funeral rites of the rulers

strengthening the links with Tian. Throughout the world, this recognition of the

corporate ritual

people

manv

to a

in relation to

common

of w hich

indispensable importance of

for

when

d\ nasty,

cities, so

lines that

Han

earth,

and humans are

a unity in

246) form: they are interdependent and

each other, so that Tian

is

not an independent

separate from creation. Maintaining the

harmony of this triad is the foundation of life: "In all thing one must not violate the way of Tian, nor disrupt the principles of earth, nor confuse the laws governing human: {The Spring and

Autumn

of Lu). Tian, although not an

independent Creator, nevertheless people, so that they are

all

is

the producer of a

equally related to Tian,

and on that basis the reverence of childr parents (xiao,

"filial

piety")

is

entirely nal

The link between Tian and the ruler

made sense while the kingdom prosperei it made sense also if the ruler was

and evil if

and disaster struck. But what

disaster struck a ruler

who w aj

evidently attempting to rule justl

and

in

accordance with the

Mandate

of

question

became obvious and

Heaven? That

urgent (see box, right). While the anti

human

king was strong

prosperous. Tian could

be regardeil as wise and just. 13ut

to

once

evil

people began

prosper and justice ceased

to prevail,

Tian became

nothing better than the old sky god, unjust and blind. 11

lian could not be relied

on to produce consistent

consequence of history, if

any, did

in the events

what purpose, Tian serve?

That question was increasingly asked.

the Book oj raises the

question of what happens

when

a just ruler

disaster

beyond

is

struck by

his control:

"Bright Tian so vast prolongs

ritiiiil

speculation about the origins and nature of the

who remains

poem from

not

Hurls

Tian was greatly enhanced during the

triadic (cf Trinity, pp.97,

interact with

case Tian) that drew

on the

originally,

was

(cf p.l69).

cosmos was paramount. Tian,

Creator

(in this

it

common and

centre and led to the formation of

were planned,

and ceremony required Reverence

God

This

Odes (194/1)

took place there, since through their death they were

its

luiseij

grace,

and jainine,

beheading the Bright Tian

rises

states.

awesome,

unthinking, unplanning. Lets the guilty go free;

the}'

hart

paid for their crimes -

And

the guiltless must joiii

them,

all

drouning

as

one

Temple of Heaven, Beijing Emperors received here the

Mandate of Heaven and offered

annual

sacrifices.

I

HE RKLIC.IONS

how

to sen'e the

gods.

The Master

"Zilii

asked

spirits

and

said:

sen'e

ASIA

cil

Confucius

Yon are not yet able to

men, hoxv could you

the spirits?' Zihi said:

'May

The Servant of Heaven

serx'e

ask

I

you about death?' The Master said:

You do not yet k)iow

life. "

how could YOU know (Aiitdcct'-

death?

11.12)

o

\

(b.552BCt;?)

of the Chinese

Confucius

celebrated (though not in mainland

is

China! with a hoHday ot

month

27111 DAY of the c'iohth

in;

I

lendar, the anniversur)' of the birthday of

Confucius played

and

for teachers

what teachers contribute in establishing

to society,

education

in

pupils.

It is

a recognition

remembering the

part

China. Confucius

the

is

Western form of Kongfuzi (Wade-Giles K'ung Fu-tzu), Master Kong. His teachings, or sayings, were gathered in Tlie Analects (Lunyu, the Conversations of Confucius) years after his death. They, along with the on Himselj

Conjiiciiis "At

iO

40 al

1

i

took to lennting, at

standing finn, at

lo I

5

ceased to doubt.

SO

knew

/

the will

of i^ieax'en. at

ear

did as III!

I

desired

70

He

life

(e.g.,

for

see

bo,\, left).

valued sacrifice

but was sceptical about those

greatly,

who

/

and hndu

rule" {Analects 2.4

Chinese public

autious

60 my

iinderstiiiid. at

became the foundation of more than 2,000 years. At first sight, Confucius seems to have little to contribute to the Chinese story of God. His sayings on matters of religion are

classic te.xts associated with Confucius,

claimed to know explain the

I

Dynasty. that

its

meaning: "Someone asked Confucius to

meaning of the

The Master

sacrifice to the

would master the world as

if

Ancestor of the

know? Whoever knew he had it in the palm of his

'How could

said:

I

And he put his finger in his hand" {Analects 3.1 1). A reason why Confucius remained aloof from these juestions was because, in his own estimation, he was a practical man of action who spent his

hand.'

working

life

kingdom I

le

seeking (unsuccessfully)

had no ambition

ilaire

a state or

willing to put his ideas into practice. to

be what British poet

Belloc (1870-1953)

was

to call in

another tradition "a remote and ineffectual don". Confucius lived at a time of political L'onfusion

began

to

about lian discLiss

and

conflict as the

Zhou empire

break up, raising those questions (p. 147).

them

in

Conlucius refused

the abslr.icl.

answered) the qLieslion how

I

le disked

in

to

(and

practice the

condition ot peace, harni(>n\, and iuslicc (the will ol

Tian) could be

ir ili.ii

re.ison.

/;.

Li

is

Ideogram \esscl

liroiiujit

into being,

C'onlucius placed great emphasis

usuallv translated as "ritual", and is

niatlc

Lisetl in

up of

a religious classifier

ollerings to the ancestors.

riHitcd in religious riliuil, but

il

came

lo

So

its

and /;'

nicin

a

is

much

)

(

mcirc tlian thai.

and "manners":

/-/ it

is

more

oF those acts

and

that ereate an ordered pattern of lite

draw

into

i(

like "cLisloms'

made up

is

(INM

harmony the many constituents of

hfe in family, society, and the worlds ol spirits

and of nature. Li brings into being and

puts into action the will or the mandate

ol

Tian (Heaven). For that reason, Confucius regarded sacrifice as necessary and good.

When

he was asked the meaning o( xiao, the bond between children and parents, he said; "When your parents are alive, serve them according to the

ritual.

When

they die, bury

them according to the ritual, make sacrifices to them according to the ritual" {Analects This cannot be a matter of outward

2.5).

form only. "Sacrifice implies presence. should sacrifice present.

to the

The Master

gods as

said:

my whole

sacrifice with

'If

I

heart,

if

do not I

might as

well not sacrifice" (Analects 3.12). surprisingly, the early

masters of

Not

Confucians were

described

ritual,

One

they were

liirtlidiiy

as:

Celebrations

Confucians have

"dressed in colourful robes, pluyiitg zithers or heating druuis,

traditionally

chanting, dancing, and living their lives through an eccentric

form of

nothing as intricate

that hilt

Cdiifiiciu's

as Peking Opera.

They performed

taught that "humans have

this their mission in the

choreography surrounded by the scorn of a society

viewed them as hopelessly out of step with the times

—

unless

men and women have

d(nie their he\t to fulfill their ethical

was the times that were out of step"

it

world

[which] cannot be fulfilled

for these first Confucians, their dance was part oj an

eternal pattern;

honoured

his birthday in

cdhnirjnl ways. The)' are

ritual playacting suggestive, perhaps, of

much

OH

ami moral duties" {)ao p.46).

(Eno, p.l

Learning and practising the way of Tian was thus important for

Confucius (Analects 2.4) because Tian acts as

domain assumption; life,

a life of ren

confidence.

it is

(humaneness), can be

When

me

Confucius was not

much

a

I

have

to

is

no mistaking the

it

is

men and

5.13).

the

words of the wise. The opposite [to the junzi] do not fear the will of Tian, because they do not it.

They despise those who

are great

and mock

the words

of the wise"

not possible to hear his views

Way of Tian'" (Analects who lollowed.

major question lor those

will of Turn, great

know

help: "Zigong said; 'Our Master's views

on the nature of things and on the

was

What do

Confucius of Tian. But what did Tian mean?

on culture can be gathered, but

It

"The jiiiizi fears three things: the

with unshakeable

ideal person (jiinzi) always

respects Tian (see box, right), so there to

built

with moral power.

from Huan Tui?" (7.25). The

importance

background, or

Confucius was threatened by Huan Tui, he

observed: "Tian vested fear

a

the true foundation on which a good

(Analects 16.8)

ins

TIIK

RKLK.IONS 0[ \M

\

Nature and God The Teachings

UNWILLINGNESS OF CONFUCIUS

THE

be understood as

among a

work

He

and Mozi

oj Xiui Kuaiig

God

to discuss

whether Tian should

open either

or as Nature left

possibility

At one extreme, on the side of Nature, was

his successors.

Xun Kuang {Xunzi means Master Xun). Zhou dynasty was disintegrating among

called Xunzi, attributed to

lived at a

time

when

the

warring states (3rd century BCE).

He admired Confucius

greatly but

known as Ru, for their obsessive emphasis on ritual. He took the view that human nature is evil, or at least that its natural inclination is to put its own self-centred interests first, and that goodness has to be acquired - or instilled. Confucius, he believed, was right in saxnng that humans can be brought to good behaviour through education, example, and control, so for him, li (pp.l48f) is made up of rules of conduct whereby metal can be made into a sharp knife and a block of wood can be shaped in different ways (see box, left). Xun Kuang strongly rejected popular beliefs in ghosts and spirits and criticized his followers,

He

refused to allow that there are supernatural causes of events. "Straight

wood

therefore included a chapter (17) in Xunzi in which he rejected

to he straight

the \iew that Tian

does not require the carpenters tools.

to

nature, far

undergo steaming and bending h\ the carpenter's tools

only will

it

be

made

is

who rewards

or

the impersonal process ot

beyond human comprehension, but not and

He

for that

regarded

effect: "If

people

and

pra\- for rain

it

rains,

ritual

no would

sacrifice have

how

is

that-

I

is e\'il, it

nothing

sav:

to the

rain,

it

.\t

when people do

in particular. Just as

not pra\ lor

also rains" (de Bar\', p. 103).

He

the opposite extreme was Mozi.

li\ed in the Sth

century BCE, not long after Confucius, so for him also the time was

one of conflict and violence. However,

righteousness; then only will

he believed that

everyone issue forth in

human

indeed, of mutual love

in accordance

nature

(ai).

li\ed in selfish conflict with

with goodness

would p.

personal agent

as important for society, although prayer

government of the sage-kings

(de Bars.

like a

.

and the reforming influence of the rules of decorum atid

and be

is

behaviour. Tian

reason to be turned into an enigmatic Person.

and then

straight.

As the nature of man must be submitted

orderliness

human

punishes

Crooked imod needs

still

is

He

in contrast to

Xun Kuang,

capable of great goodness -

recognized that

humans once

each other, but he argued that that

be the case unless

humans had decided

to live

together in a better way. There was nothing inevitable about

107)

it

live.

But

against

of

required acts of will to work out a more harmonious

in

searching for a better way to

what can

human

"better" or "worse" be

is

who

this:

to

the question at once arises:

measured?

opinion, for in that case those

that behaviour

live,

way

(like

It

cannot be a matter

Xun Kuang) argued

simply an expression of natural dispositions might well

and there would be no reason (at least for many people) to change those dispositions. Mozi believed that Tian provides, and in fact is, that absolute definition and source of goodness. As a carpenter's tools, be

right,

\A

a

compass

will of

or a square,

measure what

Tian measures what

is

right

goodness good, and better than produces

for all people, that

is

round or

Because

it

26).

searches

which they recognize

Why for,

is

and

as beneficial

and pleasing. Tian brings that goodness into being in the world, especially through those who seek the goodness of Tian throLigh the communication of prayer and sacrifice. Life imitation of right).

God

(cf. p. 21 1) in

that people can be

understandings of

his followers the conviction

educated or coerced into

even though he had

left

open the

human

differences were not

becomes the

acts of selfless love (see box,

Confucius had impressed on

a wise

way

of

life,

and the question began

to

be raised

whether the exploration of God and nature might be better approached

in

"Mozi

said: Partialit)'

replaced

how can

cod

another way. That "way" vvas the Dao.

should be

universality. Bill

fc)'

partiality be replaced by

men were

to

regard the families of others

((.s

universality? ...If

they regard their own, then

would

up

raise

who

family

his

to

overthrow that of another? It

would be

like

his

possibility of radically different

nature and of Tian. But those

trivial,

\\|)

In'I

I

straight, so tlie

and wrong (Mozi

evil?

I

When we

overthrowing

own.

..

inquire into the cause

of such benefits, what do has produced them?

come about from hating and

we find

Do

they others

trying to injure

Surely not! They

them?

come

rather from loving others

and thciii.

trying to benefit

And when we

set

and describe hose who love and benefit

out to classify I

we

others, shall

say that

ihcir actions are motivated

by partiality or by universality? Surely

must answer, universality

and

we

b)'

it is

this

universality in their

dealings with one another that gives rise to all the

great benefits in the

world. Therefore

Mozi has

said that universality is

right"

(Watson, p.40)

Mountain and Stream Shan-shiii, "mountain •stream", are

and

two of the eight

elements of the universe:

"The wise find joy on the water, the

good find joy

the mountains"

(Analects 6.23).

in

II

RriU.iON^

"You look at seen:

You

listen to

heard:

Its

You grasp held:

it.

but

nume

Its

but

it,

is

it

Soundless.

but

it

is

name

is

The Foiuidation of Daoism

not to be

Bodiless.

all scrutiny.

.\nd hence they blend and

become the Supreme 0)ie (Daodc

jing

not to be

is

These three elude

Daode

not to be

Formless.

name it.

Its

it is

is

jiiig

14)

A /

X

a wise man much so that he The man was Laozi,

CCORDINC. TO TRADITION, Confucius once met

\

before

JL

c\

and other

whom

he was

stories told of

official

him of

value.

him

/;'.

so

become the

travelling to India to

(p. 69).

He was

who asked him

When

-

of respect

en asked him questions about

teacher of the Buddha

customs

full

held up

to declare

he declared

what he had w

wisdom, the

his

ith

official

wisdom down belore the Daode jing, in

insisted that Laozi should write his

he could pass. So Laozi wrote

the border by a

at

down

81 short sections of about 5,000 Chinese

mounting a

characters. Then,

common

Laozi Laozi appeared

Zhang

Dao-liiig in

llic

Cf in the form of god and gave

2nd

centurs'

hitu the reflations thai

led to the rex'ival oj

Daoisni in

tlie

ic

to It

is

picture

bull (a ver\

over East Asia, see

all

lelt),

disappeared to the West.

unlikely that such stories describe events

that actuallv

happened, but Daode ji)ig certainK

contains profound wisdom.

It

became, along with

Zhuangzi (c.4th century BCE), the foundation

Daoism (Taoism). Dao

(Tao)

is

ol

the Way, the

tradition

ofWutouniidao.

source and goal of

all life. It is

obvious to

and yet cannot be contained in sight or words (see box, left). It is self-defeating to ask u hat the "It" is, because an mswer to that question would

all

ha\e

to

be w rong:

"Tite

Dao

tJiiit ciiii

described as

Dao

is

be not

the eternal Dao. TJie

name is

that

can be named

not the eternal name.

Nameless,

it

is tlie

origin

and Iteaven; be named, it is

of eartli .Able to tJie

mother

of all thitigs"

Those are the opening words ol Daode jing, a deep well of living water for Chinese thought and life - obscurely so, at first sight; 1(11"

liow

can people draw

)

n

inspiration

that ul Which the)

Iroiii

Producer, of

in all

is

that

all

- the reason why anything

is

become something

-

exists at all

rather than nothing,

in

almost, as

we might

the effects. All that exists

as

"Dao

and suns. The Dao, the Source, cannot be found

one object among other objects

supplies the possibility of

in

the universe; rather,

nature and of

all

Dao

appearances; but those are the

as

all

individual

Always that

we may

discern

its

to all the

iwu;

One; One

Two gave

myriad things. The yiii

im

and hold the yang in embrace, and derive tlicir

their backs

inner secret.

liarmony from the permeation

existent,

its

to

myriad things carry the

their

we may apprehend

is:

birth to Tiiree; Three gave hirlh

it

"Always non-existent, that

that

giivc hirlh la

gave birth

becomes nameable:

it

in

and sustaining

all

atoms hurtling into new architectures of appearance - plants and planets, stars

Dao can be captured

into being

Dao,

of

to

is

human words. /Ml that can be known of Dao are the effects of Dao in bringing

all

consequence

a

is

that

the net of

of primordial energy, of particles and

say,

ii

into the trap of supposing

that

appearances are brought into being, so that the Maker can be discerned

Dao God? To ask

Is

fall

not wholly indiscernible. Through de, the potency

things to

'I

cannot s|X'ak? "Whereof

one cannot speak", observed Wittgenstein, "thereof one must be silent". But since the Dec is the source, the unproduced the I)ao

\'

of

these jorces"

outer uianijestations: (Daode jing 42)

two are the same;

TJiese

Only

as they manifest themselves

different

(Daode jing

The

do they receive

names" 1

outer appearance of things, thotigh often

only the surface of truth; to looknf

admire the timber and through the doorway into to enter into the

Way,

its

it

beaiililiil

to stand in a

and

fair, is

doorway and

construction, while never passing

The purpose

life.

is

to realize that they

of

Daoism

people

to help

is

themselves are a part of the

unfolding nature of Dao. Before

all

things, the

becomes concentrated

Dao

initiating singularity (later

Ultimate).

It

is.

energy, it

In order to

qi,

and

is

was called

produce from

itself,

it

Supreme One, the stage taiji, the Supreme

called the

at this

brings forth the two contrasting energies, the yin and the

yang, the boundary condition within

which manifold and varied

appearance becomes possible. The yin and the yang (see caption, are visible in the contrasts of the universe

— female and

right)

male, heavy and

harmony between them, it is sought is attacked and overcome by v\ inter, but then winter is overcome by summer. All life is caught up in the dualism of yin and yang, and human wisdom lies not in struggling to discipline those dualities, but in going with them as they unfold the Dao, light,

cold and hot.

If

there

is

through contest and conflict:

a

so that every action can also be called "inaction";

and that

is

ini-wei

—

acting without effort in accordance with the unfolding of Dao.

That sounds

like Ximzi's

"impersonal nature"

gave birth to the Three (see box,

opened the way

to the

Yin

summer

right);

discernment of

(p.

I

50).

But the

Two

and with the Three, Daoism

God

in the world.

The

\in

and Yang

and yang arc

opposite

and

conflicting energies in iinii'erse.

die

ojtcii llu

This syinhnl

represents their interaclioi

|i\(,

I

UK KKLIC'.IONS OF ASIA

Three from One The Gods of Daoism

THE

nvo, ACX'.ordim; IO Laozi, gme

Three gave

birth to

all

birth to Three,

the myriad things.

The

and the

Three, therefore,

are decisive agents in bringing the manifest world into being:

One

the Three are the

(the

Dao)

at

who

work. But

are the Three?

There have been several different identifications by Daoists. Shangqing Daoism,

for

In

example, the Three are the three levels that

humanity But more often, the way in which humans can interact and communicate with the Dao. The Dao remains the unproduced sustain appearances; heaven, earth, and

Three are personal, and they Producer of

Dao

all

that

(including the Three,

is

since they share

offer a

its

nature), the

who

nevertheless are the

unmoved Mover. But

as the

philosopher A.N. Whitehead (p.317) observed of Aristotle's comparable proposition of

God

as the

unmoved Mover,

produce a God and devotion. So the Three

this did not

available for the purposes of prayer, worship,

were more often identified as Sanqing, the Three Pure Ones (see box, below) who were the lords of life, life being concentrated in qi (breath).

Of

these,

Daode Tianzun was connected with Laozi. Dao at least

Laozi was regarded as the incarnation of

as early as Laoii

ming, the Laozi Inscription of September, 165CE. This records his earthly career as adviser to the

Zhou

rulers,

and then describes him

at the

centre

of the universe and the beginning of time, worshipped by the emperor

Huan

after a

dream. The author, Bian Shou, expresses his

own

view that

whose perfection evoked reverence and then worship, he records the power of Laozi who holds the sun and stars

Laozi was a hermit

and

finally

and other constellations

in their places.

This "promotion" of mortals into the ranks

known

of the

Gods

or the

Euhemerism, from the Greek philosopher Euhemerus (c.320bce), who argued that the Greek Gods were originally

immortals

is

as

The Three Pure Ones The Lords i YTJANSHI

TIANZUN: The

Primeval Origins, the iind sang, the

one

first

v\'ho

One

Heavenly

*

in fa\'oiir ol

the Jade

LINGBAO TIANZUN:

human

evil

Emperor

The Heavenly

Yiiii

and

(p. 156).

One

of

«ho mediates between

Heaven and Earth and ensures

orders and governs the

(p.lSd) until he despaired at

resigned

the Spiritual IVeasurc.

of

consequence of yin

universe - or did so, according to Feng-shen \i

I

oj the Saiujing are:

yang i

\KK' \ii \\i

1

1

p

\iN\i

and Psalms

Sacrifice Praise

IIH

and

STORY OK

Protest

God

was

told repeatedly in the

femple, where the agricultural Festixals of

T:

field

and flock were linked to the great events of rescue in the Exodus and of sustenance in the

Wilderness, to produce Pesach (Passover: for the Passover

Huggadah see p.l81) and Sukkot (Booths or

all the Day of damage done when the terms of the covenant had been broken, or w hen individuals had failed God. Day by day and year by year

Tahernacles). Other sacrifices, and above

Atonement, sought

to repair the

these occasions articulated in the midst of the great works that

The

God

Israel's life

has done and continues to do.

regulations for sacrifice are found mainly in

Leviticus 1-7 (see also Leviticus 14.10-32: 22.17-30; 1":

Numbers

account of

18-19), but these passages give no

hat the sacrifices actually

vv

meant

to the

people involved. In contrast, the book of Psalms contains m.mv livmns that in origin probabK belonged to festivals or other cultic occasions, especially in the

Temple. In

no

te.xt

this

case the meaning

or rubric saying to

vv

is

clear,

but there

is

hat liturgical occasion thev

belong. Psalm 45, for example, seems to have belonged to a king's

wedding. Psalm

1

10 to a coronation.

Fhe Psalms, however, contain for

tc\ts,

they illustrate the meaning of

of the Biblical period. Indeed, as sharplv as did the

Da) ofAtoneiiieiU The ill

rend

Lirae letters

on the

scroll

uindow Vom Kippur. the Day of

this syinigofiiie

Atuiwnieiit. the most solemn

ami hoU day of the jeuish year Ohsened once in the Temple, it is now obsened in synammiies and homes.

much more

than hymns

temple services. More than anv other collection

some

God of

for the

ol

people

them challenge

prophets the worth of sacrifice

II

becomes a substitute for life lived as God desires it. Isaiah drew bringing a contrast between people who, God says, "trample my courts futile offerings; "Your new moons and vour appointed festivals my soul am weary of bearing them hates; thev have become a burden to me, sacrifice

",

I

(Isaiah

l.i2-n.

In contrast,

God demands,

"Wash remove the do

evil,

evil

yourselves;

make

yourselves clean;

of your doings from before

my

eyes; cease to

U'uni to do good; seek justice, rescue the oppressed, dcfctid the orphiiti, plead for the

I

Isaiah i.lbf)

uidow"

I

Kll

N \(

ic

same

(.11

was drawn

nlr.ist

"How

with tens of thousands of

my

oiU Shall

rivers oj

I

my

give

He

has told you, () inortid,

How

is

good; and what does the Lord require of you

do

to

justice,

and

I'N \l

to love kindness,

ami

to

face from me^

How

long DNis;

Innv

(Hid

walk

huiuhlr with your (u)d?"

Lord?

me forever?

long will vou hide your

mr

ill

hut

O

long,

Will yon forget

transgression, the fruit of viy hody

for the sin of ni\ soul?

what

WD

I

b\ Micali:

"Will the Lord he pleased with thousLiiids of nniis,

first-horn for

l(

hearl

sr;nY;ii' /); iiiv

day long?

all

How

pain

hecir

/

'^oiil.

mr enemy

long shidl

he

exahed over me?"

iMicah

6.7f)

(Psalm L^.lf; sec also Psalms

Psalm

S

1

1

.

5-7 makes exactly

thai

commitment:

12, 22. .^5,

38-44. 55, 60,

4. 6,

74. 7"

6S),

79, 83. 88, 102, 109, 137. 140-431

"()

Lord, open

iiir lips,

and

mouth

ni\

uill

declare your praise.

For you have no delight in sacrifice; if I

were

to

would

give a burnt-offering, you

not he pleased.

Ihe

A

sacrifice acceptable to

God

a brolien spirit;

is

O

broken and contrite heart,

God, you

will

not despise"

"Where can

I

go from your

Or where can

Many

of the Psalms express directly

profound struggle that went on

certainly,

and

as a nation.

but there

is

There

argument

praise

is

Ij I

in their lives

and adoration,

people

try to

why God seems, on so many occasions, to be absent are a God who hides himself, Isaiah 45T5; see box, There

is,

destruction of enemies, not least riders

and

their horses in the

78, 135, 136). But there

is

in

you

also

I

5. 1;

see Psalms

on experience, that the hand of God is stretched out in mercy and renewal over all the nations and o\er the wh(jlc ol 13, 148). creation (see, for example. Psalms 8, 29, 67, 104,

and

settle at the farthest //ii;;/s

oj the

God may seem, on

and God may seem often

to

be absent. However,

metaphors of relationship are there clearly,

occasion, hard to decipher,

in

all

the great

lead

and your

If

I

sa\,

to

be true: shepherd

).

Many

of the Psalms are a

welcoming feather bed of

huge reassurance and comfort. But, wrote Thomas More, we do not get to heaven on a feather bed. Other Psalms are more like sleeping rough on the streets. Even there, "your hand shall lead

me, and your

right

hand

shall hcjld

me

fast

(see box, right).

me

s/ii///

jasl.

'Surely the darluiC'^s

shall cover me,

and the

light

become

around me night'.

even the darkness

(Psalm 23), mother (Psalm 131), shelter (Psalm 91), and guide (Psalm 31

'.linU

}}ie.

right haiul

hold

the Psalms, and come,

from an experience lived and known

sei/,

even there your lunid

1

The ways of

wings of

morning

the

profound recognition, based

clearly

in Sheol [the

If I take the

the drowning of the Egyptian

Exodus (Exodus

there;

gravef, yon are there.

top right).

the Psalms, exultation over the defeat and

in

heaven.

to

make my bed

understand ("Truly,

ascend

you are if I

also, as

spirits

from your

presence?

the people of

understand the meaning of Clod

Israel to

as individuals

and eloquently the

among

flee

I

to

the night

is t/s

for darkness

is

not dark

you: bright as the day.

is (is

light to

(Psalm l.^y.7-12)

you"

MS

I

111-

K1;LI(.H1\S iM

\P,K All

\M

jTH

\|N\1

The

and Reneival

Suffering

THE

FAITH

EM'i'.l.ssi

indeed. But

Exile

139 (see box,

in I'salin

I)

in tlie 6tii

p.

193)

is

profound

century BCE, this faith was shaken. Babylon

had been gaining power, and that inevitably brought

it

into conflict

with Egypt, because both were seeking control of the Mediterranean

was caught between the two, and backed Egypt the loser Two attempts In resist the Babylonians ended in failure, and in S87/6 the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its

coast, ludah

Temple, and look

was

This

lime, had

human

many

major

a

allies like

mean

tlial

the Egyptians, and not in God, would

and he had been proved

Yahweh had abandoned

be fII VI) ruble? 1 1

forever?

the

at

that to put their trust in

the Lord spitru forever,

"\V';7/

E.xile.

Jeremiah, a prophet

warned the people

lead to catastrophe, this

of the inhabitants into

disaster.

Has

Are

right.

Did

Israel?

and never again

his steadfast love ceased

his

promises at an end

for all time?

Has J

las

C^iod forgotten to

be gracious?

he in anger shut up his compassion?" (Psalm 77.7-9)

(

)n

the

oltl

understanding

(p.

180;

and caption,

lelt),

ihe people had been defeated so too had their gods.

some

to

wonder, might

it

it

It

led

therefore be prudent to switch

allegiance and lo worship the gods of Babylon? It

was

at this

lime of deep depression and despair that

the most cxtraortlinary affirmations of Israel's taith were

made. Chapters 40 SS of Isaiah deal with the Exile and, powerful poetry, ihev rcminil the people that Yahweh there

is.

is

the only

in

God

The so-called gods of the Babylonians are mocked as they are

carried past in a procession:

CDIKjIU'fVil llic Siiiiifrniiis,

mil

llifii

h\ ihc

r,^).

li\e their li\es in

an exemplary Fashion.

At once

became

it

\ital that

priests

became

know

ever}'one should

conditions of the Covenant contained in Ibrah

apply the

iiiul

(p. 200).

The Temple

decisive in interpreting and applying God's

changing circumstances of

life

-

so

much

so that prophets,

word

to

who

liad

spokesmen of God, became suspect and soon i-lisappeared from mainstream religion: prophets cannot be controlled, because they claim direct inspiration from God; they might again, as they had in the past, challenge the Temple and its cult (p. 190) with the been

lor so long the

dramatic words, "Thus says the Lord."

Holy

who had

Spirit

punishment of the

as part of the

came

It

be believed that the

to

inspired the prophets had been withdrawn by (lod

Important though

Exile.

the lemple priests

became

as interpreters of

I'orah,

Jews lived in or near Jerusalem. The Exile had proved that God could be worshipped without the Temple, even in Babylon, and not

all

many people chose to remain in Babylon when the return to Jerusalem became possible. Eventually, large communities of Jews were to be found in virtually every Mediterranean land, in what is known as the Diaspora, the Greek word for dispersion. Diaspora Jews were tied to Jerusalem by the pilgrimage feasts, by annual tribute to the Temple, and by the

passionate loyalty expressed so often in the Psalms.

Even

so,

was uncertain how such a wide scattering of people could

it

be kept within the agreed boundary of the covenant. Ezra and Nehemiah,

two leaders

after the Exile,

had drawn the people

renewed and solemn commitment had asked

to Torah

the people, not Just a few

all

oiler themselves in holiness (p. 189). to live in this

condition?

It

who

How

in

Jerusalem into a

(Nehemiah

8.1-6). But

God

lived in or near Jerusalem, to

could

was the pressure of

all

the people be helped

this issue that accelerated

the creation of Scripture, and led to development of the synagogue.

The Beginnings of Scripture Gathariug idocthcr a

n-riiieii

hislon oj the people of Israel and their relationship with (iml

hecciiiie oj

prime importance during the uncertain period oj Exile. During the

meant

to

Exile, a

new sense developed

belong to the people of

Israel

-

ol

a

what

move

from an identity fixed purely by geographical location

and national

one based on

God made known ihrouuh and cultural tradition. One major

commitment religious

institutions to

to

a lonj;

it

consequence of the

Exile

was the determination of

the people to gather the records of that tradition into

what eventually became Scripture,

history as God's story played a

the hrsl time (if

"Jiidaisni"

it

begins to

become

and of a "people

in

prominent

ol'

which part.

I

(ir

possible to think

the book".

I

\

II

I

III

Kl

K.IHW

I

I'i

\|-',K

Ml \M

|l

n \I^M

Scripture The Word of God

in the

Words

of

God

100 YEARS AKTKR the Exile ended, the leaders, Ezra and ABOUT Nehemiah, made an attempt to renew the commitment of the L

Ihe word "torah " means basically

guidance or

instruction, but

it

came

to

refer particularly to the first

five books of the Bible, the hoolis associated

(the Torah),

with Moses

and

to the

guidance and law that those boolis

contain (Torah). Thus is

Torah,

and eventually

whole

of

what eventually

to

to

Yahweh.

On

one all-important occasion,

He

and unchanging word of God, but to it were added, over the course of many centuries, the words of the prophets (Nehi'int) and other writings {Kethiihim), known collectively as qabbalah ("tradition"), and these three divisions

about the ird centur)'

Ct) came

Jerusalem

be accepted

as Scripture.

make up

Scripture.

From

the

and Kethubim, the Jewish Bible

The gathering

is

of Torah, Nebi'im,

initial letters

the

term was extended to cover

{in

in

opened the book in their sight and blessed the Lord. All the people answered, "Amen, Amen" (Nehemiah 8.6). Then the book was read and interpreted to all those present. This formal commitment to Torah (see caption, left) marked a new departure in accepting God as guide to life. The Torah became the living word ofGod spoken to the people. The Torah was regarded as the eternal

contained in the

Torah

the

people

Ezra brought the book of the law before the assembled people.

Torah

often

known

as

Tanakh.

together of the writings that eventually were accepted

was dramatically important for the Jewish story of God. It meant that God had not only spoken to Moses and inspired the prophets and other writers long ago, but also continues to speak through the words as Scripture

of Tanakh in the present.

As the synagogue developed In

the Diaspora together

(p.

to gather the

Jews

199), so Scripture

was read aloud every week. Scripture was always read in Hebrew, the sacred language

through which since, as time

God had

went

by,

revealed the word, but

fewer people knew or

understood Hebrew, an interpreter would then give a paraphrase of the text in the language of

the people present. "interpretations")

These Targums

because the actual word of

God had

been read. Thus the Targums

in the

conveyed not only the word of the

{targtimim,

were often extremely

God

synagogue but also

meaning of that word to make sure its way into understanding and

worked

\=:

_

free,

already

that

it

life.

The study and interpretation of Torah became the most precious and valued of all occupations. The rabbis (teachers) argued, in the 2nd century CL, whether it was more important

in

or to practise

the eyes of il.

God

Rabbi Akiba

to study

won

the

Torah

N(

aruumcnt when he study

I'orah,

said that

it

more important

is

ini'

1

1

to

to praeliee. f^rom

beeause study leads

study developed Halakah and Haggadah (see

this

whieh showed how the laws are to be and what they mean. The results of this search for the meaning and

box, below),

applied

in life,

application of the original written laws {Torah she hi ketabh, "Torah

which

gathered,

into the

first

is

were eventually

written")

Mishnah, and then into the

Talmuds, of which the Babylonian Talmud has

continuing authority. orally transmitted

It

came

to

be believed that

law (Torah she be

'al

thi

peh, "Torah

according to the mouth") was also revealed by

God

Moses on Mount Sinai, to be transmitted not in writing but by word of mouth, to be given public expression later as circumstances demanded it. The process of interpretation continues to the present day, with some rabbis becoming consummate authorities on such questions as to

whether

it is

possible to travel in a

Sabbath (see box, below) used

if

lift

someone

on the

else presses

be said of one of these

the button.

It

authorities.

Rabbi Mosheh Feinstein (1895-1986),

that a

to

newly ordained rabbi needed only two things:

his ordination certificate

and Rabbi Mosheh's

telephone number.

The

whole

laws, however, are not the

more than

law:

it

story.

Ihe Torah contains

rhc lahinul

much

I'bc iabiiiul conUiitn in ihe

contains stories and wisdom, encouragement and

centre of each page the

guidance known as Haggadah ("narration", see box, below). This too was developed

oral,

order to bring

found

also to be

and

in

God

is

in the

words,

is

Talmud. Through the two Torahs

a constant

In the best of times

God

closer to the lives of the people,

and

and in

living reality in

Jewish

and

Mishnah and

is

the

Icommentar)'} on

(Toroth), written

Gemara it,

and

life.

after

the worst of times, God, through these

Tanakh

jeu'ish

an enduring and inviting presence.

life.

{Scripture}, in

Around

it

are

printed later vonnnenlaries.

Halakah and Haggadah Traditions helping people to

walk and

Halakah comes from the verb halak, meaning "he walked". Halakah shows

Moses

is

to

how

the law revealed to

be applied, and how, therefore, people

are to walk through

life

with

God

as their guide,

talk as the

Torah decrees.

are often extremely brief or general,

have continually been raised about should be applied to

new

or

circumstances. For example,

it is

on the Sabbath, but what counts

comes from

many answers and

and

it

word meaning

refers to the stories

narrative, or telling,

and other material

exemplify the meaning of Torah.

The

that

original laws

(o

and questions

how

they

changed

keeping the terms of the covenant. Haggadah a

is

the fundamental authority,

forbidden to work as

work? As the

applications developed,

be said that the laws on the Sabbath are

mountain hanging from

a hair.

it

came

like a

N'l

I

III

Kl

I

n .lii\s HI

\|-',

K \ll \\1

|l

D

\IN\1

Change and How New

Understandings of

WRITINGS THAT CAMK

THEcomposed

Elijiih

Llijdh friini

iiiarlis

ihf Iwiisition

pnipltcts

trance states

who go into and who

provide guidance for kings iind others,

become

and

those

who

spoliesinen jor

\ah\veh even

when

it

leads

thcni into conflict with kings tuul others. In this scene

i

/

Kings 17.1-7' Llijah trusts (^)i/

and

is

fed h\ nircns.

Stability

to

God Developed

make up Tanakh

(Scripture) \\ere

Once the\ were put Canon (agreed list) of the books making up Scripture, there tendency to make all parts of Scripture equally \'alid as the word of over a period of a least 1,000 years.

into a

was

a

God, without much reference to the process of history in those thousand years. It was belie\'ed that Torah came directly from God through Moses, and that the prophets and the w ritings came from the

human

but with the co-operation of

agents; but

This means that in the Jewish quest for Ciod part

can interpret any other

in

all

initiative of

God

parts ha\e authority.

the words

dI

(iod. an\

part.

This can obscure the tact that the writings reveal an extraordinar\ process of change, correction, and growth in the understanding of God. riiis was dramatically clear in the way in which Yahweh invaded and took over the role and Junctions of El, becoming in the end the One who is El (pp.178, 183). It was shown also in

the realization, reluctant on the part of some,

God

that

on

not a gangster

is

Israel's side

Vihweli

\ahweh

is

is

will

always fight (p. 186).

two changes belong together

In a way, those II

who

and defeat enemies

indeed the

obviously the

One who is God, then God of all nations (since

the so-called gods of those nations arc not gods at all)

and not

just of Israel.

can deploy nations

That

like Assyria

punish the Covenant people. In century

liCK),

God does

is

whv'

God

and Babylonia

Amos

to

(Sth

indeed punish other

nations for their transgressions, but does exactly the

same

to Israel

and |udah.

liven lievond that

God but

is is

was the

realization that

not simply the judge of

all

the nations

The prophet Nahum

their saviour as well.

(7th centurv' HCE) had bre.itlied out vengeance against Assyria, the eneinv

tliat

destroyed the

northern kingdom and tiireatened Judah sdLilli

in

the

Alter the Exile, the book of Jonah was

written to

show how God condemns thoughts of

destructive vengeance and rescues Nineveh, the \ssvrl.in capital final

words

ol

imajjinalion ol

-

"anil also

many animals" (the new

the book that extended the

God even

kirther).

«

II

I

Ilis

LonsUinl li-anslormation

the \\a\

ol

"If

h)und thronuhoLit

is

the wliole of Scripture. Prophets, for example, were lound

elsewhere

in

Near

the Ancient

t|uesli()ns

and give

That

oracles.

is

how the prophets

ol

ahout

his prediction

came

e\ent

a lulLire

prophets or those u-hn divine aitidiiti

inul priimise ran

mucus

and

Israel

Let

titer v'V.

word

that the

'How can

words of diose prophets.

true.

spealis in the

not

ta}-'-

- from

chaos, for example, tree.

According

to

he Theoguur (Birth of the Gods) of Hesiod (8th century

HCE

'

'^If

a prior state

from an egg, or from a primordial

(ir

in

Greece) and other Greek myths,

in the

beginning

which emerged Ge or Gaia, "widebosdmed earth", a foundation for Olympus, the abode of the goddesses and gods. Gaia ga\e birth to Ouranos (the Heavens), who produced was

a chaotic void out of

From among whom were Oceanos,

Night, and w ho, being greater than Gaia, completely covered her. that union

H'ds the

Romans

fertilitr.

si\iular

Venas.

goddess of desire and

Her

came Imm

cull proljahly

the cull of other

goddesses oj the Near

East, especially Astarte

or Ishtar Other important

gods and goddesses uvre lleslia Kjf the hearth

i)i()n]sus

I

the vine

i.

god

representing the nild side oj hiniuni nalnre

',

/

lades {of

the u\idenvinid) I'liscidiiu

the

first

gods, the Titans,

the one-eyed Cvclopes, and the fearsome Hyperion, Rhea, and Kronos.

Aphrodite \plimdilc' lapliros. "jciani"'.

called hy the

came

and

i(f the sea).

Gaia enlisted Kronos and the other Titans

to destroy

Ouranos, and,

with a sickle pro\ ided bv her, Kronos castrated Ouranos.

blood that

fell

The drops

on Gaia became the \engeful Furies, but the

of

genitals,

foam from which emerged the most (or follower) was Eros, Desire. Night meanwhile brought forth Death, Sleep, Dreams, and other works of darkness, such as Deceit, Old Age, and Strife. falling into the sea,

beautiful of

all

produced

a thick

women. Aphrodite, v\hose son

Kronos then raped

his sister

family of goddesses and gods

Rhea, and from that union began the

who would

later live

on Mount Olympus

who, by overcoming Kronos, became the ruler of Olvmpus. Zeus married his sister, Hera, and from them came Hephaistos (controller of iron) and Ares (of war). ,\mong (the Olympians), including the great Zeus,

Zeus' offspring

b\'

other unions were /\thena (w ho according to

some

armed from the head of Zeus), Hermes (the messenger ot the gods), and Apollo, god of light, music, and youth. The stories continue to the creation of humans, with gods and goddesses distinct from humans but invoked in their affairs. Myths of this kind are an extremely powerful w,i\ in which people can think about sprang

fully

the universe and about their

power of myth

is

that

it

imagination that people have in stories.

Msths

own

stains .uid significance within

offers a public in

and simple language

common,

not least because

it.

I

he

ol it

can be

are not true (nothing h.ippened exaclK like thai),

lokl

and

the Iriilh. Ilic powt-r ol Circek myth is means through which artists, dramatists, ami musicians ha\c explored ihe meaning of Clod and nature until very reei'ntK, ()nl\ in the 2()lh eenUir\ diil llu' word "m\lh" heeome ill-used and eorriipled ImainK h\ polilieians and joiirnalistsi lo mean the same as "false", and in that eorriiption, humans ha\t' tlone lo their imagination iIktcIoic

so

i;r(.'al

,irc .ihic Id L(in\(.A

lliLN

lliat

it

has remained ihc

what kronos did

e\aetl\

Hut lor

all

lo Oiiranos.

the power

m\lh

ol

in

human

imaginalion, enahling

it

to

explore \M)rlds ihal remain otherwise inaeeessihle, the Jewish

untlerslanding oF Clod and creation

iheogoHN, no birth

ot

does not emerge Irom

Clo(.l

is

entirely dillerent.

There

is

no

Clod or the gods. a pre-

existing uni\erse or chaos, but

the

is

source and origin of everything that

There are several different

exists.

creation stories in the Bible, and from

these

it

Jews knew

clear that the

is

ol

made use of made use of them to

other creation myths and

them.

Ikit thc\

one of

tell

an entirely different

tlu'

absolute difference between

story,

God

been created. Thus in the Psalms (74.12-17, 89.9-13) and Job (ch.41 use is made of the myth of ami

all

that has

)

creation emerging out ol chaos, but in the Biblical account

is

it

God who

lakes on chaos and overcomes

produce orderly 1

.

life.

In

to

it

Genesis

1-2.25, two different accounts ha\e

been combined, one with

its

focus on

orderly creation, the other on the

creation of

precedes

humans, but

all

that has

in

renicUns independent from

does not ha\e

come

both

God

been created and it:

to birth or die,

se.xual desires in

God does not

order to bring

dcmi-gods into being, and has no need of "other gods'

at all.

This in part

explains the passion with which other gotl deritletl in

the Bible. There

is

Ill,'

no God except God

cannot be, since otherwise "God" would be

less

(p.

1

78, 183): there

than the absolute

One who produces all things but is not produced from anything, the One who abides and endures even when heaven and earth pass away. No wonder the Psalmist cried out, "O Lord, how sovereign Lord, the

made them all" (Psalms question was bound to arise: why is there so

manifold are your works! In wisdom you have 104.24). In that case, the

much

suffering and disorder in the world? That question

repeatedly throughout the whole

ol

the

Piihlical period.

was asked

I

he sea

CIS

s,„

wcis ividely regarded

fearsome but

invitiiiv.

coiilains rich resoiirtr-. it

//

hiil

can he violent and

destructive. Poseidon, ihc \ca

god, was well knou'ii jar his violent rages hut

Yahweh

conquers the violence and dangers nf the

sea.

I

III

Kl

I

II

,IO\N Ol

I

\l',

K

Ml

\\1

n

|l

\IN:\\

Suffering

he cause-and-cflect

cvpl.ination of suffering occurs

thniughout the Bible.

It

Why

underlies the idea of the

covenant, through which the

people of Israel expressed their

understanding of how, most

Gl

fundamentally, they were related to (lot).

.\

co\'enant

in

depends on promise and threat, the outcome depending on the extent to

which the conditions

have been observed or broken.

That belief was most fully worked out in the book Deuteronomy, and

it

Israel in the

sLilfer

expressed lint tix'l

mid

good people do

for

oj

then

in particular,

onK the wicked

so olten the

bay tree

like a

to say that

that they are

are punished in this way:

how fortiDuite

innocent

do some

is it

shows

much

there so

is

Why

common answer was

they are,

unfortunate they are,

to the gtiilty! hfoiv

u'hiit their

hands have done shall be done

to

them"

(Isaiah 3.1 Of)

and do good; the hind, and

Unfortunately, this idea of cause and effect (see

open

to

an important objection;

it

was not

makes

it

clear that

casual obsen'ation of get cut off,

"The rain

Upon

was

raineth ever)' day

it

the just

and unjust fellas.

But mainly on the just because

you the desires

your heart.

life

bo.x, left)

Even the most the wicked do not

true.

and that the ruthless frequently prosper:

Take delight in the Lord, will give

Why

not good?

uj the iviclted;

soon fade like the grass.

live in

is

not in fact suffer. Suffering

"Tell the

enjoy security

and he

experience that

God

u'ltlwr like the green herb.

you will

"Ciod saw everything that he had made,

was very good".

for they shall eat the fruit of their labours.

Woe It

N-is

it

Psalm 37:

in

because

I'rmt in the Lord,

so

human

not good, because

do not he envious of wrongdoers, for ther will

s

I

(Psalm 37.35)? The early and

that the

an understanding of

is

"Do

way

T

.

and others do not? And why,

was then

books were edited.

1

case that the good suffer while the wicked flourish

applied to the early history of

historical

\l.sis

aiui indeed,

The

unjiist steal the justs'

umbrellas"

(Anon)

Why

is

the distribution of suffering so unequal?

eremiah raised the question 8.22-33) 12).

in

(as did

Abraham, Genesis

almost despairing anger (see especially

Even more so did Job. The book of Job is a dialogue between Job, who suffers greatly and his three friends, Elipha/., ISiklad, .md Zophar (and a fourth speaker, Elihu),

who

li\

to explain to

siilTering in classical

ninishment jol) is

that

for sin).

he

is

him the reason

The

is

a

essential point about

defined in the Prologue as being

sound and honest man shunned e\il", and even in

.ibsoluteK innocent, "a

who

for his

terms (that suffering

fearetl (ioil aiul

)

.

Wdisl

iIh'

(il

Ihiil lias t(i

III

- as

sa\

his alTlKlidHs Ik'

he

in lael lhe\

some

eoniniit

thai

all

I'liil

|oh

IS

plays

its

thai

is

the

his trtist.

e\en

in

character ot Israel

d.yainsl (loci.

.is

h"om

answers Joh

understand

its

own

suffering.

far greater

good can he right),

the most grievous suffering, forged the .is

.nut /

Ihirc pill lie

uill

wlidiii ni\

upon

spiri/

liiiii:

will

luiiuiiis.

.

iKit Lirc/ir /(/;;;(

he ii;;/;7 lie /ii/s

ar

cr;is/)C(l

e'^luhlislicd ju^liee

in llie eiirtli...

'

(Isaiah 42.1-4)

iron in lire:

"TJiough the

does not hlossoui,

fig tree

ami no

fnilt

on the

is

vines;

tJiouoh the produce oj the olive fails

no food;

iind the fields rield

though the flock

Maccabean Martyrs

When

there

yet

I

no herd

is

in the stalls,

will rejoice in the Lord;

Cod of my salvation. is my strength;

will exult in the

the Seleucid

"manifestation", perhaps of

God)

tried to

my feet

like the feet oj a deer,

and makes me tread upon the heights"

impose

Hellenistic (Greek-style

worship and practices, many

jews

resisted

(jod. the Lord,

he makes

Emperor

Aiiliochiis Epiphaiies

cut off from the fold

is

I

and 1

III}

the

He

ill

,/c//A'/'/s:

hriiiti Icrlli ju^'tice In

Through

but to the whole world (see box,

Isr.iel

iiiy cliiiscii,

w here

set in the context ol creation,

nphnld.

I

(ioti.

word. Ciod simpK

riijht

sen'iinl. iihaiii

]]i\

IS

innoeenl, so that

whole purpose of God. And that was how. to

"Here

Id his h'iencis

|Hinishiiienl

iiieril

through acceptance of suffering,

.ind

iiLit

tolaiK innoeent, antl

is

eonipleleK.

answer

must he

came

hroLight not just to I

it

no one

ih.il

cr\

(ir

he (ipen

wciiikl

il

out. In the end. Ciocl

is riiletl

part in the

supiemelv, Israel tiList.

-

olTi'iiei's

from the storm -

states that suffering it

sa\

(.In

cletinecl, arlilieialK aiul

the elassical solution (.lirectlv

mil w.ncT

iliel

siiKf otherwise

sii.

rehelled.

(ippnniclicd anil]

on

and some

WOien they were liy

llie

the Seleucid

Sabbath, they

rcjuscd tu fight on that day

(Habakkuk.^. 17-191 complete This without any

trust in Ciod

was achie\ed

beliel that there will

be

lite

with

Ciod after death. Virtually the whole Bible,

with

lite

in a

after death (Job 19.25f.

court of justice, not of

become

life

the

is

a possibility at the very

Maccabean

revolt

a scene

after death). Yet

the Biblical period and thereafter.

r.iised

worthwhile

belief that there will be a

God

with

this did

ol

was written

extraordinary openness to God,

its

w ithout any

The

end

ot

martyrs

(2nd century BCE)

the issue acutely; here were people

keeping faith with God, refusing to abandon tbrah, yet they

began

to

come

to

were slaughtered. Slowly

be realized that God,

know

ot

it

the\

li.al

so profoiiiulK, will not .ili.indon

the faithful but will keep

beyond death.

whom

How

speculation. That

them

safe even

that will be it

uill

was

a matter

be was not.

and

so

were slauehtcred.

I

1

1

I

K'

1

I

i

(

\ll \\1

\I'.K'

'I

1

.

(Ml

\|\\1

The Rabbis Ruth and Practice

Rehiiildiuo

mil

Roman

\E.\R 63l!t K, the

general

Pompey

Jerusalem and soon o\ercame the resistance

I\

Temple

In the

entered the

l(il\

I

(106-4cSl entered

the

Temple

area.

he admired the rich adornments, and he

itselF,

oF Holies expecting to find the greatest treasure of

he found

lo his great surprise

all.

in

empty of

it

riches and images of

Here was an understanding of God that set the Ciodhead far abo\e an\ human representation, and from this time on, Judaism C^od.

was

Roman Empire,

powerful missionary religion in the

a

\oung people

in particular

with

moral

its

\ie\\ of life

and

attracting

its

far removed from Greek and Roman m\lhs same time, however, Palestine came under Roman rule, even though that rule was delegated to others, including the Herods. After 100 \ears of independence, people had to work out their attitude to

understanding of Clod

I

p. 206

1.

the

.At

Roman

authority.

to help

them

co-operated, but others rebelled, looking tor

sending of a Messiah.

70 and l.^ScL,

disaster, in

Temple

Some

b\ the

first

in

salt.

rebellion, the

Saddueees accepted the Roman

presence, believ ing that the Temple was

still

God's chosen place.

Others passionateK rejected w hat was going on

and the\ took

God

major rebellions ended

which the Temple was destroyed and the

after

ploughed with

site

Before the

Two

in

the Temple,

off as religious refugees to various places, building

alternative temples (as at Leontopolis in Egypt) or establishing

communities diat

in

remote parts where they could

One such community was thev wrote

Ciod.

live in

the holiness

God had commanded. established at

and collected expressed

Thev believed

that their

Qumran, where

this conservative

the scrolls

understanding of

Teacher of Righteousness had been sent by

Clod to establish a new covenant, and that they had been chosen by Jewialt Ilu'se

(ii'o

the lime

coins conic Jroiii

(>l

ihc 2ihI Jeiiish

rcx'oll aiitiiiisl I'\oiik' I'nir

Koclihci

Kochbil

be members of

Coins

I

under

;.^2-/.?SL

liiir

heaciii to rebitild the

this

new community not

under the old covenant but I

in this

way

that the

bv

simplv'

making an

Spirit

had been returned

to

to

(as

individual decision. In eoniiniK'

of holiness requires the direct help ot

Holv

God

by being born as Jews

them

God. and

to help

thev believed

them walk

in

the

war approaching betv\een the sons ol light and the sons of darkness. The "exiles of the desert would march on Jerusalem and restore in the Temple the true worship that God desiretl. ways of God. Thev foresaw

a great

"

ieuiple. so the top coin s/ioiis

i

parlicLilar inslances

experience

them they

ol

ugly, or false. Particular

is evil,

are

instances that

and are therefore pale shadows

are not eternal or ideal,

the ultimately good, real, and true.

Nevertheless, the beautikil can be discerned even ugliness and confusion of the world,

point of

Can

we be

form

sure that the ideal it

was

and truth. The ascend from the

to

is

whole ocean of the beautiful".

to "the

Plato believed

the midst o( the

great grace

or at least of the true philosopher,

life,

and the untrue

ugly

in

great teacher, Socrates,

f^lato's

him could be seen

physically ugly, but within

does because

ot the

Good

actually exists?

endures even when the

it

contingent accidents (the particular circumstances) in which is

i;

the good, the beautiliil. or ihc true, because any particular examples

can come and

ol

bc\ond

III

discerned

—

- change

us"

"in the

or even disappear.

our physical bodies

it

order of the world around us and of the stars above

come

We

can discern

into being

it

also within ourselves:

and pass away

in

death; they are

always changing and are never perfect; nevertheless, there

is

within us

which does not change and which gives us our true identity, or permanent form, even in the midst of frailty, change, and death; and that

tiiat is

the soul.

Truth unaffected by time, the permanent and unchanging

behind

that lies

demonstrated

may come and

all

things and allows

them

mathematics.

for Plato particularly in

go, but

to e.xist at

one apple added

to

its

One

stiibilit\

was apple or another

another always results

So Plato argued that the Form of the Good perceptions of

all,

exists quite apart

in two.

from our

manifestations, tangled up as they always are with the

corrupt and the confused.

The proper

object of knowledge

is

not the

transient object that appears before us, but the independent idea of w hat it

is

that enables us to identify

goat, for

example, or a sheep.

sheep

we

Good from

is

and say what

it

If

we

could never pick out examples of

enables the universe to exist but it:

an example of - a

some idea of what one. The Form of the

it

a

remains completely separate

the sun causes cabbages to grow but does not create them.

Plato believed that there

being

it is

did not have

is

a controller or

demiurge able

Aristotle

to bring into

appearances souls that are expressions of the Form of

in transient

The demiurge is like the master player of a game who uses limited moves made by lesser players (for example, human beings) to bring the game to a wise conclusion. But is that demiurge God? Plato

the Good.

the

Otic oj PllliOS pupils Ariitotlc. ulio

tciicher but

Olympus

of

(p. 206). If

world, in

is

whom

from him in decisive ways.

gods of the Greeks: the pantheon dwelling on

that demiurge, bringing the

God,

it

is

God

Form

of the

Good

to bear

on the

kept far (to avoid contamination) from the world

which the corruption of good

is all

too evident.

Aristotle's belief that truth exists in a

(see caption, right) leads inevitably

beginning, or arche

wrong

in placing the

ultimately true

entertaining but often scandalous stories were told

(p. 246),

of

all

back

proper understanding of nature to the source of nature, the

things. This

is

the perfect knowledge

his

moved away

Aristotle thought that Plato ivas

criticized the conventional

ll'(l>

admired

and good

outside the world in which

we

live.

In his vieiv, truth

must begin and end

in a

proper understanding i)j

tniture.

\ii

I

UK

KI.I.H.Ii^NS Ol

K\II\M rilKISI

M;

1

\NI

I

V

understanding ot why

cind

things are as

all

how and why they exist. All things have their own characteristic form not the Form of the Good as Plata understood they are and of

particular sheep

made up

in part also of their

that

is

used

humans

purpose, what they are

way

that

that

it

has a sharp edge

ihe

Sun

biiiilicd oj

C.lcinente

is hiiill

at the base

is

Above

here.

that

a leinple of

Mithras, whose altar this,

God.

to attain

it

ruiii\

is

called in

All things,

the first

humans have

God, since God is the perfection of understanding Greek nous (intellect, intelligence). To aspire to God is

according to Aristotle, are

humans

is

to

this

church

III

ii'Ks hiiiti

//ON,

origin of all nature

new

ii

ihis

acts

was

and beings to

rebuilt in the IHlh centur)^.

them, not

All these layers can

exist,

seen

and

still

striving, in a

be

own

to

constant process of

-

least in the

goal ot

source and

to the

pure act-and-being which enables

to that

exist. All

The

nature.

ascend through their knowledge of nature

4th centuri': above the (tj

truth. In searching for truth, they

change, to attain the goal that belongs to their

Christian church was built in the

know and understand

aspire to understanding.

seen

is

or soul of

are participating in

layers:

i>i

to

is

it

that they have intelligence (nous)

is

For Aristotle, that meant that

deep desire

for.

made

is

The form

for cutting.

and that they use

a

is

organized shape, but

or soul of a knife

of metal in such a

is:

it

go, but there

form of sheep which

in part of their

The form

what

characteristically

may come and

a characteristic

is

San Clemente

form that

lying outside the world, but the

it,

makes each object

all

other

other entities have something defective about

sense that they are contingent: they happen to

but they might not have done

so. Aristotle

believed that the

overcomes contingency, even the defect of death, because it participates in that complete intelligence and truth which is God

human

soul

visited.

(nous).

That participation comes into the contemplation of complete "Ij

Cod

state in this ill

is

always in that aood

which we sometimes

intelligence,

state, this

is

truth (see box,

compels our wonder; and

a better

God

truth, the state that

is

always

compels

if

Intelligible truth or nous

is

And God is in a better And life also belongs to

and God

is

Worlds may come and

life

We

essential ddiuility

humans,

if

living being, eternal,

God

that the Stoics is

God; for

IVoiii tlie

(or

which)

(or

were

so

later to

much

speak of

within us (spermatikos logos) which,

to the

source

ol all

the supreme characteristic it

a if

as the seed

we

nurture

sown by God

it,

will

bring us

In the

the goal.

accounts

eternal belong In is

is

most good.

and duration this

world of contingency

being. Reason, or Logos,

rnalu rally to

and

whom

is.

thev are wise, strive to return, rising through their use

is

most good and eternal.

so that life

unmoved mover from whom

things derive their being, and to

all

that

God was

ituil ncliuilily:

say therefore that

Lcjiitimwus

all

go, but this abides. In this way,

regarded by Aristotle as the

which)

of intelligence

mid God's

the abiding source ot

it

God; for the actuality of thouf^ht is life,

the total

is

left).

yet more. state.

since nous, total

in,

always contemplating that which

are,

God

(Metaphysics 12.10721) 12-29)

understanding of

now

oi'

God

as in the past, in

shorthand for what

is

Ciod given by Plato and Aristotle, the is

not developed, and

many

ways that leave "God" as

read them,

a kind ol

ultimately real and true. But in the

centuries that immedi.ileK followed them, there were

many who

)

III

I

\<

I'.

1

(.K(

>l

The Roman Empire llic rclioiijus

mid

phildso-jjhical

t PHILOSOPHIES: Among

world of the early

Osiris, or Mithras,

Cynics (from Greek kunikos, dog-like) were so

in

social

if

at all, in rags,

raw and cooked.

sought to interpret them

in

all

greeted the

were mystery

who had hitherto ensured the The poet Virgil (cf. p. 271

first

emperor Augustus

as the

beginning of a splendid

to hold the secret

New Age.

(Greek, musterion) to salvation: they often

ways that endorsed the human senses of God

worship and prayer. The Neoplatonists

made

especially Plotinus, c.205-70) Plato,

the gods

success of Rome.

which claimed

Roman

In the

expressed by regarding him as the embodiment

had no

of

religions,

ohen

Empire, loyalty to the Emperor was increasingly

and mine, public and

+ RELIGIONS: Among religions

death,

enacted form, by dying and rising again.

possessions, saw no difference between yours private,

and

Isis

who overcomes

t EMPEROR WORSHIP

freedom Irom

convention not unlike that of dogs: they

did not wash, dressed,

particularly varied:

coalesced round a Saviour, such as

philosophies there

were Sceptics, Epicurcyns, Stoics, and Cynics. called hecause they lived with a

in

Roman Empire was

emphasizing the striving

(i.e.,

the

new

Platonists,

a kind of fusion of Aristotle with

for truth

and the escape from

evil

ignorance, and accepting that the ultimately true, the source of

human

and

all

compromised in the They produced a picture of the One who is absolutely transcendent and removed from this world. From the One emanates a hierarchy, or chain of being, each member of which participates in its immediate source and then gives rise to the next in succession. From this chain of being eventually arises the created world. Ihe goal or purpose of life is then to work one's way back up the chain of being, or the ladder of perfection, until one returns to the One; and this, being and the goal of the

frailty

and contingency

famous phrase,

in Plotinus'

Much

is

the flight of the alone to the Alone.

of that general understanding appears in other systems of

thought. Gnosticism (from the to

many

quest, cannot be

of this world.

Greek gnosis, "knowledge")

that share certain characteristics.

Some

is

a

In general,

Gnostic movements, from about the

claimed

have preserved knowledge, or teaching, that

to

A

1st

century is

Cl£

help of their gods was essential. Julius

Caesar was

associated with the gods,

onwards,

but after Augustus

the key to

key text or teacher offers the knowledge or the wisdom (and

2 7liCE- 1 4(:E

i

)

established

the Empire, the emperors

Sofia, pp. 204-5, spirit-tilled

I'umuDn believed ihal the

are philosophical, others

mythological, others claim to be revealed by a Biblical figure or by Jesus.

salvation.

Aliaiisllls

term given

is

often the key figure) that will enable the wise or

person to escape from this world and return to God.

As with Neoplatonism, the supreme Divine Being has not got entangled in the creating or the running of this world; that has been the work of an interior demiurge who was powerful enough to create but not wise enough to see the limitations of what he was doing - hence the imperfections of the world and of this

an escape.

Among

Empire, a

man began

development

life,

from which Gnosticism offers

the dramatically diverse religions of the early

in this

to write letters giving

varied religious world.

news of

yet another

were believed

to

be gods.

Virgil described in a

Roman

poem

famous

{eclogue j the yearning

jnr the

coming of God: "The

larring nations he in peace will bind/

And

virtues rule

ivith

paterind

mankind.

\D

Ill

Kl

|(,|0\s dl

I

\|-;k'

"Let the saiue tliut

nas

\\l

mind be

(

IIKISII \\l

-1 I

Paul

in yoii

Christ Jesus, who,

ill

was

thoitoli lie

Ml

in the

form of

(W)d. did not regard equality witli

God

something

as

to

Good News for

he

World

the

exploited, hut emptied himself,

taking the form of a shive, being

human

horn in

likeness.

OMB TIME

And

s

being jintnd In huitiau form, he

humbleil

hiiiisell

mid heemue

obedient to the point of death

even death on a

God

eross.

also higlib exalted

come

him and is

above

eveij name, so that at the

name

earth,

and

hymn

ever)-

is

ama/ing

man

called Jesus

whn had

was the promised

because it looks as though that passage is a was quoting. So within a Few years oF that abject

less,

that Paul

that the adoration

Lord, to the glory' of

God

(see box. Ichl. Ihat

death, people were already associating Jesus with

tongue should confess thai Jesus Christ

to believe that a

perhaps even

heaven and on earth and

under the

them

to

Messiah or. in Greek, Christ - and it was For that beliel that he was in prison. When Paul wrote those words, Jesus had been executed as a criminal on a cross only 20 or 30 years earlier -

of Jesus every knee should bend, in

to

a

statement was written by Paul, a well-educated Jew

Therefore

gaie him the name that

his tViends in Philippi, a

making an appeal

—

Roman man in prison wrote a letter Roman colony in Macedonia,

JUST BtKORE or during the reign oF the

Emperor Nero (54-68CE),

What

the Father"

is

and worship due

to

God

so extraordinary and stunning

even though they belie\ed that Jesus

is

is

are

God

due

so closely

also to Jesus.

that they

and Paul,

Christ and Lord,

human name. From the start ol knew that Jesus w as not a mythological Figure in some Gnostic system (p. 233 nor was he dying and rising God in a mystery religion (p. 233): he was a man who continued to use his ordinary,

(Philippians 2.5tT)

the Christian story, people

I,

a Said's Couversion

Merlmbah mysticism, which

visions

were seen.

was certain

On

that Jesus ivas to

Rowker. 197 1

him \

lived in Galilee

to call in

the road to Damascus, he

speaking directly

and had died outside Jerusalem, and they continued him by his ordinary human name, Jesus. From the very start, thereFore, they knew that this human Jesus had brought God into their midst, and had done For them what they belie\ed only God could do, above all in healing the ills oF their bodies and minds. had

Saul, as a jew, engaged in

{see

Paul

made

the even

more astonishing claim

that those

who

have been

bapti7ed have been transFerred into Christ and with him have overcome

some

death. In

where Christ

made

sense. the\- are

a pari of

him. as his hody; "Tlwre

association with God. there they also are hy

in

is.

sate by being taken into a

is

therefore

nmv no who me

coiideiuiiatioii for those

much as an abandoned child is made home and made part of the famiK (see

their being taken into him.

Lnv

in Christ Jesus. For the

the Spirit of Life in ('hrisi

The strong language of incorporation can also be found in Romans 16.7; Corinthians 12.13; 15.22; 2 Corinthians 5.17; and Philippians 3.8f. The language of union box. right).

uj

/csi/s

has set you free from the hnv oj

I

sin

and death. For God has done

what the

between Christ and believers is equally strong in the Gospel according to John, but that was written later. In Romans 8, the claims have gone even further: Jesus is the Son of God who was sent to deal with the destructive power of sin

flesh,

hnv, ivealiened

h)'

the

could not do: hy sending his

own

iRomans

"

Son... 8.1-^5)

and death. Paul repeatedly claims that the death of Jesus on the cross was the decisive act that has brought the world and all

What New Testament writers realized (because from their own experience) was that just as

people back into a healed relationship with God.

Paul and other

they I'Cnew

it

Jesus had healed people

much

their sins (very

cross, that healing

universal;

it is

whom

he met and had forgiven

the act of God),

so.

through the

and forgiveness had been made

not just for a few in Galilee, but for

They could say

that with confidence,

all.

because they knew

had not been the end of Jesus: they knew many of them it was a matter of their own experience) that in some way Jesus was as certainly alive after death as he had, most certainly, died. As a result, this man who had lived among them is the one that death

(again because for

God

w ho brings

new way

to the

world and the world to

God

in a

of reconciliation and friendship:

'"We declare to

you what was from the

we have heard, what we have with our eyes, what we have looked at and

beginning, what seen

touched with our hands, concerning the word of

life

seen

it

that

-

this life

and

was

and we have and declare to yon the

revealed,

testif}' to it,

was with the Father hut was revealed

eternal

to us

Tlie Cross

life

The

- we

crucifixion became, as

Paid put

we have

declare to you what

may

hax'e fellowship

with

with the Father

ciiid

seen and heard so that you also us;

and

truly

our fellowship

is

it,

"a

stumbling

block to Jews and foolishness to

Gentiles"

(I

Corinthians

1.23), because

with his Son Jesus Christ

it

was a

criminal's death. Griinewald (1

John

1.1-3)

Ic.

1475-1530}

brings

home

the hideous pain of this

These claims were not added on trying, like

Euhemerus

at a later

date by people

highest claims about Jesus are the earliest in the surprisingly people

And

who were

(pp.l54f), to turn a simple teacher into

began

for that reason, the

to ask,

who was

New

this Jesus,

Gospels were written.

God. The

Testament. Not

and why did he die?

death in this paintiiia.

M

\l'.

K-

\li \\l

Opposite:

Jesus

Christ aiid the Leper Thii I2th/lith-ci'iitun

Son of Man, Son

mosaic from Sicily depicts

oj

God

the episode described in

Mark

8.1-5. The fear of

lepras)' is also

oToxLV

well illustrated

on

Paul, ijut also

p. 264.

other new tlstamlnt writers,

Jesus with

God

distinction

between them (expressed

Ni

in the Life of St Francis,

as Father

and Son), they also realized that

person of Jesus,

linked

so closely that, although they recognized a

God had

acted decisi\el\

in the

language oF that time

and through the human

in

the world:

in

heginning was the Word [Logos,

p. 232], and the Word was with God. and the Word was God. And tJie Word became flesh and lived among its, and we have seen his glon, the gloiy as of the Father's only Son, full of grace and truth"

"hi the

.

"Blessed be the of

God and

Father

who

our Lord Jesus Christ,

has blessed us in Christ with

even

(John

spiritual blessing in the

,14)

heai'enly places, just as he chose

us in Christ before the

foundation of the world to be

and blameless before him

holy love.

He

iti

destined us for adoption

all

as his children through ]esus

Christ, according to the

is

good

pleasure of his will, to the praise

on us

all

in

in

him and for him. He himself him all things hold together.... For in him of God was pleased to dwell, and through him God reconcile to himself all things, w hether on earth or

things have been created through

before things, and in the fullness

w as pleased

oj his glorious grace that he

freely bestowed

With the same recognition of God in Christ. Paul wrote: "He is the image of the in\isible God, the first-born of all creation; for in him all things in heaven and on earth were created, things visible and in\ isible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or powers -

to

hea\en, by making peace through the blood of his cross"

(Colossians 1.15-20). These and other passages like them (see

the Beloved"

box, left)

(Ephesians 3.3-10)

were written

whose human name,

ol a

man who had

The Gospels were

ways b) the prophets, but in these last days he has spoken to us

lyy

a Son,

whom

he appointed

heir of all things, through

whom

he also created the worlds. the reflectioji of

and he

lr\'

his

is

Gods glon and

the e.xact imprint of God's being,

He

I'ery

sustains all things

powerful ivord"

(Hebrews I.I-3I

biographies in the

some last

had

written (later than Paul but using earlier

traditions) at least in part to full

among them and

Why?

died as a criminal e.xecuted on a cross.

Long ago God spoke to our ancestors in mam and various

lived

Jesus, they continued to use. .-Vid yet he

answer that question. .-Mthough not

modern

"lives" {bioi) of the

sense, they resemble the style ot

ancient world.

They

are accounts of the

days of Jesus and of his death (Passion narratives), preceded

by brief accounts of his ministry' and teaching.

Three of the Gospels (those according

to

Matthew, Mark, and

Luke, known as the Synoptics) are related to each other; the Fourth Gospel (the Gospel according to John) draws on diflerent traditions, but

when

is

in

the

same

pattern.

The Gospel

writers,

they were quoting each other or the same sources,

no attempt

to report the

words or deeds of Jesus

identical way. but used the material to

decisively important, and

why those

in

even

made

an exactly

show why Jesus remains

high claims about Jesus

1

1:

s

us

I

III:

Ri.

LU.ioxs or

\

bra ham ciiRisiiANnY

all' ii>ihlK

made

ihcm; lluA

cwn how

and

ahoLit this

(il

whom

was present

respectful affection),

was tested

This

1

1

familiar, e\er\da\

looked

lo its

talks of the

I

///

)hili(in

hr(iii;^lil

command

hdok

I'his

was not

kingdom

both the present and the future.

in

in recei\'ed attitudes,

it

demands

welcoming

in

Torah

(p. 200),

Jesus replied. "Love

God

High

10.25-8). To the question, "And

who

(I

;,s'

my

were estranged from (iod

or

who encountered

whether he wmihl eimtiinie to "threaten the

;

Luke

and demanding answer (Luke 10.29-37). The meaning of that kingdom was not just taught: it was en;ieted, in the healing of those who were sick and in the forgiveness of those who

hut an

aiilliiirilr

1

neighbour?" Jesus gave a

iiirestiiiatioii la see ulietlier

he iiccepteil that

as

searehi.ng

that time. trial

a all

wholeheartedly, and

(Matthew 22.34-8: Mark 12.28-3

lit

le also

I

teaching

in the future, so that his

love your neighbour as yourself

before the

lew.

(the

shows jents

Pricsl. ihc highest iiiillioritx iinii)U[i

Cod

1

truly at work, here aiul now.

is

completion

kingdom

John .32-4). drawn Irom

the children of God, especially those in need. Asked to identify the greatest

C'ciiaphds

l]\Ziiiiliiii.'

-

baptism by John If;

that the activity of

lile.

lea\en)

complete revolution

nil

his

3.2

he kingdom as Jesus taught and li\ed

I

ciiid

;

insisted, often in li\ely stories or parables

of CiotI or of

's

I

work

to the world anil at

1. Lnke 4.1-Lt) and confirmed in .4-1 Luke .-!-l 7; Mark (Matthew

Ue

(in

temptations (Matthew

in the

4.1-1

.^.

his

he addressed as Father

not an informal word like Daddy. Iml a term

A/;ti(,

ihroiiuh him.

were formed by

ministiA' of Jesus

eonxielion ihal Clod,

Aramaic,

amonu who he was.

lixccl

liail

tau^ihl,

died.

lie

and

I'he lile

man w h(i what he

b\

,irc |iislilicd

:ind

this th:it the

from each other.

power

(in

English words dynamic or dynamite) of

leiiiiile".

But how could

this be?

box, top right).

From

question (pothcu

It

Greek,

was obvious

chiiKtiiiis.

God was

at

work

to

those

as in the in

the world.

They knew that Jesus was one of themscKes (see

the answer to the three

toiito Imitii.

lit.,

"whence

Greek words of

to this

man

that

these things?")

Christianity begins. Jesus insisted that the words and works of

power

came, not from himself, but from Clod. It was not as a special figure that he did those things - he w:is not an angel or a prophet or a Messiah: he called himself, quite simpK, the son of man (see box, below). That was dramaticallv new aiul different teaching. But was the

Book

of

Deuleronomv 17.8-13, disputed

it

true? According to

or contested claims could

The Son of Man hat (lid Jesus

\\

This phrase was

iiol

a lilk'.

Jesus insisted thai he was \shal

Il

in

was then becoming the

meanings:

in

Psalms and Job

x\as the

e\er\ \\a\ \)\h\c. il

il

me.ms

mean by

\\.i\

in

referring to hiuiself in this uriyf

which

human, in lias Iwo m.iin a mortal

hum, in beini;. one who has lo die. Iiul in Daniel 7. llie Son of Man lepresenls ibe railblul who. alier

pcrsecution, are vindicated by

God

beyonti

tie.ilb.

Bv calling himself "the son of man", Jesus meant ihal he spoke and did all these powerful things, nol ,is

,1

who,

special creation

human

like all

w bo w

ill

be

\

on the

part of Ciod, but as

beings, has to die.

indicated by

God

Inil

after de,ilb.

as

one

one

11-

onK

icsoKi'il

l)' people (see box, right) on who or what

human

offered to

He was

and through himself.

at a

particuhn family. But

the effect of his

life in

means

particuhir monieiit ofhiston

Godhead was summarized in a Greek phrase en was a time when he was not".

en, "there

common the belief that is simply impossible lor human life and body Their present-da\ likely to believe that God does not even exist, so that the was uniquely related to God is held to ha\e arisen from

Jesus really was had in

God

to

it

be united with a

inns, as in this Chinese

equivalents are

painting, while the truth of

claim that Jesus

the star) remains universal.

mistaken early believers w ho wanted

to gi\e Jesus the highest possible

posthumous

prize or decoration.

honour

after his death, rather like a

The God in

search for the best (or the least inadequate) way to understand relation to Jesus

slill

goes on today.

The challenge

lies in

the tact

I

ih.il all

III

n KM

i\

<

>l

(

IIKIM

ihc \icws summarized in the box below arc correct. Hut ibcy

up

are correct only

to a point

sentences

in the box.

that time,

it

- the "even so"

many

Jesus resembled

was believed

each of those

in

of the ways

in

ii

which,

W

at

that people could be

and yet, crucially, he was unlike all ul /^ ihcm. And the word "crucially" is literally meant. It comes from the Latin cnix, "a cross": Jesus hail died on a cross and yet was known to be alive. Through those events, the way for others to pass from death to life was

C;i.=:)

rcdiscci\eiA of

ob\i()Lis in C'lirisl,

rescue.

It is

uUU id

as l()\e

cann

be other than

>1

made

,iii

is

indeed to see into the (lod

made so - and the end - of our nature of God. The revelation

unselfish and generous lo\e,

the beginning

ine\'ilably, for

that: "\ai\c

is

Augustine, the Trinity since love

the act of a lo\er by being the love

givLMi to the

love itself

loved person.

(On

It

is

a

the Trinity 8.14).

reflect that Trinitarian nature in

memory, understanding, and

when with

Trinity,

the

the loved person and

lo\'er.

Humans (made in the image of God) their own experience of themselves in

love.

They become

that Trinitarian nature

they use their memory, understanding, and love to unite themselves

God

It is

(14.12).

our finest because

love, therefore, that finds us at

caught up into the being

of

God who

is

in

love

we

are

love:

God is the desire of beatitude, the God is beatitude itself. We seek to attain God him, we attain to him., not by becoming entirely

"The striving after attainment of by loving

what he

is,

but in nearness

to

him, and in wonderful and

Gateway of the Senses Augustine interrogated the ivhole of creation: '"What this

God?' he asks the

the sea, the animals, the

sensible contact with Itim.

and

in being inwardly

illuminated and occupied by his truth and holiness. light itself;

it is

given to us to be illuminated by that

He

is

light...

This is our only and complete perfection, by which alone we can succeed in attaining to the purity of truth"

the heavens

and

'all

oj the senses',

m

the

Customs of

the

Church.

tlie

and

l am me And with

each in turn answers, not God'.

Then

something of him'.

tell

a mighty voice they

answered, 'He made

(On

air.

the

things that throng about

gateway

1

.

1

1,

25)

is

earth,

us'"

(Confessions 10.6).

I

1

1

K

1:

I

I

I

<

;

K N 1

S

O

A

I

I',

K

A

I

I

A

M

I

1

1

K

I

S

I

I

,\

\

religious orders

the present day.

draw people each other

Its

down

aim

is

to to

into union with

in a

common

I

Benedict and Dominic

Augustine's Rule has inspired

many

•! I

Ordered Lives of Prayer cm d Preachhig

love of

Cod, and at the end of the Rule Augustine prays:

"May

ilLli

W; a

ohsen'e all these things in love, like lovers

the sweet

savour of Christ in your good

way of life, not

as slai'es

The

Lord's Service

lieiiedict "established a

school for the Lord's sen'ice" i)i

is

Monte

Cassino. His Rule

"the single most important

document

(in

410ce). Although Alaric was

Christian (an Arian, p. 242), the

fall

of

Rome

fell to

(cf. p.

180)?

Augustine tackled those questions

in Tlie City of

God.

He

showed how disasters had happened to Rome even when the pagan gods were worshipped, but far more he used his lesson from the Donatists (p. 259) to show that Cod allows two cities to grow up together, "the earthly city marked out by the love of self, even to the contempt of Cod, and the heavenly city marked out by the love of Cod, even to the contempt of self. Only the final judgement makes clear who truly belongs to the city of Cod, where, in the final words,

in the histor)i of

westeni mo/ms/ir/sn/, and (ii-viuihly

weak

too

under

the law, hut as free people

established under grace"

STILL ALIVE, the Visigoths under

Rome

many like the end of the world. Why had it happened? Was it, as some said, because Christians had rejected the pagan gods who had protected Rome, or because the Christian Cod was

of spiritual beauty;

may you hum with

AucusTlNB WAS

Alaric captured

the Lord grant that you

the

niiisi

love; IcxI jroDi lite ivhulc late

tinlique period"

{McGinn,

n, p.27).

and we shall see; we shall see and we shall and we shall praise. Behold what will be the end and will not end! For what is our end hut to iirrix'c iu that Kingdom which has no end?"

"we shall

siiiiiifiaml

iyi

we

rest

shall love

much

Augustine did

to prepare

Christians in the West for the centuries that followed the ihis

fall

of

Rome. He did

by his emphasis on the absolute

sovereignty of

Cod who cannot be

dislodged by "the changes and chances of this fleeting world", and also by the

Rule he wrote

(in

c.397) to encourage

the growth of religious communities (see box, top left) in

common

Between 400 and 700

life.

at least thirty

Rules appeared, including translations of the Rules of (p. 253).

and

By

Pachomius and

far the

influential

Basil

most far-reaching

was the Rule written by

Benedict (c.480-.550) which has

been followed by many orders

(e.g.,

Benedictines, Carthusians, Cistercians). Benedict, often regarded as the founder of Western Christian monasticism

\\i)

i)(

>\ii\ir

(though ALigiisUne has an equal claim), ahandoncd his

voung man, and

studies as a

in

devotion to

as a hermit in a cave at Subiaco, south of

God

lived

Rome. He

some locals tried moved with a small number of loyal Monte Cassino, where he wrote his Rule

lo

attracted maii\' followers, but after

poison him, he

monks

to

beginners") toward the end of his

("a little rule for It

was written

community and

to live their lives in the

for the praise of

activity

is

life.

in

presence of

God

God. Every action and even,

be directed toward

to

God

through prayer,

work - not randomly, but

reading, and

God

to help those seeking

in

an ordered

way under an abbot who "holds the place of Christ" (Rule 63) and to whom therefore, as the Prologue

makes clear (see box, right), obedience is owed. The Rule of Augustine was also important in the life of Dominic (1 170-1221), a Spaniard whose experience of a wealthy Church in the midst of a religious war led him to believe that the gospel of Christ must be preached by those

who

share the

poverty of Christ. His contemporary, Jordan of Sa.\ony.

wrote of him: "God gave him a special grace to weep for sinners, for the distressed, for the afflicted;

he

carried their troubles in the sanctuary of his

compassion" {Account of the Beginning

oj the

Order

of

Subiaco

Preachers 12).

He and

his followers, basing

themselves on the Rule

o(

Augustine,

to

has spoken

in

who preach still

speaks also to those

who

seek

God

Suhiaco

is

hnill into

the cliff that contains

are

creating and in scripture continues to speak through those

following the example of the early apostles; and the

('(

Rome)

south of

become "the humble servants of preaching" and they became known as the Order of Preachers. The Word (Logos, p. 236) who determined

rius uionastcn

IS

Word

in

which Benedict

a hermit.

The cave

is

llie

lived

kepi

as a shrine.

in scripture

and

in prayer.

becomes a direct encounter with God, as the description of Dominic in prayer makes clear; "It was as if he were arguing with a friend; at one moment he would appear to be feeling impatient, nodding his head energetically, then he would seem to be listening quietly, then you would see him disputing and struggling, and laughing and weeping all at once, fixing then lowering his gaze, then again speaking quietly and beating his breast... The man of God had a prophetic way of passing over

Prayer

thus

quickly from reading to prayer and from meditation to

contemplation... Often

[in

prayer with others] he

suddenly to be caught up above himself

to

God

and the angels" (Koudelka, pp.89ff). Rules and Orders were designed to help people make radical

of obedience, poverty,

another

man

in

and

chastity.

a

God, with vows That offering was made by

and complete offering of themselves

obedience to what the Lord commands; and let us ask God that he be pleased, where our nature

is

powerless, to give us

the help of his grace.

seemed

speak with

"Our minds and bodies must be ready to fight under a holy

made

to

the 13th century in a verv dramatic way.

And

if

we

are to escape the pains of hell

and reach

eternal

while there

is still

life,

then,

time, while

we are in this body and this life. we must make haste to do now what

tnay profit

lis

for eternity"

IMF.

KIMIC.ION^

\liK

Ml \M

I'llKISI

I

AM n

Francis

m

Livino

Imitation of Christ man was

N THli VliAR 1206, a young

brought before his local

bishop charged (by his father) with having misused his father's

money and

he had taken goods

property. True,

had sold not only them but also

money away

to

market and

and had given the

his horse

he did not defend himself.

In any case,

He

simply stripped naked and returned his clothes to his father

The young man's name was Francesco Bernadone now as St Francis - ol whom the French writer Renan said that he was "after Jesus, the only perfect Christian He acted as he did to make a complete commitment to the poverty of Christ w ho had himself hung naked on the cross. 181/2-1226), better known

(1

".

Francis was born into the family of a wealthy cloth-

merchant

in Assisi,

but his

of exuberant enjoyment

life

changed when he met a leper

in the plain

his Testament, written shortly before

recalled

how

was

Assisi. In

he died, Francis

the ruined bodies of lepers had revolted him,

and how he was moved

"The Lord granted

do penance

to

below

embrace the man he met:

to

me. Brother Frauds,

to

in this

way: while

1

was

to

begin

in sin,

it

me to see lepers. And the Lord himself led me among them and I had mercy upon them. And when I left them that which seemed bitter to me was changed into sweetness seemed

ver}' hitter to

of sold and body; and after that

and

left

(Armstrong

W

Stigmata

Gwtto [C.12(>7-lii7:

see

alio p. 24} painted this

picture of Francis receiving the stigmata, the appearance

on

his oivn

Hounds

body of the on Christ.

inflicted

Others have experienced the pain of the wounds without

marks appearing.

hat

happened

to Francis

is

I

lingered a

Brady, p. 154)

S;

told in a series of Lives,

develops the story in order to relate

it

little

the world"

to the

each

ol

which

needs of the Order that he

founded, so details are not always certain. But

all

the early Lives agree on

the central importance of the encounter with the leper, in

whom

Francis

recognized Christ - whose words concerning acts of compassion Francis

knew

well;

"Inasmuch

you have done

it

to

as

you ha\e done

me (Matthew "

it

to the least of

one of these,

25.40).

Francis sought to live in the imitation of Christ, not as a vague aspiration, but as a constant turning to

and

trust.

At

first

God

in

complete dependence

he was not sure what form that

life

should take.

He

repaired dilapidated churclies until in one

he heard

degli Angeli,

Jesus gave to his disciples ("Take no gold, or

ol

resolved immediately to follow that

way

of

life

the decision of Clare to follow his

women

Matthew first

way

Lard, to xnn for nil

Especially our brother, the

Who

he

10. 9f.):

is

the day,

and hy

you give us

himself. Gradually

—

i}i\

your creatures

or copper in your belts, no bag for your

silver,

others joined him, leading to the Franciscans later, after

"...(Uoiy,

a

journey, or two tunics, or sandals, or a stafF",

order for

them, Santa Maria

sermon on the instructions when he sent them into the world

1208

in

He

men, but

Is

beautifid

suti,

whom

light:

and radiant with

great splendour

of poverty, an

And

(Poor Clares) followed.

hears witness to you, most

high Otie tor Francis,

God, whom

the constantly generous creator, from

is

the year before he died, he wrote

received as

is

necessarily experience

gift.

ail

as gift

-

a cart. In 1225,

The Canticle of the Sun.

God

e.xperienced at every

Anyone committed

things as

a

It is

moment

to poverty

as the birds

gift,

in a

must

and animals

wind "and is

to

and

moon and

for sister

and

for

joyful

our

and robust and

sister

full

top

bo.\,

the stars, for brother

the different weathers", for sister water and brother

all

"beautiful

earth,

God

goes on to praise

The

do.

Canticle calls on creation to praise God, starting with the sun (see right). It

move

Francis would

were run over by

off the road in case they

celebration of the goodness of

world that

comes

every detail of creation

worms

(who

fire

what are God's servants but

move them

strengthen people and

God

Since

is

It ii'ds (!(

Christmas

death of the body Francis had the The Canticle set

music, because song and music were for him the most joyful form of

praise: "For

Tlie Nativity

mother

of power"), for our sister

the origin of

his minstrels,

whose task

recreate the

to the joys of the spirit?"

creatures, Francis lived with

all

them

stories are told of Francis celebrating

with animals, birds, and fish the trusted

God

his simple

4.18).

gift

When

his habit

caught

fire

and a brother rushed

Francis told him not to

harm brother fire. Even the fearsome wolf of Grecchio was rebuked by Francis and told to rely on the people to feed him and not to plunder them - and the people did exactly that. In 1223,

when

Francis created a replica

of the Nativity (see caption, right), he stood

before the manger immersed in the humility and poverty of the

whom

all

come.

He had drawn

One from

the riches of creation have so close to

God

in

the imitation of Christ that the following

year the

wounds and

the marks of Christ's

passion (the Stigmata) appeared in his

hands and body. his

He had

own

taken nothing for

journey (Matthew 10.9) and had

received the whole world.

-

for as

he read

scripture, "perfect love casts out fear" to put

it

(

1

manger

in

John

out,

custom

tu

in

that has extended

throughout the world.

of having been created. Because he

completely, he was entirely without fear

dependence on

lite

which Jesus had been born in a

and peace, and many

gratitude

in 1223, that

Francis brought together

people and their animals

to

is

Crecchio. at

said that the

It

/s

woods rang out

with prayers of joy and thanksgiving, roclu,

and

that the

responded with praise.

nil

KriK.IONN Ol AHKAIIAM

(

1

1

K

I

SI

I

AN

I

11

Thomas Aquinas The Angelic Doctor

AT

ABOUT THE TIME FRANCIS

Thomas Aquinas was born

DIEIJ,

(c.l225). In newly emerging universities, people explored the

Saint I'houiiis /•'i/ris

lldh

III

and Scholar

Aquinas tan^hl

in

before returning to

1260. After a furllwr period in Paris

(1269-1272), he in Italy,

Naples

be known as the Great (Albertus Magnus).

lived a^aii,

and died near

God was

to

him more important than

his writings (see caption, left)

but they were a great achievement, especially his Siimmae or

Summas

in 1274. Shnrtty

(Contra Gentes and Theologiae). Writers before him

before he died, he

experienced a vision

power and beauty

made

L ideas of Aristotle (pp.23 If), especially as they were brought to the West by Muslim philosophers (pp.340f, 352—59). Aquinas took advantage of both developments. He became a Dominican in 1242, and was sent to Paris, arriving there in 1246, where he became a pupil of Albert, later to

oj

such

that

it

hint say that all his

writings were, in

comparison, lilw straw.

like

Augustine

(pp.258-61) had started with scripture and revelation, and from the stories of

God

creating,

redeeming and sustaining the world, moved on

to

the nature of God. Aquinas began by reflecting on what the nature of

God must be

in

order to create, redeem, and sustain as

Aquinas was well aware that God

and certainly beyond description. Something, however, through our observation of the way the world love.

Furthermore,

if

God

is

God

has done.

beyond our comprehension,

lies far

is,

is

known

God

of

and through worship and

the creator, the works of creation will reveal

something of the nature and purpose of

their creator, just as

an

artist's

work reveals something of the nature and purpose of that artist. How, then, do we begin to know God? We have to start with the things we see and know around us. When we look at the way things are, we must, if we are intelligent and rational, infer a sufficient cause of their being like that,

laws. This kind of

even

if

we

argument

sciences of our time;

it is

take that cause to be a set of scientific is

Thus neutrinos (fundamental their reality

is

in the natural

as "abductive inference".

particles, p. 17)

cannot be seen;

inferred from the observation of their effects

and from the necessity of account

common

extremely

known now

for the

their being in existence in order to

conducive properties

can be observed. Even

so,

neutrinos would look like

it

if

is

(or evidence) in

what

impossible to describe what

you could see them.

Aquinas thus believed that reason can reach the conclusion that

God

exists,

(known from the Latin conclusion (see box,

as

and he put forward

Quinque

right). Briefly

five

ways

Viae) leading to that

summarized, the

Quinque Viae may not seem convincing, but they continue to be argued down to the present day, and certainly they exemplify the way in which Aquinas belie\'ed that faith is rational. But why do we bother? Many people li\'e succcsstully (or so it seems) arguments put forward

in

the

I

without a beliet

truth diligently, will not

w hat

know

God

God. Aquin;is believed

in

God because

longing tor

you

conclusion that

will arrive at the

that only

is:

humans have

you

In fact,

is.

becomes evident

called Beatific Vision. In the

will

God

is.

never know,

in the final vision of

\N

\i

iriNAS

a natural

they have a natural longing for truth.

what God

fully

that

III )\1

If

you seek

Even

so,

you

in this life,

God, the

so-

meantime, however, we do know something

God as a consequence of the way in which God has acted toward us and has revealed something that we can apprehend. In scripture, we read of the way in which the love of God creates and rescues us. But, in the same way as the work of the artist reflects the nature and the purpose of of

the

God

This means that

God

That

why God

is

plurality, love

in itself

is

exist,

origin,

whom

from

means

language, this

in technical

love.

the perfect reality of

and without perfect union, love would not

be complete. There must be three Persons Put

in his dealings

and absolute

three Persons in one Being, because without

is

could not

as perfect

not a barren cipher, the conclusion of an

is

academic argument. The nature of God love.

God

Aquinas argued that the love revealed by

artist,

with the world reflects the nature of

One

in

Being.

that there

the unoriginated

is

proceeds the expression of that divine nature,

which the consequence

in

ever present to them. In more ordinary,

is

human

language, these are called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit: from the unproduced Producer of

means

They

love exists.

One who The

all

that

is,

Word

the

is

ever spoken as the

of self-expression, and in that self-expression the

is

God

nature of

are not three "bits" of is

still

consequence of

less three

Gods: the

constituted in this dynamic relatedness of love.

God

as Trinity (three Persons in

according to Aquinas, something

person knows

God,

itself

the

like

uniquely as being

(without losing any part of

itself)

way

itself

One

Being)

is,

which the mind of any

in

and not another; but the mind

puts forward thoughts, and the two are

QuiNQUE Viae God

Five ways that reason reaches the conclusion that

+ ONE:

From the lact that ever^'thing is movement and transition to that which

everything in motion but

+ TWO: caused

is

itself

From the observation

+ FOUR:

in

to the conclusion that

if

the origin of

of

all

cause which

From the

fact that

you move back

is itself

we

uncaused.

live in a

contingent possibilities (whatever

is,

world

might

not have been) to the conclusion that for

anything to be

at all.

there must be a necessary

guarantee of contingent being, which means that

God

is

the reason

rather than nothing.

why

there

is

we make

wiser, smaller, etc.) to the

standard against which comparisons are made,

is

and that the "standard" must

through the chain of cause and effect, you reach

+ THREE:

fact that

(taller,

conclusion that there must be some absolute

unmoved.

that everything

From the

comparisons

sets

exists:

something

perfect

+

is

exist since to

be

to exist in the fullest possible way.

FIVE: From the observation that all things exist in such a way that they are directed towards their own end, in the way that seeds turn into plants, and arrows, properly aimed,

hit their target (since

they are designed to reach their goal, telos.

hence

this

is

in

Greek.

called the teleological

argument), to the conclusion that where there organized design

it is

is

rational to infer a designer.

THE RELK.ION^

M

\|-'.

K

Ml

\\l

CIIKIM

distinct

\\l

I

and

"1 I

\et constitute

one

thoughts, utters words (and

in

the mind with its mind nor thoughts are happens, the word is both distinct from

realit\; this reality,

doing

this,

neither

when that mind and thought, and \et together they constitute and are one reality. Looked at the other w ay round, the uttered word is not something other than the mind and the thought, nor is the thought detached From the word that is uttered: all are one, and at the same time three, while thought and word proceed from the mind as their origin and source. Yet even this analog)', which .Aquinas took from our own experience of ourselves, only points to the diminished); and again,

God

truth that

is Lo\e, and what proceeds

existence, so

t

was

this

that as God's lo\ing (is

set forth) in

as loving

perception ot the inner nature of

and as being necessarily one

I

identical with God's

is

God

in will

and

is

God

God

also.

as Trinity,

love, that

enabled

Aquinas to answer the question of the Muslim philosophers

about

why

perfect and self-sufficient Being would ever create a

universe external to

There cannot be

itself.

acting,

and the

first

do

an\' reason to

since that reason would then be the cause of the First

so.

Cause

Cause would then be second, ibn Sina had must arise Latin, for Aquinas, that was liberalitas

said that creation, being strictly speaking unnecessar\',

homjiid

(p. 355); in

(unconstrained generosity), but because to

be a Trinity of

love,

it is

Gods

nature

is

knov\n

pure love that leads to creation.

does not create to "get anything out of

it

"

God

but simply in order to

share the generosity of that nature of love.

Of course, we cannot speak

descriptively of the inner nature of

God, because we only knov\ the cause through

its

effects.

By

Doctor

we can infer that there must be in reality that but we cannot describe what to which we gi\e the name "God God would be like if we could see God (because we can't). We can only say what God is not. This is usually known as the via negiitii'ii. the negati\e way (or the via remotionis, the remo\ ing from God of what God cannot be); God is not square or round or taller than a tree. On the other hand, because we know something of God in revelation,

called Jn

worship, and love, as also through the absolutes of truth, beauty, and

abducti\e inference

",

The Angelic Doctor niomas Aquinas was ktiouti in his lifetime as

Angeliciis,

Dante

il

and was

maestro che color

che sanno.

"the

master oj

goodness, and because something

those

who htou". Dante

describes

him

in Paradiso as

ringing the glories of truth as it

brings light

and

illumination from heaven to the deepest abyss.

is

know n of the

artist

through w hat the

we can speak about God through analogy; God is something like an artist, but much more than an artist; God is something like a human lover, but much more than human love. God is like many things in human experience, but more eminently so - and that is whv this way of thinking about God is know n as via eminentiae. It is artist

has brought into being,

analogy and the analog) of being that point to the radical difference

between God and

all that has been created. In the universe, there is a between essence (what a thing is) and existence; what it is to be a lion (its essence) is determined by whate\er constitutes a lion in distinction from a lamb or from anything else; but nothing in the form or

distinction

essence of a lion requires that

happens

to exist or not

is

it

exists.

Whether

a particular lion

a contingent matter, entirely separate from

its

I

essence (Ironi whal makes hi the

God

in

is

it

God

God

exists;

God

could not be what

did not exist: God's essence

is

(what

God

is

it

to

is

to

be

to be.

all) in

could not be the case that CJod (what

it

is

argument.

is

clear.

But

is

fall

God

God can be known

the view of Aquinas,

The supreme it

God might

be God) would

to

The argument

in

l\ \S

follows that creatures

existence (being here at

in

\()l

be Ciod)

understood

combine essence {beino what they are) with a contingent way - we know what they are, but, like dodos, they might happen not to exist. By analogy from what we know in the universe about essence and existence, we can see that in God essence and existence must be combined now-contingently. it

AS

)\1

distinction Ironi anything else),

case of God, however, the essence of

requires that if

what

it

IK

is

apart in contradiction.

not simply the conclusion of an

through worship, prayer, and love, and

the true and best

telos (goal, point,

purpose) of

the dynamic and undying nature of God, forever.

Another story

He was

Naples.

suddenly he seemed cross,

is

told of

kneeling one day

and offering

to

to

human who is

stop,'

may

even

so,

it

whole truth

be caught up

The

his life in

as a reward for his work.

said,

"1

surprisingly,

Aquinas

Triiimpli

A{iiinuii ideas

It

were

contested by those

who

rejected the use of Aristotle in theology,

and he came

close to being formally

condemned

in Paris in

J

2 77.

will

In contrast, Pope

Ihe

made

not be true, but tells

to

Love, and to abide in

hear the voice of Christ speaking to him from the

him anything he wanted

and he

have - only voursell.

life is

prayer before the crucifix, and

was the creator offering creation to his child. Not was silent tor a long time. Then he slowK raised his head,

this,

meaning of our existence.

Aquinas toward the end of in

It

not exist, since then the essence of

his

Leo Xlll

work

the

foundation of Christian

the

phdosophy for Roman

aboLil

Catholic theological

Aquinas.

students in 1879.

^ .^^

fh.

.di^ .^^^ .yi^. .j^ll ^jH^' t^^n^

JM I

I

hi:

ak

kii ier)'thiug)

shall be well

the tongues of flame

are infolded

The

final vision

much

is

as far

beyond words

as

it

was

Dante - so Four Quartets.

for

word "God scarcely appears in and then only in precise and restricted contexts. Nevertheless, Four Quartets glimpse the same truth aboLit God (see box, right). so that the

"

Into the croivned knot of fire

And

the fire

and

(Little

the rose are one

Giddnio end)

THR

Rl

1

K.lOW

iM

\I',K\II\\1

(

'

I

I

R

I

M

\

I

M

I

^i

The Way Eckluivt

WHEN

and

the English Mystics

Ps. -Dionysus (p. 250)

in the

Unknowin|

of

was translated

9th century, the apophatic way

important

in

into Latin by Erigcna

(p. 249)

the West as in the East. For the

became

as

German Meister

Eckhart (died 1327), God Hes so far beyond thought and language that even the names of the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are simply

human words

for

God's self-revelation: they are a point of access, yet

it is known immanent and economic

be

God's essence, although

to

names

Trinity, p. 246).

(cf.

love, lies

beyond even those Eckhart wrote:

wisdom is born l^v the Father's power, for the wisdom and the Holy Spirit is goodness, and both are love — one in nature and distinct in person. The soul enters the unity of the Holy Trinity hut it may become even more blessed In' going further, to the barren Godhead, of wliich the Trinity is a revelation, hi this barren Godhead, activity has ceased and therefore the soid is most perfect when it is thrown into the desert of the "Tliere never was another such Godhead, where activity and forms are no more, union [as between the soul and so that it is sunk and lost in this desert where its God], for the soid is nearer to identitx is destroyed and it has no more to do with "Jlie etenial

So)i

is

.

God

than

it is

to the

makes us human. intimate with

body which It is

things than

more

it

had before it existed. Tlten and alive to God"

water put into a vat of wine, for that

u'ouU

still

is

changed

into the other [theosis, p. 250] so thiit

no creature could ever

again detect a difference

For Eckhart, union with

our existence (see box,

God

left).

is

the proper end and purpose of

The quest

for

union

\\

ith

God was

equally important for the English mystics of the 14th centuPi',

above

between them"

dead

(Blakney, pp.200f)

be water and

nine; but here, one

it is

to self

him than a drop of

all

Walter Hilton

(c.l

343-96), Richard Rolle

(c.

1300-49),

Norwich (c.l342-post 1416), and the author of T/?e Cloud of Unknou'ing. They had a wide influence through the many people who came to seek advice from them, and cxcntLially

Julian of

(BJakncy. p.29)

through their writings. Each of them was clear

in slightK

ways that through the adventure of prayer, the individual soul begins to know God and "to see some what of the nature of Jesus, and eventually to perceive the properties of the Blessed Trinity They were different

".

connected with the north-east of England, the East Midlands, and East Anglia. They were influenced possibly by the Franciscans and by the Rhineland Mystics, but they were far more obviously based on scripture,

all

making use especialK of the

i'salms and of the

New

TcstaTncnl. I'hc

)|

immensely rich way in wliich the Bible led them to Clod made them ask urgently what God meant to them in their lives. The

of total poverty,

They

humans

or for

that matter of angels, for both

are created beings. But

incomprehensible only

lived lives

all

\KN()\VlNf;

"God cannot he com-prehended by the intellect of

answer they found was one of "paring down", a reducing ot the requirements of God in prayer to an apostolic minimum ("apostolic" because they believed that this was the fundamental practice of prayer established by the apostles).

I

never

intellect,

and Hilton required of himself and of those

whom

he counselled deeper and deeper conversion of lifestyle: "A man must be truly turned to Christ, and in his innermost mind turned away from all visible things before he can

(The C'loud

God

is

our

to

our low"

to

oj Unknowiiifi 4)

experience the sweetness of divine love." This might

mean experiencing

considerable suffering, as

it

did for

Julian of Norwich: in her Showings (her visions ol

became her sharing

Christ) the suffering

^10M

'fr fij'tfr

l''ftn"C niftift-

FWjfh-tts rodir von

in the

passion of Christ. For Rolle and Hilton, suffering was

made

a purging process that

dart of longing love"

Star

possible an apophatic

The

kind of prayer. Feelings did not matter.

human

from the

to the divine,

described in The Cloud of Unknowing

(6),

God

out of love: "The stirring of love, that

end

pain, nevertheless in the shall

be well, and

(Julian of

if

sin

manner of thing

all

\m

j

be

well,

shall

\>n rtui' ;>v>*m

\nl v>o\Wf; jfcjn crftu

gobmrn? Uisr tvM- ^Mwitan fwUcn aui Artjr 4i.\julid» ^jor fin Q«v\>«tin

J.

.

consenter and sufferer". Even