Goat Raising

GOAT RAISING The demand for goat meat is ethnic based. However, there is an emerging demand for goat meat as a gourmet item. In addition, health concerns regarding red meat does not apply to goat meat, which compares favorably with chicken in terms of calories and protein, but is lower in total and saturated fat (see table below).

Comparison of Goat Meat to Other Meats (3 oz roasted)

Animal Specie

Calories

Total Fat

Saturated Fat

Protein

grams Goat

122

2.58

.79

23

Beef

245

16.00

6.80

23

Pork

310

24.00

8.70

21

Lamb

235

16.00

7.30

22

Chicken

12 0

3.50

1.10

21

suggesting that beef pastures could support between a half and one million goats. The complementary effects of grazing cattle and goats on the same farm provide an opportunity to enhance and augment North Carolina existing beef cattle industry by improving pasture condition and feed quality. North Carolina farmers are searching for new sources of farm income and for ways to diversify their operations, and develop sound and cost effective environmental practices to stay competitive in a global economy. Goat farming seems to be independent of scale. Small, part-time farmers with only a few acres can raise enough animals to provide an income supplement. On the other hand very large farms can efficiently integrate a meat goat enterprise to aid in diversification of the farm. National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service

www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service operated by the National Center for Appropriate Technology, through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products, companies, or individuals. NCAT has offices in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702), Butte, Montana, and Davis, California.

TIPS ON GOAT RAISING

I.

INTRODUCTION The optimum potential of goat as one of the main sources of milk and meat has not been fully tapped in the Philippines. The goat is popularly known as the poor man's cow because children and old folks who can not afford cow's milk prefer drinking goat's milk. Aside from being cheap, goat's milk is more digestible compared to cow's milk. The goat is a clean animal and its male odor is only present during the breeding season. Female goat does not smell. Contrary to myth, goats do not I eat trash. They do, however, lick the labels of tin cans to taste the glue on the label's back. Goat raising is undertaken commonly by small farmers or backyard raisers. A farmer raises an average of one to two head goats. Only a handful of commercial-scale goat farms can be found in the country. As of 1998, goat population is estimated to be 3,083,262 compared to the 1988 population of 2,120,110 that shows an average annual increase 4.54 percent. In a study conducted by a government agency, it was found out that goats are multi-purpose ruminants producing 58.4% milk, 35.6% meat, 4.3% hide, and 1.7% fiber. According to them, these small ruminants can provide the answer to improve nutritional requirements of the predominantly rural farm families scattered allover the archipelago.

II.

BREEDS TO RAISE There are many breeds of goat worldwide but the available breeds in the Philippines are as follows: 1. Anglo Nubians - basically a tropical breed that was successfully adapted in the western countries. Its distinguishing features include drooping and pendulous ears, and a brown hair or a combination of brown and black. It has a long body that usually weighs 70-90 kilograms at mature age and produces 1-21iters of milk daily.

2. Boer - a meat type breed with distinct white body color and usually black or reddish brown from rear legs to the head. The goat weighs an average of 90 kilograms at mature age. 3. Saanen - originated from Switzerland, is a pure white to off-white in color. It holds the distinction as the highest milk producer (1.8 liters daily), that weighs an average of 70 kilograms4. Toggenburg - also from Switzerland, have distinct white markings on the face, legs and tail and an erect ears like the Saanen. Milk production averages 1.5 liters daily. 5. Alpine - also of European breed has a color that ranges from off-white to red, to black. An alert breed of medium to large size, it weighs I 70 kilograms at mature age. It posses an upright ears and a straight face, the breed produces 1.5 liters of milk daily. 6. Native - the breed are small, stocky and low-set. Colors range from red, white or black or a combination of these colors. Milk production is just enough for its kids. It weighs 20 to 30 kilograms at mature age. SELECTION CTITERIA A.

Does 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Does should be purchased from a locality or area with similar climatic conditions; Native or graded does should not be less than 25 kilograms; Udder should be palpated for size, detection of lumps, and other abnormalities; Teats should be uniform at length and large enough for easy milking; It must have a good appetite, possessing alert eyes, and well formed pupils; and Do not buy breeders from markets;

B. Bucks 1. 2. 3. 4.

One year old breeder or buck that have successfully mated once is desirable; Acquired buck should be accompanied by pedigree records; It must have a good producing line based from farm records; Buck must come from doe with high twinning rate;

5. 6.

Buck must be active and ready to breed in-heat doe; Replace buck, preferably, every three years;

III. MANAGEMENT A. Housing Whether on range or confined feeding, housing provisions are necessary. A goat house or shed must be built to provide shelter. Goats are afraid of rain and wetness as these make them prone to pneumonia. They also prefer sleeping in elevated platforms like a stair type arrangement. It must be well ventilated and drained, and easy to clean. Feeding racks (silage, water, mineral and concentrate) should be accessible to both animals and caretaker, preferably in the front of the aisle. Flooring should be provided and elevated at least 15 degrees to facilitate cleaning and drainage. Separate pens should be provided for lactating and dry does, kids, growers and bucks. The buck pen should be visible to breeding does yet far enough to avoid transfer of the typical goat smell especially to lactating does when milk is to be sold. Space Requirement for Goats: Flooring (Meter2)

Feeding (Linear Cm. )

Does/Bucks/Adults

0.75-1.50

15.24-25.40

Growing

0.50-0.75

10.16-15.24

Kids

0.20-0.50

7.62-12. 70

A fenced loafing area beside the goat house must be provided (100 to 150 m2/50 hd. ), complete with feeding racks and water troughs, to allow animals to loaf freely. Flooring of the area must be cemented to facilitate drying. Cogon and nipa as roof materials are preferred in hot and humid areas. Ventilation is of utmost importance. Majority of pneumonia cases can be traced to excessively warm anQ humid interior and sudden changes in temperature. Allow a 0.5 to 1 ft clearance between floor to wall

and wall to beam to create an adequate circulation and to lower draft. It is desirable to maintain an interior temperature of 28 to 30°C. It has been established that above 30°C ruminants are inhibited from eating. Lighting may also be provided in the barns during the night. Goats consume up to 30% of the day's intake during the night when light is provided. B.

Fencing Nine-eye hog wire is the cheapest and most effective fencing available locally. Posts must be staked every 2 meters. Goats are fond of pounding their feet and scraping their bodies on the fences so it must be sturdily built. Barbwire fencing requires a minimum of four strands so it becomes more costly besides making goats prone to wounds.

C.

Pasturing A well developed/improved pasture can carry up to 15 head/ha. When a combine grazing confinement method is observed, provision of a developed 3 ha./50 hd. Pasture divided into 9 paddocks will be desirable. Separate pastUre paddocks should be provided for the dry doe, buck kids and growers. Pasturing during the cool times of the day is commonly due.

D.

Care of Dry and Pregnant Doe If the doe is being milked, dry (stop milking) at least 1 Y2 to 2 months before kidding date. This will give her enough reserve for the next lactation. Put all dry does in one compartment. One week before kidding, place her in a separate kidding pen. This can be predicted by swelling and discharge from the vulva, engorgement and waxing of the teats and constant lying down of the doe. Avoid any form of noise in the kidding area. Sometimes it is necessary to help the pregnant doe during the kidding, especially to native does bred with pure bucks because the kids are bigger. Dystocia, or difficult delivery, is common in these cases. Be sure that the presentation is right before attempting to pullout the kid. In anterior presentation, both front legs and head are presented and in posterior presentation, both hind limbs come out at the same time. Oversized kids should be pulled out with an even, continuous pressure. In difficult cases, it is best to see a practicing veterinarian.

E.

Care of the Lactating Doe and Newborn Kids Immediately after delivery, wipe the kid's mouth, nose and body with a clean, dry cloth and massage the thoracic area to initiate breathing.

Normally, the mother does this, but sometimes the mother is too weak to do it. Be sure no mucus is clogging the airways. The kids must be able to suck within one hour. For very weak kids, feeding collostrum through a stomach tube usually produces dramatic results. First time mother sometime are reluctant to suckle their young due to udder pain caused by over engorgement of milk. Restraining the doe for the first suckling will usually relieve udder pain. If colostrum in the udder is not fully consumed by the kid, stripping (manually milking out excess) will be necessary to prevent mastitis. The placenta must come out within 24 hours from expulsion of the fetus. Tie the umbilical cord with a sterile string and apply disinfectant. Allow the kids to suckle for the first 4 to. S days. If the doe is to be milked, separate the kids from the mother and start feeding using a baby bottle (8 oz. Size), (refer to feeding guide for dosage). If the doe is not to be milked, the doe can be taken out of the pen for feeding and returned to the kid three times a day and the whole night. This method will ensure greater livability to the kid by not exposing it to the elements, and proper feeding of the doe. Does weaned early (4 to 5 days) usually return to heat after 1 to 2 months. When the doe comes into heat, introduce it to the buck, not viceversa. Two services a day for two days is an optimum. If the doe does not conceive, heat may return in 8 to 12 days. Higher conception is accomplished in the secondary heat. If breeding is successful, milk production drops after one month and the right side of the abdomen starts to fill up. Milking Milking periods must be established and strictly adhered. If milking is done twice a day, e.g. 6 AM and 6 PM, the process should not be delayed or advanced. Possibly, same personnel should be used. Goats can withhold milk, so unnecessary changes in the routine should be avoided. Milk quickly and continuously Milk let down can be initiated by washing the udder with lukewarm water and wiping with a clean towel. All milking utensils, especially the milkers' hands, must be thoroughly cleaned.

Feed concentrates during milking This serves as incentive to the goats for them to enjoy and look forward. Contrary to popular belief, properly drawn and processed goat milk have no offending smell. During milking, the buck should not be near the doe to avoid transfer of the typical goat smell to the milk. F.

Care of Weanling and Growing Kids 5 Place all weaned kids in a separate pen, and if possible, according to size. If male kids are to be raised for meat, castrate as early as possible, preferably within the first month. If female are to be raised for milking, check for excess teats and have them removed. Horn buds usually appear within the first to third month. De-horn when buds reach the size of a fingernail. Separate males from females at the age of four months. Goats sometimes reach puberty at this age. Start breeding females at 8 to 10 months. Bucks can start breeding at the same age.

G.

Care of the Breeding Buck The breeding buck must always be confined separately but always visible to the does. The buck is the source of the typical goat smell such that direct contact with the doe must be avoided. Provide a loafing area. One to two years old buck can make 25 to 50 doe services a year, an older buck more.

H.

Breeding Does reach puberty from 4 to 18 months. Best breeding age will be 10 to 12 months, depending on desired weight. Limit yearling buck services to 25 doe services/year. Older bucks can cover up to 75/year. Buck to doe ratio is I :25. Reproductive Characteristics of Goats Age of puberty Cycle of type Cycle length Duration of heat Gestation period Best breeding time

4- 8 months Polyestrus 18 -21 days 2- 3 days (secondary Heat: 8- 12 days after)

150 (+/-) 5 days Daily during estrus

Signs of Heat or Estrus: 1. Mucus discharge from the vulva, causing matting of tail hair. 2. Uneasiness, constant urination, lack of appetite and bleating. 3. Seeks out or stays near the buck and lets herself be mounted. When breeding, always introduce the doe to the buck, not to the doe herd. Particularly when bucks have not been used for a long time, it will be dangerous to mix it with a herd of pregnant does for d1ey will breed indiscriminately. Two to four breedings during the heat period will suffice. It is highly impractical if not economical to raise pure breed goats, unless the main purpose is to sell breeders. The preferred method will be to upgrade local native or grade does with pure bucks. Crossbreeds usually perform better than pure ones under local conditions. Infusion of two or more bloodlines into the native doe will elicit a better product due to hybrid vigor. Three-way crosses between the native, any of three Occidental breeds and the Nubian has produced a greatly superior animal than any of the three under our conditions. Higher milk production should be the main consideration for it will not only mean bigger kid but also more milk for human consumption. A maximum infusion of75% foreign bloodline must be observed to retain the natural resistance of the native. Never practice inbreeding unless fully knowledgeable in breeding techniques. On the otherhand, intensive culling, especially in milking herds, will largely be beneficial. Dystocia is very common in crossing natives with large pure breeds due to the invariably large size of the unborn kids. Crossbreed birthweights of up to four kilos for multiple births and up to six kilos for single births have been observed while native birthweights reach only 2 and 4 kilos for multiple and single births, respectively. Thus, in crossbreeding, large native does with a minimum weight of25 kilos or more and those that have given birth at least once, should be used. Providing human assistance during birth will also be ofhelp in saving kids, but this should be done only when necessary. Anestrus, or failure to come in heat, is a common problem most particularly with high-producing does. Vitamin, mineral and other nutrient deficiencies, infections of the genital tract and hormone deficiencies are some of the various causes. Several hormones, like prostaglandin, progesterone sponges and implants and pregnant mare serum (PMS) have been used with varying rates of success. Routine administration of oxytocin right after kidding and before weaning (5 days) aids in faster expulsion of the placenta, uterine fluids and in the rapid regression of the uterus. Routine Vitamin A, D & E injections to breeding herds also contribute to reproductive well being. Fifty percent of breeding problems can be traced to the buck used. Routine check up of the bucks' health condition, especially of the , genito-urinary tract, should be done. Preputial scraping, blood tests and , sperm motility tests

are some very useful procedures to follow in , successful buck management. Always consult a trained veterinarian to do these tests. Procedures in Artificial Insemination (AI) * 1.

Keep the semen warm - Goat semen is extremely temperature sensitive and will be irrevocably damaged if improperly handled. Never allow the temperature of semen thawed in 95°F water to drop below 80°F. If at all possible, perform your inseminating in a heated environment. Thoroughly pre-warm the inseminating gun before inserting the straw. If no heated facility is available, use a heating pad or hot water bottle to keep the semen and related equipment at the proper temperature before use.

2.

Inseminate at the proper time - Most successful inseminators agree that conception rates are generally highest when breeding during the later third of standing heat. In our experience, breeding a doe approximately 6-10 hours before she goes out of standing heat has yielded the best results. During the main part of the breeding season and with most does, this means breeding approximately 24-30 hours after the onset of estrous.

3.

Deposit semen deep intracervically - Always measure the depth of penetration of the breeding gun. After passing through several cervical rings, place a clean breeding sheath in the speculum alongside the gun with its tip against the back wall of the does' vagina. Compare the difference between the length of the two breeding sheaths. Ideal depth of penetration is approximately I Y2 inches.

4.

Use only one straw per breeding - Recent research in goat production indicates that sperm cells introduced into the doe's reproductive tract tend to form "colonies" in the mucous present in the folds of the cervix. After undergoing a short maturation process, they migrate in fairly constant numbers from the cervix into the uterus and ultimately on to the oviduct, where union with the egg actually occurs. Quantities of viable sperm cells sufficient for adequate fertilization should remain in the reproductive tract for up to 18 hours after the first insemination. The use of a second straw of semen later in heat can cause a disruption in the orderly migration of mature sperm cells from the colonies already established in the cervix and actually reduces the chance for conception.

5.

Avoid attempting to AI does who remain in standing heat longer than 48 hours - For reasons not fully understood, does exhibiting extremely lengthy standing estrus generally fail to conceive when artificially inseminated. Abnormally long heats are more common early in the breeding season, and occur more frequently in some areas than others. Fortunately, in most cases the condition is transitory, and most does begin

to exhibit more normal estrous behavior as the breeding season progresses. 6.

Use of hormones to synchronize does, though successful and useful, may result in lowered conception rates - Many breeders have reported disappointing AI conception rates after having used hormones to induce estrus in goats. If it is necessary to synchronize a group of does in this way, wait until the first natural heat after the drug induced estrus before artificially inseminating. Be aware that the use of prostaglandins may cause erratic estrous behavior in some animals, which can persist for several months.

7.

Deposit semen very slowly -Rapid expulsion of semen from the breeding gun can damage sperm cells and cause irritation of the doe's reproductive tract. Count to fifteen very slowly while depressing the plunger on the breeding gun.

8.

Don’ t haul a doe in heat to have her bred A - If you do not have your own equipment or storage tank and must transport your does to have them bred, plan to board them for several days before they are due to come into heat. It is probably preferable; if you cannot breed your own does yourself, to have the AI technician come to your farm to perform the insemination. You can do your own inseminating even if you do not own your own tank. Small quantities of semen can be transported and stored for a half day or longer in a stainless steel thermos bottle. Make sure that you do not screw the lid onto the thermos as possible rupture can occur as a result of nitrogen gas pressure.

9.

For best conception rates, inseminate only does with regularly occurring heats and no history of breeding or kidding problems - Does that are difficult to settle by natural service are not good AI candidates. Proper nutritional management also pays a big role in reproductive efficiency. Does that are overly fat or thin are less than ideal prospects for AI breeding. Virgin does should present no problem so long as they weigh at least 75 lbs.

10.

Don’t attempt to Al a doe on her first heat cycle of the season - The first heat cycle of the year is often infertile and is frequently followed by a second heat 5-8 days later. Conception rates will usually be higher if you wait until the second or later heats to do your breeding. Likewise, conception rates may drop off if you attempt AI towards the very end of the normal breeding season.

11.

Watch your does carefully 17 - 22 days after breeding them by Al -F or some reason, some does who conceive by AI experience a false heat three weeks later. Although they may exhibit otherwise typical estrous

behavior, such does will seldom allow a buck to mount them. If in doubt, submit a milk or blood sample to a testing laboratory for a progesterone assay. 12.

Keep detailed records of your AI breeding - Note such factors as color and consistency of cervical mucous, depth and relative difficulty or cervical penetration, length of standing heat both before and after inseminating, weather conditions, time required to complete the insemination, and other pertinent information. These records will often be of great help in explaining why some does settle and others did not.

13.

Know your does - Chart the heat cycles of each of your animals on a calendar. Observe them at least three times daily during the breeding season of signs of estrous behavior. Note the number of hours that each doe remains in standing heat, and the relative intensity of estrous activities such as flagging, fighting and mounting other does.

14.

Observe proper sanitary procedures - Specula should be thoroughly washed and sanitized between use. Scrub the doe's external genitalia with soap and water and dry completely before inserting the speculum. Do not use iodine-based products, as iodine is spermicidal. Take care not to touch the part of the speculum or breeding sheath which is inserted in the doe's vagina.

15.

Attend an AI school - Attendance at an AI school taught by a competent and knowledgeable instructor can increase your chances of success with AI. As with any other acquired skill, hands-on experience is the best way to develop the confidence and correct techniques necessary to use AI effectively.

16.

Do your homework - Artificial insemination is only a tool, albeit a powerful one. To be really successful with AI, you need to do more than just put kids on the ground. Only through intelligent selection of sires compatible with the objectives of a carefully thought out breeding program can AI benefit you, the breeder, or the meat and dairy goat industry.

I. Other Management Practices 1.

2.

HoofTrimming - Goats' hooves under confinement are usually overgrown. Trimming is then required. A rose pruner and a small curved knife are adequate tools. Cut excess hoof until level with the frog (white-centerpart). Untrimmed hooves will cause lameness and make it prone to foot rot. Bucks refuse to mount when having sore feet. Dehoming - Especially in milking herds, dehorning is essential. A dehorned animal is more docile than a horned one. It will also eliminate unnecessary wounds due to fighting. Dehorn when horn buds appear (2 to

4 mos.) using hot iron cautery. A Y2 inch GI pipe is an effective and cheap material for cauterizing. Chemical cautery is not preferred because kids tend to lick one another and may therefore lead to cauterized or burned tongues. 3.

Castration - Castration of unwanted male goats is preferable within the first month of age. The testicles at this age are still not developed; thus there is lesser bleeding and stress. Castrated males grow faster than uncastrated males and are free of the goaty male odor.

4.

Tattooing, Ear Notching and Other Forms of Identification - In order to keep track of individual animals, a positive identification are needed. No recording is possible without this. Ear notching is done more commonly because of permanence and easy identification. Refrain from using plastic tags. Tattooing causes no deformities but requires special tools that may be costly.

5.

Recording - For a good breeding herd program, a proper and well-kept recording system is necessary. The record reflects all the essential data of individual animals. Below is an example: INDIVIDUAL RECORD

Goat No./Name ___________________ Sire ____________________________ Dam ____________________________ Sex ____________________________ Method of Disposal ________________

Date Breeding

Sir e

Date of Birth ________________ Birthweight, Kg ______________ Color ______________________ Littermates -(Single. Twin. Triplet)Wt. At Disposal, Kg. __________

Date

Kid No.

Birth

Milk

Lact.

Ave.

Kidding

Sex

Weight

Prod.

Days

Prod.

Remarks

Herd Data:

Kidding Rate Kidding Frequencies Productive Pattern Superior to Doe Combination

Other Data: Forage Production Forage and Concentrate Intake Health and Treatment Situations

IV. FEEDING A.

Recommended Pasture Grasses and Legumes Goats, like other livestock require the same nutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, and water but their need for some of these nutrients is not as critical. Bacteria and protozoa in the rumen of the goat have the ability to manufacture and make available many of the nutrients from such feeds as silage, hay-soilage, and other fibrous feedstuffs. Goats are known to relish Paragras, Stargrass, Napier grass, Guinea grass and Centrosema over many improved tropical grasses and legumes. It is also known that goats can browse on leaves of shrubs and bushes for their feed requirements. (See Table I below)

Table 1.

List of Common Philippine Feedstuffs for Goat Production

Total

Digestible

Dry

Digestible

Crude

Crude

Matter

Nutrients

Protein

Protein

% (DM)

% (TDN)

% (CP)

% (DCP)

Copra Meal

89.6

78.5

20.6

14.5

Corn Glutten, Feed

90.1

74.9

20.2

17.1

Corn Grain

88.8

84.2

8.1

7.1

Rice Bran (Cono)

88.0

69.1

12.3

8.3

Rice Bran (Kiskis)

89.0

46.6

6.2

4.5

Feedstuffs Concentrates

Total

Digestible

Dry

Digestible

Crude

Crude

Matter

Nutrients

Protein

Protein

% (DM)

% (TDN)

% (CP)

% (DCP)

Wheat Pollard

88.2

73.1

17.1

10.4

Soybean Oil Meal

88.4

76.0

44.0

41.0

Molasses, Cane

76.3

53.0

2.0

0.4

Corn Bran

88.0

72.1

10.5

5.6

21 Days

16.5

9.3

2.4

1.7

42 Days

18.3

10.8

1.9

1.1

84 Days

19.6

10.9

1.0

0.4

105 Days

25.6

13.6

1.2

0.5

Feedstuffs

Green Roughage Napier Grass

Paragrass Dry season 28 Days

22.5

12.9

2.0

1.0

56 Days

24.0

11.0

0.7

0.1

84 Days

39.1

17.6

0.9

0.2

28 Days

16.3

9.4

2.4

1.6

56 Days

22.8

12.9

2.8

1.7

84 Days

21.7

12.2

1.7

0.8

Wet season

Total

Digestible

Dry

Digestible

Crude

Crude

Matter

Nutrients

Protein

Protein

% (DM)

% (TDN)

% (CP)

% (DCP)

21 Days

22.5

12.9

2.0

1.0

42 Days

24.0

11.0

0.7

0.1

84 Days

39.1

17.6

0.9

0.2

28 Days

16.3

9.4

2.4

1.6

56 Days

22.8

12.9

2.8

1.7

84 Days

21.7

12.2

1.7

0.8

24.4

14.0

3.9

2.6

Feedstuffs Guinea Grass Dry season

Wet season

Centrocema 28 Days

56 Days

29.5

16.8

5.1

3.5

133 Days

32.6

18.9

6.1

4.4

175 Days

30.6

17.3

4.9

3.3

Banana

94.0

-

9.8

5.7

Kakawati

25.3

-

6.52

-

Ipil-Ipil

13.30

-

27.80

22.50

Santan

27.68

-

4.02

-

Tree Leaves/Browse Plants

Total

Digestible

Dry

Digestible

Crude

Crude

Matter

Nutrients

Protein

Protein

% (DM)

% (TDN)

% (CP)

% (DCP)

Caimito

48.32

-

4.98

-

Camachile

34.78

-

9.96

-

Gumamela

19.10

-

4.14

-

Bamboo

42.0

-

7.60

3.54

Acacia

43.40

-

9.10

-

Feedstuffs

Sources of Ca and P

% Ca

%P

Steamed Bone Meal

28.0

14.0

Dicalcium Phosphate

26.0

18.0

Oyster Shell Flour

33.0

0.0

Source:

B.

Gerpacio, A. and L.S. Castillo, 1974. Nutrient Composition of Some Philippine Feedstuffs. Tech. Bul. 21, UPLB-College of Agriculture, College, Laguna p. 117

Feed Requirements A practical feeding program for goats, being ruminants, should be based on the type and quality of roughage available. This is because the quality of roughage available determines both the amount and the quality of concentrates needed to supplement the diet. (See Table 2 below)

Table 2. Feed Requirements

AGE

FEEDS

AMOUNT PER DAY

Birth – 3 days

Colostrum

Ad Libitum (3-5 times feeding)

4 Days – 2 Weeks

Whole Milk (Goat/Cow Milk)

0.5 – 1 Li/Kid divided into 3 time feeding Ad Libitum Ad Libitum

Vitamin – Mineral Water 2 Weeks–16 Weeks

Whole Milk of Milk Replacer

0.5 – 1 Li/Kid divided into 2 time feeding

Grass-Legume Hay or Qualti Fresh Forage Viatmin-Mineral Mix

Ad Libitum Ad Libitum Ad Libitum

Water Starter (22% CP)1

Increasing amount without causing digestive upset

4 Months-Kidding

Forage, Vitamin-Mineral Mix Ad Libitum Water Ad Libitum Concentrates (18-20%CP)2 0.2-0.7 Kg/Hd

Dry, Pregnant, Bucks

Forage, Vitamin-Mineral Mix Ad Libitum Water Ad Libitum Concentrates (16-18%CP)3

Lactating

Forage, Vitamin-Mineral Mix Ad Libitum Water Ad Libitum Concentrates 0.3-0.5 Kg/Li of Milk Produced

1

Ground Corn -12; Rice Bran -24; Copra Meal- 40; Soybean Oil Meal -8; Meat & Bone Meal- 10; Molasses- 5; and Salt-1 Kg. 2 Copra Meal- 50; Wheat Pollard -32; Molasses -15; Bone Meal- 2; and Salt -1 Kg. 3 Copra Meal- 40; Corn -25; Soybean Oil Meal-15; Rice Bran -10; Molasses -8; Bone Meal- 1; and Salt -1 Kg. 1.

Lactating Does Confined goats should be given good quality forage for free choice, ad libitum. To increase water consumption, concentrates can be added at ! the rate of 1 kg./20 liters of drinking water. Provide vitamin-minera1 and salt, ad libitum.

2. Pregnant Dry Does Pregnant dry does should be adequately fed with quality feeds to build reserves for the coming lactation and to nourish the developing fetuses. Does should be allowed liberal access to good quality forage and roughage, vitamin-mineral plus concentrates at a level of 0.20 to 0.70 kg./ day depending on the body condition of the does. 3.

Four Months Old and Above They should be fed enough for maintenance and for desirable growth, but not for fattening them. Generally, a liberal supply of good quality forage/roughage plus 0.20 to 0.50 kg./day of concentrates is enough to obtain desired growth rate. Under complete confinement, goats may be fed with quality forage plus vitamin-mineral, and salt, ad libidum.

4.

Breeding Bucks Bucks should be maintained on good pasture alone when not used for breeding. Two weeks before and during the breeding season, the ration of the breeding bucks should be supplemented with 0.2 to 0.7 kg. of concentrates. Forage, vitamin-mineral mix, and water should be given ad libitum.

5.

Practical Feeding Guides The general herd should be pastured most of the time to lower the cost of feeding and maintaining them. Provide enough space for grazing, but be sure that the pasture is rotated frequently, i.e., the herd is moved to another pasture after one pasture lot has been grazed for sometime. This will keep a pasture from being overgrazed and polluted or heavily infested by parasites. Even if the pasture has abundant feed, it may become a breeding place for parasites if the goats are allowed to graze on it for so long. Breeding goats, as well as the growing and fattening stock, can be raised solely on pasture feeds. Goats enjoy feeding on a large variety of plant growths so that bush land, together with the common pasture grasses, is an ideal combination for raising healthy goats. Goats are also selective when it comes to grazing. They eat only what seems suitable to them; hence, there is little danger of their eating poisonous weeds. Goats will be able to live on grazing even if only grasses are available on the pasture. However, they can feed better and grow better if there are different species of plants on the pasture. Leguminous plants can also help improve the quality of the pasture. During the rainy days, keep the goats shut in the barn, well protected from the draft and provided with a clean solid floor. Give them cut grass or hay to eat. Ifthe weather is humid and cold, and especially if there are strong winds, cheap grain feeds, like rice bran, will help maintain body vigor among the animals. Care of the herd also includes giving them clean water and salt. Place a watering trough in the pen where the goats can drink any time they like. Also, place enough salt in the pen for them to lick whenever they want to.

V.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Health Management Practices 1. Sanitation Have pens cleaned daily and washed at least three times a week. Disinfect at least twice a month. Accumulated feces and urine provide a good breeding ground for disease-causing microorganisms. Provide a lagoon or pit to store waste for at least a month before spreading to the pasture. Use as fertilizer for orchards or vegetable garden. Train personnel to observe sanitary procedures. Provide separate pens for diseased animals. Limit visitors coming into the farm, including other animals. Quarantine newly arrive stock for at least a month before mixing with the main breeding stock. 2. Deworming Aside from pneumonia, parasites rank second in causing heavy mortality. From experience, tapeworms are the most debilitating worm problem in all ages of goats, Protozoa-like coccidia and amoeba are also common problems especially in young kids. Have your goats checked regularly for specific worm load and deworm regularly depending on worm load and seasonal occurrences. Know what kind of internal parasite is affecting your herd before attempting to use a deworming product, or else it will be a waste of money; and effort. I 3. External Parasites Lice and ticks are common problems. When these are observed, apply acaricide or chemicals against lice and ticks, in powder or dust form. This can be done by mixing the powder-form chemicals with 7 to 10 parts of starch or flour and apply as dusting powder. Refrain from using the liquid or spray form.

Common Infectious Diseases of Goats 1. Bacterial Pneumonia Mode of transmission: Direct contact from infected or contaminated udder, navel infection, genital or intra uterine infection of dam, contaminated environment Symptoms: Fever, inability to suckle, nasal discharge, coughing and respiratory distress Gradual emaciation may terminate as pneumoniaenteritis combination. Death common. Prevention: Proper nursing in clean, dry environment necessary. Early cases respond to antibiotic treatment. 2. Infectious Arthritis Mode of Transmission Direct, through wounds or via umbilicus

mouth,

skin,

open

Symptoms: Swollen knees, lameness, pain if pressure is applied on affected joint. Fever may be present. Joints involved are hock, knee, elbow and stifle. Animal prefers recumbency, appetite affected with gradual deterioration. Prevention / Control: Minimize infection by treating wounds (castration and navel) dressing, hygiene management especially in areas of confinement. Treatment includes wide spectrum anti-biotic and sulfa drugs. 3. Mastitis Mode of Transmission:

Direct or indirect .

Symptoms: Hot, painful and swollen udder. May become red due to inflammation later changing to dark reddish-blue indicating necrosis of udder tissue. Milk may be bloodstained, may contain flakes or clots. Fever, loss of appetite, depression and dehydration; gait or movement of doe is affected.

Treatment:

Intramammary infusion of antibiotics. Early and repeated treatment needed to prevent complications such as gangrene and toxemia.

Prevention: Proper treatment of injured teats with antiseptics; disinfecting udders for milking and proper milking technique. Monitor by surveillance to detect early cases for immediate isolation and treatment. 4. Sore MouthlORF/Contagious Ecthyma Mode of transmission: Contaminated equipment, fences, manure, bedding and feeds Over crowding Contaminated vehicles and workers Infected suckling Iambs, contaminated teats and udders of dams Symptoms: Characterized by papules, pustules, vesicles and scabs on the skin of the face, genitalia and feet, mucous of the mouth, rumen, nostrils eyelids, gums, tongue, palate and middle ear. Occurs commonly to less than one-year-old sheep/ goat, and feedlot Iambs 3- 7 months of age. Prevention/Treatment: Vaccinate feedlot Iambs after entering the fattening facilities Vaccinate suckling Iambs 1-3 days of age 5. HMD Mode of Transmission: Direct and indirect contact with naturally infected animals, carriers, implements and other infected materials Blister fluid, saliva and other bodily discharges highly infective. Symptoms: Fever vesicles, erosion in between hooves, coronary band (junction between skin and hoot), teats and udders, oral mucosa and tongue

Raw ulceration follows, rupture ofvesicles, stingy or foamy salivation, smocking of the lips, difficulty in feed ingestion; staggering gait and lameness. Abortion in pregnant animals. Prevention: Immediate notification of the authorities Designation of quarantine areas and restricted movement of animals; disinfecting areas with virucidal agents (commercial disinfectant or lye caustic soda) Animal should be kept on dry ground and lesions treated with mild antiseptic (5% formalin) I , Mass immunization and effective restriction in movement of animals and carriers is necessary 6. Brucellosis Mode of Transmission: Ingestion of contaminated feed and water. Aborted fetus, fatal membrane, placenta, urine and uterine discharge are main sources of infection Infected males may transfer disease through natural/ artificial breeding Symptoms: Infertility, abortion, retained placenta, persistent vaginal discharge. In males, swollen and painful testicles with subsequent infertility/sterility Prevention: Blood tests and removal of infected animals Vaccination may be tried Antibiotic medication is found to be impractical 7. Hemorrhagic Septicemia Mode of Transmission: Ingestion or inhalation of infective agent. Maybe normally present in the nasopharyngeal area but predisposition causes flare-up of infection Symptoms: High fever, loss of appetite Respiratory distress, salivation, nasal discharges, swelling of the throat and brisket congestion of mucous membrane, diarrhea becoming bloody later.

Prevention: Prophylactic vaccination Removal of predisposition when possible Early treatment with parenteral antibiotics and sulfa drugs 8. Anthrax Mode of Transmission: biting flies

Direct ingestion of infected material,

Indirect, through contact with materials and carriers Symptoms: Sudden onset of fever, depression and loss of appetite Swelling of chest, head, belly and legs, bloody diarrhea Death common in early stages Colic, abortion in pregnant animals, blood stained discharges, convulsions Prevention: Dead animals should be cremated or buried deeply under a layer of lime Antibiotic treatment is only effective in early and less acute cases 9. Blackleg Mode of Transmission: Infection initiated by trauma of the body and oral mucosa. Cases in larger ruminants maybe source of infection in the area Symptoms: Sudden deaths in acute cases Less acute: depression, fever, rapid respiration and suspended ruminatism Typically, not painful swelling in thigh and leg muscles. Crackling sensation of palpation of swelling due to gas in tissues

Lameness in affected limb Prevention: Vaccination Cremation of carcasses Early isolation and treatment with massive doses of antibiotics 10. Tetanus Mode of Transmission: Direct infection due to introduction of organism in wounds. Castration, old ulcerating wounds, dehorning complications. Not contagious to other animals Symptoms: Early stages characterized by rigidity and stiffness of muscles, stilthy gait Late stages: with tetanic convulsions, prolapse of third eyelid, stiff tail, head and neck thrown back; hyperexcitability Bloat and other nervous signs. Prevention: Treat wound with oxidizing antiseptic (hydrogenperoxide ) until completely healed; use clean instrument in castration and dehorning

11. Parasitic Gastroenteritis Mode of transmission: Commonly through direct infection with parasitic larval stages through herbage, less common through skin penetration and intrauterine infection in some species Symptoms: Poor body condition, anemia, diarrhea, potbelly and weakness Prevention: Regular deforming with effective anthelmintics (tetramisole, parbendazole, thiabendazole, pyrantel, etc.) Pasture rotation and improve feeding practices

12. Parasitic Pneumonia Mode of Transmission: Infection with the parasite in the larval stage through herbage Symptoms: As in parasitic gastroenteritis for general signs Specific symptoms includes coughing, respiratory distress

persistent

husky,

Prevention: Regular deworming with tetramisole, albendazole or oxfendazole General prevention as parasitic gastroenteritis 13. Tapeworm Infection Mode of Transmission: Through ingestion of plant mites that are intermediate host Symptoms: Same as other internal parasitism, passage of tapeworm segment in the feces Prevention: Regular deworming (albendazole, niclosanide, lead arsenate, and oxfendazole )

14. Liverfluke Disease Etiology:

Four Species of trematodes: a. b. c. d.

Fasciola hepatica Fasciola gigantica Facioloides magna Dicrocoelium dendriticum

Clinical Signs: Post Mortem Lesions a. b. c. d.

Affected animals isolate from the flock Decline the feeds Distended abdomen is painful upon manipulation Lose weight and become unthrifty, anaemic and edematous in the lips and intermandibular tissues

e. Ascites may form f. The wool looses its flexibility and tensile strength Clinical Forms: Acute Form - traumatic invasion paranchyma by immature flukes

of

liver

Chronic Form - billiary fibrosis resulting from prolonged residence of adult flukes Symptoms: Characterized by unthriftiness, loss ofweight, anemia and edema Prevention/Treatment:

Control of fluke infestations

Prevent the animals from grazing on infected pastures Use flukicide / anthelmintics in treatment 15. Lice Infestation Mode of Transmission: Direct or indirect contact with infected animals through environment or facilities Symptoms: Constant scratching and rubbing to relieve itching and rritation. Scurfy coat ( dandruff) and encrustation of exudate with scabby deposit Loss of hair Raw skin and bruises in severe infestations Animals becomes unthrifty, poor thriving, weak and anemic Prevention: Use insecticide (Asuntol, Ciodrin, Diazinon, Neguvon, Supona, Nankor, etc.) In dust or solution form repeat treatment in 10-14 days to kill nymphs that hatch out. Also spray pens and litter Isolate treated from untreated animals 16. Mange Mode of Transmission: animals

Direct and indirect contact with infected

Symntoms: Marked itchiness and irritation with animals constantly rubbing or licking affected areas, maybe patchy or generalized Skin becomes hairless, thickened or scabby Prevention: Periodic examination to detect cases Regular spraying with effective acaricides such as Malathion, Trichlorfon, Fenthion, Diazinon, Crotoxyphos or Coumaphos Interval of treatment should be 7 -10 days with 2-3 applications to destroy mites that have hatched after each treatment 17. Bloat Kinds of Bloat: a. Green Legume Bloat -results from eating fresh copped green grasses b. Hay Legume bloat -results from feeding whole, chopped, ground or pellet grasses which is conducive to bloat c. Free-gas Bloat -result from the inability of the animal to eructate usually associated with systemic disease or due to foreign bodies and abscesses, inflammatory swelling, enlarged thoracic nodes, and also dysfunction such as atrophy of the muscles that interfere with escape of gases and favor its accumulation d. Grain Concentrate Bloat -results from feeding bloat producing concentrate such as corn, soybean meal and barley Symptoms: Retention of gas in the rumen, characterized by increased intra-abdominal or intra-thoracic pressure caused by interactions of plants, animals and microbial factors Distention of the abdomen Animals become uneasy

May alternate positions

between

standing

and

reclining

Breathing becomes difficult, rapid and shallow Ruminal movement is prominent Prevention/Treatment: Good management and medicinal regiment in feeding Avoid grinding the hay and other components too finely Stomach tube should be passed ill!\) the dorsal part of the rumen to remove any free gas Administer 0.5 to 1.0 liters of mineral oil or vegetable oil 18. Acute Ingestion of Grain Overload Mode of Transmission:

Non-contagious

Symptoms: Signs appear from 10-36 hours after dietary changes. Depression, loss of appetite, and abdominal distention causing pain and discomfort. Diarrhea develops. Rapid respiration and pulse, incoordination, weakness, coma and death

Prevention: Avoid sudden dietary changes. Treatment is generally unsatisfactory. Early case~ may respond to high antibiotic levels given orally to reduce population of acid-forming bacteria (Acidosis). Indigestion maybe treated with anti-acids like baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide given orally in warm water (Igm/kg body weight) to neutralize rumen acidity. Systematic acidosis requires intravenous injection of acid neutralized like 5% sodium bicarbonate repeatedly given. THE CONTROL OF INTERNAL PARASITES IN RUMINANTS Table of Contents General information Life cycle of parasites Role of parasites Susceptibility and immunity Detection Preventive measures Herd management Pasture management Soil management Parasite control methods General information Botanical dewormers Other dewormers Useful addresses Bibliography By Jean Duval, agronomist, M.Sc. January 1994 I would like to thank Christiane Trudeau of the McGill University Institute of Parasitology, Jean-Marie Boucher of the Centre d'Agriculture Biologique de la Pocatière and consulting agronomist Caroline Morin for their comments on the text. THE CONTROL OF INTERNAL PARASITES IN RUMINANTS Internal parasites in ruminants constitute a problem that returns periodically in almost all livestock herds. Recourse to synthetic dewormers is only a short-term solution. Animals that graze are always exposed to parasites and are thus constantly being reinfected; not to mention that routine deworming treatments delay the development of immunity in young animals. Moreover, certain parasites have developed a resistance to such deworming products as Benzimidazole, Levamisole and even Ivermectin because of too frequent use. Studies in New Zealand and Ireland indicate among other things that dewormers

slow the decomposition of manure. A serious pest control program in organic farming begins with a good understanding of parasites and the implementation of preventive measures. The ultimate objective is to develop an animal production system where parasites may be present in small numbers but do not affect the health or performance of herds. Deworming treatments, whether administered using natural products or not, should therefore only be employed in emergency situations or, if using weaker products, as preventive maintenance. This document provides a description of internal parasites, methods to prevent their infestation and alternatives to conventional dewormers for ruminants. The section on botanical dewormers also includes information on other farm animals (pigs and poultry). GENERAL INFORMATION LIFE CYCLE OF PARASITES Knowledge of the life cycle and characteristics of parasitic worms is essential for anyone wishing to reduce their use of dewormers. Figure 1 shows the direct life cycle common to most parasites. Some parasites however have an indirect cycle, which involves a host animal. For example, the liver fluke (Fasciola sp.) spends part of its life in certain snail species before infecting ruminants. Table 1 presents the main classes of internal parasites, whereas Table 2 provides a list of the main internal parasites of ruminants and their characteristics. Internal parasites are most often worms (helminths) but can also be protozoa, which will not be covered here. Worms are generally specific to one organ, such as the abomasum, duodenum, and lungs. 1. Parasite-infested animal harbours adult worms... 2. The eggs produced by the female are deposited in pastures with fecal matter... 3. They develop into various larvae stages. 4. Animal is contaminated by absorbing L3 larvae or infesting larvae with the grass. 5. The larvae make their way to the alimentary canal where they develop and produce a new generation of adult male or female parasites.

Figure 1. Life cycle of internal parasites in ruminants

Source: Rivard et Huneault (1992) Table 1 - Major classes of internal parasites ROUNDWORMS or Nemathelminthes Strongyles Gastrointestinal worms Abomasum worms: Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia Duodenum worms: Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Cooperia, Strongyloides Large intestine worms: Oesophagostomum, Trichuris Small intestine worms or Ancylostomidae (hookworm): Ancylostoma, Necator, Bunostomum Lungworm or metastrongyles: Dictyocaulus, Metastrongylus, Protostrongylus Ascarids: Ascaris (duodenum) FLATWORMS or platyhelminthes Cestodes (tapeworm): Taenia, Echinococcus, Moniezia (duodenum) Trematodes: Fasciola, Dicrocoelium (liver)

Table 2 - Characteristics of main internal parasite genera in cattle, sheep and goats Parasite Description Infected Organ Life Cycle Symptoms Haemonchus M: 10-20 mm red F: 18-30 mm red and white Abomasum IS: 4-6 days PP: 3 weeks Anemia, soft swelling under jaw and abdomen, weakness, no weight gain Ostertagia M: 6-9 mm, brown F: 8-12 mm Abomasum IS: 4-6 days PP: 3 weeks Same as Haemonchus and also lack of appetite, diarrhea Trichostrongylus M: 4-5.5 mm F: 5-7 mm light brown Abomasum, duodenum IS: 3-4 days PP: 2-3 weeks Same as Haemonchus and also diarrhea and weight loss Cooperia red M: 5-7 mm F: 6-9 mm Duodenum IS: 5-6 days PP: 15-20 days Same as Haemonchus Bunostomum 10-30 mm Duodenum IS: ? PP: 30-56 days Edema, anemia, weight loss, diarrhea Strongyloides (young animals) 4-6 mm Small intestine IS: 1-2 days PP: 8-14 days Anorexia, enteritis, diarrhea Chabertia M: 13-14 mm F: 17-20 mm Large intestine IS: 5-6 days PP: 42 days Anemia, diarrhea with blood Oesophagostomum M: 12-17 mm F: 15-22 mm Large intestine IS: 6-7 days PP: 41-45 days Dark green diarrhea edema

Protostrongylus M: 16-28 mm F: 25-35 mm Lungs IS: 12-14 days PP: 30-37 days Pneumonia Dictyocaulus M: 30-80 mm F: 50-100 mm Lungs IS: 6-7 days PP: 3-4 weeks Sticky nasal discharge, difficulty breathing, cough Legend: M = Males; F = Females; IS = Infectious stage: minimum number of days for parasite to reach infectious larvae stage (L3) after hatching of eggs; PP = Prepatent stage: period up to appearance of first eggs in dung after host is infected. ROLE OF PARASITES One may ask what the role of internal parasites is in nature. Do they reduce populations that are too large for the resources available? Overpopulation is often, if not always, inherent to agriculture. Or do parasites serve to cull the weaker animals, thus reinforcing a species' chances for survival? This is doubtful since it is generally not to the parasite's advantage to kill its host. Whatever the case, it is normal in nature to find internal parasites in animals. In a natural setting, ruminants, although in herds, are constantly moving from one grazing area to another. It is therefore rare that the soil and grasses they eat are highly contaminated. Since levels of infestation are rarely excessive, animals have a chance to develop immunity. The levels of infestation in goats and sheep that are raised in fairly natural settings tend to fluctuate with seasonal metabolisms without the animals being treated25. It has been observed in goats and sheep that the highest levels of parasites correspond to periods of change: change in location (e.g. buildings to pasture in the spring); change in diet or use of food (e.g. lactation to maintenance diet). This would indicate that internal parasites may play a role in helping animals get through periods of change and adaptation. THE BIODYNAMIC POINT OF VIEW The point of view of biodynamic practitioners is focused largely on the role parasites play in animal digestion36. They believe that gastrointestinal parasites play a role similar to earthworms in the soil; that they "aerate" the digestive system when it is overloaded by too much silage, grain or green hay. Since the roots of plants have the same effect as earthworms, biodynamic farmers add fodder roots (e.g. beets, carrots) to animal feed to replicate the role of parasites. SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY An animal without worms is not an ideal to strive for at any cost, at least not in organic farming. An animal that never has worms can not develop resistance and is thus extremely vulnerable when exposed to a parasite. Resistance or immunity is the ability to prevent or limit the establishment or subsequent development of worm infections. Tolerance is the ability to maintain good

productivity despite infection. Contrarily, susceptibility to parasites is defined by how easily the animal becomes infected. Ideally, grazing animals - especially the youngest ones - should ingest parasites in small quantities so that they may progressively develop immunity. This does not apply, however, to all internal parasite species. Susceptibility according to species Most internal parasites are specific to one or two species. When they are found in other animals, it is usually only for a brief period. Certain parasite species common to several types of domestic animals have even developed more specific "breeds". Although there are just as many parasite species that can infect cattle, sheep or goats, sheep are the most susceptible to internal parasites because they graze close to the ground. Goats and sheep, whose manure is in pellet form, graze directly over their manure, which makes them more susceptible than cattle who do not have access to the grass under their pats. Also, cattle tend to avoid the less appetizing grass near the pats. Susceptibility according to age The age as well as the weight of animals determine susceptibility to parasites. Young animals do not have a great deal of immunity to parasites during their first year at pasture. The second year, they have partial immunity and, although they may appear healthy, they excrete many eggs. Adult animals are much less susceptible to most parasites, unless they are in poor living conditions. For example, it has been demonstrated that horses 15 years of age or older are rarely infected by strongyles13. Instead, parasites like Strongyloides are almost exclusively found in young animals. Other susceptibility Animals are sometimes kept in conditions that make them highly susceptible to parasites. In the case of a recently dewormed animal, internal parasites no longer exist. There is thus no equilibrium and such an animal put into a contaminated pasture may be seriously affected. Animals in poor condition (e.g.: recent illness, food shortages) are also highly susceptible. Genetic resistance There are breeds or lines of animals that are resistant or more tolerant to internal parasites. In New Zealand, herds of sheep resistant to internal parasites were developed from Romney sheep. The approach adopted by organic farmers in

New Zealand is to over the years develop a herd that is increasingly resistant, using resistant rams only, and not ewes. DETECTION The first step in a pest control program is to assess the situation. The two methods used for this purpose are fecal counts and field counts. FECAL COUNTS Veterinary offices conduct fecal analyses. These consist in identifying the species of parasites present in the animal and counting the eggs of the parasites per gram of stool. Results of the analyses are often expressed in qualitative terms: absence of parasites, low, average or high levels. In all cases, it is important to identify the parasite. Two approaches may be used: Herd analysis Randomly selected feces are used to determine the general state of the herd. A minimum of three to five pats is required in the case of cattle. Ideally the stools should be collected at midday for the egg production is more uniform at this time8. Individual analysis Feces from a single animal are used by isolating the animal and collecting them first thing in the morning and then fresh stools during the day. The purpose of an individual analysis is to confirm that the symptoms observed in the animal are in fact caused by a parasite infection. Stool analyses have limits as methods for evaluating the situation. Certain species of parasites lay few eggs, others many. Some lay eggs only at certain times of the year or during a particular period in the ruminant's life cycle. The best way to benefit from fecal counts is to always perform them at the same time each year and preferably during critical periods, such as when the animals are put out to pasture or before bringing them in for winter. If the parasite level is high, two to four analyses will provide a better picture of the situation. Comparison from one year to another of analyses conducted during the same period will indicate if there is an improvement or not. Other instances where stool analyses are useful are, for example, when there is a change of pasture ground, when new animals arrive, or when there are animals who appear to be ailing or young animals that are not putting on weight. FIELD COUNT A field count is more difficult to do. In North America, it is mostly done as part of research programs. Samples that are representative of the grazed pasture must

be collected, taking into account the height of the cut. In New Zealand, where this type of analysis is more common, it is considered with respect to sheep that if there are less than 100 larvae per 100 kg of grass there are neither economic losses nor drops in productivity39. PREVENTIVE MEASURES From the ecological perspective, serious problems with internal parasites indicate that changes in feed, field management or soil management are required. By changing the production method or by using preventive measures, it is not necessary to rely on dewormers too often. HERD MANAGEMENT An animal is better able to resist or tolerate internal parasites when its living conditions are good. Links between diet, particularly vitamins and minerals, and susceptibility to internal parasites have been established in certain cases. Vitamins A, D and B complex are the most important vitamins required by animals to develop resistance to internal parasites23. Nyberg and his coworkers, quoted by Quiquandon31, have established that a lack of cobalt promotes parasitism, since cobalt is the element used by animals to synthesize vitamin B12. Iron supplements are also very important where animals are affected by worms that drain the blood, like Haemonchus (worms in the abomasum) and Ancylostoma (intestinal worms). According to Lapage23, animals should always have access to mineral blocks to compensate for the mineral deficiencies in pastures. In barns, animals should be fed from feeders rather than directly from the ground to avoid contamination as a result of their mouths coming into contact with manure or bedding. At the New Zealand Pastoral Agriculture Research Institute, research is currently underway on how different foods affect resistance to parasites. Forage crops that contain condensed tannins, like trefoil, allow animals to better fight parasites than others that do not contain any, like alfalfa. The age at which young animals are weaned is an important factor in regard to parasite resistance. For example, it has been observed that milk-fed calves are distinctly less contaminated by Haemonchus, Cooperia and Oesophagostomum than weaned calves34. Milk does not have any effect, however, on Ostertagia and Trichostrongylus infections. Ideally, females should calve during periods when risk of contamination is low, so that young animals are exposed as late as possible to potentially contaminated pastures. In Northern parts of North America, the winter period seems most appropriate in this respect. All new arrivals to the herd should be quarantined for four to six weeks and dewormed if there is any doubt. PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Pasture management that is designed to prevent internal parasites requires long-term planning. It is by varying such factors as the density and age groups of animals and the time and intensity of grazing that serious infections can be avoided. Animal density Overpopulation increases the concentrations of parasites. It is generally estimated that parasite infections increase with the square of the animal load per surface unit. Therefore, for a given parcel of land, parasite infestations are four times greater where animal density is doubled. Density varies depending on whether grazing is intensive or extensive. Where there is extensive grazing, Antoine2 recommends less than 10 lambs/ha (varying according to context).

Pasture rotation, or intensive grazing, consists in dividing the pastures into parcels of land of varying sizes called paddocks and frequently moving the animals from one paddock to another to optimize grass use. From a parasitic point of view, the objective is to not put the animals back into the same field until the risk of infection has diminished. Theoretically this means that parasitism will decrease if the number of parcels of land is increased or the rotation time is increased. Unfortunately, in practice, it appears difficult to diminish the parasitic load with intensive grazing. The lifespan of L3 larvae is in fact always greater than the time required between grazing periods for maximum grass use. Therefore, if one waits six weeks before returning animals to a lot, the quality of the grass decreases as well as the quantity of grass ingested by the animals, whereas the level of parasites only diminishes slightly. Grazing height About 80% of parasites live in the first five centimetres of vegetation. Parasite infection and multiplication are prevented by letting animals graze only 10 cm from the ground in a field where there are parasites. For new pastures, however, New Zealander Vaughan Jones18, an expert on intensive grazing, recommends having animals graze very close to the ground, so that the sun can dry the pats quickly and thus diminish the chances of survival of parasites brought in with the animals. A new pasture is considered a field where animals have not been grazing for a number of years. It may be a pasture seeded in the spring or a hay or silage field that is used as pasture after harvest. Grazing time The drier the grass, the more parasites will stay at the base of the plants. It is estimated that in wet grass, larvae can be found over 30 cm away from the pats,

whereas they venture only a few centimetres away when the grass is dry. The risk of infection is greatly lowered by waiting until the dew has lifted or until the grass has dried after rain before putting animals out to pasture. The larvae of most parasites move to the tops of plants when light levels are low, that is, when the sky is overcast or at sunrise and sunset. They avoid strong light however. Limiting grazing time to when the sun is strong also diminishes the risk of infection. Since we know that the density of L3 larvae is generally at a maximum in the fall and at a minimum in the summer, it is preferable to limit grazing in highly contaminated fields to the summer months to reduce levels of ingestion. In the fall, the animals should ideally be put in a new pasture. Risks of infection from most parasites can be avoided in the spring by waiting until the end of spring to put cattle out to grass, and even later in areas where soil drainage is poor. In practice, this solution is not very satisfactory, both economically and ecologically, because it implies shortening the grazing season, which is quite short as it is in most northern regions, and feeding the animals more hay. Harrowing Pastures With respect to parasites, harrowing pastures is generally not recommended. The parasite eggs and larvae are in fact scattered throughout the pasture. This makes it impossible for the animals to graze selectively, that is, to graze around the pats. Harrowing would be appropriate, however, at the beginning of a dry period in a field that the animals will not be returning to for quite some time. Biodynamic practitioners have a different point of view. They consider that parasites proliferate in an environment that is nitrogen-rich and sheltered from light. They therefore recommend breaking up the pats to let in air and light. Grazing by age group Since the susceptibility of animals varies with age, it is logical to graze the younger animals in fields where parasite populations are very low. Organic farmers in New Zealand have established some rules to prevent internal parasites in lambs and ewes. Thus, in intensive grazing, lambs do not have access to paddocks or sections of a pasture already grazed by ewes or other lambs in order to prevent reinfection. Lambs should graze preferably in new pastures, hay or silage fields, or should be greenfed. Since sheep graze year-round in New Zealand, there is usually an increase in

parasites in the spring, due to a drop in immunity in ewes after lambing. Parasite levels rise again at the end of the summer to early fall. Consequently, ewes do not go out to pasture until the lambs are weaned. After weaning, the ewes graze in a different part of the farm while alternate groups of lambs graze in another sector. These sectors are rotated each year. Another New Zealand technique is used to reduce parasite infection in calves. This technique consists in grazing the calves alone or in pairs on a rotating basis. The calves remain in the same lots all the time while the cows are rotated. Very good results have been obtained this way, even though there is no clear reason why this method works. Another common practice used with calves is to put them in a new pasture. To fight Ostertagia infection, for instance, the calves would be placed in an old field at the beginning of the season, then dewormed and brought to a parasite-free field in early July. In dairy herds, young cows can be slowly immunized by allowing them to graze in new pastures with two dry cows that serve as sources of infection. The ingestion rate of L3 larvae is therefore quite low, allowing for controlled infection and development of immunity. Multispecies grazing Producers who have more than one animal species (e.g. cattle and sheep) can alternate grazing of different animal species which, although not foolproof, can help to break the parasite cycles. Several parasite species cannot infect two different animal species. There are even certain species of worms that affect only a particular ruminant species. Cattle and sheep herds can be combined in three ways: (1) Graze the cattle to "clean" the pasture after the lambs have grazed. The cattle ingest a significant quantity of mature larvae from the lamb stools. If the cattle are allowed to graze the grass down to 3 to 5 cm from the ground, many parasites will be killed off from exposure to the sun; (2) Graze the cattle before the sheep to control pasture quality; (3) Graze the cattle and sheep together where vegetation is abundant. SOIL MANAGEMENT Deworming treatments have little effect if the animals are returned to the same larvae infested field. It is therefore important to clean the pasture as much as possible to reduce, if not eliminate, the parasites. Possible strategies for this are

resting the land, planting, using amendments or fertilizers to reduce parasite populations, and improving drainage. Resting the land This consists in preventing the animals from grazing in the same field or paddock. Since freezing temperatures or droughts eliminate some infectious larvae, cold or dry periods can be relied upon to reduce or extend rest periods. A three-year rest period (short rotation) is required for a complete cleaning. Nematicide plants Mustard is an excellent nematicide plant and so are tagetes. For more information on the subject, consult the Agro-Bio synthesis entitled "Controlling nematodes with nematicide plants". Amendments and fertilizers Amendments that change the pH, the mineral balance or that create an environment which is inappropriate for parasites may help to clean the land. The choice of amendment or fertilizer depends on the type of parasite. According to Nunnery26: - Salt (sodium chloride) is appropriate for use against ancylostoma larvae such as Bunostomum. Salt must be used with caution on account of its deflocculating properties in clay soils, and should not be used on a regular basis. - Liming and acidification with copper sulphate are appropriate against liver fluke (Fasciola), which is transmitted by snails. - Copper sulphate is also effective against the Dictyocaulus lungworm. Mackenzie25 recommends applying 23 kg/ha of copper sulphate mixed with 90 kg/ha of sand in this case. Manure management Manure to be used for spreading may be filled with parasite eggs and larvae. Composting is a good way to clean manure as the larvae and eggs of nematodes are destroyed at temperatures as low as 32 to 34C. They are killed in as little as one hour at 50C, and in less than four hours at 44C. It is important, when turning the compost over, to ensure that the outer layer which has heated less, be mixed towards the middle of the pile. Composting is a useful technique before manure spreading in the case of truly dangerous parasites like lungworm. Bedding is also important. For example, it has been demonstrated that eggs and larvae are all killed in horse manure mixed with straw bedding, as well as horse manure mixed in a one to four ratio with cow manure3.

Parnell28,29 studied the effects of adding different nitrogen fertilizers to, among others, sheep and horse manure. Urea was the most efficient nitrogen fertilizer for cleaning manure, with a required proportion of 1:125. Kainite (sulphate of potassium and sodium) was the most efficient non-nitrogen fertilizer to add to manure, with a required proportion of 1:23. In practical terms, Parnell suggested applying these substances to the surface only, since temperatures in the middle of the manure pile would be high enough to eliminate the parasites. Improving drainage Pastures or parts of pastures that remain wet for long periods are an ideal environment for the survival of internal parasite larvae. Standard drainage of a field may reduce the larvae's chances of survival and extend grazing periods. Localized drainage of wet patches prevents infectious larvae from persisting in an otherwise clean field. It is also important that cattle watering areas be situated in well-drained places with gravel or even cement added. Animals must be prevented from accessing swamps or streams at all costs because of the parasitic risks, the damage the animals cause to these areas and the risks of pollution. PARASITE CONTROL METHODS GENERAL INFORMATION When to deworm It is crucial to choose the right time to carry out deworming treatments. At a certain stage of their development inside the animal, some parasites embed themselves in the mucous membranes and enter hypobiosis (e.g. Ostertagia). They are largely inactive at this stage and relatively harmless to the host. Deworming treatments have little or no effect when performed at this time. A sensible conventional practice to employ against parasites is to perform a first treatment three weeks after the animals have been put out to pasture and a second treatment three weeks later. The first treatment serves to prevent infection by infectious larvae (L3 stage) - before the new adults formed inside the animals have begun to lay eggs profusely and contaminate the pastures. When the second treatment is given, typically in early July, a large portion of the infectious larvae in the pastures will have died as a result of the hot dry conditions. According to a traditional French practice, deworming treatments are performed preferably when there is a new moon. The worms are more active at this time and therefore easier to dislodge. On the other hand, Rudolf Steiner, the father of biodynamic agriculture, recommends performing deworming treatments during a full moon.

Lapage23 suggests deworming at the approach of dry or cold periods to benefit from the sterilizing effect of these factors. Which animal to deworm Antoine2 recommends deworming: - susceptible animals about three weeks after being put out to pasture; - grazing companions of heavily infested animals; - all animals in heavily grazed pastures, in the summer, after a few hot and very humid nights. How to deworm All deworming treatments involving natural products should ideally be preceded and followed by a fasting period, except in the case of nursed young animals. Animals should not be fed for a period of 12 to 48 hours before the treatment and another 6-hour period afterwards. A laxative diet or purge should then follow. Castor oil is appropriate for non-ruminants, and a saline diuretic or sodium sulphate and magnesium for ruminants. Liquid deworming treatments that animals do not willingly ingest can be administered using a funnel and a flexible tube put down the animal's throat, or a "gun" designed for this purpose. In the case of milking dairy cows, it is difficult to fast the animals. Subsequently, it may be simpler to lighten their diet by not using silage or concentrates rather than to fast them. Note that putting animals out to pasture in the spring has a laxative effect on them. It seems appropriate therefore to treat the animals at that time. For confined animals, a radically different way to deworm is to spray essential oils using an atomizer in order to fill the air with aerosols that have anthelminthic (synonym with dewormer) properties. Gape-infested pheasants have successfully been treated with pyrethrum oil, goosefoot oil and roto-resin using that method15. BOTANICAL DEWORMERS Several plants have anthelminthic properties, and were in fact a part of the traditional husbandry before synthetic dewormers were commonly adopted. In Québec, for instance, it was common practice to feed evergreen branches (pine, spruce or fir branches) to sheep. Although based on conventional wisdom, veterinary research zeroed in on deworming plants, also called anthelminthic plants, particularly before the Second World War in Western countries then, subsequently, mainly in Eastern countries and India. There is reliable data available on the effects of several plants or plant extracts on certain parasites, enabling us to know the limits of these substances.

Allopathy versus homeopathy Several of the dewormer plants mentioned below may cause side effects in animals. The most powerful natural dewormers are often potential poisons. It is therefore important to follow the indicated dosages. A way to avoid side effects is to administer these plants in the form of homeopathic preparations. The advantage of homeopathic remedies is that they do not require a fasting period beforehand and laxative diet after the treatment. Garlic Garlic is a common plant dewormer that is easy to find. It is known to be active against, among others, Ascaris, Enterobius and, of particular interest for ruminants, against lungworm in general1. It must be used, however, as prevention (prophylaxis) rather than as treatment or with other products. In fact, garlic does not prevent the production of eggs but prevents the eggs of certain parasites from developing into larvae5. In the ninth century, in Persia, Avicenne recommended the use of garlic as an additive rather than as a dewormer alone. Garlic is incorporated into certain commercial homeopathic or allopathic dewormers, but always with other plant-derived substances. The numerous therapeutic properties of garlic come mainly from its high sulphur content. Garlic can be administered in several ways: Fresh: Fresh minced garlic proved to be clearly more efficient than garlic extracts for controlling internal parasites in carp30. Using fresh garlic is ideal although not necessarily the most practical on a day-to-day basis. The leaves and bulbs may also be used. If the animals do not want to eat the leaves whole, they may be cut into small pieces, mixed with molasses and bran, and shaped into small balls. The bulbs may be grated and mashed with molasses or honey and flour. Garlic may also be planted directly in the pastures in such way that the animals have access to it as needed. Powder: The most practical way to administer garlic is undoubtedly to add powdered garlic to animal feed. Powdered garlic can be bought at a reasonable cost in bulk from major food manufacturers (e.g. McCormick, Quest International, Griffith Laboratories, etc.). Pills: This is a method that is useful only for very small herds. Two or three pills of four grains is the required daily dosage for one sheep. Juice: British herbalist Grieve16 suggested using garlic juice or garlic milk as a dewormer. Garlic milk is made by boiling bulbs mashed in milk. Some researchers recommend, however, not boiling garlic as this reduces its effectiveness against parasite eggs and larvae. Mother tincture: Garlic mother tincture is given in dosages of 20 drops/day/10 kg of live weight.

In the case of dairy animals, it is preferable to feed them garlic during or immediately after milking so that the milk does not pick up the taste. Wormwood Wormwood, as its name suggests, is an excellent dewormer. Many wormwood species have deworming properties. - Common mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) is effective against Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus and Bunostomum. Sheep, goats and fowl readily consume it10. - Common wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) must be used with caution as it may be dangerous if used regularly or excessively. The dried and crushed flowers may be used or steeped in cold water. De Baïracli-Levy9 suggests the following recipe for dewormer balls: four teaspoons of cayenne pepper powder, two teaspoons of powdered common wormwood mixed with honey and flour. - Eurasian wormwood (Artemisia cina) is a desert plant that is used to make santonin and the homeopathic remedy Cina, which are used as dewormers. Santonin is extracted from the dried buds of the plant. The buds are then treated with liquid lime and dried again. Santonin acts against most parasites except Echinococcus. It must be used with caution, however, because even in small doses it causes side effects, particularly eye problems. Homeopathic Cina may be acquired as mother tincture, administered in 2 to 3 drops/10 kg, morning and evening for 3 weeks, or in granules in different dilutions. Consult a homeopathic veterinarian for more information. - The dried, powdered shoots of Artemisia herba-alba wormwood (a species common to North Africa) administered in dosages of 10 to 30 g per goat proved highly effective against Haemonchus contortus17. - Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) also has deworming properties. Several wormwood species grow wild in North America. It might be a good idea to let these plants grow along pastures where the animals can eat them as needed. Wild ginger Wild ginger or snakeroot (Asarum canadense) grows in wooded areas. This plant is very similar to European wild ginger which was used as an anthelminthic purge for cattle and horses. The dosage per animal is 20 to 30 g of the aerial parts of snakeroot mixed with wet bran. Wild ginger also has antibacterial properties. If planning to use this plant, remember that wild ginger, as well as wild garlic, require several years to reproduce. Goosefoot

Chenopodium ambrosioides or goosefoot is a widely used dewormer plant. In Brazil, the plant is fed directly to pigs to deworm them. The powdered seeds serve as a dewormer and insecticide. The Japanese make a dewormer tea with the leaves. Oil from the goosefoot, although highly efficient, is extremely toxic. Human consumption has often led to strong side effects (nausea, headaches) and even death in some cases. It is better to use less hazardous substances than goosefoot oil. Conifers Conifers, like garlic, are undoubtedly more indicated in prophylactic form, that is, in small quantities in daily food, rather than as a curative treatment. In Russia, Ascaris infestations in pigs were reduced by giving them 1 to 2 kg of pine needles each day for 2 to 4 weeks39 and mixtures of conifer needle powder and sulphur or vitamins were also used successfully against internal parasites. In practical terms, it is easier to use pitch, also called turpentine, extracted from pine and various other conifers. Turpentine spirits are a byproduct of turpentine distillation. Cabaret6 prescribes 50 to 100 ml of spirits produced from turpentine distillation with a triple volume of castor oil against ruminant liver fluke and horse strongyles. A mixture of linseed oil (edible and not the variety found in hardware stores) and turpentine spirits constitutes a powerful dewormer, but which must be used with caution. If turpentine enters the respiratory system it may cause the spasmodic closure of the mouth. It is therefore preferable to use rolled oats to soak up the turpentine before feeding it to animals. For one lamb, 10 to 15 drops of turpentine spirits are mixed with an ounce of linseed oil and a pinch of ground ginger; for an adult sheep, 80 drops in two ounces of linseed oil. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) has deworming properties, notably against liver fluke. Sheep enjoy juniper berries and deer graze on the plant. It might be interesting to allow restricted access to woodlands where the animals can find conifers to eat if they wish. Crucifers (mustard family) White or black mustard seeds in the amount of 2 ounces per lamb is a safe dewormer, and it is recommended allowing the herd access to mustard in the pasture or elsewhere. In India, some cattle farmers use mustard oil against parasites in the amount of 100 to 150 g per day for one week. Mustard oil is more of a laxative than a dewormer, which is nevertheless useful in eliminating some parasites. The following crucifers are dewormers and may be added to animal feed: radishes, raw grated turnips or horseradish, nasturtium seeds.

Cucurbits The seeds of squash, pumpkins and many other vine crops contain a deworming compound called cucurbitacin that is more or less active depending on the parasite12. The seeds may be fed directly to animals as the Canadian pioneers once did, but it is better to extract the main ingredient using water, alcohol or ether, for an effect that is similar to that of pumpkin seeds. Aqueous extracts from squash seeds (dilution 1/50) are effective against Haemonchus contortus38. Pumpkin seed dewormer24 - Shell and grind up the pumpkin seeds (or buy them at a grocery store). - Mix 500 g of the seeds with three litres of water. - Simmer (do not boil), while stirring, for 30 minutes. - Let cool 30 minutes. - Filter through a cloth, squeezing to remove as much juice as possible. - Reduce over low heat to 150-200 ml. - Make sure to remove oily scum. - Refrigerate. Fern The rhizomes and young shoots (fiddleheads) of the male fern (Dryopteris filixmas) have deworming properties that have long been recognized in Europe, among others, against tapeworms (Taenia). The North American equivalent of the male fern is the evergreen shield-fern (Dryopteris marginalis). Although in the past, ether extract of the male fern was widely used against the liver fluke in the British Isles, the male fern does not give satisfactory results in the case of the Dicrocoelium fluke in sheep14, nor against Echinococcus in dogs. The success of fern is enhanced by using fresh material and mixing it with glycerine. The male fern must be used with caution because it is toxic in high doses. In humans, for instance, it can cause headaches and nausea; the maximum dose is 7 g per adult. Lupine A diet made up entirely of freshly cut, lightly salted, lupine is a good dewormer that works against a large number of intestinal worms in pigs, including Trichuris (100% efficient), Strongyloides (66% efficient), Ascaris (50% efficient)7. Lupine is equally efficient against Parascaris and Strongylus in horses. It is important not to give free access to lupine, otherwise symptoms of poisoning may occur. Nuts

Several vegetable species produce nuts that have anthelminthic properties, but unfortunately it is mostly tropical species like areca and cashew shells that are used. The fresh sap of the hazelnut (Corylus) is highly effective against Ascaris22. Umbelliferae Carrot seeds (Daucus carota), either wild or cultivated, are dewormers, as are teas made with the roots. A mixture of anise, cumin and juniper seeds is effective against Dictyocaulus lungworm in calves. Fennel leaves and seeds are also used as dewormers; the oil is a dewormer but very toxic too. In a central Asian area of the former USSR, it is common practice to graze sheep infected with Haemonchus in pastures where there are giant fennel (Ferula gigantea) and other Ferula species42. The worms are eliminated after two or three days and the plant is grazed for roughly 20 days. In many parts of North America, carrots and wild parsnips that grow abundantly along fields and roads could probably be used in the same way. Pyrethrum Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) is commonly used as an insecticide in agriculture. It also has anthelminthic properties. As a dewormer, it is administered in powder form in animal feed. It may be safely used for warmblooded animals, unless it is injected. In this case, it must be mixed with oil and the necessary precautions taken. Pyrethrum is 100% effective against ascarids in chickens, in the amount of 200 mg/bird using 0.8% pyrethrum32. A complete cure was obtained against Ascaris in chickens, by giving them pyrethrum powder (concentration unknown), using 2% of the ration for 7 days44. Pyrethrum is also useful against strongyles in horses, in the amount of 3.5 mg/kg of live weight35. For more information on the veterinary uses of pyrethrum, see Urbain and Guillot41. Although a Mediterranean plant, pyrethrum may be cultivated easily in many places. For more information on pyrethrum culture, see the Agro-Bio synthesis entitled "Home Production of Pyrethrum", available at EAP. Tobacco Tobacco and its derivatives (nicotine, nicotine sulphate) have been used as dewormers, particularly for fowl. With other farm animals, the mortal dose is practically the same for the worms as for the animals themselves! Tansy

Tansy seeds (Tanacetum vulgare) are used against Nematodirus in sheep27. The oil from the flowers is also anthelminthic. An aqueous extract of tansy flowers and leaves is 100% effective in eliminating Ascaris from young horses and dogs, in the amount of 0.5ml/kg live weight in two doses administered one day apart and preceded by a one-day fast19. One kilo of leaves and flowers produces about one litre of extract. Cows and sheep consume fresh tansy easily, but goats, horses and pigs are not really fond of it. Other plants Blackberries, raspberries, and young ash and elder shoots are also other plant species with deworming properties that should be accessible in pastures. According to Cabaret6, beech creosote is used against lungworm in ruminants. The following plants, which grow naturally or may be cultivated in most of North America, are listed by Duke11 as having deworming properties: - Yarrow (Achilea millefolium), which is highly toxic to calves; - Sweet flag or calamus (Acorus calamus); - Agrimony (Agrimonia); - Roots or root infusions of Indian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum); - Calendula (Calendula officinalis); - Hemp (Cannabis saliva); - Blue cohosh (Caulopyllum thalictroides); - Lady slipper root extract (Cypripedium calceolus); - Sweet gale or bog myrtle (Myrica gale); - Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana); - Common knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare); - Rue (Ruta graveolens); - Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis); - Savory (Satureja montana); - Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora); - Skunk cabbage or skunk weed (Symplocarpus foetidus); - Nettle (Urtica dioica) seeds and roots; - Valerian (Valeriana officinalis); - Verbena (Verbena officinalis); - Periwinkle (Vinca minor). A large number of tropical plants, and even some types of marine algae, also are reputed to have deworming properties. Mixes The commercial "natural" dewormer preparations, whether they are allopathic or homeopathic, are often mixes of different types of vegetation. The purpose of these mixes is to expand the range of action and, in some cases, they act,

synergistically. Often, both tropical plants and those from temperate climates are included. Homeopathic laboratories each offer their own mixes, also called complexes. A list of major homeopathic laboratories is presented in the Useful Addresses section. OTHER DEWORMERS Diatomaceous earth Diatomaceous earth is made from the remains of fossilized marine algae called diatoms. The product is mined and reduced to powder form. This powder acts as tiny pieces of glass that tear the shells of insects and other arthropods. Many farmers add diatomaceous earth to the rations of their animals, among others, because it contains minerals and is relatively inexpensive. Some claim that diatomaceous earth acts as a dewormer when added on a regular basis in the amount of 2% of the ration. Scientific tests on the subject are limited however and opinions of farmers are contradictory. Moreover, diatomaceous earth has no effect on lungworm and is not very appetizing. It may also be a lung irritant. Given that the level of dust is already quite high in barns, diatomaceous earth does not seem appropriate when the animals are fed indoors. The main motivation for adding diatomaceous earth to rations should not be to control internal parasites. If it is to be used, it is important to use noncalcined diatomaceous earth and without additives for insecticide use. See the Useful Addresses section for the address of a supplier of diatomaceous earth for animal use. Surfactants Many American farmers use Shaklee's Basic H surfactant as cattle dewormer with success. However, the company does not endorse this use of the product. Also, the organic certification standards do not always allow its use because the exact nature of the product is a trade secret, although we know it is based on two soybeans enzymes. Grazier Joel Salatin from Virginia gives the product to his cattle through water at a rate of 1 cup of Basic H per 100 American gallons of water (a quarter cup into 100 litres) . He confines the animals for two days to make sure all the animals get it. Treatment is repeated 6 times a year, and costs less than 50 cents per head. Copper sulphate Copper sulphate, a mineral substance that already meets organic farming specifications for plant production, has a strong deworming action against certain parasites, particularly Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus axei, which affect the abomasum. Copper sulphate is administered in a 1% solution in water, in the amount of 50 ml per lamb or 100 ml per adult sheep, and 30

ml/22.5 kg of live weight for calves to a maximum of 100 ml. This dewormer may be administered with a funnel and flexible tube. Treatment is given in the morning before the animals have eaten, followed by castor oil one half hour later. It is important not to feed animals for two hours following treatment because of poisoning risks. Others Peroxide and charcoal also have deworming properties according to some practitioners and salesmen. There is insufficient scientific data however to support these claims. CONCLUSION As to conclude, the following points can be highlighted from this review on alternative internal parasites control: - Parasite control starts with good knowledge of the parasites and how they affect livestock. - Susceptibility and resistance to internal parasites in animals is affected by several factors including the season, the age of the animals, nutrition, and pasture management. - Fecal counts are worthwhile to detect the types and number of parasites affecting the herd or an individual. These should be done in critical periods such as spring and fall. - As prevention, animals should not be allowed to graze when pastures are wet. Young animals should preferably be put in new pastures where parasite levels are low. Manure should be composted and soil drainage improved where needed. - Deworming can be done when the animals are put out to pasture and again three weeks later. Deworming with natural products should be preceded and followed by a fasting period except in the case of homeopathic remedies. - Garlic and conifers are good as prophylactic dewormers for regular use. Powdered garlic is easily obtained in bulk. - More potent botanical dewormers include wormwoods, snakeroot, cucurbits, umbelliferae and tansy. Goosefoot, fern, lupine and tobacco have serious sideeffects that discourage their use. - Homeopathic remedies are easy to use, do not require fasting and can be found easily. Combinations of different homeopathic remedies offered by homeopathic laboratories have a good range of action against parasites. - Other products used as dewormers are diatomaceous earth, charcoal, peroxide and surfactants such as Shaklee's Basic H. There is no scientific evidence for the effectiveness of these products as dewormers, but many farmers use them and swear to their validity. Alternatives to the utilization of synthetic dewormers exist to control internal parasites in ruminants. As is often the case in organic farming, we should aim

not to eliminate these pests but to learn to coexist with them. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Anonymous. 1953. Garlic as an anthelmintic. Veterinary Record, 65(28):436. 2. Antoine, D. 1981. En élevage biologique faut-il déparasiter les animaux? Nature et Progrès, October/November/December 1981:12-16. 3. Antipin, D.N. 1941. [Research on deworming methods for horse and cow manures]. Vestnik Selsk. Nauki Veterinafiya, 1941 (2):42-56. 4. Baker, F.H. and R.K. Jones. 1985. Proceedings of a conference on multispecies grazing. Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development, Morrilton, Arkansas. 5. Bastidas, G.J. 1969. Effect of ingested garlic on Necator americanus and Ancylostoma caninum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 18(6):920-923. 6. Cabaret, J. 1986. 167 plantes Pour soigner les animaux. Editions du Point Vétérinaire, Maisons-Alfort, France. 192 pages. 7. Chebotarev, R. S. 1956. [The use of some fodder plants in the control of parasitic infections of farm animals]. Problemi Parazitologli, Transactions of the Scientific Conference of the Parasitologists of Ukrainian SSR, pages 194-197. 8. Cornils, W. 1935. Systematische Untersuchunger uber Strongylideneier und Strongyliden im Kot und Darminhalt des Pferdes. Berlin Dissert. 43 pages. 9. De Baïracli Levy, J. 1973. Herbal handbook for farm and stable. Faber and Faber, London. 10. Deschiens, R. 1944. Action comparée de la tanaisie et de l'armoise sur les formes larvaires de nématodes parasitaires et saprophytes. Bulletin de la société de Pathologie Exotique, 37(3/4) :111 -125. 11. Duke, J.A. 1985. CRC Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 677 pages. 12. Forgacs, P., J. Provost and R. Tiberghion. 1970. Etude expérimentale de l'activité anthelminthique de quelques cucurbitacines. Chim. Thér., 5(3):205-210. 13. Foster, A.O. 1937. A relationship in equines between age of host and number of strongylid parasites. Am. J. Hyg., 25:66-75.

14. Guilhon, J. 1956. Recherches sur le traitement spécifique de la dicrocoéliose ovine. Recueil de Médicine Vétérinaire, 132(10):733-749. 15. Guilhon, J. and J.P. Petit. 1960. Traitement de la syngamose des faisandeaux par les aérosols anthelminthiques. Compte-Rendu des Séances de l'Académie d'Agriculture de France, 46(7):1017-1020. 16. Grieve, M. 1971. A modern herbal. Volume 1. Dover, New York. 427 pages. 17. Idris, Um El A.A., S.E.I. Adam and G. Tartour. 1982. The anthelmintic efficacy of Artemisia herba-alba against Haemonchus contortus infection in goats. National Institute of Animal Health Quarterly, Japan, 22(3):138-143. 18. Jones, V. 1993. Grazing to control worms. The New Farm, 15(7):52-53. 19. Karamisheva, E.N. 1956. [Treating Parascariasis in foals and ascariasis in dogs with tansy]. Veterinariya, 33(12):29-30. 20. Kidd, R. 1993a. Roundup roundworms. The New Farm, 15(1):6-8. 21. Kidd, R. 1993b. Control parasites ornanically? The New Farm, 159(7):7-11. 22. Krotov, All. and D.G. Timoshin. 1957. [Trials of new preparations of vegetable origin against ascaridiasis in catsl. Meditsinskaya Parazitologiya i Parazitornie Bolezni, Moscow, 26(1):87-92. 23. Lapage, G. 1959. Mönnig's veterinary helminthology and entomology. 4th edition. Baillière, Tindall and Cox, London. 511 pages. 24. Lys. P., J Adès and Y. Badre. 1955. Essais sur les propriétés anthelminthique des graines de courge. Revue Médicale du Moyen-Orient, 12(3):339-340. 25. Mackenzie, D. 1967. Goat husbandry. Faber and Faber, London. 26. Nunnery. J. 1953. The control of internal parasites by the application of chemicals to the soil. Auburn Veterinarian, Alabama, 10(1):48-51. 27. Papchenkov, N.Y. 1968. [Tanacetum vulgare seed and naphtaman against Nematodirus infections in sheepl. Veterinarya Mosk., 45(8):48-49. 28. Parnell, l.W. 1937. Studies on the biodynamics and control of the bursate nematodes of horses and sheep. IV. On the lethal effects of some nitrogenous fertilizers on the free-living stages of sclerostomes. Canadian Journal of Research, Section D, 15(7):127-145.

29. Parnell, l.W. 1938. Studies on the biodynamics and control of the bursate nematodes of horses and sheep. V. Comparisons of the the lethal effects of some nonnitrogenous fertilizers on the free-living stages of sclerostomes. Canadian Journal of Research, Section D, 16(4)73-88. 30. Pena, N., A. Auro and H. Sumano. 1988. A comparative trial of garlic, its extract and ammonium Potassium tartrate as anthelmintics in carp. J. of Ethnopharm., 24(2-3): 199-203. 31. Quiquandon, H. 1978. 12 balles pour un veto. Tome II. 1ere partie. Éditions Agriculture et Vie. 239 pages. 32. Rebrassier, R.E. 1934. Pyrethrum as an anthelminthic for Ascaridia lineata. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Ass., 84:645-648. 33. Rivard, G and G. Huneault. 1992. Les parasites internes des bovins de boucherie. Bovins du Québec, August 1992:6-11. 34. Rohrbacher, Jr. G.H., D.A. Porter and H. Herlich. 1958. The effect of milk in the diet of calves and rabbits upon the development of trichostrongylid nematodes. Am. J. of Vet. Res., 19(72):625-631. 35. Rueda, E.A. 1954. [Comparison of pyrethrum and phenothiazine as anthelminthics anainst strongyles in horses]. Rev. milit. B. Aires, 2:147-152 and 154-156. 36. Salatin, J. 1994. Using Shaklee Basic H soap. Stockman Grass Farmer, 51(11):27-28. 37. Selinger, L. 1984. Cours d'élevage bio-dynamique. Mouvement de culture biodynamique, Huningue, France. 26 pages. 38. Sharma, L. D., H.S. Bahga and P.S. Srivastava. 1971. In vitro anthelmintic screening of indegenous medicinal plants against Haemonchus contortus of sheep and goats. Indian J. of Animal Research, 5(1):33-38. 39. Slepnev, N.K. 1967. [Use of some plants in the control of ascariasis in pigs]. Vetrinariya Moscow, 44(6):61-62. 40. Stieffel, W., J. Niezen and N. Thomson. 1992. Investigations into the control of intestinal parasites in lambs without the use of conventional anthelmintics. Pages 219 to 228 In Boehncke, E. and V. Molkenthin. 1992. Alternatives in animal husbandry. Proceedings of the International Conference on Alternatives in Animal Husbandry, Witzenhausen, 22-25 July 1991, Kassel University,

Germany. 41. Urbain, A. and G. Guillot. 1931. Sur les pyréthrines et leur emploi en médecine vétérinaire. Rev. Path. Comp., 31 :493-502. 42. Utyanganov, A. A. and K.M. Yumaev. 1960. [The anthelmintic properties of Ferula plantsl. Veterinariya, 37(9):40-41. 43. Wall, R. and L. Strong. 1987. Environmental consequences of treating cattle with the antiparasitic drug ivermectin. Nature, 327:418-421. 44. Zarnowski, E. and J. Dorski. 1957. [Treatment of Ascaridia infestation in fowls]. Méd. Vét., Varsovie, 13:387-393. USEFUL ADRESSES American Holistic Veterinary Medical Association 2214 Old Emmorton Road Bel Air, MD 21015 Phone: (410) 569-0795 Fax: (410) 515-7774 Send a SASE to obtain a list of veterinarians who specialize in alternatives in your area Bio-Logics inc. 6505 Vanden Abeele, St-Laurent, Qc, H4S 1S1 Tel.: (514) 339-2650 Diatomaceous earth and other natural products Boiron Homeopathic Products Tel.: 800-836-4325 Homeopathic remedies for farm animals Dolisos-Vet 1945 Graham blvd., suite 002, Ville Mont-Royal, Qc, H3R 1H1 Tel.: (514) 735-3687 Homeopathic remedies for farm animals Homeocan 1900 St.Catharine E., Montreal, Qc, H2K 2H5 Tel.: 800-361-3501 Homeopathic remedies for farm animals Labo Solidago 195-A, 4e rang Ouest, Ste-Louise, Qc, G0R 3K0 Tel.: (418) 354-2659

Homeopathic remedies for farm animals Richters Goodwood, ON, L0C 1A0 Tel.: (905) 640-6677 Fax: (905) 640-6641 Medicinal herbs (seeds and herbs) Washington Homeopathic Products inc. Tel.: 800-336-1695 Fax: 301-656-1847 Homeopathic remedies for farm animals Wysong Corporation Tel.: (517) 631-0009 Alternative veterinary products © 1996 Ecological Agriculture Projects All rights reserved Ecological Agriculture Projects, McGill University (Macdonald Campus) Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, H9X 3V9 Canada Telephone: (514)-398-7771 Fax: (514)-398-7621 Email: [email protected]

***Information - Service of GoatConnection.com - Khimaira*** Top of Page

Production INPUTS A.

Backyard Operations 1.

Investment a. Goat House b. Purchase of Breeding Stock

2. Operating Expenses a. Veterinary Medicines b. Vaccines c. Concentrates

d. Additional Feed Supplements B.

Commercia[ / Large Sca[e Operation 1.

Fixed Investment a. Goat House b. Water Pump c. Feeding trough d. Spade e. Wheel Barrow f. Pasture Grass Species g. Ropes h. Fences i. Land

2.

Purchase of Stock a. Breeding Does b. Breeding Bucks

3.

Operating Expenses a. Veterinary Medicines, drugs, vaccines, feed supplements and goat rations b. Labor: fixed or seasonal c. Repair and Maintenance of building, equipment and pasture

GOATS: SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OVERVIEW LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION GUIDE The goat was one of the first animals to be domesticated by humans, about 9,000 years ago. Today, there are some 200 different breeds of goats that produce a variety of products, including milk, meat, and fiber (mohair and cashmere). Worldwide, goat meat production is higher than meat production from cattle or hogs.(Holcomb, 1994) Raising goats can be a valuable part of a sustainable farm. Integrating livestock into a farm system can increase its economic and environmental health and diversity, thereby making important contributions to the farm’s sustainability. Goats often fit well into the biological and economic niches on a farm that otherwise go untapped. Goats can be incorporated into existing grazing operations with sheep and cattle, and they can also be used to control weeds and brush to help make use of a pasture’s diversity. Erosion on land used for row crops declines when the land is converted to pasture. Rotating row crops and pasture every year or two offers both fertility and pest control advantages. Goats eat the forages, the goats’ manure replaces some purchased fertilizers, and the life cycles of various crop and animal pests are interrupted. Like other ruminant animals, goats convert plant material that is unsuitable for human consumption into highquality animal products.

Table of Contents Selection ....................................................2 Feeding Ruminants ........................3 Raising Goats on Pasture .........3 Marketing ..............................................15 Profitability ........................................16 Resources ...............................................16 References ...........................................23 Related ATTRA publications: Sustainable Goat Production: Meat Goats Dairy Goats: Sustainable Production //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 2 Selection When selecting animals for your herd you must first decide what traits are important to you and what the animals will be used for. Find a producer with the type of animals that you are interested in. You may locate producers by contacting your local Extension agent, searching classified ads in goat publications, contacting goat clubs or associations, or by attending meetings or seminars for goat producers. Once you have found a producer with goats for sale, visit the farm to observe the herd and the management. The animals will adapt more easily to your farm if their prior management and environment are similar to yours. To develop a productive herd it is imperative that you select healthy animals. Never build your herd with animals from the sale barn. These are often animals that have been culled by another producer. There is a reason they were culled, and you do not want to bring those problems to your herd. Listed below are some of the signs of a healthy animal. • Shiny coat • Lively manner • Easy movement (no limping, no swollen joints or misshapen udders) • No abscesses • Proper conditioning (not fat or excessively thin) • Firm, pelleted manure • Well-shaped udder and teats Also, ask the producer questions such as what diseases have been problems in the herd, what is the vaccination/worming protocol, and what criteria are used for selection and

culling. You should also ask your veterinarian about diseases that are possible problems in your area. When selecting your animals, also observe their conformation. Drawings 1 and 2 illustrate some of the characteristics of good and bad conformation in goats.Dr. Steve Hart of Langston University points out that for most operations, conformation is a relatively minor concern; health and soundness are much more important. He advises checking to see that the bite is correct (not over-shot or under-shot) and that the legs and feet are sound. To run an efficient operation, it is necessary to identify animals (by tattoos or eartags) and keep records. Breeding, reproduction, and production records are helpful in identifying which animals are most productive and which should be culled. Good Bad Dairy Goat Meat Goat Drawing 1: Example of poor conformation Drawing 2: Good conformation for Dairy and Meat goats Drawings from Mississippi State University Extension Service 4-H Club Goat Guide. (http://msucares.com/pubs/publications/p2264.htm) //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 3 Feeding Ruminants Goats are ruminants; that is, they have a four-compartment stomach designed to digest large quantities of forages. Ruminants eat quickly and swallow their food at first without much chewing. Later, they regurgitate their food and thoroughly chew it and swallow. This regurgitated food is called the cud, and healthy ruminants will spend as much time chewing their cud as they do grazing or eating hay. This is thought to be a predator avoidance adaptation, as the ruminant can find a sheltered place to peacefully chew its cud and be less vulnerable to predator attack than while grazing. The ruminants get their name from the rumen, which is the largest compartment of the stomach and serves as a fermentation vat. The health and productivity of the goat (as with all ruminants) depends on the rumen function; microorganisms in the rumen digest fiber and carbohydrates and protein to supply the animal with nutrients. Without those microorganisms, the goat will become very sick and may die. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that the animal be fed appropriately so that the ruminal organisms stay healthy. These rumen organisms require fiber, nitrogen (protein), and energy (carbohydrates). Roughages (forages—pasture, hay, browse) have higher fiber content than grains. More mature forages contain more fiber and are less digestible. Energy is provided by good– quality (digestible) roughages and by concentrates (grains). The rumen microorganisms have preferred pH ranges; those that digest fiber best thrive in a range of 6.0 to 6.8. Rumination (chewing the cud—required to digest roughage)

increases the amount of saliva, which buffers the rumen fluid and maintains the favorable pH. However, grain (especially finely ground grains) decreases rumination; which means less saliva reaches the rumen, and the pH decreases. Also, in the process of digesting grain, lactic acid is produced, which can further lower the pH. When a goat eats too much grain, the rumen pH can drop below 5.5, killing the normal rumen microorganisms and resulting in a very sick animal. The rumen microorganisms are “healthiest” when goats are eating good-quality forages, such as vegetative pasture. However, it is difficult (if not impossible) to provide good-quality forages year-round. Therefore, supplementation with concentrates may sometimes be necessary (see Supplemental Feeding section of this publication). Raising Goats on Pasture Contrary to the popular image of goats thriving on tin cans, goats actually require a more nutritious diet than do other ruminants. Their shorter digestive system does not retain food for as long, and thus does not digest nutrients fully. This quicker digestion allows them to eat larger quantities of food to make up for their reduced absorption of nutrients, but it is goats’ unique grazing behavior that really enables them to thrive on pasture. With their small mouths and flexible lips, grazing goats are able to select the highly nutritious parts of plants and leave parts that are less nutritious. This gives them an advantage over cattle that graze by taking large mouthfuls; within that large mouthful there might be a great quantity of poor-quality forage, including some that is dead or overly mature. Each goat is able to consume up to 3 to 5% of its body weight in dry matter daily (perhaps more if the forage is highly digestible). To consume that amount, however, goats must be pastured in an area with a large quantity of available vegetative forage. Goats will eat less when they are moved to poor pastures. Listed below are some of the factors that influence intake. • Age, size, stage, and level of production of the animal • Animal’s health • Animal’s forage preferences (which are influenced by its mother and peers) • Weather • Palatability of food • Digestibility (fiber content) • Maturity of forage Goats prefer browsing (eating woody plants) but will also graze on grasses and weeds. Goats are known to stand on their hind legs to reach leaves and brush. Since goats, cattle, and sheep prefer different forages, in many pasture situations these species do not compete for the same food. Therefore, they can be managed quite suc //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 4 cessfully in a multispecies grazing system, allowing the land to be used more fully and generate more income. Land grazed by both goats and cattle returns 25% more than land grazed only by cattle.(Holcomb, 1994)

Adding goats to a grazing system will have weed control benefits. Goats will eat such weeds as leafy spurge, multiflora rose, and brambles, decreasing the need for commercial herbicides or mowing. Meat and fiber goats are particularly useful for brush control. For a report on work done in North Carolina using goats alone or with cattle, see “Use of Goats as Biological Agents for the Control of Unwanted Vegetation” (Luginbuhl et al., 1996a), at . For a concise article that explains some of the management issues pertaining to grazing goats to eradicate multiflora rose, see the Ohio State University Bulletin 857, “Multiflora Rose Control,” at . One use of grazing goats in the West is to control leafy spurge; see “Controlling Leafy Spurge using Goats and Sheep” (Sedivic et al., 1995), at . When grazing goats, farmers must protect their pastures from being overgrazed. There are several reasons for this. Overgrazing forages • eventually kills the plants • reduces the longevity of the stand and exposes more soil to erosion • means the animals don’t get enough food • increases the chance of goats ingesting internal parasite larvae • creates bare spots, creating opportu - nities for undesirable weeds and ero- sion The end result of overgrazing is reduced performance of both the pasture and the animals, and health problems for the animals. To prevent overgrazing, farmers should be careful to understock rather than overstock land and always remove animals from a pasture when the pasture is grazed down to about 3 to 4 inches. Browse must be managed so that it is maintained and PHOTO BY CHARLIE RAHM ©NRCS 2004 //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 5 not killed. If you want long-term production of browse, you must rotate the animals and not allow the area to become over-browsed. Fencing is the most critical factor in raising goats on pasture. There is nothing more frustrating than having to constantly chase goats back into the pasture. Fencing will also be the greatest expense, other than the initial cost of the animals. The best permanent fencing is 4-foot woven wire with barbed wire along the top. Some graziers are also successfully using four or five strands of high-tensile electric wire. Goats may have to be trained to electric fences by placing them in a small paddock to "test" the wire. Once they have been trained to an electric fence, goats can usually be controlled with two strands of wire in a cross-fence. Electric netting is also an option for temporary or permanent fencing in management intensive grazing systems; however, several goat producers have lost animals that tangled their horns in the netting. It is very important to keep electric fences charged at 4,500 volts or more. Regular checking and testing are necessary, and any problems must be fixed promptly, or goats will escape.

Goats also need shelter. They can tolerate cold weather, but goats will get chilled by wet, cold conditions. The necessary shelter or shelters depend on the producer’s operation. A dairy operation will usually have extensive barn and pen set-ups, while a large meat goat operation may use only trees in the pasture as shelter. Buildings used for shelter may be minimal, but they should be well-ventilated and clean. Barns and sheds are not the only options for shelter. There are portable shelters, moveable shades, and even old hog huts that can be used as shelters for your animals. Predators are a problem in most areas where goats are produced. For information on how to control predators, see the ATTRA publication Predator Control for Sustainable & Organic Livestock Production. Controlled Grazing In the U.S., continuous grazing is a common practice, characterized by giving the animals unrestricted access to the pasture throughout the season. This works well for goats. However, feeding goats in a sustainable and economical way is better accomplished by a controlled, rotational grazing system, also known as management intensive grazing (MIG, commonly pronounced “mig”). The MIG systems have been used more extensively with cattle than with sheep or goats. Much work has been done recently with goats using MIG, although it is not yet widely published. However, for a review of studies of goats and grazing, see “Meat Goats in Land and Forage Management” (Luginbuhl, 1996b), at . The basic principle of MIG is to allow animals to graze for a limited time and then move them to another pasture or paddock (a subdivision of a pasture). The pasture forage plants can then grow back without using up all of their root reserves. Even brush will need a recovery time if it is being used as forage for goats. In fact, woody plants may need to be rested a full year to remain a forage source in the pasture. Without this rest period, the goats can kill the brush through continuous browsing. Under MIG, legumes and native grasses may reappear in the pasture, and producers often report that the pasture plant community becomes more diverse. Management intensive grazing can be used to improve the pasture, extend the grazing season, and enable the producer to provide a higher quality forage at a lower cost with fewer purchased inputs. MIG can also be useful in reducing internal parasite problems, if farmers are careful to move the goats to a new pasture before the forage plants are grazed too short (too short is less than about 4 inches —see Health section for more about parasites). While the benefits of MIG are substantial, it does require increased management skill and adequate fencing and watering facilities. For more information on pastures and grazing, see the list of ATTRA publications in the Resources section. The goal of MIG is to have paddocks small enough that they can be grazed in a few days (usually one to ten). The time will depend on the number of goats and the quality and quantity of the forage. How long a herd remains in a paddock will vary, depending on the intensity of management, time of year, and stage of growth of the forage. When beginning with MIG, make big paddocks and use long rotations. As producers become more familiar with the pasture plants and the goats’ grazing habits, they usually subdivide paddocks with electric fence. Temporary subdivisions allow the grazier to define the pad

//GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 6 docks in response to different growing conditions and the goats’ changing feed requirements. Fresh, clean water must always be available. In a MIG system, the animals either have access to a central water source available from every subdivision, or water is provided separately to each of the pasture’s subdivisions. This can be a challenge, and it is another capital expense. Feed intake will decrease more for goats than for cattle or sheep if clean water is not readily available. Along with water, minerals need to be available to your animals at all times. It is best to feed calcium, phosphorous, and trace minerals in a salt mixture to ensure that the animals actually eat them. Test your forages to determine their mineral content and adjust mineral supplementation as needed. Your local Extension agent can have your forage analyzed. Mineral content of forage is quite variable across the country, and the type, stage, and level of production of the animals influence mineral requirements; therefore, no one mineral supplement formula is right for all locations or situations. For instance, a heavy-producing dairy goat will need more calcium and phosphorus then a dry (non-lactating) meat goat. Consult a livestock nutritionist for help in identifying a good mineral mix for your operation. It is very important that you consistently offer this mix (preferably in a loose form), monitor its consumption, and ensure that all the goats are in fact eating adequate amounts of the mineral supplements. In some operations—particularly dairies—goats are raised in confinement, and all their feed is brought to them. However, allowing goats to graze can lower costs in the following ways. • By reducing purchased grain costs • By eliminating forage harvesting costs • By eliminating manure removal costs • By lowering fertilizer costs as manure nutrients are returned to the soil Goats have the ability to select the more nutritious parts of a plant. Therefore, they typically will consume a higher quality diet if they have the opportunity to be selective. With the exception of lactating dairy goats, goats grazing a high-quality pasture can usually meet their protein requirements without supplemental feeding. In some cases an energy supplement (grain) may be necessary. More information on pasturing goats is provided in ATTRA’s Dairy Goats: Sustainable Production and Sustainable Goat Production: Meat Goats. Supplemental Feeding While good quality forages are usually adequate, goats may sometimes need supplemental feeding, especially during the winter. Goats need a proper balance of energy in the form of roughage or grain, as well as protein, vitamins, minerals, and clean water.

Protein and energy requirements vary, depending on the type of goat and its stage of production (see Table 1). There is a rule of thumb for all goats: browse and pasture in the summer, hay and grain in the winter, trace-mineralized salt at all times. (The mineral mixture should be fortified with selenium if you live TABLE 1. DIETARY PROTEIN AND ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF GOATS*. CLASS OF GOAT AVG. FEED INTATKE / % CRUDE %TDN2 DAY, LB1 PROTEIN GROWING DOELING, 2.4 8.8 56 45 LBA GROWING MALE KID, 2.9 9.0 57 66LBB YEARLING DOE, 90 4.6 10.0 56 LBC 3 YR. OLD DOE, 110 5.0 11.7 69 LBD MATURE BUCK, 220 5.3 9.0 55 LBE DAIRY DOE, 150 LBF 7.5 11.6 71 *APPROXIMATIONS; BASED ON DRY MATTER IN THE FEEDS EATEN 1CALCULATED ON BASIS OF THE DRY MATTER IN THE FEEDS EATEN 2TDN = TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AGROWING AT THE RATE OF .25 LB/DAY BGROWING AT THE RATE OF .33 LB/DAY CYEARLING FEMALE, LAST TRIMESTER OF PREGNANCY AND GROWING DMILKING 2 QT/DAY - ENOUGH FOR TWINS ENOT GAINING WEIGHT, MODERATE ACTIVITY FNUBIAN, MILKING 1 GALLON/DAY OF 4.0% BUTTERFAT

(PINKERTON AND PINKERTON, 2000) //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 7 in an area of the country with selenium-poor soil. Check with your Extension agent or veterinarian.) When breeding begins in the fall, producer Sue Drummond feeds her angora goats not only hay, grain, and salt but also vitamins (A, D, and E) and di-calcium phosphate.(Drummond, 1995) Kelp, a seaweed high in minerals, is sometimes used as a supplement, though it is expensive. Alternative feeds such as roots and tubers (sugar beets, mangels, sweet potatoes, turnips) may be fed for the energy content of the roots or the nutritious green tops. Various milling by-products are commonly fed to goats as well. Grain is the concentrate most often fed to goats; cereal grains such as oats, corn, barley, and wheat are high in energy (carbohydrate/fat). Less commonplace grains such as amaranth and buckwheat are also sometimes used. Soybean meal and cottonseed meal are high-protein supplements. The choice of concentrate is determined by the composition of the forage. High-quality forages usually have adequate or even excess protein; animals

eating these will need a higher-energy concentrate to utilize the protein present in the forages. Lower-quality pastures or hays will require feeding a higher-protein supplement to meet the goats’ protein requirement. Dairy goats need both high-quality forage and supplemental grain to reach their full potential, especially during peak lactation or growth. More information on supplemental feeding of dairy goats is available in ATTRA’s Dairy Goats: Sustainable Production. Fiber goats, on the other hand, may not do well with supplemental grain, because feeding too much protein to angora goats can make mohair fiber coarser and reduce its value, and feeding beyond maintenance requirements will not improve the fiber production of cashmere goats. Goats can be picky eaters, and they may not immediately accept new feeds. Any feed changes should be made gradually to avoid upsetting the rumen microflora. Feeding very high levels of grain can also upset the rumen. Grain should never be more than 50% of the total diet, except for heavily-producing dairy goats. Adult meat goats should be fed a maximum of 1% of bodyweight in supplemental grain, with lactating does reaching a maximum of 1.5%. Feeding an animal a large amount of concentrate (grain) causes acidosis: the rumen pH will drop and rumen motility will decrease. Usually the animal will go off feed, have diarrhea, and show signs of depression for a couple of days. In severe cases, acidosis can cause death. If you know an animal has consumed too much grain, you can treat it with an antacid (sodium bicarbonate). Call your veterinarian for help, and offer only forage and water until the animal recovers. Enterotoxemia can also occur if there is a sudden change in diet that stimulates certain rumen microbes to overpopulate and produce toxins that cause symptoms similar to acidosis. Enterotoxemia usually results in death. To prevent this TABLE 2: SUPPLYING PROTEIN NEEDS FOR LACTATING GOATS % PROTEIN IN ROUGHAGE, DRY MATTER BASIS 15% AND OVER EXCELLENT LEGUME HAY OR EXCELLENT PASTURE HIGH PRODUCTION (OVER 4 QUARTS/DAY) LOW PRODUCTION 12 TO 15% LEGUME-GRASS MIXED HAY OR GOOD PASTURE HIGH PRODUCTION LOW PRODUCTION 10 TO 12% GOOD GRASS HAY OR FAIR PASTURE HIGH PRODUCTION LOW PRODUCTION

% PROTEIN NEEDED IN CONCENTRATE 14 12

16 14

18 16

BELOW 10% FAIR QUALITY GRASS HAY OR POOR PASTURE HIGH PRODUCTION LOW PRODUCTION (PINKERTON, 1993)

20 18

//GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 8 disease, all animals should be vaccinated for enterotoxemia (see Health section) and their access to grain or lush pasture should be controlled (increase access cautiously). There are programs available to help goat producers determine rations for their herd. Langston University has developed a calculator (available on-line) that will be helpful in balancing rations for any class of goat. See Contacts section for Langston University’s Web site. The Ohio Dairy Goat Ration program is available by contacting a local county office of Ohio State University Extension or Ms. Cheryl Hall Department of Animal Sciences2027 Coffey RoadColumbus, Ohio 43210614-688-3143 Some county Extension offices may have access to software that is helpful, or your agent may refer you to a ruminant nutritionist. Body Condition Scoring Your goal in feeding your animals is to meet their nutritional requirements (economically) and to keep them in a productive condition. One way to monitor the animals’ condition is to assign body condition scores (BCS). Body condition scoring evaluates the body fat reserves of your goats and is an easy method to evaluate the effectiveness of your feeding program. Scores range from one to five and are determined by looking at the tail-head and loin areas. Use the following guidelines to determine each goat’s score. A good source for meat goat body condition scoring can be viewed at . When scoring your herd, take into consideration the herd average; every herd has individuals that are too fat or too thin. If the herd average is under or over optimal condition, usually a score of three, you need to change your feeding regimen. Body condition will vary depending on the time of year. You should try to have your animals in good body condition before winter, so they can tolerate the cold and still have adequate reserves at kidding season. The animal’s stage of production also influences body condition; for example, a doe in early lactation will almost always lose condition. Reproduction Female goats (does) reach puberty at seven to ten months of age, depending on the breed and nutrition, and should be at 60 to 75% of their Score 1 Very poor body condition

- Deep cavity under tail and around tail head. Skin drawn tight over pelvis with no muscle tissue detectable in between. - No fatty tissue felt at loin. Pins, hooks, and short ribs can be seen; edges feel sharp. Score 2 Poor body condition - Cavity around tail head is evident, but less prominent. No fatty tissue felt be- tween skin and pelvis, but skin is supple. - Ends of short ribs are sharp to the touch, but individual ribs can no longer be seen. While bones are less prominent, they are still angular and can be easily distin- guished by touch. Score 3 Good body condition - Slight cavity lined with fatty tissue apparent at tail head. Area between pins has smoothed out. - Ends of short ribs can be felt with moder- ate pressure. Slight depression visible in loin area. Hooks and pins can be felt but have some covering of flesh. Hook, pin, and back bones appear smooth. Score 4 Fatty body condition - Depression between pins and tail head filling in. Patches of fat apparent under the skin. Pelvis felt only with firm pres- sure. - Short ribs cannot be felt even with firm pressure. No depression visible in loin between backbone and hip bones. Back and area between hooks and pins appear flat. Score 5 Grossly fatty body condition - Tail head buried in fatty tissue. Area be- tween pins and tailbone rounded, skin distended. No part of pelvis felt, even with firm pressure. (Fredricks, 1993) //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 9 adult weight at breeding to prevent difficult kidding. Does will have higher lifetime production and be more profitable if they are bred to kid as yearlings. Does should kid every year thereafter until at least the age of seven or eight, if they remain healthy. Most goats are seasonal breeders, reacting to shorter days as a cue for breeding. The presence of a buck (uncastrated male goat) stimulates the reproductive cycle (estrous) and the behaviors of the does that indicate that they are in the fertile part of their cycle (in heat). The doe’s estrous cycle normally occurs from August or September until January, with October to December being the peak time for breeding. The estrous cycle is normally 18 to 22 days long. Does in heat (estrus) are at the proper stage for breeding; at this time, they will be receptive to the buck. Estrus (standing heat) lasts for 12 to 36 hours. Signs of heat include tail wagging, swollen vulva, mounting behavior, decrease in milk yield if lactating, and a general increase in activity and bleating. Kids are born about 150 days after breeding. Planning breeding so that kids are born during the height of forage production in the spring makes efficient use of the pasture. Keeping accurate breeding records will allow you to know when kids are due and help you prepare for their arrival.

Some goat milk markets demand year-round production. Breeding season may be manipulated through the use of lights and hormone therapy. However, milk production is less for a doe that kids in the fall than when she kids in the spring. Male goats (bucks) reach puberty earlier than females and must either be separated from them by the age of four months or be castrated to prevent unwanted breedings. Buck kids can be used as herd sires at 8 to 10 months, but should not be used as heavily as mature bucks. Have your veterinarian test them for fertility and soundness before the breeding season. This test is called a breeding soundness exam and is described below. The most important animal in the herd is the buck. He provides half of the genetics of the herd, and using a sound, high-quality buck can make significant improvements to the herd. Spend time and effort to locate a superior buck, one that has the traits you have identified as important. It is well worth the investment. A buck that has production records (has been on test or has relatives that have been on a production test) is the surest bet. At the very least, you should observe both the herd and the parents of the buck. When selecting a buck, it is important to perform a breeding soundness exam. A general physical exam can check the buck for structural soundness and abnormalities in the sex glands and organs. The scrotal circumference (at the widest point) should be measured, since this correlates with fertility and semen production. As a general rule, dairy bucks should measure 25 to 28 cm at 100 pounds, meat bucks should measure 26 to 29 cm at 100 pounds, and larger bucks should measure at least 34 to 36 cm.(Mobini, 2003) Have a semen sample taken and evaluated. A normal concentration is 2 billion sperm per cubic centimeter of semen. Of those, 70% should be motile, moving forward. The sperms’ morphology should be evaluated to determine whether they are mature and whether there are abnormalities. At least 80% of the sperm should be normal.(Mobini, 2003) Finally, the buck’s libido should be monitored. A sound buck is of no use if he will not service does. A full-grown, healthy buck should easily service up to 50 does. Bucks should not be bred to their daughters; inbreeding tends to expose genetic problems and lead to weaker stock. Some goat producers (especially those who raise dairy goats) use artificial insemination (A.I.) for breeding. This requires excellent heat detection skills and is more labor-intensive than natural service, but A.I. allows the economical use of outstanding sires. The American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) offers a booklet about A.I., classes are offered by Langston University (Oklahoma) and sometimes by goat associations, and A.I. technicians are available in most areas of the country. For more information, contact your local Extension agent, order the booklet from ADGA (see contact information in the Resource section), or call ATTRA. Kid Management Kids are raised for replacement stock, sold as breeding stock, or slaughtered for meat. Therefore, raising healthy, productive kids is essential to the profitability of your operation.

It is crucial that kids receive colostrum (the first milk, which contains antibodies to protect the kid from disease) soon after birth. However, in some herds Caprine-arthritis encephalitis (CAE—see Health section) is a concern, and kids //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 10 from those herds must be bottle-fed heat-treated colostrum instead of nursing their mothers. Kids raised naturally with their mothers usually grow better than those that are bottle-fed. However, for dairy production, it may be more economical to separate the kids from the mothers, feed kids with a milk replacer, and sell the extra goat milk. It is essential, however, that kids receive colostrum on the first day of their lives. Males should be castrated at an early age to reduce stress on the animal. Castration with elastic bands should be done within a week of birth. There is some concern that animals may contract tetanus if they are castrated with bands. Male slaughter goats are often castrated, since the meat can have a strong flavor in intact males more than four months old. Some ethnic groups, however, want intact males. It is important for you to know your market, so you can plan for the management of your herd. Disbudding is often done in goat dairies to prevent problems with horns in the milking parlor. Kids are disbudded between three and seven days after birth, using a specially designed disbudding iron that is very hot. Equipment and instructions for use are offered by goat supply houses (see Resource list). Health Concerns Few diseases afflict goats, and most producers find even fewer health problems when they use management intensive grazing. Practitioners of MIG see their goats at every paddock move. Observation is the best way to avoid, or at least catch early, any diseases or other problems that might occur. When people buy goats, they should proceed cautiously.  C heck out the seller’s herd. • Ask the seller questions. • Learn as much as they can about goats and goat diseases. • Decide what diseases or problems they can or cannot live with, or which ones they are willing to vaccinate for or treat. • Know what can or cannot be treated and the consequences of getting the disease in their herd. Keeping livestock as stress-free as possible keeps their immune systems functioning properly. A healthy immune system is the best disease preventive. Conversely, periods of stress, such as weaning or transporting, may trigger disease. Intensively managed livestock become calmer and tamer, and handling them calmly makes them easier to work with when things such as loading, vaccinating, or other tasks need to be done. Preventive management is fundamental to maintaining health. Proper nutrition, sanitation, and ventilation, as well as timely treatment or culling of problem animals, helps keep the herd in good health and reduces health care costs. For example, the teats of

milking does are usually dipped in disinfectant after milking, while the teat opening is dilated, because bacteria Recommended Vaccination Program Enterotoxemia and tetanus— Clostridium perfringens types C, D, + Tetanus Toxoid in one vaccine Adult Males Once a year Breeding Once a year (4 to 6 weeks before kidding), or twice a year: 4 to 6 Females weeks before breeding, then 4 to 6 weeks before kidding Kids

Week 8, then booster on week 12

//GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 11 entering the teat can cause mastitis. Likewise, regular foot-trimming helps prevent footrot and lameness. Having a good predator control strategy (such as a guardian animal and an electric perimeter fence) will also help prevent losses in your herd. Check with a local veterinarian to get recommendations for a vaccination and health maintenance schedule for your goat herd. Because so few medications are approved for use in goats, it is imperative to work closely with a veterinarian who can advise you on proper drug use and withdrawal times. It is important to find a veterinarian who is compatible with you and with your management style, and who knows (or is willing to learn) about small ruminants. With time and patience, your veterinarian can become competent in the diagnosis and treatment of small ruminants. You may locate a small ruminant veterinarian by contacting the Association of Small Ruminant Practitioners at . (See Resources: Organizations.) In many areas, veterinarians recommend vaccinations for tetanus and enterotoxemia (overeating disease). Certain selenium-poor regions require the use of a selenium and vitamin injection several times a year. In other areas, additional vaccines or injections may be necessary for other diseases or deficiencies. Your veterinarian can help you set up a vaccination protocol that will protect your herd from some diseases that are problems in your area. Parasites Parasites, especially internal ones, are the major health concern for goats. Not only are goats very susceptible to internal parasites, but the parasites are rapidly becoming resistant to all of the available anthelmintics (dewormers), and no new dewormers are being developed. Therefore, management MUST be the primary method for sustainable control of internal parasites in goats. If ample pasture is available and goats are not overstocked, a herd may have little difficulty with internal parasites. However, forcing goats to graze close to the ground and overcrowding stock will cause an increase in parasite load. Animals on highly-stocked pastures will usually carry a heavier parasite load, due to the increased amount of fecal

matter on the pasture. You can reduce parasite problems by having a low stock density and by rotating your animals to different pastures. An understanding of how COURTESY OF DR. JEAN-MARIE LUGINBUHL, NCSU //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 12 parasite infestations happen will help to avoid major problems. All parasite infestations occur when the animal ingests the infective larval stage from contaminated pasture, hay, or living quarters. The larvae develop from eggs that were passed from an animal through its feces. If there are no adult worms in any goats in your herd, this infestation cannot occur. Even if larvae are present in the pasture, goats are less likely than other ruminants to consume them, because goats prefer to eat at eye-level, and the larvae do not climb up grass blades to eye level. This is one of several good reasons for managing pastures to prevent grazing them too short. Try to maintain a forage height above 4 inches, at minimum. Symptoms of a parasite problem include weight loss, rough coat, depression, and anemia (evidenced by pale mucous membranes, especially in the lower eyelid or gums). Animals that are carrying a heavy parasite load will produce less and lag behind their herd mates. It is important to realize that heavily infected animals are “seeding” the pastures with parasite larvae, thus amplifying the problem over time by contaminating the environment. Also, there is a great deal of variation in individual animal resistance to parasites. Culling animals with severe parasite problems will decrease the herd’s problems by reducing pasture contamination and by retaining and encouraging parasite-resistant genetics in the herd. A clinical on-farm system called FAMACHA© was developed in South Africa for classifying animals into categories based upon level of anemia. This is done by monitoring the color of the lower eyelid on a scale of 1 (healthy color, no treatment needed) to 5 (very pale, anemic). A special colored card is used to determine the score. The system recommends anthelmintics or culling for animals scoring 5 or 4 and sometimes 3. Keep records and use those individuals with fewest parasite problems for breeding, while those with the most problems should be culled. This selects for parasite resistant animals. The FAMACHA© system is only useful in detecting those animals infected with barber-pole worms (Haemonchus contortus), which is the primary species that causes problems in goats and sheep. The FAMACHA© system is now available in the United States through the Southern Region USDA-SARE (Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education) group, which tested the system in the United States. Only veterinarians or properly trained sheep and goat producers will be able to purchase the FAMACHA© charts. Veterinarians may inquire about FAMACHA© by contacting . A Web site is being developed by the SARE group. In the meantime, further information can be found at . Another way to assess the parasite load in your herd is to have a veterinarian check fecal samples for parasite eggs and recommend an appropriate dewormer, if necessary. Since very few anthelmintics are approved for goats, and since many parasites have

developed resistance to anthelmintics, the help of a veterinarian is essential to administering effective anthelmintics. For milk-producing goats, it is necessary to consider the withdrawal period that a chemical dewormer may require (in order for the goat to be free of residues) before the milk can be sold for consumption. Be sure to reworm three weeks after the initial treatment to kill any parasites that were ingested the day of the first worming. (It takes three weeks for larvae to mature to adult The main points to keep in mind about parasite control in goats are that your best defense is 1) good pasture management, including use of browse as a forage source, and 2) selecting parasite-resistant animals (culling those that suffer most from parasites). No dewormer will compensate for poor management, and many dewormers are no longer effective in the United States. New dewormers for goats are not being developed, so we must learn to control parasite problems through good management and selection of resistant animals. //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 13 worms.) Worming and then moving the goats 24 hours later will leave behind the vast majority of contaminated feces. Pastures are considered “clean” if goats or sheep have not been grazed on them for 12 months, or if they have been hayed or rotated with row crops. In the meantime, cattle or horses may be grazed in the infested area, because they do not carry the same species of worms. Goats and sheep, however, do share the same parasites. Researchers have found that plants with high tannin levels show anthelmintic properties. The tannin in sericea l1\espedeza has been shown to suppress the egg laying ability of adult worms and inhibits the hatching of eggs that are shed.(Min et al, 2004) This reduces the worm load on the pasture and in the animals. Other plants, including wormwood, may also have anthelmintic properties. Allowing the animals to graze on a variety of plant species will assist in providing better nutrition, and may also help with controlling internal parasites. Not all plant species have been evaluated to determine whether they have anthelmintic properties. In the future, more research may be done in this area. The complete eradication of livestock pests is not feasible or economically necessary— some level of pests may be tolerable. Goats, like other species of livestock, may develop some immunity to worms, making a low-level infestation sometimes more advantageous than no parasites at all. Lack of immunity is very damaging to Angoras, for example. When they are moved from arid range conditions, where there are few internal parasites, to more humid areas, where parasite populations are higher, serious problems often develop. Some individual goats have a higher natural immunity than others, and those are the animals that you should select. Young goats will be most susceptible to parasites and should always be weaned to a clean pasture. Coccidiosis, a disease resulting from infection of the intestinal tract by parasitic protozoa called coccidia, causes scours (diarrhea) in goats, particularly in kids. There are several coccidiostats (anti-coccidia medications) on the market, but again, management is key for control. Coccidiosis occurs in damp, crowded areas. Keeping kids away from those

areas prevents serious problems. Animals gain immunity to this organism by nine months of age, and clinical disease rarely occurs in adult animals. See ATTRA’s Integrated Parasite Management for Livestock for more information on managing parasites. Caprine arthritis-encephalitis Caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) is the most serious disease facing the goat industry. It is an incurable viral infection that causes arthritis, a hardened udder that produces no milk, and a general wasting away. There is currently no vaccine for the disease, and the only way to avoid its devastating effects is to prevent animals from becoming infected. To keep your herd free of CAE, cull any animals that have tested positive for CAE or are showing signs of the disease. The most common route of transmission is through the milk, although saliva and possibly semen are two other routes. Heat-treating colostrum and pasteurizing milk will kill the virus, and these are the only known ways of preventing the infection from passing to uninfected kids. Producers who implement a CAE-prevention program face a rigorous regimen that includes observing all births, preventing kids from nursing, feeding heattreated colostrum and pasteurized milk, and segregating or culling all CAE-positive animals. This is a very labor-intensive method of kid rearing. Anyone purchasing a goat should ask how the goat kid was raised and whether it has had recent CAE blood tests. Because some goats do not seroconvert to CAE-positive for two years, a single negative blood test is not necessarily reliable. When kids are bottle-raised on non-pasteurized milk, the milk is usually pooled for all kids, so that one positive doe can have a disastrous effect on a goat herd’s CAE status. Goat producers who are really conscientious about ridding a herd of CAE will not allow infected goats to have any contact with non-infected goats. It is always easier to purchase non-infected animals than to rid your herd of CAE once it is introduced. (When purchasing goats, it is a good idea to look at the entire herd; swollen knees or emaciated animals may be signs of CAE infection in the herd.) Some CAE-positive goats never show any symptoms of CAE; a good kid producer or a heavy-milking doe that is CAE-positive may still have a place within the herd. The producer should consider the goals and priorities for his or her enterprise before determining whether a goat should be culled on the basis of its CAE status. At one time, it was thought that only dairy //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 14 goats had a high incidence of CAE. However, with so many kids of all breeds being fed infected milk, the situation has now changed. Anyone buying any type of goat must be just as concerned about its CAE status as someone purchasing a dairy goat. There are tests available to determine whether an animal has CAE. Testing should be done every year. Positive animals should be isolated or culled. Contact your veterinarian or diagnostic lab for further information on CAE testing. Abortion

There are several factors that can cause a goat to abort. A deficiency in vitamin A, iodine, or copper can cause abortions. Parasites, certain drugs, poisonous plants, and stress can also cause a doe to abort. If abortion is widespread in the herd, there is most likely an infectious cause. Chlamydia psittaci is the most common cause of infectious abortions. However, there are other organisms that may be the culprit, and treatment depends on knowing the infectious agent. Therefore, at the first abortion in the herd, send the placenta to a diagnostic lab. Keep the placenta chilled until it arrives at the lab. Also be sure to wear rubber gloves and be cautious; some agents can infect humans as well. Toxoplasmosis is another major cause of abortion in goats. This is a disease that can also infect humans, and it is particularly dangerous to pregnant women. Toxoplasmosis organisms are carried by cats, particularly young cats, which develop immunity once infected. It may help to keep one or two adult neutered cats for rodent control and to prevent other cats from coming onto your farm. Toxoplasmosis is contracted by goats ingesting cat feces. It can be brought onto your farm in hay or straw, if there were cats on the farm where the hay or straw was stored. Certain feed additives (Deccox, monensin) can help prevent abortions due to toxoplasmosis. Consult your veterinarian for details on how and where to ship the placenta and how to treat the herd if an infectious cause is identified. (Patton, 2003) Footrot Footrot is a contagious disease caused by the combination of two different bacteria, one of which cannot survive outside of the host for more than two weeks. The other is present in the environment. The infection is generally painful and is characterized by limping and signs of pockets of pus on the hoof. There is a strong, foul odor associated with footrot. To treat footrot, first trim the feet so they are level and smooth (stop when you see pink in the sole, but remove loose bits from the side). Then soak the animal’s foot in a footbath containing zinc sulfate or copper sulfate or formaldehyde. Ideally, it should stand in the solution for five minutes and then move to a dry area. (The lot should include dry areas, because mud and moisture will aggravate footrot.) Animals that do not respond to treatment should be culled. Many producers cull animals by sending them to the sale barn: yet another reason to avoid purchasing stock there. Always observe animals with the herd before purchasing them, and do not buy any animals that limp. Quarantine all new goats for two weeks before putting them with your herd, and watch closely for signs of limping. Consult your veterinarian for assistance in treating footrot and other diseases. Caseous Lymphadenitis Caseous lymphadenitis (CL) infects animals through breaks in the skin, such as cuts or scrapes from shearing, barbed wire, thorny brush, etc., and becomes localized in a regional

lymph node, most commonly in or around the neck. The resulting abscess can be either external or internal. Draining or opening an external abscess can cause reinfection. CL is transmitted by direct contact; therefore, all infected animals should be isolated. CL can be picked up in bedding or by touching some other area that has been contaminated by goats with abscesses, and the infectious organism persists in the environment for several months. Internal abscesses occur when the thoracic lymph duct is affected. Animals with internal abscesses often waste away— or they may have no clinical signs. Do not buy any animals from a herd that has abscesses. Diagnostic testing is available to determine whether an animal has CL. Extreme caution must be used when aspirating an abscess, because CL is transmittable to humans. All infected material (gloves, bedding, towels) must be burned to minimize the risk of spreading disease. //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 15 Contagious Ecthyma This disease, also known as soremouth or orf, is caused by a pox virus. It is characterized by blisters and scabs on the lips and can spread to a doe’s udder by an infected nursing kid. This disease is usually introduced into a herd from a purchased animal or one returning from a show. The disease is highly contagious, including to humans, and the virus can live for several months to years in the environment. There is a vaccine for soremouth, but it should not be used in a herd that is free from the disease. It is a live vaccine, meaning it will introduce the disease into your herd. Usually, if an animal has been infected with the disease, it will be immune to further infections. Scrapie Eradication Program Scrapie is a fatal, degenerative disease affecting the central nervous system, one of the class of diseases known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs). Other examples of TSEs include BSE in cattle and Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in deer and elk. There is no evidence that scrapie can spread to humans, but negative public perceptions and the loss of export opportunities have encouraged the effort to eradicate scrapie from the U.S. The incidence of scrapie in goats is extremely low, so it is highly unlikely that your herd will be affected. Nevertheless, goat producers (and sheep producers) are required to participate in the Scrapie Eradication Program. Details about this program are available from your state veterinarian or by going to the National Scrapie Education Initiative Web site, . Briefly, you must contact your state veterinarian to request a premises identification number. You will then receive free eartags with your premises ID printed on them, and you must install tags on any breeding animals over the age of 18 months before they leave your farm. Dairy goat producers may use tattoos instead of ear tags; the state veterinarian will assign an ID tattoo that consists of your state abbreviation and the ADGA tattoo sequence assigned to the farm. In addition, any breeding goat (or sheep) that crosses state lines (for shows or to be sold, for example) must be accompanied by an official Certificate of Veterinary Inspection (health certificate) issued by an accredited veterinarian.

See the Resource section at the end of this publication for information on several excellent books on goat health and diseases. Flies In confinement situations, implement fly control programs early in the season, before the fly population gets out of control. A sustainable approach is Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Parasitic wasps are a biological control for barn flies. These wasps lay their eggs in fly pupal cases; wasp larvae kill the developing flies by feeding on them. Light traps, baited traps, and sticky tapes are physical controls for barn flies. Because moist manure, spilled feed, and damp bedding encourage fly populations, practicing good sanitation on a regular schedule is important, especially in confinement areas. Eliminate drainage problems that allow water to accumulate. ATTRA has more information on alternative fly control and IPM available on request. The following are the keys to maintaining a healthy goat herd. • Buy healthy stock • Keep animals as stress-free as possible • Use preventative medicine—good nutri- tion, sanitation, foot care, vaccinations • Have a relationship with a veterinarian • Learn about the major diseases that can affect your herd and how to prevent them • Be observant and responsive Marketing This section should probably be on the first page, because marketing must be thoroughly researched and planned up-front. Before beginning production, it is essential to know what goat products you are going to sell, and where and how you will market them. Goat meat, which is 50 to 65% leaner than beef, will be either the primary product or, in the case of dairy or fiber enterprises, an important secondary one. Called “cabrito” or “chevon,” goat meat is considered a gourmet or health food by some, is popular in areas with certain ethnic populations, and is often processed into products such as sausage or jerky. See ATTRA’s Sustainable Goat Production: //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 16 Meat Goats and Dairy Goats: Sustainable Production for more information about goat products and their markets. It may be possible to establish a niche market through direct marketing. Many consumers would like to buy products that have been raised with a minimum of synthetic chemicals and pesticides. With any agricultural enterprise, it is important to determine market potential before making an investment in production. See ATTRA’s Resources for Organic Marketing, Direct Marketing, and Alternative Meat Marketing for additional information. Certified Organic Production

Certified organic products have found a niche market with growing potential. The U.S. Department of Agriculture released the National Organic Program final rule, effective October 2002, that details the requirements for organic certification. ATTRA has information about the rule and the certification process available on request. An organic goat feeding program will probably require a combination of organic pasture and purchased organic feed grains. A pasture must be free of synthetic pesticides or other prohibited substances for three years prior to organic certification. Producers may want to request ATTRA’s Organic Livestock Feed Suppliers Resource List. The major difficulty with organic production of goats may be the issue of how to control internal parasites without recourse to anthelmintics. Cost and availability of organic grains, hay, and bedding may be obstacles to organic production as well. It is expensive and time-consuming to go through the certification process. Make sure your customers require certification before undertaking it. Refer to NCAT’s Organic Livestock Workbook for organic requirements. Profitability Unless goat production is just a hobby for you, it is vital to do feasibility and business planning. A feasibility study identifies “make or break” issues that would prevent your business from being successful, and answers whether the business idea makes sense. A feasibility study also provides useful information for the business plan, especially the marketing section.(University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives, 1998) If the feasibility study indicates that your business idea is sound, the next step is a business plan. A business plan is an analysis of how the business will work—your competition, the market, your capital and operating expenses, management and staffing needs, manufacturing process, etc. It is also one of the written documents usually necessary for obtaining a loan.(University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives, 1998) While developing a business plan may take time and effort, it will be well worth the effort in the long run. An excellent tool for developing a business plan is Building a Sustainable Business: A Guide to Developing a Business Plan for Farms and Rural Businesses, developed by the Minnesota Institute for Sustainable Agriculture. This publication addresses all the steps of developing a plan, from identifying your goals to implementing your plan. This publication can be viewed at . To order a spiral-bound copy of this workbook, contact 802-656-0484, , 800-909-6472, or As of 2004, the cost is under $20, including shipping. Producers can make effective use of labor and other resources by processing together, marketing together, buying in bulk, etc. Cooperatives can also help producers gain better access to funding and technical assistance. The USDA Rural Business-Cooperative Development Service provides technical support for cooperative development. Contact them for a catalog of publications and services (see Resources). Resources

Many states have Extension publications about goats. Check with your local and state Extension offices for titles available in your state. Your Extension agent may also have information on local markets and sources of stock. Goat experts at Langston University’s E (Kika) de la Garza American Institute for Goat Research are valuable sources of information. This is a goat research program with specialists who are willing to answer questions about all types of goats—dairy, meat, mohair, and cashmere. Langston’s Web site is . The University of Florida Cooperative Exten //GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 17 sion service has a Dairy Goat Production Guide that is very informative and useful. This publication can be viewed on-line at . Caprine Supply and Hoegger Supply Company both sell goat equipment, including veterinary supplies and equipment for disbudding and tattooing, insemination, and milking and dairy equipment, and more. In addition, they sell many of the books available on general goat production and specialty books on dairy, meat, and fiber goats. A list of books is also provided at the end of this publication, along with contact information for suppliers. A good way to learn about goats is from other producers, either formally or informally. Some farms provide internship opportunities. See ATTRA’s Internships and Apprenticeships Resource List at . There may be an association of goat producers in your area. Associations may focus on a locality, a type of goat, or a particular breed. One way to find an association is to contact your local Extension office. There are goat listserves on the Internet with active producer participation, as well as many sites offering goat information. Web Sites Maryland Small Ruminant Page www.sheepandgoat.com References Anon. Multiflora rose control. The Ohio State University Extension Bulletin 857. http://ohioline.osu.edu/b857/b857_8.html Drummond, Sue. 1995. Nutrition for angora goats. The Fiberfest Magazine. Vol. 2, No. 4. p. 22–23. Fredricks, G. 1993. Using Body Condition Score to Evaluate Feeding Management. p. 78. In: Proceedings of the 1993 American Dairy Goat Association National Convention, October 1993, Portland, Oregon. Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL. Holcomb, George B. 1994. A Small-Scale Agricultural Alternative: Dairy and Meat Goats. USDA Cooperative State Research Service, The Office for Small-Scale Agriculture, Washington, DC. 2 p. Luginbuhl, J-M., J.T. Green, M. H. Poore, and J. P. Mueller. 1996a. Use of goats as biological agents for the control of unwanted vegetation. Presented at the International

Workshop “Los Arboles en los Sistemas de Producción Ganadera” [Use of Trees in Animal Production systems], Indio Hatuey Pasture and Forage Experimental Station, Matanzas. November 26-29, 1996. www.cals.ncsu.edu/an_sci/extension/animal/meatgoat/MGVeget.htm

//GOAT PRODUCTION: SUSTAINABLE OVERVIEW PAGE 24 Luginbuhl, J-M, J. T. Green, J. P. Mueller, and M. H. Poore. 1996b. Meat goats in land and forage management. In: Proceedings of the Southeast Regional Meat Goat Production Symposium “Meat Goat Production in the Southeast—Today and Tomorrow.” February 21-24, 1996. Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL. www.cals.ncsu.edu/an_sci/extension/animal/meatgoat/MGLand.htm Min, B.R., W.E. Pomroy, S.P. Hart, and T. Sahlu. 2004. The effect of short-term consumption of a forage containing condensed tannins on gastro-intestinal nematode parasite infections in grazing wether goats. Small Ruminant Research. Vol. 51, Issue 3. p. 279-283. Mississippi State Cooperative Extension Service. 4-H Club Goat Guide.http://msucares.com/pubs/publications/p2264.htm Mobini, Seyedmehdi. 2003. Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center, Fort Valley State University. Unpublished presentation at the American Dairy Goat Association National Convention, October 2003. Patton, Sharon. 2003. Parasitology Department, University of Tennessee. Unpublished presentation at the American Dairy Goat Association National Convention, October 2003. Pinkerton, F. 1993. Feeding Strategies to Maximize Yield and Composition of Goat Milk. p. 119. In: Proceedings of the 1993 American Dairy Goat Association National Convention, October 1993, Portland, Oregon. Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL. Pinkerton, Frank, and Bruce Pinkerton. 2000. Supplemental Winter Feeding of Goats. http://www.clemson.edu/agronomy/goats/winter_feed.html Sedivec, K., T. Hanson, and C. Heiser. 1995. Controlling leafy spurge using goats and sheep. North Dakota State University Extension Service. www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/plantsci/hay/r1093w.htm#goats University of Wisconsin Center for Cooperatives. 1998. Cooperatives: A Tool for Community Economic Development. University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. The ATTRA Project is operated by the National Center for Appropriate Technology under a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products, companies, or individuals. GOATS: SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OVERVIEWBY LINDA COFFEY, MARGO HALE, ANDANN WELLSNCAT AGRICULTURE SPECIALISTSAUGUST 2004 ©NCAT 2004 EDITED BY PAUL WILLIAMS FORMATTED BY ASHLEY RIESKE The electronic version of Goats: Sustainable Production Overview is located at: HTML http://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/goatoverview.html PDF http://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/goatoverview.pdf IP 248 / SLOT 153 VERSION #080404