Germain Bazin. "The Baroque. Principles, Styles, Modes, Themes".
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The
Baf&i^ie
Principles
Styles
•
Modes
•
Themes
•
GERMAIN BAZIN Conservateur en chef au Musee du Louvre
Between the decline of Italian Mannerism and the rise of Neoclassicism, during a period of about 200 years
before
the
of the 19th century, European art
start
passed through an age of unparalleled
and grandeur known univer^
richness
which
sally as Baroque,
this
the subject of
is
book. Germain Bazin, recognizing
the complexity of his subject,
attempt
reduce
to
it
an
to
unity. Rather, as he says,
makes no artificial
was an age
it
rich with all the potentials of
Western
artistic culture.
The book political
begins
and
'life
second
review
a
intellectual principles
helped to form
when
with
part
and
art
was
itself
deals
stylistic traditions
life
an
with
which
a time
at
The
art'.
major
the
coalesce in the
Baroque period and lead eventually the
Rococo and
work
at
to
produce
this
forces
complex and
fascinating era in post^Renaissance
which
by
conflicts
both
and the
man and
his
Baroque
More
inner
work of
artist.
than
author's
art,
vast politico^ecclesias^
tical forces are reflected in the
the
to
Neoclassic.
and four deal with the
Parts three
of
which
425
own
illustrations
choosing,
of
of
the
which 24
are in color, capture the inexhaustible
energy and variety of Baroque
complement provoking
a challenging
text.
cd^,
418 plates, 24
in
50
y^
text figures
.
art
and
and thought^
:Hmi^ffiH8S8Ha&^a^l8®5BiiB^aa.W>BBra»8ilBiffll^
Due
Ml5
7:n709.4
Bazln, Germain The baroque: principles, styles, modes, [Translation by Pat Wardroper] themes. Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society [cl968] illus. (part col.) 368p.
Bibliograph^^p
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Title
THE BAROQUE
1
rlxl/
PRINCIPLES
BAROQUE STYLES
MODES THEMES
GERMAIN BAZIN CONSERVATEUR EN CHEF AU MUS£E DU LOUVRE
NEW YORK GRAPHIC SOCIETY GREENWICH, CONNECTICUT
TRASSLATION BY PAT WARDROPER
BLOCKS MADE BY KLISCHEEVTERKSTATTEN
DER DCDUSTRIEDIEKST, WIESBADEN, GERMAXY' PRINTED BY DUMONT PRESSE, COLOGNE, GER«4AN-1BOUJOJ BY VAN RIJMENAM N. V.. THE HAGUE, HOLLAND LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGCE C.\RD NO. 68-25737
©
1968
THAMES AND HUDSON, LONDON
ALL RIGHTS RESER\"ED PRINTED IN WESTERN GERMANY
Contents
INTRODUCTION I
7
PRINCIPLES 1
Definitions
14
The word 'baroque'
2
From
Italian
i^So-iySo:
3
13
its
•
meaning and history
Europe
political
to
rococo as the fulfilment of the baroque
•
French Europe
20
and cultural patterns
The Milieu Absolutism
•
27
the royal
and imperial
ideas
the ideal
•
of self-mastery
God
and the prince
4 Ethic and aesthetic
40
Rltetoric and the techniques of expression
II
allegory
and symbolism
ostentation
and angst
STYLES 1
73
Gothic
74
Survival and revival
2
•
Louis
Orleans cathedral
•
resurgence in Northern
Europe
Mannerism
78
Persistence in architecture
Northern Europe
3
XIV and
and
the
minor
arts
•
mannerist symbolism and the grotesque
in
mannerism as a source of German baroque and rococo
•
Realism
84
Optics and science
•
consciousness and reality in
Dutch
painting
•
Vermeer and
the microcosm
4 Classicism In Holland and
5
93 in
Rome
Poussin and Claude
•
triumph of French classicism
•
Versailles
Baroque Seventeenth-century
Rigaud
•
103
Rome
•
dynamism
in decorative painting
the fervour of Spanish baroque
•
and sculpture
•
Rubens and
Fischer von Erlach and Hapsburg splendour
6
Rococo Intimacy
120 asymmetry and
rocaille
Germany:
•
the
symphonic style
7 Neoclassicism
131
Inigo Jones and Palladianism
III
the
•
harmony of numhers
David and
•
the end
of
the baroque
MODES I
Romanticism The
z
20s
206
individual against society
•
melancholy and darkness
•
hohemianism and the picturesque
216
Exoticism America, Turkey and China
in
European
art
the
Tenture des Indes
•
sharawaggi and
the English garden
3
Art Nouveau The
4
221
Academies and
216
factories
Governments intervene
5
the Toledo Transparente
pure vegetable forms
tendency towards formal anarchy
•
academies and state enterprise
•
the Gobelins
faience and porcelain
233
Regression Medieval survivals
•
the evolution of European artistic form recapitulated in the
Art
IV
as deception
World
^238
6 Trompe^-roeil •
New
the flying figure
•
multiple perspective
•
the illusion of infinity
the mirror
THEMES 1
285
Simple and complex:
2
286
The Church central
and axial plans
harmony and counterpoint
•
^96
The Court Absolutism and the colossal palace
3
baroque curves
•
theatre design
•
the garden
and the park
310
The City Baroque town planning the fountain
hospitals
•
the palace^city
and public buildings
equestrian statues and the idea of the city square the university
•
libraries
•
and fortifications
BIBLIOGRAPHY
357
LIST OF PLATES
358
INDEX
369
INTRODUCTION
— What
a strange monster
is
man: a
curiosity, a
prodigy, a chaos, a contradiction, judge of all things
and wretched earthworm, repository of truth and sewer ofdouht and
error,
glory and dross of the universe.
BLAISE PASCAL
MOST WORKS OF THIS KIND follow a
set pattern;
the author considers the artistic production
of each country in turn, and within each country the 'descending' scale of the various architecture, sculpture, painting,
minor
arts. I
have nothing against
this plan,
myself in a short historical study; but for the present book, which
me more
seemed to
it
advisable to seek, in the vast mosaic
seventeenth
and eighteenth
within
this
book
such as
classical
would have
whose
were
they
tastes
set
of any other period.
all
as diametrically
having used
work
European
overrides nationality.
it
of synthesis, art in the
The
divisions
Our modern
tendency to see these terms
and eighteenth/century Europe,
of seventeenth
than exclusive. Indeed, the exploratory fervour with which
the possibiUties of
which underlay both
opposed.
men
surprised the
The first and
is
a
alone. I have preferred not to regard formal concepts
style
eclectic rather
out to exploit
principles
on
and baroque
as absolutes
which
centuries, a principle
are based
which
is
arts
form and image has not been matched by the men
book therefore
fourth parts of this
life
and
art
in the seventeenth
set
out to define the unifying
and eighteenth
and the
centuries,
second and third parts examine the enormous variety of modes of expression employed by the •
of the period.
artists
To
distinguish between the different
thought merely to substitute one mosaic sary for
The life
art; life itself its
by
on
of the age had within them
beyond the classicaPbaroque
to be
this
art. is
The
the baroque age
kind of analysis
lies
in
its
artistic
is,
I
may be
think, neces^
contradictions. art.
This was a time
when
creation of this period cannot be
we should follow Taine in was not so much conditioned by
not to say that
the contrary, art
his life
art.
The men is
was an
milieu; but this
determinist view of the history of art;
far
but
age of baroque and rococo was the golden age of Western
was impregnated with
life
which were those of
an understanding of a civihzation whose richness
considered in isolation from
as
'styles'
for another;
many
contrary impulses,
antithesis defined
whose expression in
art
goes
by Wolffin. The source of these contradictions
found in the disruption of the unity of the
civilized
world which occuned
at
the time
of the Renaissance.
Medieval
man
world which
is
enjoyed that sense of continuity between the psyche, nature and the supernatural
characteristic of all primitive civilizations.
with himself and with the world
God, and
returned to
God.
The medieval
Christian was at one
—a world in which every creature and every thing came from
Sin, an apparent flaw in
God's handiwork, was an
integral part
INTRODUCTION of this harmony;
was
it
man,
the price of the liberty of
by
created
God
in his
own
Creation was included Redemption. The hatred of heresy sprang from the
which
self-preservation
led society to seek to maintain
came, did not come from heresy; theologians
had
as
its
separates
all costs.
The
grew insidiously with the development of
tolerated only as the
aside to take Nature
That which
it
unity at
its
'handmaiden of the
faith',
image. In
instina
spUt,
reason,
of
when
which
it
the
but which eventually turned
—and created science.
object
is sin,
and
the Renaissance committed the second original sin.
Though
human intelligence dissociated that which is God's from that which is Man's, offering human nature a path of its own, the path of knowledge. The Greeks had become conscious of a similar dichotomy between the divine and the human at the time of the Sophists. Socrates' 'Know thyself', revived by the Renaissance, launched the individual upon an adventure of self/discovery; and now that 'I know' was no longer a synonym not openly in conflict with
of
'I believe',
self/discovery
man' was a
course 'modern
God,
the
went hand believer
hand with
in
—even a passionate believer—but he no longer believed so
naturally, so instinctively, as the medieval Christian.
Freud would have called a neurosis
—
demanded
The
result
know demanded
came
the lost unity of
Now
what
nothing
and
to accept that faith
to
was
quia ahsurdum'. Pascal was to say: 'Take holy water and be stupid'.
This from a mathematician! Pascal's controversy with the Jesuits
The Jesuits, the aposdes
ficance of this conflict.
conflict leading to creativity.
the repression of belief,
the repression of knowledge. Believers even
necessarily absurd: 'credo
was a
and to a tremendous fever of
could be achieved without a struggle; to believe
Of
the discovery of the physical world.
of Christian
illustrates the
deeper
signi^'
humanism, endeavoured to recapture
Christendom in a fusion of natural and divine law such
as
had been achieved
Theologiae, inspired by the Aristotelian conception of the world
in
Thomas Aquinas' Summa
as
governed by harmony. But Pascal was torn by the agonizing problem of Grace, which in
the seventeenth century renewed in Protestant
Augustine; and Uke the
and
the attractions of
and Catholic aUke the inner
saint, seventeenth/century
man
conflicts of St
was torn between the Christian faith
humanism.
In a penetrating study of Macchiavelli, Marcel de Corte
sees the
neo/Platonism which
supplanted Aristotelianism as one of the sources of Macchiavellian pessimism. Neo/Platonism,
which
is
purely intellectual, distinguishes between the world of ideas,
harmony, and a material world
new Manichaeism world ultimate entomologist,
evil.
could resolve
to a pursuit of
without principles of order.
world of ideas
who
represents absolute
observed Renaissance
as the victim of a tension
man
The
is
governed by
result is a
good and the
kind of material
with the acute vision of an
between the disparate elements of his
own
Corte).
affirm his identity, he
up
the
'Macchiavelli,
saw him
nature' (Marcel de
Man
which
in
entirely
which
this tension
was forced
only by the acquisition and exercise of power; in order to
into the role of conqueror. Sixteenth^century
power which could
'Plus oultre ('yet further')
was
find satisfaction only in unlimited aggrandisement.
the motto of Charles
This was the primitive age of power.
man gave himself
V, and Hercules
the
symbol of the monarch.
— INTRODUCTION Then came
the
power was no longer
age:
'classical'
who owed
trated in
one exceptional being
dynasty.
Power was thus no longer something
whom
This man, in
a tendency
the prince
had won;
it
France,' wrote Louis
XIV
in his Instruction to his grandson the
Of this same
person of the king.'
him, and the will of
land of tyrants that was Macchiavelli's in
de Bourgogne;
resides
'it
who
king
to the
is
The
over the destinies of
rival dynasty, that of the
too shifting and too various to give
territories
it
in
in search of power, in that
condcttiere
possessed
power
demigod chained
Hapsburgs, suffered
dependence on an outworn concept of empire and from the
its
right.
right of
not the same thing as
is
able to replace the symbol of Hercules, the
the incarnation of the royal ideal.
once from
The
had given way
Italy,
by divine
his
power not by
elect
by Olympian Apollo. Circumstances predestined the French monarchy
to his endless tasks,
become
XIV was
Louis
all its fullness.
Due
an
king, Bossuet could write: 'All the State
the people resides in his will.'
all
was
his
conquest but by virtue of a metaphysical political idea. 'The Nation
entirely in the
concent
state,
his excellence to the fact of belonging to
was more than human, held
everything
but a
fact that
to at
presided
it
firm support. Louis
XIV,
undisputed possessor of a heritage gathered around the monarchy by the slow v/ork of centuries
and
which he himself had contributed by
to
within the kingdom of his impar': 'equal to
The men
many
of baroque art
an unequalled glory; he could
new
provinces
justly
—could enjoy,
proclaim
it
'nee
plmhus
[together]'.
of the seventeenth
on two planes
living
fathers,
the annexation of
at
and eighteenth
is
withdrew from
and one imaginary. Perhaps
once, one real
—in which everything
centuries
their inner conflicts
by
the most surprising feature
—
is how men who in thought and deed make-believe. One might pretend to be
designed to astonish
new worlds could indulge in childish games of Apollo, Rinaldo, the Grand Turk, or even Confucius, but never simply oneself: as if the art of Uving consisted in flight from the self. As we shall see, the idea was put forward* that one created
might even disguise oneself as oneself
borrowed from the herd.
was worn
It
.
.
until the very
end of the
clear for the blade of the guillotine.
and
still
more conquests, again the
disguise
is
the Great:
his
is
armour. Louis
Napoleon
ruler
which
—when
it
set
had
history repeats
must always
estate
one put on a mask: the wig
the wearer apart from the
again there must be conquests
press 'yet further' to satisfy his lust for
XIV
in his
own kingdom was
able to think of himself as Louis
all
restraint.
it
XIV's
was an age
in
10
call
the terrible wars of the
first
classical
half of the seventeenth
which
all
the combatants
pursuing the same end, the preservation of the balance of power. Thus
XIV, by the
baroque; but
which many European monarchs were models of
Once Europe had emerged from
really
we
maturity and the French Revolution could well be given the
century, a tacit entente reduced clashes of arms to limited conflicts in
were
paroxysm
empires was foredoomed to disintegrate.
period encompassed by the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries
of classical;
common
perforce to be taken off to leave the
itself:
the conqueror could be content with nothing less than the final
the time between Louis
name
act
Here
man's
trampled underfoot by the successor of the ruined monarchy, a hero whose
of power, an empire, which like
The
On reaching
accessories of the ancient theatre,
way
power. Europe
.
we
see
Louis
Treaty of Utrecht, establishing his grandson on the throne of Spain, but renouncing
INTRODUCTION for
him
so
much
kingdom was needed
the throne of France; only one
crown of Spain
desire the
passed the bounds of moderation
Louis
XV,
for his
—that
visiting the battlefield of
XVI, made how much
blood
see
men;
true glory consists in sparing
So strong was greatest
is
Fontenoy with
his son the
the horrors of
The blood
the feeling that a balance
was
ever
later father
made by
of our enemies
of
a king.
the blood of
is
minds the conqueror appeared as the enemy. Frederick the Great wrote an AntuMachiavel;
such that
is
and Muscovy,
made up
a true Anti^Machiavel
all its States
said:
'A prince
On the contrary, the
gain acceptance, there
believes
condition of
Guienne needs Brittany and Brittany needs Anjou. Europe
as
number
of a
when he
depend on one another. France needs the opulence of Poland is
one State
of provinces.'
Before the royal ideal, the image of a
had
monarch
solidly established within his realm,
weakening of imperial
to be a
pretensions.
Even Francis
could
I of France,
in the true Renaissance spirit found conquests attractive without regard to their practical
usefulness, allowed himself to be
adopting
But
Dauphin,
war
necessary for the health of Europe, that to the
he will be the greater by the ruin of a neighbouring State.
who
would have
it.'
and Montesquieu showed himself to be Europe
did not
should be united with the crown of Austria.
the price of a triumph!
'You
XIV
dynasty as wish to prevent what
comments on
one of the noblest
Louis
it
own
to be a king. Louis
this rather contradictory
was
it
left
of a limited
To
for the
formula: 'The king of France
is
his rival Charles
emperor in
ensuing age to formulate the idea of kingship
his
V
into
own kingdom.'
as the absolute possession
territory.
be a king,
all that is
confines of a stage.
Under
needed
territory.
a kingdom; and some kings were content with the narrow of Westphalia
up and maintained
they afforded a safeguard against
annexations of
is
the treaties
princes were deliberately set
mount
provoked by the pretensions of
Each of
in
and the Pyrenees a host of
power by
the French
German
government because
Hapsburg power without involving France these princeUngs
petty
in unprofitable
needed no more land than was necessary to
a repeat performance, with continual embelHshments, of the inimitable pageant
first
-
staged at Versailles.
The chronic insecurity of powers in decline (Spain), complex powers (Austria), and miniature powers (the principalities of Germany and Italy) led their monarchs to seek compensation in dreams of power and transcendental universe.
In
This
Rome,
is
the
glory, creating
Church abandoned
the attitude of contrition
and invented
a baroque
triumphal pomp, a spiritual sovereignty which
power dreamed of by
of the nation,
the psychoanalysts call a substitute
the essence of the baroque.
the Counter/Reformation,
In England, a
what
new
formahsm which
it
had adopted during
expressed, in terms of
an implicit renunciation of the temporal
the Renaissance popes. political system led to the subordination of the
and a new conception of power
poUtical, industrial
is
which
and commercial
arose
power of the king
to that
which was based on a combination of
strength. English art largely lacked the stimulus of royal
patronage; but England steered a course between classical and baroque, true always to a dream
ii
INTRODUCTION of classical antiquity
which
is
really the
same mirage of the South
that so often haunts northern
peoples.
For one,
'classical'
and 'baroque'
more fantasy
are not opposites.
still
enter the
cence.
12
we do
reason enters into the composition of the
into the composition of the other; but both are facets of a lost
believe. If we smile at the spectacle of grown
perhaps
More
so for fear of
weeping
men amusing themselves with
at the state of
enchanted kingdom, but only by
first
Then, and only then, the baroque heavens
our
own
real
finding the
will
open
world.
way back
for us.
world of make^
fiddles It is
to
and furbelows,
true that
our
own
we can
lost
inno^
PRINCIPLES
I
ERRATA TEXT p.
78
for Galeazzo Alessi read Pellegrino Tibaldi
da Sangallo
p. 104 for Giuliano p. 126 for Joseph
read
Anton Feichtmayr
Antonio da Sangallo reuf/
Mochi Antonio da Sangallo
Joseph
,
Anton Feuchtmayer
pp. 105, 317 for Mocchi read p.
297
17) read
(fig.
p. 325 for
Ardmont
read
the younger (1483-1546). Palazzo Farnese,
Rome
Admont
CAPTIONS XXIII pi.
39
pi.
58
pi.
73
Dutch
for porcelain read read
Louis
XIV
for 1888 read
faience
and other
figures in the carrousel of
read Pellegrino
Tibaldi (1527-96). Santa Maria presso San Celso, Milan,
pi.
303 for
pi.
372 for
Lorenzo Lomellini. Decor Desk read Chest of drawers Desk read Bureau de dame Mocchi read Mochi
pi.
392 for
Ardmont
pi.
78
pi.
301 for
1662
begun 1893
read
read
Admont
of nave, Santissima Annunziata, Genoa,
after
1583
begun 1591
INTRODUCTION of classical antiquity
which
is really
the same mirage of the South that so often haunts northern
peoples.
For one,
'classical'
and 'baroque'
more fantasy
are not opposites.
still
we do
enter the
cence.
reason enters into the composition of the
world of make^
into the composition of the other; but both are facets of a lost
believe. If we smile at the speaacle of grown
perhaps
More
so for fear of
weeping
men amusing themselves with
at the state of
enchanted kingdom, but only by
first
Then, and only then, the baroque heavens
our
own
real
finding the
will
open
world.
way back
for us.
fiddles It is
to
and furbelows,
true that
our
own
we can
lost
inno'
I
PRINCIPLES
1
Definitions
The period of art which is the subject of this book extends from to the rise of neoclassicism
—a period of about two centuries, from 1580
Baroque in this context embraces the whole range of
Western
The
two
civilization in the course of these
dates that
open and
mannerism had come
to
Rome
Italy) until the
rehgious significance until 1850 and even
de Paula
Ouro
at
architecture.
still
by the 1590s, 1630s and
same
To make
things
more
century, mannerist interior decor
The
title
The
later,
in forms
American
later, rather as
it
Although
for every country.
which thus come within
countries the baroque retained
the Gothic did long after
being built and decorated
difficult,
to 1780.
which evolved within
survived almost everywhere else
it
Preto, Brazil) long after the neoclassical style
(for
its
period
example Sao Francisco
had been adopted
for secular
sometimes happens that within one country
development. In
different arts are at different stages of
Roman mannerism
centuries.
the chronological scope of this book. In certain Latin
of vitaHty. Baroque churches were
expression
artistic
close the period are not the
an end in
(and even in certain parts of
its
the decHne of
Roman
churches in the early seventeenth
was combined with purely baroque
architecture until the
two
were harmonized by the genius of Bernini. The PauUne and Sistine Chapels in Ssnta Maria
Maggiore in
Rome
are
still
building churches in the baroque of St Paul in Santa Maria del their effect.
style;
Popolo
unequivocally mannerist except through the
—
are set in a second-rate mannerist interior
and expressed
r4
its
for his part,
did not 'absorb' the baroque at
book European all
useless to try to
as far afield as
reduce the
art
and
all;
manifested
Goa
he created
itself
came more for himself.
not only in Europe,
where colonies had been in India. These
Each nation made
common
it
its
own
two
estab^
centuries
contribution,
heritage.
of the baroque age to a non-existent unity, or to a formal
the baroque; this
antithesis
between the
of
In 1955 John Rupert Martin took the
styles.
art.
particular genius, within a
classical
art
the overseas territories
Americas, but also
own
most profound express
of a 'manner' which, being within their tradition,
the period covered by this
chiefly in the
its
which cramps
both architecture and interior decoration remained
were the most productive in the history of European
It is
when Carlo Maderno was
having proved incapable of absorbing the new ideas
including some of Russia, but also in lished
time
while Caravaggio's Crucifixion of St Peter and Conversion
when
—architects
medium
them. Rubens,
During
at a
In Flanders, the painting of Rubens gave Europe perhaps
sion of baroque feeling at a time
easily to
mannerist in feehng,
entirely
was an age which produced an abundance
critical step
of recognizing this fact; but the
DEFINITIONS period least
is
richer
and more complex even than he thought.
seven distinct
residual styles, Gothic
one
style
three
new
is
The
an elaboration of a renaissance concept,
romanticism
the strange
and
five eternal
which
is
of
regression or
imagination:
involution, a tendency to return to the forms of
most marked in popular
which
leads
and in European
art
at all,
and the
persistent
is
made no
they frequently interbred or appeared side by side in close proximity. their curves of development mirrored each other.
impulse can be called a
motif of deception, trompeA'oeil.
task of distinguishing between these various tendencies
the history of
Europe;
art outside
Art Nouveau;
finally academicism, if a systematic sterilization of the creative
mode of the imagination The
human
exoticism;
phenomenon
art,
classicism;
the rococo;
'modes' of the
the fascination with natural forms
and
and
neoclassicism.
age also contains
medieval
and mannerism;
styles, realism, the baroque
one anticipation,
in fact possible to distinguish at
tendencies within the art of the baroque age:
stylistic
two
which
It is
The baroque
age
easier
by the
fact that
It
sometimes happens that
is
the great crossroads of
art.
The clarification of the principles
that govern the art of these
two centuries was achieved
in the
course of almost three-quarters of a century of exegesis, always starting from a single term
word
To
'baroque'.
understand the significance of this term
of the various stages of
its
we must give
at least a brief
—the
account
interpretation.
In 1855 the Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt, in his Cicerone, defined the principal distin^ guishing feature of Renaissance
these principles, the value of a
represents the conquest of
by the
an ideal beauty, derived from the study of nature and the
and inspired by the
imitation of antique models,
it
art as
work
an
of art
is
principles of Neo/Platonism.
intrinsic
and has no
according to Burckhardt, a 'wild' and 'barbarous'
art
to
relation to spectator or creator;
eternal truth contained in the essence of things,
illusion of appearances. After the perfection achieved
According
and concealed
by the Renaissance there followed,
known
as 'baroque', the degenerate
bastard of the Renaissance.
The word
baroque
appeared in current speech in France
designate something unusual, bizarre, even badly made. Essais. It is still
was It
and other fabulous
the origin of
Montaigne
its
uses
known
in Spanish as berrueco
in Portugese as harroco; in the mannerist in
creatures.
Germany)
Perhaps
name
to
in this sense in his
it
in precious settings to
this technical use of the
and baroque
form
figures of
word 'baroque'
use as a term of art criticism.
has also been suggested (by the philosopher Benedetto Croce) that the
baroco, the
this
and
odd shapes were used (mainly
sirens, centaurs
end of the sixteenth century,
used by jewellers to describe those irregular pearls
or barrueco, in ItaUan as scaramazza,
periods these
at the
given by scholastic philosophers to a type of syllogism.
word comes from
The
objection
does not convey the idea of irregularity, which seems in fact to be the basic one.
To
is
this
that
day
15
PRINCIPLES who buy up empty
the dealers normale
(litre bottles
and
from Paris
bottles
and
claret bottles)
burgundy, champagne and the numerous
for
henueco
itself is
wine.'cellars divide
baroque (bottles of
derived from the latin verruca,
two
into
a shght flaw.
The word
used in Portuguese to describe an excavation or a hilly or uneven piece of ground;
be derived from the Arabic similarity to the
The
a
is
common
and asked
end of the seventeenth century; but
the time, but several years later, in 1688,
early eighteenth century the
work
imperfect or bizarre. Saint/ Simon uses it
as
an
peinture, sculpture et gravure
alternative
barocco
said to
came
it
was
Its
little
word
across the
meant. Magliabecchi could not answer
and asked
his friend
in Paris, Magliabecchi
Michel Germain
to tell
meant a fraudulent operation, a crooked
was
baroque
in use in
French
to denote
deal.
anything irregular,
in this sense in his memoirs; the Dictionnaire de I'Aca''
it
word
{}7si) applies
it
for 'irregular'; Pernetty in his Dictionnaire portatif de
to Tintoretto; in
1769 a French
Lalande,
traveller,
St Cosmos and St Damian and to the hunting/lodge of
to Salvator Rosa's Martyrdom of
it
it
when Mabillon was back
certain Mazzi,
Mabillon the meaning: in Mazzi's book
applies
what
the Florentine scholar Magliabecchi
demie (1718) gives
it is
place/name in Portugal and Brazil.
preacher Mabillon, studying manuscripts in Florence,
found the answer in a book by a
By the
harroco is
'baroque' seems however to be purely coincidental.
adjective barocco existed in Italian at the
The French
used.
at
word
and
bar^a,
categories,
Perhaps the Spanish word
varieties of aperitif).
which means
them
unusual shapes such as those used
Stupinigi in Piedmont.
In the second half of the century the term takes on an aesthetic significance. Quatremere de
Quincy, in
his Encyclopedie methodique (1788), defines
of bizarre'. Millizia, in his Dizionario
and
applies
it
to the architects
delle Belle
Thus from
its
as 'bizarre to a degree', 'the superlative
Disegno (1797), repeats the definition
e del
Borromini, Guarini and Pozzo. Jean^Jacques Rousseau, in his
Dictionnaire de la Musique (1778), uses the
very beginnings the
aesthetics as 'Gothic'.
Arti
it
word
word
harmony'.
to denote a 'confused
'baroque' had as bad a reputation in the sphere of art
had been condemned
libri
delV architettura (1570),
In fact post/Renaissance and post^mannerist
long before the word 'baroque'
itself
•
appeared; Palladio, in I quattro
pours scorn on what he foresees to be the architectural tendencies of the coming century, and Bellori,
an admirer of Poussin, attacks the complications of the
Pittori Scultori e Architetti moderni
The it still
root;
pejorative sense of the
Croce, have continued to regard
It
'baroque',
was
meaning a
style
left
it
as 'the art of
which appeared
to the historians
and
art critics
bad
taste', as
art critic
16
the
who
in his
to refer to the baroque as
as
Croce
Berenson and Benedetto
describes
it
in a
work on
of the German/speaking countries, where the baroque
works on baroque,
Heinrich Wolfflin,
first critic
the baroque never really took
such
in 1929.
had flourished in its full glory during the eighteenth century, Gurlitt, author of several
of decadence, died hard. Indeed,
and England, where
Italian or ItaUanate enthusiasts for the Renaissance,
the baroque period in Italy
de'
(1672).
word
survives in countries, such as France
and
of his time in his Vite
art
classical
work
to rehabilitate
and rococo
art,
baroque
art.
was followed by
Cornelius the Swiss
Renaissance und Barock (1888, revised 1907),
was
an independent category, a positive concept contrasted
DEFINITIONS with the Renaissance which had preceded
Later, going
it.
beyond the concept of the Renais/
and in
sance, he defined the classical position in general (Die klassische Kunst, 1898), geschichtliche Grundhegrijje
(191 5) he carried his ideas one stage further by treating the notion of
and formulated
the baroque, like that of the classical, as above history, the evolution of form in art
which
common
in
his Kunst^
a theory according to
governed by two opposing principles which have
is
much
with the Apollonian and Dionysiac principles postulated by Nietzsche in his Die
Cehurt der Tragodie (1870). In aesthetic terms, Wolfflin defines the classical^baroque dualism in terms of five pairs of opposites: linear
form; form which weighs
and
pictorial;
down and form which
pis
1-8
plane and depth; closed form and open
and
takes flight; unity
multiplicity.
In essays written between the two world wars, Eugenio d'Ors discussed the philosophy and aesthetics of the baroque, seeing
it
an
as
a term used in Gnostic philosophy to denote the
aeon,
emanations or aspects through which the Supreme Being acts upon the world. Not without
humour, he
outlines the
taxonomy of
the baroque; in the genus Barocchus he distinguishes
twenty species, the newest of which are/w
de siecle
baroque
(B.finesecularis)
and post/war baroque
(B.posteahellicus).
This rehabilitation of the baroque was not enough; in the end there was a
and
was
it
the classical, not the baroque, that
was thought of
reversal of values
as the 'degenerate bastard*.
The
Viennese scholar Strzygowsky (1898) develops the theory that the development of European has been governed by a tension between two great centres of culture: one centre
art
and
south,
its art is
other centre, lies
in the
the art of empires, the servant of authority, the breeder of academicism; the
which
to the north,
lies
the Austrian writer considers the
where the
to recognize in these
two
creative
more favourable
for artistic expression,
impulse can take wing in complete freedom.
centres, in a
new
guise, the concepts of Nietzsche's
not hard
It is
Apollonian and
Dionysiac, Wolfflin's classical and baroque, and even the two contrasted forms of eloquence
which Quintilian had Meanwhile
called Atticist
art historians
and
Asianist.
were applying themselves to the problem of defining the origins
and tracing the development of the baroque
mond,
in his
De MicheUAnge a
as a specific historical
makes a
Tiepolo (1912),
phenomenon. Marcel Ray/
distinction between the austere 'Counter/-
Reformation baroque' and the triumphal baroque of the seventeenth century.
This idea that the baroque was the product of a movement of religious ideas originating in the Counter/Reformation reformation
the basis of
W.
Weisbach's book Der Barock ah Kunst
(1921), and of Emile Male's iconographical study L'Art
de Trente (1932).
name
is
In a more recent work, the Spanish
the early baroque the 'Tridentine
style'
critic
Jose
der
Camon Aznar
goes so far as to
(El Estilo Trentino, 1952). This approach to the
question of the origins of the baroque inevitably carried the enquiry beyond the purely field into that
art
artistic
of cultural history.
From the purely artistic viewpoint, its
Gegen^
religieux au temps du concile
antithesis, the
baroque,
lies
the key to the process by
which
in the concept of mannerism. This
is
the Renaissance engendered
the
name
given to the Italian
produced between the death of Raphael (1520) and the foundation of the academy of the
Carracci (1585), the period sometimes wrongly described as the 'proto/baroque'.
The term
17
PRINCIPLES word mmiera (from
'mannerist' comes from the Italian
when
the mechanical arts included the plastic arts;
by Cennino Cennini,
(Trattato della Pittura
which Vasari in his Le Vite into
piu eccelknti
is
1390) to
c.
embodied in one of the
The
is
synonymous with meaning seems
pejorative
number of
.
style,
an idea
(1550) develops each of
different 'manners'
As Georg Weise
to
'refined', 'artful', 'precious',
has pointed out, in the
in this sense.
The
though not in a pejorative
have developed about the year 1600, there
was a
at
and with no
mannerism
rehabilitation of
sense.
the time when, under
revival of naturalism
nation of the maniera in the sense of 'painting without a model it
.
.
great creators of the Renaissance. Clearly, this attitude implies
and Caravaggio,
the influence of the Carracci
Bellori uses
personal
artist's
of the sixteenth century (Ariosto, Bandello, Bernardo, Torquato Tasso)
literature
'mannered'
mean an
Middle Ages
since the
architetti, pittori, et scultori italiani
the notion of conformity, and hence of academicism. Italian
had been used
aesthetic concept, offering artists a choice of a
an
which
de'
it
mano, hand), inherited from the days
and a condemn
reference to nature';
element
as a positive cultural
is
the work of a Viennese historian of Czech origin, Dvorak, whose work on the history of culture enriched the history of art by demonstrating
phenomena
of
read a paper
on El Greco and mannerism which
as a whole. In
age {Kunstgeschichfe
its
its
close relationship with all the intellectual
als Ceistesgeschichte,
1924).
At
Dvorak's view the subjectivism of the mannerists,
of the Renaissance, far from being a
phenomenon
as
opposed
since been the subject of extensive studies by
{Hochrenaissance,
Mannerism of
all
the
Manierismus,
in Italian Painting,
Friihharock,
European examples
all
The
Hans Hoffmann,
Gustav Rene Hocke,
{Die Welt
of this style
to the objectivism
mannerist move/
a pupil of Wolfflin
Walter Friedlander (Mannerism and Antu
1939),
1957) and above
mannerism
of exhaustion, indicated a reawakening of the
imagination, and of the spiritual impulses of the pre/Renaissance period.
ment has
Dvorak
a congress in 19-24,
led to a revaluation of the concept of
als Labyrinth:
who
has
made
Manier und Manie
a study
in der euro^
pHischen Kunst, 1957).
In the hght of these studies, mannerism stands revealed conflict
between the
artist's
conscious desire to conform and
as the inevitable
consequence of a
his instinctive rejection of classicism.
In psychoanalytical terms, this conflict led to a complex, a sense of frustration, even of revolt, in the face of barriers
which
the
artist
was unable
to cross
and which he sought to by/pass by departing
from the principle of imitation; replacing mimesis by
phantasia (to use the Platonic categories).
This vain rebelUon against constraint resulted in a tendency to consider instinct)
and tended
forms thus created
is
to
make
artists
art as
a
temperamentally gloomy and melancholic.
an artificial system which
a 'substitute universe',
game
(the play
The world
of
replaces not only the external
world but also the legacy of classical formalism. Mannerism, which from Italy spread throughout Europe, was uneven in shall see, there
its
achievements, but
developed in
Italy
and
in
it
served as the 'culture^medium' in which, as
Germany
the evolutionary elements of baroque
wc
and
rococo.
Baroque pis 18
4,
7
differs
from mannerism in
release of the imaginative forces hitherto
aptly calls a 'labyrinth'.
From
its
renewal of contact with the external world,
its
joyous
imprisoned in the closed cycle which Gustav Rene Hocke
the point of view of form,
what
clearly distinguishes a mannerist
DEFINITIONS work, whether of architecture or painting, from a baroque work of formal unity, the lack of co/ordination between
is its
component
its
fragmentation,
violation
its
The baroque
parts.
towards the re/estabUshment of unity. Throughout the two centuries of its development to integrate every sort of artistic expression into a see,
was not achieved
sculpture
and
werh, the 'total
of
art'.
combined
These distinctions make starting/point after
form what
to
it
known
in
to the
mannerism. Mannerism cannot be considered after/effects,
pursued with such passion by the mannerist
and
'symphonic
called the
book devoted
justifiable that a
baroque incorporates certain of its
It is
is
The rococo might indeed be
benefits
were originally derogatory. This
all
was
decoration,
from the
perdition everything
is
as a
changing not
itself.
since
tastes
and
'Gothic',
true of 'rococo'. In mid/eigh^
hence by transference the word
shells;
art
The
by the
first
supporters of the neoclassical reaction, uses
advocates of neoclassicism.
aux Orfevres of 1754, to ridicule
artists
for 'rock'
style
engraver Cochin, one of the
and
it
artisans
and
came
pis 12-16
derives
and
to refer to the
of the eighteenth century.
term of contempt to the ornately worked
siastic
rocher, 'rock'
in gardens since the sixteenth century,
shelWike forms repeated ad nauseam in the decorative
was applied
West
which has been with us
which is
of the
a term used in artisan's language to describe the rocaille style of
which had been popular
which were encrusted with
'rococo'
artistic styles
which was deep/cut and sinuous. The world comes from
artificial grottoes
although
from the morphological experiments
terms of disparagement; the same
'baroque', 'mannerist' were
teenth/century France this
its
artists.
particularly in France, in defiance of
fashions, has persistently consigned to
shall
style'.
as a proto/baroque,
the fault of a classicist prejudice
is
and which,
we
baroque age should have
noteworthy that most of the words used to designate the great
the sixteenth century
sought
it
synthesis, as
when painting, architecture, German as the GesamtkmsU
until the eighteenth century, the age of rococo,
the applied arts
work
harmonious whole. This
tends
The word
of the eighteenth century
and most enthu/
earliest
in his writings, notably in his Supplication
who worked
in the rocaille style.
The term
'rococo' remained a pejorative one until the twentieth century, in spite of a shortlived revival of
the style in furniture design after 1850.
Some Rose,
historians
who
Hke
to see the
in 1921 devoted a
rococo
work
as a
decadent form of baroque.
to the 'late baroque' (Spatbarock);
An
example
is
Hans
he regards the rococo as the
'baroque of the baroque', thus neatly juxtaposing the pejorative and non/pejorative senses of the
word. But
this is
no more
mannerism'. Rococo the natural
is
correct than
Paul Hofer's attempt in 1956,
not the decadence of the baroque
consummation of its
evolution,
its
to identify
—nor indeed does
it
rococo as
transcend
'a
new
it; it is
fulfilment as a style.
19
2
From
Europe to French Europe
Italian
Throughout Italy
the
and Spain;
half of the seventeenth century
first
their languages
European
civilization
men
were spoken wherever there were
was dominated by
of culture.
Since the wars of the sixteenth century, Hapsburg Spain had been the great power of Europe.
Unremitting pressure from France, and internal
supremacy
an end in the
to
half of the seventeenth century, at the very time
first
influence in the field of manners
and
literature
inspired by the play by Guillen de Castro, ,
year the Spaniards took Corbie
few
the course of the next
which did not
years.
brought the period of Spanish
conflicts,
had
and advanced
The
was
at its strongest.
In 1636, Corneille's Le Cid,
performance in Paris; and in the same
its first
as far as
Compiegne, only to be
seventeenth/century
mind regarded wars
when
the Treaties of Westphalia,
which
set
on
the seal
power, were about to be signed, a book appeared in Spain which was savoiuvivre for all Europe,
and which expressed
behaviour of baroque man: the Oraculo manual y Gracian. This work, which
wide and immediate
L'Homme
sale.
de cour,
commended
better
In the
many
which drew upon no
real
it
before
on
art,
of the Spanish Jesuit Baltasar
of quality the code of 'excellence',
an even wider public; style,
became the
had a
this version, its
Racinian
basis for subsequent trans/
—was almost
nil.
Spain and Portugal each developed an indigenous
art,
—in Europe
however, Spanish influence
their peninsula,
Italian sources in the seventeenth century
Apart from
the
communication with the
Kingdom rest
often strange flowers.
art,
its field
grafted
on
at least
and came under French influence
of Naples, to which
of Europe;
Latin America, where imported baroque
and
become a manual of
languages including Hungarian, Polish and Russian.
isolated
in the eighteenth.
the eclipse of Spanish
to
An excellent French translation by Amelot de la Houssaye (under the
1684) brought
of visual
field
Somewhat
as political contests
than any other the ideals and code of
arte de prudencia
man
to the
purity of language contrasting with Gracian's florid lations into
finally repulsed in
necessarily involve feelings of national hatred.
In 1648, just
title
political
when Spanish
it
gave Ribera, Iberian
of expansion
was
to native stock,
overseas,
art
had
mainly in
produced magnificent
But while Bernini and Rubens were famous men received in the courts
of Europe as ambassadors, Velazquez was a 'local' painter; in 1688 Felibien, the neoclassical theorist
and admirer of Poussin, described him
found in those In the visual 20
when French
as
an
unknown
painter 'showing the qualities
who are not of the first rank*. arts it
was
Italy that set the tone in
influence began to
make
Europe
itself felt.
Rome,
until the
end of the reign of Louis XIV,
the heir to the treasures of ancient
and
FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE Renaissance
was the
art,
Artists flocked there
pupils;
nowhere
Francis
I
such by Vasari,
City:
Le
the
to
seems, could one learn to paint.
had been an
The
their
which under
court of France,
influential although secondary artistic centre (recognized as
Fontainebleau 'the
Wars
admire the masters and become
Rome of the north'),
of Religion. France lost
some of her
declined
when the monarchy
greatest painters to the Eternal
The Dutch, Flemish, German and Lorrainese artists who clearly/defined, close/knit community; their way of life is described by
Valentin, Poussin, Claude.
Rome
lived in
III
who called
was enfeebled by
of Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century.
from everywhere north of the Alps
else, it
and Henry
artistic capital
formed a
German painter/historian Sandrart in his Academia todesca. In this cosmopolitan Roman milieu even a minor painter such as the German Elsheimer was able to play a very active role for a short the
time.
The
came
Francavilla, his colleague Nicolas Cordier,
hospitable ItaUans adopted
and
re/christened the emigres: Pierre de Francheville be/
from Lorraine, became
Gerard Honthorst of Utrecht earned the name Gherardo
who had come
painters
Rome
to
Caravaggio, the Carracci
art,
Franciosino,
and
delle Notti for his night scenes. Foreign
—ancient and Renaissance
found many sources of inspiration
—and foreign
II
architects learned a
new
style
which
the Jesuits were
helping to spread throughout the world. Seventeenth/century Italy enjoyed a peace which favoured
only marginally from the nahstic conflict in
Thirty Years
effects of the
Bohemia,
this
artistic activity;
War. Originating
in a religious
soon became a European conflict involving
France, Austria, Spain, England, the
German
princes
—and
the country suffered
all
and
nation
the great powers,
Sweden, which
at
one point,
carried forward by the military genius of Gustavus Adolphus, seemed about to dominate Ger/
many. The use of mercenary armies, without commissariat or tion
and ruin
and in
for the countries
spite of a virtual civil
through which they passed. France was affected only peripherally, war, the Fronde, recovered easily thanks to
and expanding population. Germany, on the other hand, enfeebled for a long time. Prague,
on
a par with
In the
which Rudolph
Rome and Florence, was totally
not to see another period of
artistic
II
lost half its
had estabUshed
eclipsed,
their finest artistic flowering since the fifteenth century.
recognized
On the fringe
artistic
poles of Europe.
de facto at the truce
of a theocratic
zation, essentially realistic
was
as a centre of
less
mannerist
art
and the German/speaking countries were
first
flourishing. Still
half of the seventeenth century
Antwerp, where Rubens had
The United
under
his studio,
Provinces, to the north, had their auto/
of 1609 and dejure by the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648.
absolutist
and 'democratic'
with the execution of a king
more or
and
economic strength
population and remained
Low Countries, however, the wars did not prevent the arts from
became one of the
its
prosperity until the eighteenth century.
the Spanish yoke, the southern Netherlands enjoyed in the
nomy
lines of supply, resulted in devasta/
Europe, they created a highly original
artistic civili/
in character. England, torn by civil wars that
—an event unprecedented in European history— remained
a tributary of Holland, except in architecture, in
which
the
ended
artistically
dominant influence
Italian.
The
real victor
of the Thirty Years
War was
France.
By means of
the Treaties of Westphalia
(1648) and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) she completely overthrew the power of Spain, and
21
PRINCIPLES by guaranteeing the 'German
Roman
'Holy
Empire of
liberties'
went some way towards destroying the
German
the
Nation' which was soon a power in
by
side, created a very
favourable environment for the
development of absolute monarchy on baroque genius. The model king of France, Louis
a small scale
for all these princes
XIV, who
—
rival
^their
—and
power increased
only. Para-'
—
arts
free cities
by making possible the
one of the conditions which stimulated the
was no longer
the
Holy
Roman Emperor
but the
in his palace of Versailles personified the absolutist ideal.
But although the Hapsburgs of Austria had strument of their power
name
Germany, where some 350 principahdes and
doxically, the political fragmentation of existed side
significance of the
of
lost the effective tutelage
Prussia in the eighteenth century
was
to
Germany
become
as
an
in^
a formidable
Spanish Hapsburgs declined. By the Treaty of Utrecht
as that of the
(171 3-14) they recovered from Spain the Spanish Netherlands and Milan, thus estabUshing themselves strongly in Northern Europe and in
Germany by
which became
strengthening their hold on
They compensated
Italy.
Bohemia and by conquering
their hereditary possession at the
princes of
group of
Hapsburg empire
years lent the
Germany
France. This situation gave the religious force,
Court
which was
art in the
a glory
rallied to the defence of the
different nationalities,
the
Diet of Pressburg in 1687.
(1683-6) by which the Austrian armies recovered
hundred
for their loss of influence
territories
whole of Hungary,
The
which resounded throughout Europe;
West.
As
a
new
'royal'
two forms:
pis
344-6
Two
types of
the princely palace inspired by Versailles,
ultimately from Charles
and
The
dechne of the
power
monument symboHze
and
and a
'European' character.
'royal' art, as represented
the king of France and his absolutist imitators throughout Europe, and the 'imperial'
by the Austrian Hapsburgs.
power of
significance both as a political
to find artistic expression in creations of a truly
eighteenth century consequently took
the
an 'imperial' power, founded on a
Austria contrasted with the strongly centrahzed
Hapsburg empire
decisive victories
occupied by the Turks for two
these
two forms
the palace/monastery derived
by
art diffused
of monarchy:
from Klosserneuburg
V's Escurial. of Spain
was completed by
the
Wars
of the Spanish Succession.
The Treaty of Utrecht placed the grandson of Louis XPV on the throne under the title of Philip V. The Spanish crown thus eluded the Hapsburgs of Austria, but the Emperor Charles VI, the last
Hapsburg king
of Spain, retained from his brief stay in the capital of Philip II a profound
impression which reinforced his absolutist tendencies and also had far/reaching consequences in the field of the
In
arts.
spite of successful
endeavours to re/establish Spanish power in
Phihp V's ambitious queen, the the
last
of the Farnesi,
brought Parma and the
Two Sicilies under Spanish rule, Spain in the eighteenth
the
rest
for the
Bourbon court— Spain found
wonderful flowering of the baroque which
was
century
was
of Europe. Notwithstanding French influences— which were
working
to appear in
new varieties
French influence was 22
who
to recover
its
is
a
work
of
Kingdom
of
Italy, largely the
culturally isolated
from
largely restricted to artists
means of expressing her deeper nature
in that
erroneously termed 'Churrigueresque'— a style that
in the overseas colonies.
sUronger in Portugal,
independence in 1640. John
which had taken advantage of the
decline of Spain
V (1707-50), whose recently discovered gold and dia/
FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE mond
mines in Santa Cruz
dency
to magnificence, in
colony of Santa Cruz
made him
Brazil)
(i.e.
the richest king in Europe, initiated a ten/
both secular and religious decorative
which extended
art,
to the rich
itself.
Eighteenth/century Europe was French, as seventeenth^century Europe had been Italian.
made
spread of French thought or diplomatic exchanges.
It
the French language an indispensable
would not then have been
century, to translate Descartes' Discours de
public. This fashion for French
was nowhere
children were taught French before
who
the Great,
'Academic
had no love
royale de Prusse',
German
French actors continued
to act in
part in the spread of
its
had been it
in the previous
wide
accessible to a
Germany, where
up a bad
accent. Frederick
in case they should pick
in the proceedings of the
academy organized an
in 1782 this
for all intellectual
stronger than in the courts of
subject of the universality of the French language.
played
it
make
made French compulsory
for France,
and
necessary, as
Mithode into Latin to
la
medium
The
When
French in the leading
on the
essay competition
Napoleon invaded Russia
theatre of St Petersburg.
in 1812,
French fashion
French influence, and every elegant princess in Europe sent to
Paris for her dresses.
A systematic reform of military organization, initiated by Gustavus Adolphus, was completed XIV. The
during the lifetime of Louis
ruffianly, lawless
War
gave place to disciphned bodies of men,
own
native countries
and provided with commissariat,
As
proper strategic lines of communication. shorter
and
countries
peace,
less
which favoured
new European power.
the
Middle Ages
whereby the were sent artists
Italy
called
all
and
style,
upon
destructive for the
all less
relative
over Europe. This period also saw the
artists
up
to bring her
to share the limelight
artistic life.
from Western European
to date
with the
with France, she had
France herself contributed to
Academic de France founded
rise
in
and
this
art
lost
of the day.
none of her
by organizing
sculpture, selected by
Rome
countries,
a
prestige
system
open competition,
in 1666. Italy retained
its
attraction for
over Europe. English architects and decorators in particular were under the spell
Rome
but also of the Veneto, where stand the works of Palladio, 'god* of English arts, especially
whose stadholder William
The 'European' moment of English or Palladian principles originated in
end of the eighteenth century
new
and
Inspired by the genius of Peter the Great, Russia emerged straight from
now had
architeas. In the other
Provinces,
their
liaison system
whole the eighteenth century was a period of
the
best students of architecture, painting
all
not only of
On
adopt the baroque
European
to the
from
to
and France, were
Although
an internal
stores,
from
a result, the wars of the eighteenth century were
the development of the arts
of a
as a centre of
professional officers
bloody than those of the seventeenth, and above
where they took place.
chiefly Italy
mercenary armies of the Thirty Years
commanded by
painting, III
was
also
England
Rome became
to Flanders
and
came with
United
the triumph of the neoclassical
as a reaction against the rise of the
once more the It
to the
king of England from 1689 to 1702.
artistic history
splendour as the shrine of neoclassicism.
the Oath of the Horatii,
England looked
was
which enjoyed an enormous
in
artistic capital
Rome
at the
of Europe, enjoying a
in 1784 that
David exhibited
success. In painting, this
considered as marking the conclusion of the baroque period.
baroque;
work must be 23
PRINCIPLES The
prevalence of absolute, centralized monarchy
unity of thought
from
—the
ancien regime-ga.\t rise to considerable
and opinion throughout Europe. The French Revolution, by
freeing peoples
unleashed the forces of nationalism and bequeathed to the nineteenth
this absolutist system,
century a situation in which absolute monarchies had to coexist with republics and parliament
The
tary monarchies.
Great Britain,
ancien regime.
Europe under wholly
his
was
result
own
now became
made
way
his
Such a
passport.
and applied
In the eighteenth century
whether he was
aristocrat,
to Switzerland to pay to
was
it
'total'
man
XV's
in 1746)
made
Rome and Germany
a business of selling
city hfe
which took him
them views
their vedute
man
every gentleman, every to France, Italy,
Travel had been no
less all.
in 1688.
French
first
We
whom
in
tourists
who had
was expected
set
to
making
settled in those
Much
him: 'Our
the
hotels are always full all
same con^
o& Russians'.
the philosophers of Europe;
Paris. artists
to study in
were among the most
Prague with Sadeler and in Utrecht
he followed to England; he then travelled to in
Augsburg,
finally
Italy,
making
his
and thence
home
in
to
Italian architect
Guarino Guarini, who
Wren came
to Paris,
Paris,
visited Paris in the 1660s, at
own
order, the
where he met Bernini. The Frenchman
Liberal Bruant was consulted on the building of the Palace of Whitehall in
were called in everywhere in the seventeenth century, and the arts; they travelled to Austria,
Ho^
Nuremberg
can scarcely keep track of Rubens' journeys to Mantua, Rome, Genoa,
Theatines, in Bohemia. In 1665
all
towns. In
Kavaliertour,
an example, the German painter Sandrart, author of VAca^
Amsterdam and then
Madrid and London. The
in
tourists
the journey to
have done the
almost the same time as Bernini, designed one church there and one for his
lists
Venice
to
the example. Diderot, writing from
and Madame GeofFrin in
born in Frankfurt in 1606, went
with Honthorst, land, lived
hunt with the princes,
to
Rome and
In
popular in the seventeenth century; and
As
Englishman of standing,
Germany
end of the eighteenth century, two salons received
assiduous travellers of
he simply
Canaletto until his departure for England
from compatriots
tells
Britain,
de Choiseul, for a
Grand Tour. He would go
Holland, and occasionally even Spain.
those of Catherine II in St Petersburg
demia todesca,
to
art treasures.
(vedute).
of breeding,
Paris in 1773 to Falconet at St Petersburg,
the
Due
—the tour included the provinces—and
vention existed in Russia, where Peter the Great had
Towards
war with Great
of science, to do the
specialist painters (including
Naples bought
as
matters of policy
wars look like a reversion to barbarism.
admire the landscape, the antiquities and the
were so numerous that
at
minister, the
Rousseau and Voltaire,
to
France to learn the refinements of court and
Italy to
Continent
to regard the
which were
part of the education of every
philosopher or
homage
Louis
to
makes our modern
case
spite of her wars,
which was then
to visit France,
to Versailles
under the
had been one of the great unifying factors in Europe. When in 1762
rather than patriotism, Britain
Laurence Sterne decided
and tended
'isolationist'
But in the eighteenth century, in
alien.
existed
her energies against Napoleon's attempt to unite
after directing all
rule,
had not
a conflict of patriotic interests that
still
more in the
London.
Italians
eighteenth, as specia/
Germany, France, Spain and Portugal,
as well as
Latin America and Russia, and in the eighteenth century they worked alongside French architects, 24
painters
and
sculptors. In Central
Europe, the fusion of Italian and French influences gave
rise
FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE unique and original growth of German rococo. Artists from the Netherlands, following
to the
an emigration route dating from the Middle Ages, were attracted towards France. In the eighteenth century
many of the goldsmiths and workers in
bronze, and most of the cabinet-makers,
working in France were of Netherlandish origin, notably the
mark
the initials
BVRB,
Dutch craftsmen who used
as their
Bernard van Risen/
recently identified as representing the family of
pis
burgh. concept of nationality was vague, and the true homeland of any
The
artist
302-3
was wherever
conditions were most favourable for the development of his talent. Pohtical upheavals drove
many
artists to settle
persecution in 1627,
The Czech
abroad.
engraver Wenceslaus Hollar, driven from
was brought from Germany
and in 1642 was drawing/master
much
specialized talent
XrV's
minister Colbert
to the htde
Duke
was economically
the Edict of Nantes in 1685
and
London by
to
of
York
the Earl of
(later
James
disastrous for France, for
II).
Bohemia by
Arundel
The
in 1636,
revocation of
resulted in the loss of
it
Louis
the dissemination abroad of the industrial techniques that
had been
such pains to establish. Huguenot refugees took the French
at
clockmaking industry to Switzerland; and
Geneva became
the
home
of
numerous French
embroiderers, painters, goldsmiths, masons, carpenters and engravers. Daniel IMarot, born in
Dutch
France, became an important
Lamerie was the son of
a
painter;
and the celebrated London goldsmith Paul de
Huguenot who had taken
the seventeenth century 120 French goldsmiths were
Art more
in the eighteenth century
was
international;
for foreign customers than for the
home
finest
many
market.
Sevres porcelain
's
Hertogenbosch. By the end of
working in London
Catherine the Great and Prince Orlov in Russia, and
manuel in Portugal. The
refuge at
centres of the applied arts
The
for
alone.
finest
French
silver
produced
was made
for
John V and his successor Joseph Em^
was made
and Great
for the courts of Austria
The ceramic craftsmen of Holland were called upon to produce tiles for use in interiors size unknown in their own country, where none but modest bourgeois houses were being
Britain.
of a
built.
The
finest
examples of
their
work
are to be
found outside Holland: in the Pagodenburg
and AmaUenburg pavilions in the park of Nymphenburg near Munich, in the Elector Palatine's palace of Falkenlust near
Bonn, in the Chateau de Rambouillet in France, and
in the
pl. xxiii
church of Nazare in Portugal. In the
arts,
an important factor in the maintenance of stable traditions and active cultural
exchange was the existence of a number of proUfic
'dynasties' of artists,
many
of
which span
whole history of the age of baroque, and which scattered their individual members European world. France was art
rich in families of portrait/painters, portraiture being the
par excellence; from the sixteenth century to the eighteenth
Dumonstier, Quesnel,
Elle,
dynasty, of Flemish origin, foreign
demand
all
we can
Van
Beaubrun, Drouais, de Troy and
was
so prolific that there
was always
cite the families
a
Loo. The
member
French
of Clouet,
Van Loo
available to meet
—there were a 'Prussian' Van Loo (Charles^Amedee), a 'Spanish' Van
(Louis/Michel), an 'English'
Van Loo
(Jean^Baptiste)
and an
'Itahan'
France the famiUes of Mansart, Hardouin, de Cotte and Gabriel,
all
the
over the
Van Loo
Loo
(Carle). In
hnked by marriage, had
been masons and architects since the sixteenth century, the Hardouins since the
fifteenth
century
25
PRINCIPLES when
and master craftsmen of
artisans
this
end of the seventeenth century, a French a line of architects
which came
and which has continued
into
name had worked on Beauvais
architect, Beausire, settled in
prominence in the Papal
produce talented
to
artists
down
At
cathedral.
Rome, and
there
the
founded
in the neoclassical period,
states
to the present day.
Certain poor regions, where htde building was done, produced great schools of craftsmen. In the German^speaking world,
what
is
known
as the
Vorarlberg School consisted of a number
of families of architects, stucco-'workers and decorators
province of Vorarlberg
The
unified style.
itself
into Switzerland
principal families were the
and
who
Thumbs
Middle Ages had
sent out the
famous
Danube, maintaining a
(ii members), the Moosbruggers (56
members) and the Beers (29 members). The region of Lake since the
spread beyond the Austrian
the countries of the
Como
and
the Ticino,
maestri comasc'mi to all the countries of
which
Europe,
continued to be a cradle of architects and builders. These included Domenico Fontana, his
nephew Carlo Maderno, Carlo Fontana and Francesco Bonomini Rome), Cosimo Fanzago and Scaria,
who
than
fifty 'three
Mention should art
who
tv.'o
whom
worked
in
The Moosbruggers were
rivalled in
branches of the Carlone family, which produced between them no
architeas, sculptors also be
of
worked in Naples, and the Carlone family of
introduced baroque decoration to Austria.
fecundity only by the less
Picchiati
(all
made
and
painters.
of the influence of Italian theatre designers
of stage design being an Itahan speciality.
Bibiena family, of Bologna, sent
its
sons
all
Throughout
and
nearly a century
decorators, the
and a half the
over Europe and built theatres in Bologna, Parma,
Piacenza, Milan, Livorno, Mantua, Padua, Rome, Naples, Vienna, Dresden and Bayreuth.
The
greatest international
achievement of the an of the age of absolutism was the creation
during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries of the baroque and neoclassical Petersburg, to
which
Rastrelli, Rinaldi,
Vallin de
la
virtually all
It
was
the
work
Quarenghi, Tombara, Gonzaga), Frenchmen (Nicolas Pineau, Leblond,
Mothe, Thomas de Thoron, Richard de Montferrand), Germans (Andreas
Schliiter, Gottfried
Schadel), Scots (Cameron), and Russians (Bazhenov, Starov, Volkov,
Voronikhin, Zakharov).
26
Europe contributed.
city of St
of Italians (Tressini,
3
European unity was maintained by a
and
outside Great Britain
from which
political doctrine
with the prevailing system.
The
theoreticians of absolutism, in
says in his Tractatus theologicoy
poUtkus that 'the will of the sovereign must be obeyed, whatever absurdity he
supported by the belief that royal power, like the
derived from divine right. Bossuet, bishop of Meaux
its
'As
there
is
no public authority without the
origin, just or unjust, peaceable or violent,
and
revolt against
and
him
is
tutor of
will of
legitimate;
is
compromised
England (Hobbes), in France,
and even in the republican Netherlands, were numerous. Spinoza This theory was
dissentients
United Provinces: the doctrine of absolutism. Even England,
the
the idea of liberty to the point of killing an absolutist king, soon
which pursued
declared:
few
there were
The Milieu
may command'.
power of the Pope, was
Louis XIV's son the Dauphin,
God, any government, whatever
any person in authority
is
sacred,
sacrilege.'
In France the doctrine of absolute monarchy had to contend with serious challenges from the parlements (judicial rather than legislative bodies)
in the
itself
first
part of the seventeenth century.
and
the nobility; but
The critic
it
Doubrovsky has
gradually consolidated traced
through the plays of Corneille: in Le Cid (1636) the maintenance of the
whom
nobles
the king of
the king
Rome,
in his final
to the
monarchic condition, in which heroes
who
nature of a supreme hero
thought
reflects
by divine
exist
only by virtue of their participation in the
right stands aloof
the political debate
aristocratic
which was
from
historical forces.
Thus Cor^
minds of
countrymen
exercising the
his
time of the Fronde, and which was concluded by the triumph of absolute royal power
at the
in the person of Louis
The
XIV.
disputes between
Pope and monarch which had loomed
so large in the
the Renaissance were largely resolved by the doctrine of divine right,
monarch
a divinely ordained temporal
Defender of the Faith, not royal
hands of
judgment, holds the balance in accordance with a code imposed
Cinna (1640) marks the transition from kingz-judge to king/'hero, from the
State.
and
state is in
powerless to prevent from destroying one another; in Horace (1640)
is
by the
neille's
development
its
power by
absolutist
its
power over
the bishops.
allotted the
But the king remained the
prime mover. Only in England, despite
the parliamentary system, did the king have one
Middle Ages
which
title
all
the checks placed
which was denied
on
to the
monarchs of the Continent: head of the national church.
The concept
of imperial, as distinct from royal absolutism, developed by the Austrian
Hapsburgs and embodied in Leopold
I,
Charles
VI and Maria
Theresa, was rather different.
27
PRINCIPLES roots lay
Its
German
deep in
The
tradition.
Holy Roman Emperor, held by
of
title
Hapsburg sovereigns (although not by Maria Theresa whose husband Francis was now no more than a shadow; but
behalf) its
was an
it
and
ultimately derived
of the governed. his subjects.
was in
from divine
The monarch,
Divine right became
fact
of
elective dignity
and refusing
all
When Joseph
bed
his
was
chieftains of old,
'raised
on
gave
domin/
the consent
the shield' by
by inheritance but by virtue of his coronation; although In
emperors-'elect.
1
764,
when Joseph II went to Frankfurt on him the right to succeed
conferred
Landgrave of Hesse/Cassel, a
throw himself weeping
to
on
nevertheless theoretically based
King of the Romans, which
his father Francis I as emperor, the
by gout, rose from
was
German
his not
acknowledged even in
am Main to receive the title
right,
like the
on her
it
holders a certain moral authority. Their power, although absolute in their hereditary
ions
it
the mere fact that
successive
held
I
man
of seventy^'five, racked
him
at his sovereign's feet, calling
master
injunctions to be seated in his presence.
came
II eventually
power, he endeavoured
to
to
be an enlightened despot.
He
considered that by secularizing his imperial power he ruled not by virtue of divine right but by virtue of the duties of state laid
upon him by
Great of Prussia he was one of the state, as later
Along with
Frederick the
rulers to give effect to the abstract idea of the sovereign
first
German
elaborated by
the will of his peoples.
thinkers,
by contrast
to the
more
vital
and
less
disciplined
concept of the Nation, which was taking shape in France, and which could be realized only
through the overthrow of monarchy.
In
the buildings created for the Viennese
all
of the Hofburg, with
Charles VI, or the pi. .25
domed
which
dome where
for
example the enormous Ubrary
allegories of the arts gravitate
around the
allegory of the Glory of the House of Austria,
truly imperial.
is
—
portrait of
ceiling of the oval salon in the imperial apartments of Klosterneuburg,
Gran with an
decorated by Daniel universality
its
Hapsburgs
The dome, more than any
we can
sense a
other form, symtolizes the
radiance of imperial power. Versailles, a royal palace, contains
architecture in Italy
attention
pi
10
virtues
the
on
no domes;
and Germany had
the person of the semi/divine
which
litde
Louvre did not
find favour with Louis
wasted; the meeting between the prince of
pi 25
of genius. Bernini's bust of Louis
from a whirlwind of draperies pi.
18
the
same
transition
artist's earlier
instructive
it is
XIV, artists
the
artist's
monument on
resulted in a
shows both beauty and
XIV
is
a god.
work
his face radiant as the sun, aureoled with glory, emerging
from the clouds of Olympus, makes a revealing contrast with
two works
together symbolize the
to the seventeenth/century idea of the king.
the comparison between Bernini's bust of Louis
the
superhuman
journey to Paris in 1665 was not
and the master of Europe
bust of Francesco d'Este (1651); the
is
a celebration of the
Bernini's design for the palace of
XIV
posthumous head of Louis XIII which Simon Guillain had carved eighteen 1647, for a
28
himself;
So although
from the Renaissance idea of the prince
Even more pi. ly
XIV,
as if
form which inspired so much superb
appeal in France. Versailles concentrates the
monarch
are symbolized in the royal effigy.
this
Pont du Change in
Paris. Guillain's
intelligence; but although a
monarch, he
and the
fine
years earlier, in
Louis XIII has a face which
is still
a
man. Bernini's Louis
THE MILIEU Curiously, the Hapsburgs trappings of royalty.
The
felt
artists
no need
who
to be turned into heroic figures, except
by the external
and Charles VI, both of whom were
portrayed Leopold I
pi.
22
pi.
2^
with the grotesque Hapsburg jaw, made no attempt to attenuate the ugliness of their
afflicted sitters.
The
contrast between the
kingship,
Apollo
two
further revealed in the allegorical
is
reigns supreme; like the king, he
on
rays fall
all his subjects,
who
minister Colbert, Felibien put
Kings alone
to
While not on
the
whole
know
is
emblems chosen
to represent
and
the fount of glory
them.
At
'It is
God
for
alone to
Versailles
the source of light; his divine
work
shine only by his reflected Hght. Dedicating a
thus:
know the worth
of Kings,
to the
and
for
the worth of other men.'
symbolic significance of Apollo, the Hapsburgs held
entirely neglecting the
to the idea of Hercules, the
symbol in France up of mankind,
it
and France, empire and
great monarchical systems of Austria
fast
royal
Louis XIII. Hercules, the glorious labourer, the benefactor
to the time of
had been chosen
chosen emblem
and a
of the Renaissance princes
symbol of empire by Charles V. Hercules
as a
god; he roves the world in search of a service to render to man.
The symbol
is
a hero, not a
of the Pillars of
Hercules (which once adorned the temples of Melkarth, the Phoenician Hercules) and the
proud motto ancient
Rome,
The France the heart of
dock* {pre
had been
'yet further'
all
that
its
of Louis things.
carri),
was
destiny
XIV
like that of
to rule the earth.
symbol of Apollo, the
Ever since the medieval Capetians with
vital principle
which
their notion of the 'square
frontiers, the
and almost
famous 'hexagon'. France has embraced an
came
to include magnificence
forms; great buildings and art collections, rich materials, opulent clothes and adorns
ments, and ceremonies some of which had their origin in biblical antiquity. Nature
itself
transformed into a setting for a royal residence. This magnificence was the monarch's
and even perhaps his way of governing; through
reigning,
and enchant the imaginations of
his subjects.
master of
all
the enchantments by
and
royal ideal
which in
first
of the so/called 'apes of Louis
1733), king of Poland
extreme. 'Augustus
dazzled
all
his life
as
II,'
Augustus
II,
John George
XIV,
and
of
at
known
to
artist/king,
his people. all
times as
the absolute
if
some mon^
the vastness of their royal
Elector of
Saxony 1656-80, was one
grandson, Augustus the Strong (1694-
seems to have carried the cult of the superhuman to
writes Louis Reau,
'who had twice been
by the splendour of the "sun king",
display of Asiatic magnificence.'
image on
even seemed
way
domains by
II,
his
he was an
the eighteenth century
small, sought to imitate. It
their courts.
his
was
spell to enslave the hearts
XIV in some ways,
archs sought to compensate for the minuteness of their
works and the splendour of
he wove a
which a king may impress
XIV set an example of this
sovereigns of Europe, great
it
This way of wielding power had been
Nero, that true successor of the pharaohs; Uke Louis
of the
pad/
reluctantly.
the influence of this concept of royalty, the duties of state
all its
Louis
lies at
the central object of French policy has been the consolidation of national
power within the country's natural
in
emblems of an empire which claimed,
preferred the
imperial destiny only sporadically
Under
the
whom
The Margravine Wilhelmina
received at Versailles,
its
pi. 21
was
he strove to emulate with a
of Bayreuth, a
sister
of Frederick
29
PRINCIPLES who was much
the Great,
own
by the limited resources of her
frustrated
margravate, was
envious of the Saxon capital of Dresden where 'magnificence was carried to excess'. In his
Augustus the Strong not only imitated but
for venery,
women. 'When he
of his country's most beautiful
had had
that he
3
54 children by
far
'Everyone,
down
many
was estimated
'it
his mistresses'.
pomp and
German
eighteenth^century
to the youngest
his
money, summed up
principalities in his sarcastic
son of an apanaged
line, sees
your actions be those of a king, or
all
Every
estate.'
man was
recognized no limits beyond
itself.
to her confidante's question:
Que
One
the heroine of
de Nemours,
whom
Mme de
worthy of
a
—'What donci
is left
la Fayette's
novel La Princesse
il
became an
moment to
entity
of disaster, replies
you now?'
de Cleves refuses to is
which
—with a cry enough.'
marry the
Due
similarly retreating into the
self.
nefaut point servir
//
the courtier:
moi, vous dis^je, et c'est assez. 'Myself, I say; that is
she loves, even after her husband's death, she
inviolable stronghold of the
the baroque
king in due proportion to your
ego, or the superego,
of Corneille's heroines, in a
vous rested' il
from the depths of her being: Mot,
When
at least
The
inwardly a king.
comment:
himself in the likeness of Louis
XIV. He builds his Versailles, he embraces his Maintenon.' The idea of absolutism dominated individual as well as collective psychology in age, each man governing his life hke an absolute monarch. Baltasar Gracian advises 'Let
taste
he kept a seraglio
died,' says the Margravine,
Frederick the Great, sparing for poUtical reasons with his the situation in
XIV;
outdid Louis
d'amour qui
nous possede,
nefaut point servir d' amour qui ne nous cede.
'There must be no serving a love that possesses,
There must be no serving a love that says a character in Corneille's youthful
the self
is
'I
suis maitre de
am
Emperor Augustus in
The baroque
artist
The
possession of the self by
not
solitaries,
I
I'univers,
am
of the world,'
Corneille's Cinna. This
is
the ideal of absolute sovereignty, a
limits.
exercised this sovereignty 'in due proportion to his estate' as Baltasar
Gracian would have any if
moi comme de
master of myself as
power without outer or inner
who,
Place Royale.
the ultimate good.
Je
says the
comedy La
yields not,'
man
were
do; that
at least
is,
in his
art.
The
seventeenth century produced
independent men; such were Nicolas Poussin, Claude
Lorrain, Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt, Hercules Seghers, Caravaggio, Jacob
considered their
art,
limits to be placed
even
on
if it
depended upon commissions,
their creative
power.
Ruisdael,
as a personal activity,
The same independence
inspired
30
Ages and
who
allowing no
artists
sociable temper such as Rubens and Bernini. Methods of painting bore the stamp of
vidualism; whereas in the Middle
artists
of a more this indi/
the Renaissance virtuosity consisted in concealing
one's methods in the anonymity of craftsmanship, the baroque
artist
sought to
assert his virtuosity
Pierre
Dumesnil (seventeenth
century).
Queen
Christina of
Sweden with
Descartes and other scholars
H ^1^H j^H 1^1
^^1
^
^
g^^l
H
^ 3
fefcifeaKii^-il^ IK'3
1'
?r^^^
in Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Pilgrims
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (c
1
562-1 609). Death of the Virgin
at
Emmaus
THE MILIEU by establishing a manner which was peculiarly
own. In
his
work of
the conception of a
art
he
acted as a demiurge, transforming fact into fiction, unreal into real, organic into inorganic,
inorganic into natural. TrompeA'oeil was one of the ways in
Andrea Pozzo
in Sant' Ignazio,
lords of space, breaking
The
its
which
in his career as an
and
of the Virgin,
artist
is
in a state of
self
open
bought
they were only with the the
Roman
sum,
for a large
it
revolt against a bourgeois society is
Church,
being sent away
Roman it
artists
Men who
possessed
aristocratic society the
according to one's palaces were
it
concerned
should be put on show
estate.
hungry
it,
aristocratic society,
The
Popolo refused
his
at the loss
Death
his court
of such a masterpiece
for eight days.
All
Rome came
to
this is
man
resided in the excellence
lords spiritual
is
for society's values.
foreign to this
one
at
which
was proper
it
odds with
form of the
cult of the
man
to manifest
Many
and
the appearance of
earlier
churches,
on the
now
many new
contrary,
to separate
self.
final reverberations
shook Central
the schismatics to their fate,
left
It
Gospel outside Europe. There was a huge new demand parts of the world,
society;
Romantic individuaUsm, which tends
a triumph not to have foundered in the storm.
of commissions.
a
of invention, his ingenium.
Europe in the Thirty Years War, the Catholic Church it
sets
and temporal who commissioned churches and
After the terrible upheavals of the Reformation, whose
considered
society already
—that which
on the other hand, genius held an honoured
cultivate excellence within oneself did not set
rather than to unite,
Dutch
because
for sensations; as enthusiastic spectators they expected the artist to bring into
all his talents, his gifts
many
there were conflicts
such as Rubens and Bernini, were treated Uke princes, for in
worth of a
was a sign of respea
the
if
'romantic' examples of ill/starred or misunderstood painters such as
offer
—constitutes a scandal. In
To
which
for he enjoyed the admiration of both
provided exactly the bourgeois, 'democratic' milieu in which genius
play
pl. iv
often mistakenly quoted as an
parish of Santa Maria del
Rembrandt, Vermeer, Ruisdael, and Frans Hals, but
place.
ph p6,^62,
it.
Holland can
apart
were
should not be confused with romantic
and the Duke of Mantua, following the advice of Rubens who was then
insisted that before
admire
power was expressed.
he was more of an eccentric than a rebel, and
life
When
artists.
this
staircase, act as if they
barriers at will.
the artist
example: but even in his
painter,
which
Wiirzburg
acknowledge the concept of genius. Caravaggio
refuses to
collectors
in his
power bestowed upon the
transcendental
individualism, in
Rome, Tiepolo
recouped
its
for churches
losses
and
by spreading
and monasteries
religious orders increased the
in
number
thought old/fashioned, were demolished and
replaced by structures in the style of the day. Others were adapted, improved, 'baroquized'.
God
reigns over men's souls as the king reigns over his subjects.
firmly established within reformed Catholicism, the until the
advent of atheism.
The few
heresies that
Church was
did
arise,
to pass
order,
<
IV
which did not involve
through no
real crises
such as Jansenism and Quietism,
did not present a serious challenge; nor did even the problem of questionings of the age of Louis
Orthodoxy having become
'free
thought'.
The anxious
XIV on the problem of Grace were speculations of an intellectual
the great mass of believers.
Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709). Apotheosis of St
Ignatius (detail), in Sant'Ignazio,
35
Rome
a
PRINCIPLES In order to impress
sovereignty
its
on
own members
its
Church responded
the
to the
same
need for architectural magnificence as did the king in his palace, making lavish use of precious materials,
and employing
elaborate liturgical ornaments
French Catholics today, accustomed
God' profane and
'palaces of
our medieval cathedrals
This
taste for austerity
is
due
to the bareness of
They
unfitted for prayer. to the fact that
community
Hamon
hesitation in
should close
who had
Whosoever
further. 'I love all that
gives to the senses takes
is
recommending
their eyes
when
the images
all
chapel of the Port/Royal sisterhood in Paris, and still
forget that the present-day austerity of
most of them have been stripped of their decoration.
had no
that they
a church. Mere AngeHque Arnauld,
convent, went
medieval churches, find these baroque
can be traced back to the influence of the seventeenth/century Jansenist
movement. The Jansenist M. of the Port/Royal
and ceremonies on solemn occasions.
who
devout laymen
to the
they prayed in too beautiful
and ornaments removed from
the
forbade the growing of flowers in her
ugly,' she said; 'art
is
nothing but Ues and vanity.
away from God.'
I can only suppose that these views are shared by those present/day priests who, with the
connivance of
engaged in laying waste
their superiors, are
their
own
By doing away
churches.
with anything that has historical associations, and turning temples into abstractions, they think they are bringing
CathoUcism up
deployed to do honour to
to date.
God and
But the
to appeal to the senses of the faithful.
is
one of luxury,
Whether Byzantine,
or Gothic, Christian art has always been a practical application of 'sensualism',
Romanesque
employing audio^visual and even olfactory Alberti
true tradition of Christian art
who was imbued
of an idea, the
stimuli.
The
Renaissance, inspired by Leone Battista
with Platonism,had attempted to conceive a church with the purity
homage paid by
human
the
sing the Creator's praise in the beauty of
intellect to the
Holy
Spirit, a
church which should
numbers and the harmony of proportions. From
Alberti to Bramante, the church became an ideal place, attaining the Divine through j Platonic sense of essentiality, providing intellectual delectation for a few refined spirits, but in faithful
could no longer
Peter's before
When
it
feel
any
was extended and
spiritual
which
the
warmth. Such a building was Michelangelo's St
adorned in the seventeenth century.
the Counter/Reformation produced sober churches,
it
was
which had been
neoclassical impulse, to the Renaissance canons
returning, by a sort of
violated by
mannerism
—
school which designed churches like pieces of jewellery (San Benedetto P6, near Mantua, by pi.
73
GiuUo Romano, Santa Maria presso San Celso, Reformation produced an immense ideological symbolism, the heresy;
and
articles
this effort
in Milan, by Galeazzo Alessi). effort to
reaffirm,
The Counter^
by means of allegory and
of faith and the victory of the saints over sin and of orthodoxy over
was immensely productive of works of
art.
Faith to the Catholic can never be placed in question, even by sin. In the seventeenth century at least, artists
who worked
for the
Church, such
Dolci, were deeply religious men. In their pi.
j6
jy
own
great palace a church, larger
artistic skill.
At
Scaria d'Intelvi, near
Munich
as
Rubens, Bernini, Guido Reni and Carlo
in 1733-5 the
than the palace
Como,
itself,
own
brothers built opposite
on which they
the brothers Carlo
the parish church of their native village at their
Asam
lavished
all their
and Diego Carlone decorated
expense. In the eighteenth century, mainly
THE MILIEU in France, the spirit of the Enlightenment fostered agnosticism elite,
and even atheism among
the
but the inroads of scepticism did not shake the profound faith of the people, which found
fulfilment in ornate churches
which provided
the humblest worshipper with a vision of fabulous
splendour, an image of the supernatural world. It is
many
in the
pilgrimage churches of the German-speaking world above
the intense popular appeal of the ostentation of baroque
Renaissance
art.
all
that
by
art,
we
realize
contrast, is
the art of a cultivated minority. Simple people could hardly be expected to understand the
complicated allegories of the baroque world of images; but were the abstractions of Byzantine art or the theological
to the
in
mass of worshippers > Because these things passed
them the
meaning of
true
and
speculations of Gothic porches
faith.
In a
state
stained glass any
their understanding,
accessible
worshippers found
of exaltation they allowed themselves to be over^
whelmed by
the continuous dramatic representation of the divine
offered them.
The
aristocrat too felt at
more
world which the Church
home, among ceremonies and
rituals similar to those in
use at court: exactly as the Byzantine dignitary recognized in church mosaics the same liturgical ritual
which surrounded
his earthly
monarch
the basikm. If our
were based on more than the few remnants that have come concerned, there
with baroque in
art.
Both
artistic traditions are essentially religious,
which temporal power
of the hasileus
was known
For the great crations
which
knowledge of Byzantine
festivals
regarded with a sort
is
and both belong
to civilizations
as the 'sacred palace'.
which marked
the people were invited;
The
the
little
rhythm of the
seasons,
and
for pilgrimages, conse^
festivities
into towns, processions, cavalcades, triumphs,
own: masquerades
to
remains of them today beyond our poor Corpus Christi
people had a part in the
brations of their
is
of religious awe. Significantly, the residence
and canonizations, the Church provided a wealth of indoor and outdoor ceremonies
processions.
art
to us (as far as secular art
more than written evidence) we should be more conscious of its analogies
Uttle
is
down
which
(of
associated with tourneys, ceremonial entries
and firework
had
cele/
our carnivals are a feeble survival), grotesque
processions not unlike those of present-day Flanders, athletic
more picturesque than in Venice), games of
displays, but they also
skill,
and acrobatic
contests
(nowhere
water-jousting, regattas, boxing matches,
pis 26,
j6g
archery and crossbow contests, acrobatic shows, bullfights (in which great nobles appeared before the public as toreros), not counting the civic festivals.
whole book
to the contribution
Augustus
and
II
III in
systems, in
be present
when
carry a
the
culture to the princely festivals
mounted by
which governments nominally based on the consent of the
fact to protect themselves
that the palace of Versailles
and display
Friedrich Sieber has devoted a
Dresden.
Under our democratic governed have in
made by popular
Dr
was
the king dined;
actually all
from constant
open
threats of violence,
to the public.
Any
it is
hard to conceive
subject could,
if
he wished,
that was required was that he should be decendy dressed
outward appearance of a gentleman, which meant he must wear a sword and
plumed hat under
his
arm. These accessories could be hired from the palace
when Louis
XIV
walk in them, a way had
a small sum.
The
to be cleared
through the crowd for a certain distance in front of him.
gardens were public;
wished
to
concierge for
The monarch
thus put
37
PRINCIPLES on show; and
his royal dignity
this ostentation
—existed
—even the
humblest
subject
was
in
an instrument of power, since every
itself
The
parks of great
and peasant weddings were
also celebrated
only in relation to his royal person.
country houses served as a place for public
festivities,
were mostly added in the nineteenth century, when the domain of a lord became
there; walls
the property of a bourgeois.
Nowhere was
the
Germany, where monarch and people were
eighteenth/century his palace,
monplaisir
Mon
of the prince lived closer that of his subjects than in the small states of
life
Plaisir,
soit le plaisir de
often
It is
familiar terms. For
William Henry of Nassau/Saarbriicken chose the motto Je veux mes
sujets, '1
wish
my
pleasure to be
my subjects'
of the church were amiable rulers; and a proverb, 'Under the crozier to prove
on
pleasure.'
The
que
princes
good', has survived
life is
it.
dark impulses occasionally rose to the surface in Germany, a country that had
true that
been so often ravaged by war. In the age of the Enlightenment, the principality of Ansbach was ruled by an extremely cruel Margrave, brother/in4aw of Frederick the Great,
was shooting;
Mad
own
his habit of taking pot^-shots at his
Margrave'.
He
died of apoplexy at the age of
subjects earned
forty/five,
and
people broke through the guard of honour and danced round his
had been brought up displayed
An
all
man
in the French tradition, a
of culture
him
at his
coffin.
whose only passion
the
nickname of 'the
common successor who
funeral the
But
his
and an ardent music4over,
the quaUties of a most worthy prince.
attempt has been
economy was
made
to
view the baroque
basically agricultural.
knowledge of the
This
is
it is
an
product of a stilWeudal society whose
the conclusion
On
situation in Central Europe.
a rural character, whereas in fact
as the
art
this
drawn by Victor^L. Tapie from
view, the baroque
would tend
his
have
to
of the court, essentially urban. Furthermore, the
baroque age was a period of great commercial and even industrial development, particularly in the eighteenth century.
Other
historians
facts are against
have claimed to
see a link
between classicism and the bourgeoisie; but the
such a narrow interpretation, for the upsurge of the bourgeoisie in the eighteenth
century should have favoured the development of classicism, whereas on the contrary this was It
would,
product of a Catholic and monarchic
society,
the age of rococo, a 'super/baroque'.
spiritually
It
was
in the strongholds of Calvinist power, in
Holland were,
origin,
think, be truer to say that baroque art
it
was confined
an exception to the system
is
true,
to the
Germany and
especially in the
United Prov
we have just described. Democratic institutions
combined with a
principate which, although parliamentary in
House of Orange
—except
—throughout
for a brief eclipse
to the bourgeois ethos
members of
by living in rich houses rather than palaces.
has been preserved, these have almost
all
disappeared.
The
the
the nobility,
It is
they built a few great country houses; but, strangely enough in a country where so 38
the
prince.
seventeenth century. However, the princes of this house, like other
conformed
is
whose highly complex elements were united
round God, and in the temporal sphere round the
inces, that there existed
in
I
true that
much
else
sole exception to this rule of austerity
THE MILIEU that
still
today
exists
central rotunda, the
the
is
Huis
honour of her dead husband the Stadholder Frederick Henry. This
in
The Hague, with
ten Bosch, the 'house in the forest', near
Orange Room, adorned by Amalia von Solms with
its
pi.
24
pis
11^-6
allegorical paintings
somewhat
a modest,
is
maladroit example of the princely ostentation which characterized the baroque age elsewhere.
But
it is
noteworthy that the CathoHc southern Netherlands, under the rule of Spain and
of Austria, were in a similar situation; the only building anywhere in the Netherlands is
comparable with a palace in
Rome
Germany
or
is
the old
a fine expression of the humanist spirit, designed by the
Henry.
to Frederick
addresses
It
nature, earth, air
the greatness of
ideal of
—or rather
and
sea
Amsterdam
Amsterdam. This
hall in
famous Constandjn Huygens,
power but by
and democratic
in peace
is
All the elements of
that of justice.
mythological equivalents
their
is
secretary
learned imagery not to the courtier but to the citizen, and
its
dominated not by the monarchic
town
later
which
—are employed to celebrate
order.
In spite of the opposition of the Arminians, which was quickly suppressed, Calvinist church buildings are deliberately abstract,
making no attempt
to channel the ideas of the faithful, their
complete bareness leaving complete freedom to individual devotion. This
Cathohc baroque. 'Nothing
to attract the eye or
the reverse of the
is
hold the attention*, writes the Calvinist E.^G.
Leonard. 'Everything predisposes to an
interior emptiness, to a vacuity of the spirit,
being nothing, has nothing to give, and
is
his eyes,
and the poor
artist,
The
believer has only to close
walls, the simple ceiling, the plain furnishings, disappear; he
between these walls, beneath
The Dutch
in a state of waiting.
this ceiUng,
he
is
in the
which,
immense void
is
no longer
with God.'
filled
deprived of palaces and churches to decorate, was compelled to
ph 335-6
work on
a
smaller scale. Painters painted easel pictures that could find a place in bourgeois homes; sculp-tors
worked on
busts
and memorials. Businessmen with
little
imagination demanded that
should provide them with representations of the world in which they lived. In
this
atmoS'
phere of bourgeois peace and security scholars found a favourable chmate for their work.
'What
artists
other country one's sleep treasons,
is
there,'
is
and calumnies
of our forefathers sovereignty
which were this day.
manuals,
wrote Descartes, 'where one can enjoy such complete
?'
At
are so
a time
and Divine Right,
seldom
the presses of
and where
when politicians of Hugo Grotius laid
to earn his country the
While
seen,
there remains so
The one
much
where
the
first
Law
principles of the
pre/eminence in international law which
Antwerp
of the innocence
other countries were dogmatizing
concentrated
Amsterdam and Leyden were achieving
on
it
the high standard in
on
royal
of Nations,
has retained to
the production of missals
learned books that they have kept until the present day; set in all
liberty,
so untroubled, where armies always stand ready to guard one, where poisonings,
and
religious
the pubhshing of
nowhere but in Leyden could type be
the languages of the globe.
peacefulness that informs
recalls that
in a bitter struggle for existence,
by the same
Dutch painting should
really
be seen as a release of tension,
while these calm pictures were being painted the heroic
was
religious controversies
Catholic countries,
on
httle
politically disunited (like all democracies),
the subjea of grace
if
country was engaged
and predestination
and was
torn
that racked certain 39
4 Ethic and Aesthetic
In the transition from Renaissance to baroque, the centre of gravity of European
from
art shifted
the object to the subject; logic gave place to rhetoric.
Whether
a Renaissance
appearance, the
immediate
The
The work is no longer an end by the
artists
its
Van Eyck,
an
aim was
truth.
objective
reality, as
The work, once completed,
value, offered for admiration.
borrowed from the technique of
classical artists
and
theorists; the classical
pursue his
and he must
Baroque
thus an
art is
and
his admirer Bellori,
the spectator;
also
art
here the
but a means. Recent studies have shown that the methods employed
said Cicero, are to instruct, to delight,
The artist must
it;
with the creator of the work.
classical rhetoric, as
works of Cicero, Quintilian and Aristode. Curiously, the
by Poussin, by
did Raphael, or
but to demonstrate
to attain a truth,
to this sort of critical analysis than the impulsive
third.
his
higher
essential element in a dialogue
of this period were the
were propounded by
are used
heauty, the
and took on an
creator
of the baroque age sought, not
spectator enters the process as
known from
did
reality, as
became in a sense detached from artist
chose to pursue
artist
art in
to
and
also
move him whole.
better suited
The same
terms
by Boileau, who, however, neglerted the
(movere), that is
was
essentials of a great orator,
{docere dekctare et movere).
order to instrua (docere) while giving pleasure
of persuasion; this
to the artistic ethic of the period as a
temperament was
baroque mind. The
move
it
theories themselves
is stir
him
to action.
obviously true of religious
The methods
t^delectare) to
art,
but also applies
of persuasion employed by
artists
are
expression and metaphor.
Expression
is
the externalization of the passions of the soul (to use Descartes' term);
the subject of the second action,
which
is
book of
Aristotle's Rhetoric.
The
et
de Sculpture, which was
forms
passions are externalized through
an imitation by the body of the movements of the
Academie de Peinture
it
soul.
The
lectures of the
founded in France in 1648, continued
throughout the second half of the seventeenth century to deal mainly with theories of expression. In 1678
Le Brun gave
a lecture
on
the subject
which was printed
in 1698;
and another
of his, of which unfortunately only the oudine has survived, deals with the art of
by
their
physiognomy. Le Brun uses Descartes' theory of the passions
of expression in general,
which
is
lecture
knowing men
as a basis for his
account
followed by a discussion of the modes of expression, admi/'
ration, esteem, veneration, delight, scorn, horror, dread, simple love, desire, hope, fear, jealousy,
hatred, madness, physical pain, joy, laughter, weeping, anger, extreme despair,
40
the ways of rendering them.
and
rage,
and
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC The Cabinet des Dessins in the Louvre possesses a large collection of sketches which were made to illustrate Le Brun's second, lost lecture, and which, by virtue of his position as 'first painter to the king', entered the royal collection on the artist's death. In these sketches Le Brun
human
juxtaposes
facial
of 'morphopsychology'. Lavater, in his Me'moire sur
I'art d'etudier la
Fragments physiognomiques (1774), echoes the theories of
still
its
and
physiognomie (1772)
Le Brun; he
54-5
his
studies the face, 'the mirror
of the soul', not as the physiognomists or morphopsychologists of today
but in
pis
types with heads of animals, thus anticipating the latter-day students
would do,
in
its
structure,
Le Brun's drawings, which artists eighteenth century. Le Brun himself was
play of expressions; he had a great admiration for
came
to study in the
work
inspired by the
Louvre throughout the
of the founder of physiognomy, the Neapolitan natural philosopher
Giambattista della Porta (1541-1615), author of a
French in 1655.
translated into
treatise,
De
humana physiognomia, which was
A direct reflection of Della Porta's theories
is
be found in the
to
Entretiens of Felibien (1685).
The command
Expression occurs by means of bodily movements governed by the passions of the soul.
impulse of the passions produces within the person of himself artists
—an
who
is
determined to remain in
throughout the baroque age
essential principle
—a
profound conflict which
expressed by contrary movements, either of the head and the body, or of the eye and the
head. There itself first
is
a
found
whole system of artistic
gestural rhetoric,
expression, that
which appeared
in the fourth century
is
BC
when
the time
at
passion
in the tormented art of
Scopas. Artists of the seventeenth century employed the rhetoric of gesture constandy, either
having observed it is still
an
his pupils. 'This this
the only
is
it
in antique art or
essential element. is
more probably borrowed
'Watch
the
way
to give
forms their
tectural
saints.
is
it
from
Lafond used
the actor Pierre
body
is
here,
my
head
is
pi.
which
to say to
the other
way;
This technique of contrary movements
so essential a part of all
inspires the technique of ornamentation,
baroque
and even governs
the
art that in the
whole
archi'
and decorative design of a building.
In Italy feeling,
it
this,'
full value.'
balancing one another round one or several axes
rococo phase
do
When my
essential in the theatre.
way
I
the art of acting, of
at the
time of the Counter^Reformation, poets turned to the expression of religious
and in order
to
touch the emotions of the faithful paraphrased the lamentations of the
This lachrymatory verse was so successful that
One
it
was put
together in collections (Nuova
of the favourite themes of such pious poetry
raccolta di lagrime dei piit ilkstri poeti,
1593).
was the 'Tears of St
the Italian writer Tansillo devoted 336 verses.
Peter', to
poet Malherbe imitated
him
which
in one of his early
poems, which he
later
The French
pi.
^8
disowned, but which was
an enormous success. 'The Tears of the Magdalen' was another popular subject. Painters
found a rich source of inspiration in these two themes, particularly the second; the theme of the 'Penitent Magdalen' offers
some of the
best material for study for
anyone wishing
to under^
stand the conflict between asceticism and sensuality within seventeenth^century religious feeling.
Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth classical or
baroque
—developed
their
passions. Fragonard, for example,
centuries, artists
—whether we
classify
them
as
technique by means of exercises in the expression of the
drew a group of heads expressing
the terror caused by a lion
41
PRINCIPLES (Cahinet des Dessins, Louvre). pis
56-7
Bernini, as a prelude to his Soul.
These two
busts, in
two extremes of
portrays artificial,
Such
exercises
whole
artistic
which the
could also
thus the twenty/year/old
achievement, carved the Blessed Soul and the Damned
and with no
artist, freely
and
expression, joy
attract sculptors;
suffering,
any particular theme,
reference to
may seem
and somewhat
to us naive
but they are nonetheless essential to an understanding of his
and of baroque
art
art as
a whole. other technique of eloquence defined by Aristotle
The
is
metaphor. This
is
the indirect
approach, and consists in using the quaUties of one thing to express those of another, thus avoiding the dryness of mere definition the plastic
arts,
metaphor takes the form of
symbolic repertoire of the artists,
PL.
X
2g,
11^-6
art
of the baroque age;
the former often proving
and
allegory, it
this
was employed by both
more obscure than the
latter.
modern mind, unfamihar with humanism, than
astery of
and
Melk
or the
classical learning,
Amsterdam town found Poussin's
which, for Poussin, was the object of
From
this
to follow
comprehend
biblical
but a source of the deUght
painting: they produced a reverie of the imagination.
The complexity it
for
the systematized symbolism of the mon--
easy for the popular
less
than that of baroque, which offered a miseyen^scene calculated to produce an
agination enters the realm of plastic art
of baroque, charged as
it is
effect
on
with mystery, by no
When
captivated them.
it
mind
the popular im/
shows a spontaneous tendency towards the baroque;'
well illustrated in the famous Palais Ideal of Hauterives, built between 1879 and 19 12 by
postman Cheval. This creation
is,
in fact, the last echo of the
expressed in Uterature by Ariosto, Tasso, and so
difficult to
allegories not only accessible
means alienated ordinary people; on the contrary,
the
and baroque
Despite recent attempts to decipher
point of view, the language of classicism was certainly
the simplest understanding.
this is
classical
But seventeenth^century man, steeped in
hall.
all
the imagination. In
underUes the whole immense
them, the mythological allusions of Poussin's paintings are more the
ph
and reinforcing the expression by arousing
many baroque
La
myth of the ench^ted
Fontaine (in his novel Psyche), and in
castle, art
by
buildings.
Influenced by the persuasive pen of Emile Male, the imagination of French readers has been captured by the rehgious symbolism of the Middle Ages; and the iconologists, led by Erwin
Panofsky and Rudolf Wittkower, have studied the pagan symbolism of the Renaissance and of modern times. But the religious and secular symboHsm of the baroque age has somehow been regarded as of
less interest.
Baroque symbolism
certainly does not reject completely, as has
study, which, however,
demands
cannot pi.
2^
fail
to be
moved by
abound
the medieval tradition (which
sometimes been claimed);
great classical
to try to 'read' the allegories that
falls heir to
and
offers a rich field of
theological learning. If
we
take the trouble
in the architecture of the baroque monasteries,
their poetic quaUty.
What
subtlety there
is
in the
we
symboHc design
of the monastery of Melk, a sacred triangle formed by the marble hall (Marmorsaal), the Ubrary
and
the church. In the marble hall, Hercules herokus, once chosen as an
Nero and Commodus, symbolizes
the prince, or excellence in the
Hbrary Hercules Christianus, adopted in the Renaissance as a speaking 42
it
it
that this excellence
emblem by
human
emblem
the emperors
sphere; in the
of Christ, signifies
can only reside in Christian perfection, which the prince must possess. The
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC 'mental
fight*
of divine
—the psychomachy—which
wisdom which
Church
of the
Militant
who
of the faith
the
is
theme of the
the
is
theme of the Marmorsaal, and the celebration
library, are united in the sanctuary
where the triumph
symbolized by the martyr apostles Peter and Paul, the two
is
athletes
constitute the Christian Pillars of Hercules.
Confronted by a multiplicity of symbols, the mind leaps from form to form, from subject
an intoxication of
to subject, in
much
in so
A
complexity.
to find the beauty of
an overriding order
whole system of interchanges between pagan and Christian my/
thology reminds us that baroque
One
end
ideas, glad in the
humanism
reconciles revelation with the
of the most remarkable examples of this reconciliation
is
wisdom
the sanctuary of
Monte, near Braga in Portugal, a 'holy mountain' on the slopes of which
of antiquity.
Bom
Jesus
do
ph 55, 204
are set the Stations
of the Cross. Adjoining some of the Stations there are fountains, each dedicated to one of the
gods of Olympus, some of is
whom
also represent planets. In the chapel of the Resurrection there
a fountain showing Hercules the Christ^Bearer,
Half'way up the slope the
Way
of the Cross
on which a magnificent
dos cinco sentidos,
five successive levels, the five senses
and
quisition).
wounds sins
At
of Christ.
It is
Man,
represented
figures (these
were
statues illustrates,
nature in
desires of the five senses, is
more complex than
The
its totality.
and the various sensory
Redemption.
removed by the
purists of the In^
this; the
Bom Jesus
do Monte was
priest
touches
at
fountain of the
human
At
as polarized
which
it
about a single end which
and 1774,
the Stairway of the
immense
whom we
need
embodies.
serve as a pretext for religious eloquence,
the funerals of princes,
from
five senses,
Old and New Testaments with mythology, nature make the holy mountain a kind of
created between 1723
not hesitate to attribute the symbolic conceptions
Anything might
Extreme Unc/
Christ, also teaches us that he possessed our
association of the aspects of
which the
Five Senses being built as a result of a donation from the Jesuits of Braga, to
death.
on
by characters from the Old Testament later
symbol of the universe, considered, in the medieval view, is
and
thus clearly conveyed that the Saviour's sufferings have atoned for the
think the symbolism
the stars
interrupted by a superb stairway, the Escadorio
orchestration of fountains
which flows water symbolizing the blood of
human
has truly found his right setting here.
the foot of the staircase, water gushes in a magnificent fountain from the five
committed through the
tion. I
of
by mythological
originally also
is
who
above
all
the circumstances of
catafalques called castra doloris were set
up
in the
church, on which allegorical figures and gesticulating skeletons affirmed the vanity of the world,
while the preacher delivered the funeral oration (a form of eloquence of which the French preachers Bossuet
and Massillon were
the greatest exponents).
chapels remain as evidence of these ceremonies. Emile
reappeared in Italian
art as a reaction against the funeral
celebrated the virtues of the deceased
man
to achieve immortality
as
an opportunity
later historians
of St
John
slabs,
each one the
in Valetta, Malta.
It
tomb
of a knight,
has perhaps been
image of death
which
which form
wrong
for the exceptional
have drawn attention to
extraordinary baroque rhetoric of death, an astonishing example of
319 marble funeral
the
imagery of the Renaissance, which had
and regarded death
through fame. Several
Baroque tombs and funerary
Male has shown how
this
survives today in the
the floor of the cathedral
to regard this
new approach
to the
43
PRINCIPLES ceremonial of death only as an austere meditation on mortality, inspired by a Pascalian view of human destiny. This
is, it is
Rembrandt and
and of the category
of
all
others,
many works by Georges de La Tour, Zurbaran, of still^life known as the Vanitas, a favourite subject
true, the spirit of
the schools of the seventeenth century; but in considering baroque funerals altogether too
much emphasis has been put on death, and too little on the pomp and circumstance which surrounded it. One has only to read Bossuet's Oraisons funehres; the orator would not dwell so lovingly on the glory of the illustrious dead
icance in face of the greatness of
Conde, he cannot
if his sole
God. In
aim were
to demonstrate
extolling the immortality of his genius. In a
resist
man's
insignif/
the presence of the mortal remains of the Great
number
of tombs, chiefly
those of military heroes, death appears not as a bogy, reminding the Christian of the uncertainty
of his destiny, but as the bringer of glory. Glory can be
won
only by death, but only death
(strange paradox!) confers immortality; the ephemeral Uving being
home
enter the ideal world, the pis 30-1
and
of gods
heroes.
On the
tomb
must perish before
man
can
of Marshal Maurice de Saxe
by Pigalle in Saint^Thomas, Strasbourg, and on that of Louis William, Margrave of Baden^
Baden and comrades-in-arms of Prince Eugene, known of Turks (d. 1707), death that explode
is
as Tiirkenlouis for his
prowess as a
shown only as crushed underfoot by the hero, amid
around him in a burst of
slayer
a host of allegories
glory.
In an age in which every object embodied a message, none did so more than the instrument
which
of rehgious eloquence, the pulpit, truth'. pi.
52
In Bohemia, Austria and Silesia
form of a net
ship; others in the
in
Dutch was
we
find
called de stoel der waarheid, 'the chair of
some
pulpits in the
form of a fuUy/^rigged
for those 'fishers of men', the priests; others in the
form of a
whale from which Jonah, the preacher, emerges victorious over death. In the cathedral
Cordoba the pi.
2j6
pulpit
it
effigies
of the four Beasts of the Apocalypse. In Flanders
standing
if the, priest
had
with his words.
Architecture 16^
supported by huge
the pulpit often constitutes a veritable encyclopaedia of religious truth, as
shaped
pi.
is
at
itself carries
pillars, inspired
the church built by the
a message of truth for those
who
can read
it.
The two
strange free/
by Trajan's Column, which stand before the Karlskirche in Vienna,
Emperor Charles VI
plague, are multiple symbols.
They
in thanksgiving for the
represent Constantia
and
end of an outbreak of
Fortitudo, virtues
church's patron St Charles Borromeo, and an allusion to Charles VI's are also Pillars of Hercules, the imperial
emblem
of Charles
own
proper to the
motto; and they
V and also possibly a reference to
Charles VI's ambitions for the Spanish crown. Perhaps, too, they can be seen as Jachin and Boas, the twin columns of the
In the strange
dome
Temple
of Solomon, erected here by a latter/day Solomon.
of Guarini's Capella della Santissima Sindone in Turin, the contrasts of
hght and shade above the shrine which contains the shroud of Christ have the symbohc
signify
icance of Life and Death.
There
is
no
architectural
form more expressive than the dome, symbol of the centre of the
world since the time of Nero,
which revolved 44
on
to
show
the
who
in his 'Golden House' built one in the form of a planetarium
movements of the
stars.
Thus
the order of the cosmos, an ancient magical idea
the order of the
which
is
also
Empire was patterned
found in ancient Chinese
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC cosmology. Eugenio d'Ors connects the
dome with
the notion of sovereignty finds expression, there
symbol of Orthodoxy radiating
emblem
of Catholicity. In
and angels
saints
upon
light
the concept of monarchy. Indeed, wherever
—
these celestial visions
the
dome
and St
Peter's,
dome is
tomb (such
as the
tomb
the
Eghse de
la
dei Miracoli, Saronno, near Milan,
now
on a
dome
has a
Sorbonne, Paris, built over the tomb of Richelieu) the
the origin of which
lieroon,
round hut. This form the so-called
Tomb
gave us the burial
of the Christian
no doubt
mounds
of San Sebastiano in Milan tian hero
back
to the very
The
is
moved
dawn
founded on ancient
the age of industrial civilization. Spring stems
riddles has
it is
who
a rotunda, a
by man, the
Emperor Augustus,
enters the
mankind
baroque church
for St Sebastian, Christ
which
reaches
beliefs
One
in the light of the science of comparative
show
which have
that even the
most sophisticated mythical
persisted in the popular imagination into
author has argued that the subject matter of
from a twelfth^century Byzantine poem; others have seen
its
successor
tombs of the Medressa,
the
tomb
^21
of humanity.
religion and Jung's theory of archetypes tends to
Andre Varagnac
to classical sources.
was the
are the repositories of a cultural heritage
study of the ancient traditions of
constructs are
tomb of
Algeria, the
receptive visitor
to find that
and martyr. Baroque churches
turn
lay in the oldest dwelling erected
of Celtic chieftains, the
Woman in
and the mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. The
its
pi.
the Institut,
of Mazarin), or even in a church with a nave, but centring
funerary significance derived from the early Christian martyrium. This in of the antique
the
perhaps the exquisite one
1534). But over a rotunda (such as the College des Quatre Nations, Paris,
which once housed
Rome,
depicts the heavens, peopled with
beneath a
Madonna
painted by Gaudenzio Ferrari in the church of
Sophia, Constantinople,
as in St
Justinian's empire;
many baroque churches
(the earliest of
dome
a
is
source in the ancient
it
Botticelli's
as a direct reference
has demonstrated that this learned assemblage of allegorical
May festival,
derived from primitive nature religion,
which
annually celebrated the return of spring.
The from
and
aristocrats
their roots in
popular culture;
and werewolves from as a stimulus to the
who
intellectuals of the sixteenth
imagination which
awakens the mind'.
The
of them had heard fairy
their nurses or their
declared that his religion
grew up; we have
all
We
was
if
earliest
legends and stories of ogres
childhood; and these
that of his
king and his nurse, said that
'the
charm of
felt
an
are to appreciate
instinctive
mous human
beings,
have no history of than pass
came
life
forth
sympathy.
own; but
on and with
much
The
who crowded
their
fables
it.
and learned
how
the
culture in the baroque
common
world must be
people could be drawn into the poetic
world of baroque churches and palaces, a world which they did not comprehend but they
tales acted
can have no conception of the poetic world in which children of old
rejected
we
mothers in
tales,
centuries were not cut off
they were to exercise in intellectual speculation. Descartes,
contact between popular culture
borne in mind
and seventeenth
it
Neapolitan cribs serve to
the churches
and
filled
remind us of
this.
the public places to
they must not be ignored.
By
for
which
These anony
watch
festivals,
living, they did hardly
more
their store of fables, beliefs and natural lore; but out of their poverty
of the imaginative wealth
which made
possible the creation of so
many
45
PRINCIPLES masterpieces of houses,
art.
Visiting the 'open-air
some dating from
the seventeenth century, in
domestic animals and his crops, one that
was passed on from age staircase of the
Farnesi held court; pi. 4^
door leads
on
was
The
monarch, in
left
own universe, where his own kingdom.
and
are the ducal apartments,
World War). Like
was inaugurated by a
series
at
the far
Every royal or princely palace had
now
its
theatre;
rebuilt after
the court theatres of the period,
all
helmina,
who
at
Vignola and
Piacenza on a similar pattern.
some even contained
adjoining her palace, pi.
j^p
employed Carlo GaUi Bibiena
in 1748
later built
of rocks. Some works of
the nearby
several,
to build the exquisite
and sometimes
rococo theatre
architecture, like the
Zwinger
in Dresden, are conceived as vast
of the period;
life
it
was
certainly
the most characteristic art form of the time, especially in the guise of opera, a spectacle
use of
all
painter, librettist,
himself, for
The
the arts, calling
had
it
was
4^
gestures required
a considerable influence
paintings
on
which take
40
(himself a
librettist
Cornaro family at Osterhofen,
on
the formal language of the other arts: figures in
pi.
42
scenes for
monumental
movement, in
particular, the
ample
and
who
some
can be seen in galleries
Innocents). In the Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, Bernini
theatrical designer) stages the Ecstasy of
chatting in boxes
where they have
on minature
stage
the form of plays performed before spectators
who sit
flanking the high
finally the spectator
the baroque stage (Bernini's St Longims in St Peter's). There are
(Guide's Massacre of the pi.
—and
essentially a social occasion.
motion were frequently based on the conventions of pi.
which
the talents of architect, perspectivist, costume/designer,
composer, engineer, musician, singer, stage designer
whom
theatre
on
Wil'
Felsengarten Sanspareil, a rustic theatre constructed
open/air theatres. Theatre was one of the essential features of the
made
it
of masques which included the inevitable
a garden theatre like that of the Palazzo Boboli in Florence. In Bayreuth the Margravine
47
the
end a gigantic
theatre thus stood at the very heart of courtly Ufe. Paciotti,
Testa had designed the cortik of the Palazzo Farnese
pi.
his
by the poetry,
its
by Giambattista Aleotti in 1617-19 (and
to the court theatre built
sea battle.
same roof with
the simplicity, but also
the centre of
sovereign, like the
and
being destroyed during the Second
mock
The farm was
the
seeing the farm/
Palazzo Ducale in Parma leads to the great atrium where the
the right
also served as a ballroom. It
which man shared
overwhelmed by
is
to age.
farmer, as the master of nature,
The grand
museums' of Northern Europe and
altar.
either side.
installed lifelike
The Asam
brothers follow his
example
painted figures of the founders in stage boxes
In the Oratory of San Lorenzo, Palermo, Serpotta carves religious
stages,
staircases,
palaces seem gradually to
on
St Teresa for the members of the
From
complete with curtains.
and
the theatre,
no doubt, came the
taste
for palaces built with the effect of a series of perspectives; real
have come
to resemble the
sham ones
the relationship between the notion of space in the theatre,
created
and
on
the stage.
in painting
and
would undoubtedly throw Hght on the bonds of understanding between these painting that anticipated the theatre, as
is
shown by
A study of
architecture,
arts, for it
was
the conception of Raphael's Dispute in the
Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican.
An 46
ballet
important form of theatrical activity was the allegorical masque, often in the form of a put on for some ceremonial or political occasion.
The
sovereign himself did not disdain
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC dramas, acting his role of monarch in costumed guise. In a carrousel (a
to take part in these
tournament in costume) in 1662, Louis
which was Les
Plaisirs de I'Isle enchantie,
costumed
himself,
Dresden in 1719
as
XIV,
Roman
dressed as a
In the entertainments he gave
of knights, or 'quadrille'.
Emperor, led
own group
pi. jtj
1664, the theme of
at Versailles in
'The Pleasures of the Enchanted
his
Island',
XFV
Louis
Ruggero, stormed the palace of Alcina. The celebrations organized in
Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Maria Josepha of
for the marriage of
pi-
349
Austria included a masque of the planets in which Augustus appeared as Mars; the myth of
symboUc
Jason, a
Order of the Golden Fleece conferred on Augustus by
reference to the
the
Emperor, was performed on the Elbe. In Vienna in 1669, on the occasion of another wedding celebration attended
by the ambassadors of
Austria' had been the theme of a the roof of the
masque
all
in
the states of Europe, the 'Glory of the
which
and Glory opened on
a temple of Eternity
Emperor
himself.
These entertainments, whether they took place in the
the castle of Bisc in
Hungary
for the
nine months,
making merry, hunting,
air,
the 'Bloody Countess'; they stayed at the
feasting
and gaming while they waited
entertainments to begin again to celebrate the birth of the these festivities,
open
wedding of Judith Thurzo, second daughter of Gyorgy,
and kinsman of Erzsebet Bathory,
Palatine
theatre, the palace or in the
sometimes even months. In 1607, several hundred guests came to
lasted several days or weeks,
Grand
of
Hof burg to reveal a statue of the Emperor, and which culminated in the appearance,
dens ex machina, of the
castle for
House
and a model
for all the others,
first
The most
child.
for the
extravagant of
were those given in 1579 for the marriage of
Francesco de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, and the enchanting Bianca Capello. In prep/ aration for
them
the Neo/Platonic
and Allori with symbolic
Accademia
Fiorentina
material. Decorators, poets
Even
cities
for a year to provide
and musicians could have wished
more splendid theme than the marriage of two famous
them of the leading
worked
of the Renaissance, Florence
lovers
{Amor
accompany
et
had a passion
the solemn transfer of the
chapel of the Rosario to the newly/built parish church of Pilar. representing the Planets, the
Gods
Olympus,
of
mountains of Ouro Preto, the town
for
on the
stage martyrs
and
acted by the pupils of their schools both in actor, that despised figure
Christian burial, his
life
may
it,
World, the two
tragka: costumed like actors.
They
created a
whole
own)
to be
overseas.
in the seventeenth century did not even have the right to
thus be seen as typical of the whole baroque age,
rather than live
when man seemed to act Works
continually projecting himself into a fictitious, ideal existence.
of art themselves, like stage the spectator to
who
in the
Turks and Christians,
saints (taking care not to forget their
Europe and
a
procession included figures
Jesuits did not neglect the educational possibihties of the theatre.
sacred drama, putting
The
all 'vestidos a
festivities;
Triumph' held
the Seasons, the Parts of the
heroes from Roman history and characters from Scripture,
The
The
such
Holy Sacrament from
the parish church of Pilar,
itself,
no
and Venice.
in the remotest overseas colonies, cultivated people
Preto, Brazil, in 1733 to
for
Arma), and through
description published in 1734 has preserved a record of the 'Eucharistic
Ouro
Vasari
become an
sets
made
of canvas, marble or stone, seemed constantly to beckon
actor in the play.
47
;
.
PRINCIPLES It
was in seeming,
Gracian
justifies his
?'
he asks. 'The
much hidden
reality
and appearances. 'Of what use would
greatest art .
.
.
(and thus gUtter)
Outward show
first
of
.
.
duel.
A
life',
'regard
But
a
if
Perron,
mask
who
stances to
it.
critic
what one does
popular themes
peacock from blame; he has
is
to be effective
among
it
According
extols the
himself
is
by creating
Gracian a
to
the struggle against his fellow arbiter of
is
we
'a
man
man:
a
manners and
good
actor in
acting a part'.
must constantly be changed. Inconstancy find
it
is
celebrated by the
one of the most
Frenchman
Du
and by Etienne Durant, who dedicated some
devotes an elegy to Variety:
why
heavens rejoyce in motion,
my is
so
much
none,
'New Chameleon',
//
if
should
I
lov'd variety
not diversified
.
.
Novel Cameleonte; while Etienne Durant wonders
possible to be anything but inconstant, since
Le passe nest plus Et
rien,
ce qu'il tient present,
'The past
is
the Portuguese poet Agostinho da
Tudo
se
lefutur un nm^e, *.
sentfu^itif,
il le
nothing, the future a cloud,
and what he holds
As
on
to carry
raised a 'temple to Inconstancy';
John Donne
God
sanctified ostentation
dissimulation.
seventeenth/century poets;
Pleasure
it is
is
and imagine one
as a play,
Abjure
how
to all things'.
of Voiture, goes so far as to say that one should be
The
Marino
life
French moralist, the Chevaher de Mere (1610-84),
and
worth more than
all.
must make himself impenetrable in order
masked
be without appear/
reality
httle ostentation is
gives a second
.
But a necessary concomitant of ostentation
taste, letter/writer
A
the art of seeming ...
is
called as a witness to absolve the light
his true substance. Baltasar
choice of the peacock as a model by debating the much/discussed problem
of the relation between reality
ances
found
rather than in being, that the individual
Cruz
present he
knows
puts
things change at
it; all
muda em fin, muda
is fleeting'.
se tudo.
These quotations, collected by Jean Rousset, the historian of the
matched by many more.
One
hero of the age
shepherd of d'Urfe's long novel L'Astrie, of the early seventeenth century.
From
Marivaux and Beaumarchais, masks,
is
Proteus,
who became
Shakespeare,
human
literary
and another
is
baroque, could be
Hylas, the inconstant
a favourite figure in the pastoral Literature
Lope de Vega and Corneille
pretence, disguise, doubles,
misapprehensions were the very stuff of comedy and
Beaumarchais, especially, the
last:
lies,
also of opera. In the
to
Goldoni,
shams, decoys and
work
of
Marivaux and
being seems almost to dissolve in the myriad
facets of
The most moving of all expressions of this flight from the self is perhaps Mozart and Da Ponte's Le Nozze di Figaro, a lovers' roundabout in which no one knows where to bestow
seeming.
48
his love, each lover believes that he loves
someone
who
is
not what he loves, pretends to love
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC one in order
be loved by another, and, thinking to meet one, meets another or sometimes even
to
a false semblance of himself; only the innocent
women', has any
'lover of all
At
solidity.
and vicious Cherubino,
who
like
end of the course each individual
the
Hylas
The music
beings are fragmented as they are in the mirrors of baroque chateaux.
from the
self in
human
was now
dominant themes of baroque opera; the
the
world where
borrowed from Ovid or from
Italian
all
was ephemeral, the
characters themselves, whether
romance, were similarly lacking in consistency. The true
quality of the characters seems to reside in the 'enchantment' that carries
'ordeal
into beast or god, fairy or
by metamorphosis' were a kind of
In baroque
demon,
poet's true goal
is
function
Its
finally to
initiation into
art the object offered for the spectator's
nature than the spectator himself.
its
favourite
the transformation scene, an instant change from sunlight to storm, sea
to land, forest to palace; in a
and changes them
of Mozart cap/
a masterpiece touched with deep emotion.
Impermanence and change were scenic device
the
finds himself to
be what he always was, and what he believed he did not wish to be; in an intricate dance
tures this flight
is
is
them out of themselves
become men
again, as
if this
humanity.
admiration
is
no more straightforward
to astonish, excite, enchant, transport.
wonder, writes Marino; he must
know how
to stupefy, or
'
in
The
he deserves a
drubbing:
E del poeta Chi non
Even today,
in several
Spanish and Portuguese.
In eighteenth/century gardens there is
sa far stupir veda alia striglia.
Romance languages, the strongest word of praise for beauty is 'stupendous';
stupendo in Italian, estupendo in
the ha/ha. This
la fin la maraviglia:
the ditch or
is
one feature the name of which
sudden drop which,
of the park so as not to interrupt the vista
amusement,
said:
their admiration,
'The nature of men
and which they cannot
a gasp of astonishment,
end of an avenue, conceals the wall
at the
—causing people taking a walk, coming
of the drop, to exclaim in surprise. Descartes, the master of reason, for
is
is
who
to the
edge
himself read romances
such that they value only those things which arouse
entirely grasp.'
as we are, since romanticism and existentialism, to the probing of the self to its we might perhaps be tempted to see this perpetual dissimulation as an escape from
Accustomed very depths, reality.
Present-day French Catholics,
still
of praying in a baroque church, since for 'effusion'. It
come
was not
or less Jansenists at heart,
them prayer
so in the seventeenth century,
Are we
justified, in the
name
was the accepted form of self-expression as the negation of reaUty, or a
essence,
its
shining forth
come down is,
into the
—
as the
garment
Book
each believer could in his
whose
of truth, in
gestures
most. But
of Proverbs says,
world of semblance
possibility
its
is
We
own
were displayed in
condemning
in the baroque period? at the
deny the
consists only in contemplation, not in
when
close to the mystery of the 'effusion' of the saints
of the church.
who
more
heart
all parts
that ostentation
which
tend to think of semblance
not appearance the revelation of
splendour? Pure Being consented to
—our own—taking on
our nature through the Son
says St Paul, 'the effulgence of his glory'. All the Christian mystics have celebrated
49
PRINCIPLES Henry Suso, and even
the 'beauty of appearances'; St Augustine, St Francis, the Blessed
of the Cross, most profound of the profound, were stones
and stucco of the baroque churches
vibrate,
amid
sound of organs, the
the
St
John
with the joy with which the very
all filled
of gold
glitter
and the smoke of incense.
Why
should
we
was not weakness,
see as
surely, that
king, thus imposing
man
to be 'a
must
good
mere vanity the bearing ordained by baroque ideas of decorum?
made each man
on himself 'an order of
actor in
life',
—
Consequently, are not of the real courtiers;
majesty'.
The Chevalier de Mere
'to
mask
fitting the
appear
ideal? The men who so much among them were shrewd ministers,
and the
so,
advises the gentle/
one must in
to the face,
masks and disguises
these
all
take as his guiding principle the nature of the
but he also says:
but act out one's character
act,
It
be
fact
appearance to
One
matching
really attempts to achieve a
enjoyed acting a part were not
so'.
reality.
mere frivolous
all
astute politicians, great military leaders, skilful
financiers, economists, engineers, artists, pious
—and
churchmen
even
saints.
St Ignatius of
Loyola, in his Exercises, recommends a kind of spiritual training which uses audio/visual
methods; in other words, 'appearances'. For St PhiUp Neri, music was the vehicle of elevation; he passed
room next
The It
to the
on
spiritual
Oratorian Order, and Borromini built a music
this tradition to the
church of the Order in Rome.
and seeming produced baroque humanism.
search for a true equilibrium between being
must, however, be admitted that
escape, to be 'transported', suggest
and psychological
origins. It
is
this perpetual
by
their excess
anguish.
self to
the 'other', this need to
an anxiety which must have had both
spiritual
true that in the seventeenth century the Christian faith ran deep;
but the Catholic of that time was too
him some hidden
swing from the
The
much
a Catholic by self/persuasion not to have within
serenity of the
Church had been profoundly shaken by
Renaissance and the Reformation. If Christians indulged their sense of the
fictitious^ they
the
were
seeking consolation in pagan myth for the anguish caused by the uncertainties of Divine Grace.
This desire
for escape, this passionate
an ideal existence the void
left
centuries,
need to project one's
—whether expressed in the
by the contemplation of a future
measuring
In the secular
this life
field,
classical or the life
in
by means of make-believe into
baroque mode
and awaiting death
and eighteenth/century man must
sensed the hoUowness of a civilization based
—surely arose to
also
as a
fill
so
many
day of
birth.
which Christian man had passed
in terms of the hereafter,
seventeenth/
life
have instinctively
on assumptions which were being contradicted,
slowly but surely, by the progress of philosophy and natural science and by the imperatives of life
in a
new
society.
The condemnation men;
him
it
caused Descartes to
Office in 1633 deeply disturbed
from some of the consequences of
was
many
his doctrines
stationary, although, as
thinking
and obliged
he confessed in a
letter
he was convinced of the contrary. In 1701, as a counterblast to the learned journals
that were spreading
50
retreat
Holy
to declare in his Principes that the earth
to Mersenne,
in
of Galileo by the
which one Pere
new
Castel,
ideas throughout Europe, the Jesuits
whom Voltaire called the
a long refutation of the theories of
Newton and
founded the Journal
'Don Quixote
Leibnitz.
As
de
Trevoux
of mathematics', undertook
late as
1766, the torture and
ETHIC AND AESTHETIC execution of the young Chevalier de
La
Barre for the crime of defacing a crucifix caused a
scandal which Voltaire publicized vigorously throughout the Europe of the Enlightenment.
European
Facts such as these are evidence of deep contradictions within
which drove
tions
artificial
The
tormented by uncertainty to take refuge in a hedonistic mirage, an
spirits
world.
Jean Starobinski, in an attempt to dispel the 'myth' of the eighteenth century, has
critic
described
as traversed
it
which were in the
by drama, anguish and uncertainty, moved by powerful undercurrents
of the
And
to unleash the revolutionary apocalypse.
Wallace collection in London, looking
such an interpretation hard to accept.
finds
civilization, contradic/
modern world Never ?
at the
Louvre or
at Versailles or
art of the period,
one inevitably
yet, in
French
the
Was this the age which
was
to suffer the birth
in the history of the arts has there been a century in
which
pangs
there
was
such a gap between the serene image which society had of itself and the dark reaUty of the hidden
mask
depths. Beneath this
becoming charged with inflicted
XIV;
by Louis
XV; the oppressed
The
violence.
aristocracy
was nursing
rise
and
as
No longer
XVI, was
all
to
become the scapegoat
in the tragic nineteenth century to the
something of a surprise
myth of a golden
This
a style
man who was one
was
it
and
which
age, the century of the sweet
epitome of seventeenth^century rationalism;
to discover that his career
a thoroughly unstable character.
for
aggressive impulses from crossing the threshhold
instead of the expression of reality here were the myths of reason
Posterity has regarded Descartes as the
comes
power by Louis
To this mask of civility we owe the most amiable artistic style in history,
sensibility.
gave
revenge for the humiliations
masses were losing confidence in their natural protector, the king.
Meanwhile a 'censor' prevented
of consciousness,
its
the bourgeoisie for being excluded from the centre of
the father of his people, the king, in the person of Louis all their ills.
was slowly
of optimism, the collective psyche of the French nation
life.
therefore
PL.
i
that of a ne'er-do-well, a drifter,
day to abandon a book
for fear of
finding himself in conflict with Catholic orthodoxy began his career by enlisting in the Calvinist
which took
armies of Maurice of Nassau; he was then twenty^two (i6i8). After journeyings
him
Poland and Hungary we
as far afield as
milian of Bavaria,
Who
still
He
Holland, he
from town
to
may once have
town.
Egmond
What demon ?
in the
army of the Catholic Duke Maxi^-
possessed
Amsterdam
Descartes'
life is
the tension between contrary impulses
him
an
act of free will.
possessed the author of the Discours de
and resumed
found an atmosphere congenial
then in Daventer, then Endegeest,
of chivalry
eventually 'demobilized himself' at last
him
refusing his pay so that his enlistment should remain
knows what dreams
Methodei
find
to his
to settle
his travels;
and even when,
work, he continued
first
to
in Franeker, then in
again, then Utrecht, Leyden, Santpoort in contradiction with his
which was the source of
work;
it
.
la
in
move about Amsterdam, .
.
,
Leyden,
demonstrates, in fact,
the wealth of early seventeenth^
century culture.
At
a time
although
XIV
it
when Europe was
was soon
to be
the State.
The
by
brought into
was the prime example of
embodied
rent
first
conflicts, the spirit of
line
a society in
individualism was emerging,
by the power of monarchy. The France of Louis
which
half of the century also
all
saw
things revolved round the
man who
the emergence of powerful personalities
51
PRINCIPLES in art
art,
men
who
of genius,
created a
world of their own. From the reign of Louis XIV, however,
truly 'collective' in character, tending
became
towards the
total
work
of
which many
in
art,
elements are integrated in a harmonious whole; this was also a period of great achievements in
music, which again
harmony it
—the
The
an expression of the
is
of individuahsm, an individuaHsm that
spirit
seventeenth/century
myth of
From
collective, unifying impulse.
was
there re^emerged, in the eighteenth century, the force that
Don Juan was
was
itself
within
this perfect
oppose and destroy
to
profoundly self^destructive.
succeeded by the eighteenth^century reahty of
the Marquis de Sade.
The figures,
two
centuries of Ught,
Caravaggio created darkness
was metaphysical. Henceforward, darkness was
ph
55
48-^
monk
enveloping the hermit in his
who
eats his
pi. 51 pi.
52
meagre repast of bread and water without
$4
man
Rembrandt
apparatus:
him, more
sees
human
meditating in the soft light that
way
falls
book, for
his
life is
broken by the short-lived
burning with passionate enquiry. The
spirit
from the window. In Velazquez
with himself,
this darkness, a
symbol
ashen half'hght which overwhelms and threatens to destroy
to a baleful
the figures, reduced to trembling black shapes. In one painter alone, Terborch, the feeling for
Holland mingles with the metaphysical
how
the seventeenth century found expression
controversy
on
if
One man
carries
in love with make^beUeve, fantasy face, finds
ostentation
it
at
now
the rejection of fifteen
feel it
Old and New bearing
—quivering shapes
little
portraits
No
that arouse in the spectator
universe.
the conflicts of the age
and outward show.
on
are at
he reduces
painter of his century.
to the
all
The
—Rembrandt.
No
one
is
one, constantly scrutinizing his
more
own
once so agreeable and so wretched. Being and seeming, appearance and reahty,
and withdrawal,
its effect is lost,
in different ways.
man amid an unresponsive
within himself
condition^ (which in
shrinking from the prying gaze of the painter, are
shrouded in a half light borrowed from Velazquez a painful sense of the solitude of
silence of Catholic
Catholics and Calvinists alike in the great
worked on men's minds
the nature of Grace)
human
the anguish of the
among
of Terborch, withdrawn into themselves as
52
is
from
clearly, as stripped of everything, alone
Spain. This strange conjunction shows
Ill
lifting his eyes
numbered. Sometimes the darkness
are
silence characteristic of Calvinist
PL.
den (Rembrandt) and the
philosopher, in the paintings of Ferdinand Bol, appears as a specialist surrounded by scientific
of absence, gives pi.
—a darkness whose nature
mantle of nothingness, a habit of mourning,
in his cell (Zurbaran), the philosopher in his
flame of a candle, like the hght of the
50
like a
(Caravaggio), and bending the back of Crespi's St Charles Borromeo,
retreat
short: the days of
pi.
his
reduced to mere bodies, indicate a sense of abandonment by God, of the emptiness of
the world. After
pi.
Argan shows how
master of angst was Caravaggio; in a penetrating study,
first
The
it
war within him; now he to
stripping
hundred
its
barest essentials.
on emotion
Rembrandt was
so heavily that
the greatest religious
of religious ornament ordained by the Reformation,
away
years of Christian symbolism, forced
Testaments, which enabled
him
to
come
—
to refer himself direcdy
enough
becomes
to the divine to
warm
as
a hght so brief that the pilgrims cannot
which
it is still
before their eyes or already within their hearts.
the gentle radiance of love
him
close
his heart. In his Pilgrims of Emntaus, the darkness
the hght
is
piles
it
tell
envelops
whether
PRINCIPLES Wolfflin's antithesis In the same subject handled by two artists
of the
same school, with
less
than twenty years between them, the classical-'baroque dualism
Heinrich
by
fined
de--
Wolfflin
is
apparent. Titian's painting, like an
antique bas
relief, is a static,
closed
composition in which each element, while contributing to the action, retains
that
an autonomy analogous
to
with which
it
of a
shares
statue,
qualities of
its
distinctness.
on
sition,
weight and
Tintoretto's
compo^
the other hand,
is
dy^
namic. Space does not unfold in breadth but in depth; the surface crossed by a violent spiral
ment;
its
vector, so to speak,
gesture of the
woman
is
move/ is
the
in the fore^
ground. The action begins in front of the picture plane and continues
behind
it.
The
forms, indissolubly
linked in an organic
unity,
animated by a Icvitational
1
are
force.
Titian(i489-i576). Presentation of tlie
Virgin in the Temple
2 Tintoretto (1518-94). Presentation of the Virgin in the
Temple
3
Titian (1489-1576).
Assumption
of the Virgin
The
life
of forms
4 Girolamo Bedoli Mazzola (1500-69).
5
Immaculate Conception
Assumption of the Virgin
The
Peter Paul
three successive evolutionary stages, classicism,
each of these two groups of paintings.
The
Rubens (1577-
1640).
mannerism and baroque,
are reflected in
mannerist stage introduces confusion mto the
rigorous composition of classicism; the baroque recaptures the lost unity. In Titian's Assump" tioH
the Virgin
is
enclosed in a
circle,
her feet resting
on clouds
as if
on the ground. In Rubens'
6 Fra Bartolommeo (1472-1517).
7 Jacopo da Pontormo (149 3-155 7).
8
Virgin and Child with
Virgin and Child with
Mystic marriage of St Catherine
saints
saints
Peter Paul
Rubens (1577-1640).
1 handling of the subject, with composition,
diagonal
she
wing and seems about
The
of the picture.
to soar out
Virgin and Child
Bartolommeo
with Saints of Fra
divided into equal masses as a
movement
static
subject.
Child
a
into his basically
Pontormo's
with
Virgiii
with
Saints,
its
haggard, uncoordinated figures, filled
is
by
if
Rubens introduces
balance;
spiral
and
its
takes
is
with an undirected agitation.
Obliquity The
sacristy of the Escurial, in the
Renaissance a
spirit,
perspective
arranged
is
composition.
the seventeenth
century,
Coello,
upon
called
In
9
Alonso Sanchez Coello (1515-90). Sacred Form,
in sacristy of the Escurial,
Madrid
Sanchez paint
to
hang above the
picture to
as
a
altar,
broke the symmetrical perspective,
which
retained,
by
letting the lines of his
composition
The The is
would have
a classical artist
battle
slip
away
at
an angle.
of the colonnade
great classical'baroque debate
nowhere
in the
better
numerous
M 'o Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Third project for east front of the Louvre, Paris
exemphfied than II
made
projects
Fast front of the Louvre, Paris, 1667-70
for
the colonnade of the east front of the Louvre. Bernini's later projects,
although
much
toned
comparison with baroque in
spirit;
a rusticated base, are varied to
his
down
first,
are
produce
a
on
intervals
1
1
i.
1 ji 1 1 1 1 1
iij. I ijjj
1
niii
I ijt;
1
'ii
I I t I I
I
1 I I
syncopated
rhythm. The colonnade was built to a regular
M
still
the fa5ade rests
and the
fmrnmrmj^
by
finally
French design.
_9A_in
14
J.
Satteling. Silver
candelabrum,
Amsterdam 1770
15 J. Caffieri. Silver three^branched
girandole,
Paris, eighteenth
16 Bernhard Heinrich Silver baptismal
century
Weye.
ewer and
tray,
Augsburg, 1745-47
12 Detail of rocaille ornament,
La Madalenha,
Falperra, Portugal
13
56
Nicolaus Schmidt. Silver ewer, Nuremberg 1586
Rocaille and rococo
The word
'rococo' stems from the
designate the shell^like forms sixteenth century
onwards
grottoes in gardens. is
reproduced;
it
word
'rocaille',
which were used from
the
in the construction of artificial
Sometimes the form of the
seashell itself
sometimes happened that jewellers
shells in precious
used to
mounts. More
often,
set real
however, rocaille
produces an ornate outHne, with complex curves, which reveals
little
saw very style,
of its naturalistic origin.
well, in his
As the engraver Cochin
1754 manifesto of
protest against this
the ductile materials used by goldsmiths
and
silver^
smiths were particularly well adapted to the complex con^ volutions
and
the
rhythmic
counterpoint
which
are
characteristic of rococo.
57
Ceremonial portraiture
Magistrate, bishop, prince or king, the
man
of quality
is
represented as a hero,
in all the intensity of
an imaginary action,
marked by a movement of the head which reveals
nobility
the
above the
common
of a
temperament
run of mortals.
It
was
Bernini, in his bust of Francesco d'Este,
and
later in
created
which 17
this
that of
Louis
type of heroic
inspired
artists
all
XIV, who portraiture
over Europe.
Simon Guillain (1581-1658). Louis XIII
(detail)
18
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680).
Francesco
d'Este
I
19 Antoine Coysevox(i640-i72o).
The Great
Conde 20 Antoine Coysevox ( 1 640- 1 720). Louis XIV 21 Paul Heermann(i673-i752). Augustus the
Strong
22 Anon.
(f.
23 Giovanni
Louis 58
XIV
1695).
Emperor Leopold
I
Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680).
f
I^r
S:^^'
f
1
. ..
^y
..,:.
jj
.
mk
;
V,,
•;,;>?
24 Jacob Jordaens (1593- 167S).
Tiiiuiipli ul
I'linci.'
The royal
myth
hicdciick
Henry
(detail),
Huis
ten Bosch, Netherlands
In the great sculptured or painted compositions
which is
celebrate the glory of the
monarch, he
represented in a mythical universe, living
and demigods,
familiar terms with gods
rounded
by a world alive with
Mythological figures foregather to virtues, his victories, his
on
sur^
allegories.
illustrate his
power and
his mag--
nanimity.
25 Daniel
Gran
(1694-1757). Emperor Charles by
VI
surrounded
allegories,
Hofburg
(Nationalbibliothek),
60
Vienna,
after
1722
26 Joseph Vernet (1714-89). Sporting contest on the Tiber
The
life
of the people
The common people and
the
ruHng
classes,
who
The
culture of the masses remained faithful to
tions; elite culture invented
which and
the
common
the populace
new forms. These two
became
the actors
founded on the hard labour of the
Ceriiti
Woman
spinning, with beggar
28 Los Hoes, farm'
house
at
Twente,
Netherlands, seventeenth century
in a
(detail)
commonweal
immutable
ancestral tradi^
universes met in the great aristocratic festivals to
people were invited as spectators. Sometimes, too, the roles were reversed,
and
the aristocracy looked on.
that the wealth of artistic creation produced, at
(/. 1750).
Middle Ages hved
Rome
based on religious faith and the solidarity inherent in the feudal system, grew apart in the course of the baroque age.
27 Giacomo
in the
at
common
It
must not be forgotten
enormous expense, by the baroque age was
people, for
many
centuries the only source of wealth.
29 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Ceiling of the Marmorsaal,
Melk, Austria, 1731
30 JeaiP-Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85).
Memonal to Marshal Maurice
de Saxe, in Saint'Tboinas, Strasbourg, 177J
3 1
Memorial
to
Margrave Louis William of Baden,
kenlouis', in Stiftskirche,
Baden-Baden, eighteenth
'Tiir'
centurj'
The
transcendental world
Sacred or secular, the world of imagery which celebrates the glory of great
men
or the mysteries of faith never proceeds by
objective reference but by the indirect language of allegory
symbol. This
where
all
change
is
a world peopled with
objects
attributes
and and
all
signs, figures
and
and emblems,
beings (including rational beings) ex/
properties in a perpetual semantic shift.
Educated men and humanists took pleasure
in inventing
and
construing this secret language, which seemed to them to be
charged with superhuman or supernatural power.
magic overwhelmed the simple souls
for
whom
Its
unearthly
were built the
pilgrimage churches laden with figures and symbols which
seem
to translate into visual terms the
metaphors of the preachers. 32 Pulpit, Traunkirchen, Austria, eighteenth century
33
Stairway of the Five Senses,
Bom Jesus
do Monte, Braga,
Portugal, 1730-37
63
1
34-5 Charles Le Brun (1619-90). Studies of expression: of a
ram and
a
'
profile
and
full face
man
36-7 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Blessed soul and
64
^«*
Damned
soul
3S Georges
tic la
Tour
(i
595-1652).
St Peter repentant (detail)
Expression The main
goal of the figurative
in the seventeenth century
arts
was expression,
the externaliza^
tion of the passions of the soul by
means of mime and posture. At the beginning of his career, Bernini
had sculpted,
exercise,
the
two
as a technical
busts expressing
two extremes of expression,
felicity
work
and
fury. Inspired
by the
of the Neapolitan savant
Delia Porta, Le Brun outlined a theory of expressive
technique
based on comparisons of human
and animal physiognomy.
The remorse
of St Peter
and
Mary Magdalen, expressed tears,
was
a favourite
theme
seventeenth-century poets,
St in
for
and
often served to inspire painters.
65
39
Sylvestrc (1621-91).
Isi.R-l
Louis
XIV
in a carrousel, watercolour
40 Anon, (seventeenth century). Bernini's Ecstasy of St Teresa
On Stage
The man and
PL. xin) in
its
setting
of the seventeenth century hved in a continual performance. Celebrations,
operas, concerts, lar
(see
impromptus,
carrousels, ballets, comedies, tragedies, funerals, secu^
religious ceremonies: everything
language of
all
the arts
is
dominated by
of the actor continually reappear in the
was
a pretext for festive display.
that of the theatre.
work
The
gestures
The
and
visual
attitudes
of artists such as Bernini. In the Cor^'
naro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, he shows the members of the Cornaro family watching the Ecstasy of St Teresa from two stage boxes. Serpotta treats his religious
41
themes
Giacomo
entirely in terms of stage
performance.
Torelli (1604-78). Set for Les Noces de Pelee
et de
Thetis
!.
-1
42 S
Giacomo
Serpotta (1656-1723). Temptation
of St Francis (detail), in
43
Giovanni
St
Longinus,
Lorenzo
San Lorenzo, Palermo
Bernini
in St Peter's,
Rome
(1598-1680).
44 Giambattista Aleotti (1546-1636). Teatro farnese, Parma 46 Jean--Louis Desprez (1743-1804). Stage
set,
Drottningholm, Sweden
45 Gaspare Vigarani (c 1586^1663). Theatre des Tuileries, I\uis, ]f,r,2
(model b\ Durignaud)
sssatHesftE?
The
theatre
'^^^
modern
theatre
is
perhaps the most characteristic of the architectural forms
created by baroque culture. In previous ages there
monasteries, hospitals, classes of
universities,
building necessary for the
market life
existed palaces, churches,
exchanges, town
all
the
of society; but theatrical performances
had
halls,
taken place in a variety of temporary premises or in to be built in stone, the Teatro
had
Olimpico
in
wooden
theatres.
halls,
The
Vicenza, designed in 1580,
first
is
theatre
an imita^
tion of an antique odeon. Subsequently, architects created architectural forms organic cally related to the staging of
contemporary dramatic and musical works. In the
course of this evolution, the Teatro Farnese in
between ancient and modern forms of
Parma (1617-18) marks
the transition
theatre.
47 Giuseppe Galli Bibiena (1696-1757) and Carlo Galli Bibiena (1725-87). Auditorium of Markgrafliches Opernhaus, Bayreuth, 1748
Inner
The
life
of the
ethic
baroque age
is
founded on
ostentation: the individual projects his
life
beyond
himself in a perpetual self'dramatization, and his acts
seem
to be dictated
by the need to establish
his identity in relation to others.
individuals
them
felt
an
all
inner
However, some
disquiet
which
led
to seek in solitude the secret of the mystery
of being, whether by philosophical meditation or
by
prayer.
In
pamters depicted to
the
seventeenth
its
most sublime ex/
The shadow which was taken by
mystics as the symbol of the inner of introspection, in an age ficial
light
directional.
70
many
this state of solitary meditation,
which Rembrandt gave
pression.
century
when
were feeble and
life
was the
ally
sources of arti/
invg^-iably
strictly
;i
48 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
{c.
15 62- 1609). St
Jerome
49 Daniele Crespi (i598'I6oo-t63o). St Charles Borromeo
50 Ferdinand Bol
(c.
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Philosopher
at table
1610-80). Philosopher in meditation
71
SZ Diego Velazquez
(1599-1660). Philip
53 Francisco de
IV
Zurbaran
(1598-1666). Fray Francisco
Zumel
54 Gerrit Terborch (1617-81). Portrait of a
man
Metaphysical silence While
the Italian or French portrait exalts the vntues of the individual
brates his glory, in profoundly Catholic
Holland, the
human
beings
who
an ashen half^ight which seems outside world.
draw upon baroque
The
itself
to
sit
Spain, and sometimes
exclude
m
kings— seem
for portraits— even
all possibility
and
cele.
Calvimst isolated in
of a dialogue witli the
unresponsiveness of the environment leads the soul to with^
in silence. Ostentation
ethic; the essence of the
and meditation
baroque
is
the
are the
harmony
twin poles of the
of extremes.
II
STYLES
1
Gothic
The Gothic sionism,
it
style
was
created ex nihilo
logical
and natural
principles; together with impress
will undoubtedly remain France's principal contribution to
known
Western architecture since the seventh century bc has
history of
and
vocabularies; the antique
Middle Ages, flowered again of the
styles
on
christened
modern
it
tedeico
era.
As
The
the Gothic.
Gothic,
it
was despised by
art.
The whole
only two morphological
which survived
antique,
in Italy well into the
and was the source of
in Florence in the fifteenth century,
for the
Western
the Italian Renaissance,
('German'), a term of disparagement which the French translated as
and eighteenth
Critics of the seventeenth
centuries were
no kinder towards
the
which
gothique.
Jean/Francois
it;
FeUbien (the son of the biographer Andre Felibien) in 1699, BofFrand in 1741, and Jacques/ Frangois Blondel in 1752 anarchic form, the
forest.
being a great lover of
condemned
name
in the
it,
John Evelyn, author of
trees
he counted
it
among
Sylva,
of rationaUsm, as an imitation of an
had had the same idea
the cathedral's virtues that
in 1664; but
was
it
'the sylvan
City of God'.
Contempt
for
Gothic architecture was by no means universal. In 1669-70, the
measured the arc of meridian between Amiens and
Abbe
buildings in the whole of Europe as lasting and as beautiful as
Dame
of
Amiens,
to use as his terminal points.
The
imbued with academicism, speaks with sympathy
Picard
some time
Paris. In describing this feat
the geometrician Maupertuis (1698-1759) stated that the
Abbe
later,
could hardly have chosen two
Notre/Dame of
elder Felibien,
of the Gothic
who was
Paris
and Notre/
himself so deeply
manner of building, 'which
gave the buildings an appearance of Lightness and delicacy, and a boldness of execution, calcu/ lated to astonish the spectator';
he distinguishes between
'the
most ancient churches which
lack neither solidity nor beauty' and the more recent, degenerate examples, 'formless masses of
ornament'. But Gothic was hard to
kill; it
has lived on, in spite of disapproval, into our
own
times. Earlier ages style
had
left
of the day, but occasionally
this practice I shall cite
pis
it
was decided
it
had continued
century.
The
to continue
them
Most were
finished in the
in their original style,
and of
a few examples.
The most famous is that of Milan cathedral,
^6-8
on
74
a legacy of unfinished medieval buildings.
steadily
during the Renaissance,
facade, in particular,
front in the Mannerist style,
the masterpiece of Itahan Gothic.
still
remained
it
was
still
Although work
incomplete by the sixteenth
to be built. Pellegrino Tibaldi
and Francesco Richino,
at the
proposed a
end of the sixteenth century, a
dis/
GOTHIC baroque design inspired by Carlo Maderno's facades
tinctly
for
Santa Susanna and St
Peter's.
In 1656, however, Francesco Castelli designed a facade in a kind of Neo/Gothic mixed with
some
classical elements.
purer in form.
It
was
The
fajade designed by Carlo Buzzi in 1653
this version,
international competition of 1886
When
'A
remark:
in the
same
spirit,
but
won
the
adopted and refined by Giuseppe Brentano, that
and was then executed.
In the course of the eighteenth century slow progress was endless task.
is
still
the President Charles de Brosses visited the
school of Gothic taste
is
even being run here for
made on
being site
this
seemingly
was able
in 1739 he
to
the workers engaged on the
building'.
What
uninformed observer would believe that the splendid nave of Orleans cathedral, one
of the most lyrical expressions of the vertical impulse of flamboyant Gothic, of
two
body of the cathedral had
the
had
work
sixteenth'century transepts, the
still
to be designed.
the Invalides
and
finally
architects
after its collapse in
order'.
style
of the
and towers
its
to a
to the
its final
by Jacques Gabriel. Inspired by the west front of the cathedral of Toul, the design in
of
in Gothic style were slowly
by Hanault, revised by Robert de Cotte and fixed in
built according to a design
dome
and ordered new plans 'conforming
a facade
When
Rome. But in 1707 the king himself
a fagade in imitation of St Peter's,
During the eighteenth century
J
1568, west front and towers
proposed a tower in the
intervened, cancelled the contracts already signed
Gothic
with the exception
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
been rebuilt
Louis XIV's
is,
.
is
pi 55
form
successful
overall effect, but the detail betrays the classical sculptors' inability to adapt successfully
Gothic
style.
In 1725 the Cistercians of Alcobaga, in Portugal, gave their fine early Gothic church a strange fa§ade of bastardized baroque/Gothic.
more
successful; but
through
Middle Ages. They were the
The Wars
of Religion had
The
efforts
of the French Benedictines were
their antiquarian tradition they first
left
had never
lost their link
with the
to take a real interest in historical authenticity in architecture.
the church of the Benedictine monastery of
Caen
in such a state
was
of ruin that in 1662 a contract
was agreed
opposed by the energetic
Dom J. de Baillehache, who subsequently carried out a complete
restoration
Prior,
for the demolition of the choir; but this
strongly
with such exceptional archaeological accuracy that modern experts can barely
distinguish the restored parts
from the
original.
In France the roots of Gothic ran very deep, and classical prejudice never succeeded in ousting
Wars
it
from the popular imagination. In the seventeenth century, churches ruined by the
of Religion were usually restored in the original
(the church of
Andlau, Alsace), while in
style,
sometimes even in Romanesque
the country the tradition of erecting purely
buildings ran on uninterrupted throughout the seventeenth century century, chiefly in Brittany
Haute/ Normandie
—but
flamboyant Gothic
style
and the northern provinces
also in
—
and even
Gothic
the eighteenth
Flanders, Artois, Boulonnais, and
Franche/Comte, Alsace, and Savoy. Manors in the pure
were built in Boulonnais, Artois and Flanders even
as late as 1660.
We find a similar situation in the Netherlands; Belgian baroque is the creation of town^dwelUng artists
working for the
State, the municipalities, the monasteries or the nobles,
whereas throughout
75
STYLES the seventeenth century village churches continued to be built in the flamboyant Gothic
The same was
true in the
Rhineland and Westphalia. In Belgium the
the Jesuits in the early seventeenth century were Gothic,
the medieval plan of nave plus
Even 6g
pi.
pi.
J54
Amsterdam. The
rinakerk,
expect a rigorous classicism; cated network of carved
pi. 6.1
wrought iron
it
comes
wooden
as a surprise,
on entering
and
produced by Germany
is less
easy to distinguish, for
Kamenz
wood/carvings such as those of the
Thus
museums,
who demohshed and
as at the
in Silesia, recalls the violent
altars
German
the St
at
rococo,
Anne (1722-4)
Thomas Weiss-
movement of late Gothic
Breisach (1523-6) and Niederotweiler (1527).
replaced old churches collected their Gothic works of art in
monastery of Sankt Florian in Austria.
preservation of the major part of the
work
It is to this
practice that
we owe
of Altdorfer. Often a fine Gothic statue
was
66
asteries
of
Salem in Swabia and Zwettl in Austria. In the
German Gothic
lyricism with the verticality of the cessfully
by Munggenast that
for reasons of
we
economy but from
'hall
latter,
'set
in
with the famous Gothic tomb
church' has been carried out so suc-
might almost believe that the old church was preserved not choice.
The baroque
decor of the church of Santa Chiara in
who
to
harmonize
of Robert of Anjou. In the province of Moravia there was an
actual renaissance of Gothic architecture early in the eighteenth century;
(an architect
mon/
the integration of baroque
Naples (destroyed in the Second World War) was designed by Antonio Vaccaro
pi. 61
the
glory' in a baroque framework, Uke the Madonna by Pacher in the Franziskanerkirche, Salz/
burg. In some cases old churches were not replaced but 'baroquized'; examples are the pi.
it is
until the advent of neoclassicism. It permeates
survived into the seventeenth century; while
1722) in the monastery of
abbots
leads one to
false vaults.
by Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger in the church of Metten, or the St Hubert by
The
the St Catha^
The Hague
in
the church, to discover a compli-
particularly in sculpture, reverts to the vegetal forms of Spatgothik.
feld (d.
pi 65
screens of the St Nicolaaskerk
of the famous Nieuwekerk
exterior
German mannerism, which 65
there also tended to retain
side^aisles.
place of Gothic in the German/speaking countries
latent in everything
pi.
churches built by
first
the Protestant Dutch, although committed to classicism, occasionally resorted to Gothic
for decorative motifs, as in the
The
and churches
style.
also practised the
Johann Santin Aichel
baroque) created churches which are pure pastiches of
Gothic, such as that of the Benedictine monastery of Kladrau (1712-26). In the church of Saar
he adapts the reticulated vaults of the 'hall church' to a central plan. pi.
6J
Italy offers a
of Lecce,
few examples of the use of Gothic elements in
which
revives the flamboyant
Gothic
a
baroque decor,
accolade design.
as in the Prefettura
The baroque
architects
who
introduced the use of concave-convex curves, Borromini and Guarini, both seem to have made pi.
68
a close study of the Gothic; both di
pi.
551
76
241
inspiration from Gothic rib vaults (Borromini's
Propaganda Fide, Rome, c.1660). Guarini,
who had
by Saracen domes in designing the dome, mounted on Turin, from which
pi.
draw
There were
is
may have been
intersecting arches, of his
inspired
San Lorenzo,
derived yet another Turin dome, that of Santissima Sindone.
painters, too, of a fantastical turn of
side of Gothic.
visited Sicily,
CoUegio
Monsu
Desiderio used
it
mind ,who
exploited the exotic
and fabulous
as he used the antique, to evoke lost civihzations;
GOTHIC Magnasco painted gatherings of mad monks used the Gothic
style, especially for
In England Gothic
retained
and
the seventeenth century
its
Oxford
No St
as a style for
into the eighteenth.
churches and universities throughout
who
Archbishop Laud,
a preference for
Gothic
Cambridge by Matthew Wren (uncle of
in
and
architect
four of his
Stage designers, too, sometimes
cloisters.
architecture;
University from 1630-41 he erected several buildings in this
was followed Peterhouse,
Gothic
scenes set in castles.
importance
dominated the AngUcan Church, had of
in
churches were Gothic (St Alban,
Mary Aldermary, and
His example
style.
of
Wren,
Wood
creator of St Paul's, yet
Michael, Cornhill,
Street, St
Above all, his Gothic Tom Tower at Christ Nicholas Hawksmoor an example which the latter
St Dunstannn/the^East).
Church, Oxford (1681-2), bequeathed
to
Oxford (1734), hybrid of Perpendicular, Tudor and Jacobean, with
in his grandiose rebuilding of All Souls College,
Hawksmoor's Gothic classical elements.
reviving Gothic
when Chancellor
Sir Christopher) in the chapel
ever a truer classicist than Sir Christopher
London
improved upon
I
by John Cosin.
also
was
under Charles
is
something of a
pi.
60
pi.
59
pi.
72
In the second quarter of the eighteenth century, however, the idea arose of
on
the basis of a study of medieval architecture; the result
Gothick, or modern Gothic, to distinguish
it
is
sometimes called
from the survival of medieval Gothic. In 1742,
Batty Langley (i 696-1 741), author of several architectural treatises, wrote his Gothic Architecture,
Improved hy Rules and Proportions, In Pieces, Arcades,
Many Grand
Designs of Columns, Doors, Windows, Chimney^
Colonnades, Porticos, Umbrellos, Temples and Pavilions,
In 175 1
etc.
Waburton
recognized in Gothic, regarded by the French as mere anarchy, the rational architecture par
—a remarkable opinion
excellence
Gothic
style,
for the time.
building a wing of
William Kent was the
Hampton Court
first
to attempt
an 'authentic'
Palace in the Perpendicular manner (1732)
on the advice of Horace Walpole.
The
was made fashionable among the
style
Miller (1717-80)
nobility
by two amateur
1753 and 1755 for John Ivory Talbot. his
own
Sanderson
and Horace Walpole (1717-97). Sanderson Miller was responsible
building of several Gothick castles, the most remarkable of which is
is
architects,
house, Sttawberry Hill, at
John Chute. During
the
Arbury Hall, by giving
same period
The outstanding architectural work Twickenham (c 1750-70) with its Sir
Robert Newdigate transformed
a Gothic interior
it
Newdigate employed
several architects,
Westminster Abbey,
who
which
is
a remarkable
among them Robert Keene,
also created other
for the
Lacock Abbey, built between of Horace
Walpole
library designed his
by
Tudor mansion,
example of rococo
taste,
pi. ji
Surveyor of the Fabric at
Gothic buildings (including Hartwell Church,
1753).
There was another form of Gothic which flourished in the gardens of the eighteenth century, first
in England, then in
Germany and France
churches or mansions, rustic cabins. This
Moorish
art,
windows
fantastic:
a Gothic one step
each borrowing features from the other.
Bagatelle, near Paris, built
roof the
is
—the
Thus
sham
the Pavilion
by Bellanger in 1782, contained beneath
of Louis IX's Sainte/Chapelle.
castles,
sham
ruins of
removed from Chinese and
its
du Philosophe,
at
incurved, pagoda/like
pi.
70
77
2 Mannerism
The baroque was born
Rome
in
and a
of an effort of reason (Vignola, the Carracci)
impulse (Caravaggio), both directed
at
putting an end to mannerism. In the
rest
passionate
of Italy, however,
and particularly in the north, the baroque seems to have been an ordering of the overcharged •
P^^ 73~S
Lombard
exuberance of mannerism rather than an aggressive reform. Three second half of the sixteenth century
mannerism by
illustrate the
way
These
a gradual process of refinement.
in
which
are Santa
fagades built in the
the baroque emerged from
Maria presso San Celso, Milan,
by Galeazzo Alessi (1565), Madonna dei Miracoli, Saronno, by Seregno (1596), and Sant' Angelo, Milan (c. 1600). The same relationship can be detected between the fagade of San
and
Fedele, Milan, by Pellegrino Tibaldi (1569)
that of
San Paolo Converso,
in the
same
city,
by Giovanni Baptista Crespi (161 1).
The The
stucco church interiors of
decor of the nave of
Lombardy
Madonna
reveal the
same slow biological process of evolution.
dei Miracoli, Saronno,
is still
mannerist in feeling, and the
immense work of decorating Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, on which craftsmen from Ticino spent
fifty
vitality pi.
j6
years,
and
from 1610 and 1660, preserved
freshness of invention
lend a subde charm to the
Como, in the
a
Romanesque
aisles,
1664-7.
little
mannerist
mannerist
style
church of San Lorenzo in Laino,
and the
spirit
from
are so characteristic of
suructure adapted in a
date from 161 6,
The
which
its
latest,
baroque
first
The
ebullient
mannerism in northern
in the Intelvi valley near
style. Its earliest
those in the nave by
to last.
Gian
stuccos, those
Italy
Lake
by Frisone
Battista Barberini,
from
appears in the juxtaposition of different elements and
in the
by the
Italian
spontaneous, picturesque invention of the decor, which was
initially inspired
grotesque ornamentation of the sixteenth century. In the same delightful green valley, the pi. J J
exquisite parish church of Santa Maria, Scaria, decorated with frescoes by Carlo Carlone,
with stuccos by his brother Diego, in the mid^eighteenth century, shows that rative art
did not achieve until
late
Lombard
and
deco^
in the day the characteristically baroque integration of
all
elements into an organic whole. pi.
j8
The same
spirit inspires the
famous church of Santissima Annunziata in Genoa, which
retains the pillared basilical elevation of the
(the
work
of several
artists
Renaissance and whose decor of stuccos and pictures,
including Assereto and Giovanni and Gian Battista Carlone)
compartmented in the same way; another example by the Carlone family
is
San
is
Siro.
In Florence, the decor of marble, bronze and precious stones by Mattei Negriti for the princes' 78
chapel in San Lorenzo (1604-10)
is
in the
jeweUike mannerist idiom. Naples very quickly
MANNERISM assimilated the
Roman
as in the cloisters,
Cosimo was
still
Renaissance in conception, of the Certosa di San Martino (1623-31) by
Fanzago, sculptor
built
A few traces of mannerism can be found in architecture, however,
style.
and
architect
from Bergamo, and
by the Florentine, Giovanni Antonio Dosio, in a
Crocifisso,
and San Giorgio
Giorgio at Modica; cathedral
and San
and CoUegio
The dominating
at
basilical
at
which
form which was widely
and Santa Annunziata
imitated in Sicily in the eighteenth century (cathedral Pietro
also in the Gerolamini,
at
Comiso; San
Ragusa; cathedral, San
Noto).
influence of Bernini stifled any tendency towards
What
sculpture, but his authority did not apply to painting.
mannerism in
Italian
might be called the romanticism
of Italian provincial painting in the seventeenth century derives largely from mannerism, in particular
Magnasco in Genoa, MafFei
With
of Saint^Charles/Borromee,
basilical
its
mannerist throughout the
essentially
plan and
its
compartmented fa§ade, the
Antwerp (1615-21), by Francois Aguilon and
longs to the mannerist rather than the baroque school; the same
Fleche (1612) in France by Pere Martellange. France
and baroque,
as
shown by
is
who had
earlier
was due
to the
(Deruet, Varin,
IV and
France under Henry
soUd
classical
Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon.
Court
Fleche, in
Vignon)
to the baroque.
until
and It
realist
was a
is
which
was
his style
82
pi.
7^
the
work
pis
^^,g6
pi.
gj
pi.
80
pi.
8^
Roman
baroque
of the same Martel/
Louis XIII shows almost no trace of mannerism,
foundations that had been laid a century
Simon Vouet,
earlier
by
which remained mannerist
Rome
returning from
in
1627, converted the
Certain provincial studios stayed faithful to mannerism, and so did Jean
had Uved
in
Rome
close affinities, continued in the mannerist tradition
century under the influence of 3,
pi.
La
had perhaps been cramped by
for a time.
Until the classical reform of 1630, Dutch architecture, like that of
161
church
true of the Jesuit College de
different story in painting,
Tassel (1608-67) of Langres, although he
had
Jesuit
plan by Metezeau.
If sculpture in
this
La
half of
Peter Huyssens, be/
other Jesuit churches of the period built after the
built the mannerist
first
was then divided between mannerism
type such as the chapel of the College d' Avignon (161 7); this
an
pi ^5 pis 238, 244
in Vicenza).
In Northern Europe, architecture remained
lange
and
from the mannerist formula of elongated forms (Bernardino Cavallino in Naples,
the seventeenth century.
pi 364
Vredeman de
Vries (the
which
town
Boleward, 1616, and Lieven de Key's meat market and
Germany with which
had adopted
it
halls of
it
in the sixteenth
Leyden, 1597. Hoorn,
market of Haarlem, 1602-3).
fish
Traces of mannerism were also evident in Dutch painting (Pieter Lastman,
Abraham
Bloe/
mart).
Mannerism had Juan de Herrera
firmly taken root all over Europe. In
(the Escurial
and
Spain
it
survived the purist reforms of
The baroque movement in of La Caridad, Seville, 1647,
the cathedral at Villadolid).
Spain emerged slowly out of mannerism (fajade of the hospital fagade of Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54).
The
fine classical structure of the altarpiece of die
Escurial (1579), although imitated in the Portuguese cathedral of Portalegre at
Coimbra (end
of the sixteenth century),
in the evolution of the Spanish altarpiece
was was
little
and in the Carmo
appreciated in Spain, and the next phase
the result of
an attempt on the part of Esteban
79
STYLES Jordan to bring unity to the fragmentary composition of the mannerist de Medina
During
Rioseco, which had been
at
the
first
altarpiece of Santa
Maria
unfinished by Becarra.
left
half of the seventeenth century Portugal remained faithful to the severe art
of the Counter/Reformation, which she slowly transformed into baroque, creating in the process, about 1650, a short-lived pi.
1^2
In the
first
years of the century,
form of mannerism.
Montanes in
brought an end to the mannerism of the
Seville
sculptors of the Bajo Renacimiento; in painting the change pi.
^4
and Ribalta (1551-1628) who abandoned (d. 1625),
was made by Herrera the Elder (d. 1656)
mannerism
the
still
practised by
Juan de
las
and, in his early work, by Pacheco (1564-1654), the master of Velazquez.
be seen from these examples
how complex was when
half of the seventeenth century,
In England, the Elizabethan
the evolution of Portugal
widely differing
style
by
styles existed side
might have been expected
and Spain in
Roelas It
can
the
first
side.
to find a natural contin^
uation in Jacobean. This part of Europe seemed ideally suited to a prolongation of mannerism;
but England often reacts in surprising ways. tionary process: pi.
20J
pl. 81
staying/power;
it
mannerism gave way
The
influence of Inigo Jones reversed the evolu^
Mannerism
to classicism.
had considerable
nevertheless
seems absurd that a work as Palladian as Queen's House, Greenwich (1616-
35) by Inigo Jones should be contemporary with the Schools,
bury Quadrangle of St John's College, also
Oxford (1600-36) or
Oxford (1632-6). Mannerism was
at
the gate of the Citadel in Plymouth, built as late as 1670,
is
The
essential role
played by mannerism in the genesis of the baroque
century, unlike that of other
European
of the decisive
art
is
countries, cannot usefully be
bookbinding, printing and engraving,
books published by Renaissance engravers such
all
as
most
spirit alive.
clearly illustrated
years of the seventeenth
first
standpoint of architecture. Ever since the 1530s the pace had been jewellery,
tenacious;
mannerist in inspiration, while the
hybrid English Gothic of the seventeenth century also helped to keep the mannerist
by the example of Germany; but the German
the Canter^
set
approached from the
by the ornamental
arts,
of which drew inspiration from pattern
Hans Sebald Beham and Daniel Hopfer.
Perhaps the greatest achievement of the goldsmith's art, which had already risen to such heights in the
work
Hrad&ny
of the Jamnitzer family of Nuremberg, in Prague for
Rudolph
(1612) and a sceptre (1612-17).
II (1602), to
On a tiny scale,
is
the
crown made
which Matthias,
upon
After 1550, French and
workshops of the
added an orb
they represent an unparalleled feat of virtuosity
in the handling of detail, the intricate parcelling^up of space constantly curling back
in the
his successor,
and the use of
Kolltverk,
ornament
itself.
German
translations of the architectural textbooks of the
Roman
Vitruvius and the Italian Serlio introduced the classical orders of architecture into Northern
Europe.
on
A thesis by Erik Forssman of the university of Stockholm describes the wild variations
classical
themes in which German, Netherlandish and Scandinavian architects indulged.
Their 'subjective' use of the orders
is
authorized by Serlio in the fourth part of L' Architettura
(1537-51). While Vignola, in his Regole
delle cinque or(f/K/(i562),
regards theorders as abstractions
based purely on relationships of proportion (the Vitruvian modulus), Serlio elaborates a whole 80
ethos
of the
column describing how each order has
its
own
particular object: the
Tuscan
all
MANNERISM that
military, the
is
Doric
all
that
is
manly, the Ionic the gods, Diana, Apollo and Bacchus, the
Corinthian honour and virginity (the Virgin Mary), the Composite the idea of empire.
These ideas struck a spark somewhere in the northern imagination.
German baroque
the Italian baroque (like French classicism) springs from Vignola,
by
Serlio.
Some
and Dionysiac
principles.
The
first
Dutchman Hans Vredeman and ornamental pattern books; he led the way by
and develop them was
architectural
northerner to take
anthropomorphism
carries
of man's thian,
life
way which
in a
from sixteen
to the point of
making
manipulates them, loads them with
vitae
Composite, from birth
from thirty/two
and
with
especially for terms, figures
flat^sided
form one of the most popular elements of mannerist It
may seem
to sixteen;
all art
Pintura Sahia,
He
Corin/
prime of
stretches
life;
them,
has a predilection for
or column-'shaped bodies,
which
architecture.
surprising to us that symbolic meanings should be attached to architectural
elements; but this
whom
humanae (1577)
to forty/eight; Doric, the
symbolic ornaments.
realistic or
these
the orders correspond to the different ages
rather surprises us today;
to thirtytwo; Ionic,
up
virtually treating the orders as
Tuscan, old age; and the ruin, death. Vredeman de Vries takes columns and
caryatids
inspired
de Vries, author of numerous
the
poetic themes, proposing five versions of each one of them. In his Theatrum
he
is
authors have even gone so far as to regard Vignola and Serlio as representatives
of Nietzsche's Apollonian theories
might be said that while
It
came
quite naturally to the
men
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, to
was eloquence. In Spain, Juan Ricci developed
composed c 1659-61,
which
in
similar ideas in his Tratado de
the orders (including
la
some not mentioned by
Vignola) are identified with Christ, the Virgin and the Saints.
The
northern imagination was also stimulated'by the inexhaustible repertory of 'grotesques',
a decorative element revived from the antique, in
which
the
artist
encloses within ornamental
gods and demigods or decorative beasts and plants. This theme, which
scrolls, like 'quotations',
appeared in engravings from the end of the
fifteenth
century onwards, was the subject of endless
ornamental variations in the second half of the sixteenth century.
The fact
renewal of the Gothic
one of the
1530;
at that
£othik).
Then
features of
the Renaissance
time/lag between
came
Dvorak and Georg Weise have pointed
It
still
to
affected Italian
mannerism very
survived in Germany, at
Germany; but
artistic
developments in
Italy
early,
out,
was in
about the year
least in architecture {Spat^
three/quarters of a century later there
German/speaking countries which thus
The ornamental work all
mannerism.
time medieval Gothic
a Gothic revival in the
occasions
spirit, as
fits
in exacdy with the
was
normal
and those in Northern Europe.
required for the numerous temporary buildings erected
on
festive
over Europe from the mid/sixteenth century onwards offered further scope for
mannerist fantasy
—
especially as the materials used,
wood,
leather
and cardboard, were well
suited to pattern^cutting.
Mannerist fantasy reached
its
height in the Architectura of
Wendel
Dietterlin
(Nuremberg
pi.
8j
1598), an encyclopaedia of ornament in 209 engraved plates, classified according to the five orders
and containing a whole
botanical
motifs.
A
arsenal of Christian, mythological, 'grotesque', zoological
comparison with Vredeman de Vries
reveals
a
and
marked growth of
81
STYLES Gothic ornamentation and
interest in
variations
on the theine of the
fury born of the
architecture
We 88
series
of
the spiral forms seem to express an inward^turning
are of great importance, not only
and decorative
occasionally find in
art,
them
on account of their immediate
but because they contain in themselves
a tendency
influence
the seeds of rococo.
all
—though a confused one—towards the contrapuntal
the asymmetrical ornament that were to be characteristic of the rococo.
organization and pi.
which
RoUwerk, an endless
powerlessness to resolve complexity into unity.
artist's
These pattern books
on
scroll in
a feverish absorption in
An
engraving done by Johann Smiescheck before 1620 seems almost to have come out of a CuviUies
woodcarving.
This frenzy came to an end around 1650 with what the Germans have termed the Ohrtmmhel^ pi.
86
by Lukas Kilian and Friedrich Unteutsch.
stil
(from Ohrmuschel,
Its
shapes depart from the slender forms of mannerism and swell under the influence of the
'shell of the ear'), as practised
baroque into monstrous excrescences. This
style still
appears in the drawings of
mermeier
as late as 1670, just before the introduction of
Italy into
Germany.
The Years
true source of the evolution of
War lies
German
in sixteenth/century
Germany
baroque foHated ornamentation from
architectural
in the creativity of the woodcarvers
who
Simon Cam^
and decorative
art
up
to the Thirty
turned the interiors of bourgeois houses
into elaborate carven caskets.
The two wings
of the castle of
Heidelberg, the Otto/Heinrichsbau (1556-63) and the Friedrichsbau (1601-7), are both directly inspired pi.
8g
room
by the engravings of Vredeman de Vries. The jewelled decoration of the gold
of the casde of Biickeburg (1605)
The same
delirious profusion of
is
Hke a literal
transcription of the engravings of Dietterlin.
ornament reappears in the
pediments of the Lutheran Marienkirche
at
Wolfenbuttel (1608); and
important part in the early seventeenth^century monuments which are pi.
go
many German Miinster
at
churches,
^2
Denmark, Sweden and Poland. Denmark
monumental piece of jewellery made of bronze, There was in Germany
love of Italy; an example at
among
the. treasures of
Augsburg
its
possesses
one of the
finest
extraordinary chapel
stucco, marble, alabaster, silver
examples
which
and
rare
is
like
woods.
at the same period another form of mannerism, not indigenous but
imported from Rome. This
room
and
plays a particularly
in certain altars, such as the high altar by Jorg Ziirn (161 3) in the
of this style in the casde of Frederiksborg (1602-20), with
a
it
tracery
UberHngen, which would not be out of place in a rococo church. From Germany
the style spread to pi.
and
window
capitals,
first
is
appeared in
Munich
as a result of
Duke
Albert V's nostalgic
The famous gold World War, was a by Hans Krumper (1616)
the fagade of the Michaelskirche (1583-97)-
(1620), unfortunately destroyed by
fire
during the second
The fine bronze Virgin (Patrom Bavariae), is similar in feehng to the bronze statues made by Hubert Gerhard in the time of Albert (St Michael in the Michaelskirche, 1588), but this is court art. The statues on the high altar later
form of the same
style.
Uberlingen by Jorg Ziirn (161 3), and Eckbert Wolff's
Buckeburg (1608), on of Dietterlin; they 82
altar in the
the other hand, are truly native products, derived
would not look out
rococo sculptor Joseph
Anton
V of
church of the casde of
from the pattern books
of place alongside the carvings of the great Bavarian
Feichtmayr.
MANNERISM German rococo might perhaps have appeared much earlier; but when the war ended at last and Germany began to recover strength, the spell was broken. Before a true national style could be found again, Germany had first to assimilate
Had
it
not been for the Thirty Years
War,
the
imported baroque.
For a time, German
architects turned for
guidance
to the
days of baroque; a fajade Uke that of the Martinskirche,
resemblance to that of the Michaelskirche, Munich,
Roman mannerism
Bamberg (1690), shows a
built a
hundred
years before.
kirche makes a revealing contrast with the Neumiinster in Wiirzburg (171 1)
on
the
same
assimilated
structural principles.
Roman
A
generation has passed,
baroque and rediscovered
its
of the very early strong family
The
which
and German
is
pi. 8:i
Martins^
conceived
pi.
8^
architecture has
true genius.
83
3 Realism
In
art,
the baroque age witnessed a leap into a world of fantasy;
the Neumixnster in Wiirzburg or
both of which might
easily
Johann Michael
be fantastic stage
Fischer's
sets,
it is
hard to believe on entering
abbey of Ottobeuren (1744-67),
same epoch saw unprecedented
that the
achievements in science and in rationaUst philosophy.
There
however, one part of Europe where
is,
art
does seem to be related to the inductive
experimental methods which from the seventeenth century onwards supplanted the speculations of the Schoolmen. In the seventeenth century learned societies
over Europe whose aim was to explore this
all
by Ferdinand
II of
Cimento. The
Tuscany, was even called
aristocracy took
physique, physics laboratories in
new
up
new mode
to repeat
There are many pi.
g8
with an Air
Pump
was
as the subject of
one of
the fashion to have cahinets de
and sometimes
for engravers,
painter,
Dutch
for painters too.
anatomy
Joseph Wright of Derby, took ia Experiment
Many
his pictures.
amateurs had physics laboratories
and natural
those that have survived are the mineralogical collection of the monastery of
pi. 101
history.
pi 5^0
Seitenstetten in Austria
La
to create
doctors giving
in their homes, as well as collections of apparatus for the study of mathematics
Among
del
became almost a parlour game. Science
seventeenth/century portraits of celebrated
and an English eighteenth/century
lessons;
it
well-known experiments and seek
ones. In the eighteenth century the 'experiment'
became an important source of subject-matter
of knowledge; one of them, instituted
academy of experiment': L'Accademia
'the
scientific research;
which
and academies were founded
and the conchological
collection of
Rochelle), both dating from the eighteenth century.
Clement
Amateurs
Lafaille (in the
Musee de
often placed their mathe/
maticals and physical instruments or botanical or zoological specimens in an elaborate and pi.
2J3
fanciful setting; the
in Paris,
which has
most astonishing of
which
was
that of Joseph
Bonnier de
painters
seem
to
have constructed
spectator's imagination into the far distance
—
their pictures
either literally,
The
(d.
1744)
disciples of
Caravaggio, following
their
subject of the picture
is
with the object of
an escape from the
master's example, had brought the scene
nearer to the spectator, even inventing the close-up; but this direct assault
on the eye by the
calculated to cause surprise rather than to engage the attention.
Holland did painting remain a purely visual 84
Mosson
by devices of perspective
carry the eye towards the horizon, or by the use of fantasy to offer
present.
la
fortunately been recorded in a series of drawings.
Most seventeenth/century drawing the
all
art
based on
Only
in
careful observation and a sound
optical education.
v Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627-78). Peepshow with views
of the interior of a
Dutch house
nM..^
—
-^^fe
.ifesaesiK^f
An
)
f
ii
11
_
\\
is
M
,'i
Jacob van Ruisdael (c 1628-82). Extensive landscape with ruins
VII
Meindert
Hobbema
(1638-1709).
Woody
landscape with a road by a cottage
REALISM Painting had
lost its 'optical' quality
from the moment when the
classicists
of the Renaissance
had been induced by a Neo^Platonic ideal to look beyond the image to the idea. In the
when
century,
the
human
intellect
first
embarked on
universe in theological terms to perceiving
the crucial transition
in empirical terms,
it
and
in Flanders
artists
fifteenth
from conceiving the Italy
were passionately absorbed in the study of the world which had suddenly been revealed to
The
them.
Italians,
more
for exploring space, to aid
and
them
in their conquest of infinity. This 'machine'
The work
of
Leonardo da Vinci sums up
machine
perspective,
results of direct
the achievement of his predecessors;
only remained for Raphael to sweep their learned intricacies aside with a stroke of the
it
brush, while absorbing Leonardo's classical conclusion, expressed in the
form in
single
eye, a
was
(Jan van Eyck, for his part, submitted more docilely to the
costruzione legktima.
experience.)
approach, invented a guide for the
intellectual in their
and
reality
itself
can contain
all
the diversity of the world.
up
unreality alike were caught
Mona
Lisa, that a
Then came mannerism,
in
which
whirlwind of inconclusive syllogisms and
in a
self-'destructive analyses.
The
value of any optical instrument, whether natural or
magnification
it
allows but in
merged into one by an optical mystery of
Van Eyck do
phenomenal
illusion or
by the
not seem to bear in
becomes
visual equipment. This
effect
mind all
which were
aids other than spectacles,
artificial
power
the
its definition,
enabled
him to apprehend
the
lies
not merely in the
of distance.
Art
more obvious
the material substance of things,
are
by the
must have been aided by a if
very inefficient
at the service
which
historians puzzled
we
reflect that
he had no
and awkward in
his day.
which
of an analytical genius
from the limpidity of the atmosphere
hard density of stone, and to grasp the complexities of a technique capable of recreating
to the
for the spectator the visual
This miraculous
look
at nature.
magic
felt
clarity of vision
blind again, and found to
artificial,
confers of separating points
that his genius
still
His exceptional optical powers of definition were
it
And
it
by the painter
he contemplates the world.
seems to have died with
simpler to look
although
as
Van
Vinci, Diirer and Bruegel the Elder,
at
Van
Van Eyck.
It is as if
painters
became
Eyck, and convert him into formulas, than
Eyck's capacity for observation reappears in Leonardo da
it is
never served by the same optical power. His conception
of art as the mirror of truth disappeared with him, to reappear only in seventeenth/century
Dutch
painting,
which
like
Van
Eyck's
is
based on a pure visual
act.
Seventeenth'century painters had at their disposal improved optical instruments that increased their
keenness of vision.
were used to
From
the
mid
see distant objects; Galileo,
no more than improve
it
by increasing
astronomical discoveries possible.
sixteenth century, combinations of lenses or mirrors
who its
is
credited with the invention of the telescope, did
magnification to a power (30 x) which
The magnifying
glass
and the microscope made
made
his
their appear/
ance almost simultaneously, and for a long time the magnifying glass was the more satisfactory of the
two instruments. Antoni van Leeuwenhoeck (1632-1723) a bourgeois of
secret process for the least
<
419
of them.
Delft,
had a
manufacture of magnifying glasses of exceptional quality; he made
They enabled him
to be the
first
to explore the
(bacteria, protozoa, spermatozoa,
blood corpuscles) and to study
vni Jan Vermeer (1632-75). The
in his studio
artist
world of the insects.
infinitely
at
small
The microscope was
89
STYLES more than a pi
1
00
scientific
some were made
Did
were
that
make
artists
instrument; in the eighteenth century
came
it
endows
dead beside
purpose of the
art
The
reality.
it
was
One
of these instruments inspired
Which
on
great scientific
With
so wholeheartedly as the
this in
Jesuits of the
aimed
it
to
make
to a
number
artists
had
to their country
van Baburen
108
1656). Frans Hals too captures the baroque
whose
College de
No
La
Fleche.
discoveries, but
shift in
emphasis
other school of art has adopted the
specialist genres, just as scientists
what
pursuing
from mannerism, then from
first
by die Italianized
spirit;
he gives
next generadon abandoned the vein of Hals and turned
Dutch
exploited by those of
merchants.
on
principles he
first
school. Confining their investigation to
artists
of Utrecht, Theodor
to the placid
life
and Ravesteijn by infusing them with some of the ardour of
its
a treatise
1623), Hendrick Ter Brugghen (1588-1629) and Gerard Honthorst (1590-
log
VI, VII
Mkhode with
la
knowledge, and the
to free themselves
pl.
lake, lends to
view of the
of specialist workers.
Dutch
movement brought
every detail of
to exclaim: 'All
as to his
a methodical inventory of the immediate \^orld about
pi.
Mierevelt
results.
Dutch
view they divided painting into
achieve objectivity,
(d.
Huygens
no doubt
advance of the seventeenth century consisted not only in
mental constructs to experimental
method
the baroque
PLS
leaves
the basis of a chain of truths,
from the education he had received from the
an inquiry assign
The
called 'the noblest part of mathe/
—thus breaking free of scholastic formalism, the faults of which he knew
before their eyes, they
To
certain that
it is
to escape from the empiricism that had until then reigned in the
to organize experience
a priori
them.
peak. But
its
produced only inverted images) through the magical
this, for this is life itself!'
His purpose was
and
inductive
that these
use in improved form only in the second
also in the methodical organization of the instruments of
from
wrong
of painting.
found within himself so well
common
must be noted
It
in this atmosphere that Descartes followed his Discours de
dioptrics.
sciences
the world through the
can more readily agree with Erik Larsen when he emphasizes the probable influence
is
was
into
which Constantijn Huygens
great interest in optics,
aura with which
It
upon
painters looked
Dutch painting had reached
of the camera ohscura (although as yet
painting
Should we subscribe to the theory of Erik Larsen who, in
some
half of the seventeenth century, after
was
?
Galileo's telescope used in reverse.
instruments were perfected and
matics'. I
and
In the composition of certain landscapes he detects the visual aberrations
>.
which would be produced by
there
as a parlour toy,
real masterpieces of decorative craftsmanship.
use of these devices
his study of Frans Post, holds that
end of a telescope
was used
it
life.
The
studios of
is
on
city of painters,
ardsuc products a poedc intensity which realism
own
crisp; that of
is
Haarlem
compare Jacob Ruisdael and Hobbema to appreciate the
of
temperament.
attendon to an exploration of
Haarlem elaborated methods of paindng
Amsterdam. Haarlem,
Amsterdam
its
his
portraits
the shores of
its
that were
nowvanished
lacking in Amsterdam, the city of is
more
difference
sensidve.
One
need only
between the two. Rembrandt
belongs to neither; although he lived in Amsterdam, he came from Leyden, the city of thinkers.
The Dutch 90
painters'
profound love
for a
preoccupadon with the observadon of
land wrested from the
sea.
Holland
is
their
own
country
is
rooted in a
more a work of man than a product
REALISM of nature;
it is
not surprising that the nation which
the contemplation of itself
Seventeenth'century schools, but
and
artists
its
own
made
it
should have taken such delight in
handiwork.
new
developed a
genre which was practised by
nowhere with more intensity than in Holland. Only
the anti/naturalistic prejudices of our time can savour the
by Willem Claesz. Heda and the flowers, so soon Their illusory permanence holds within
itself
the observer
the national
all
who has overcome
charm of the everyday
objects painted
by Jan Davidsz. de Heem.
to fade, painted
pis 104, 106
impermanence which emerges
the message of
from too deep an analysis of the phenomenon of consciousness, an analysis in which both consciousness and reality are dissolved.
Certain Northern European
artists
were inspired by a true
tendency to enumerate the multiplicity of things, as
when Jan
'Velvet* Bruegel, with a true I
Flemish sensuousness, assembles bouquets which include flowers of other painters concentrate
on
of scientific enquiry, a
spirit
all
the seasons of the year;
and small animals, or displays of
inserts
tulips representing all
known to the age of 'tuUpomania'. Others, like Baltasar van der Ast, and the German Abraham Mignon, seem to have been obsessed by the
the painter
pi.
103
idea of the
pi.
102
pis
io$-6
the varieties
of shells,
microcosm,
tirelessly
examining a few square inches of ground
fauna of a miniature jungle, as single creature
man
if
they
that
felt
by penetrating the essence of a
Dutch
artists
were not dull brutes,
Many
the most intellertual of our senses, the one
Dutch
of these
which
It
would be
surprising
show how
the evolution of the
from mannerism (Roelant Savery)
to
art
of
in their
which
is
essentially
baroque
article
on
my
'the notion of "the interior" in
Dutch
art', is
to
rococo
style,
(J.
as
pi. lo-j
which was
We
frequently
M.
Molenaer,
have attempted to
Judith Leyster at the virginals), but their essential preoccupation, as I
an
mind.
Gallery of
much concerned
own
effectively in the painting of interiors.
find in these painters the angled composition
in
they were;
baroque (Jan Davidsz. de Heem), then
the Italians with problems of the organization of space, but
This concern was displayed most
if
lay
composing a bouquet can be
(Jacob Walscapelle) and neoclassicism (Jan van Huysum). They were as
realist.
what
leads by the shortest route to the
painters were highly skilled in the art of composition; in
Flowers (i960) I tried to traced
and
single object or a
interested only in painting
before their eyes, as anti/naturalists have tended to believe. is
the flora
all
could capture the whole mystery of the world.
Seventeenth/century
sight
which support
to suggest the space in
show
pi.
110
its totality,
including the wall turned towards the painter. For this they employed several methods: a curtain,
an open window or door, a succession of rooms that can suggest a whole apanment
(Emanuel de Witte). Finally they achieved a the
representation of the
whole house, by means of perspective devices or
whole room, and even of
'optical boxes'
which made use of
mirage of the camera obscura; two examples of these boxes are in existence today. a minute scale, that the Italians, those
walls of the a
is
the trompeA' ceil
room
in
which he
lives.
To
was
thus,
PL. v
on
that was such a favourite device of the
grand manipulators of space. But the Dutch
map hanging on
world
Dutch conceived
It
the
pi. 111
artist sees
a person of seafarers this
is
space in terms of the four
the centre of the world; often
a wall evokes the presence of the universe. This tiny, well-defined domestic
Vermeer's chosen symbol for the
human
condition.
9i
,
STYLES
We
should perhaps remember,
portraits of
when tempted
to lose patience
with the endless tedious
Vermeer's predecessors, that without a long and patient process of elaboration Dutch
realism might never have produced the quintessence of Vermeer.
We first
can trace the development of the Dutch
Dutch
show
lackadaisically picking at
108
When
smoked
Hals or one of
caps,
rather
herrings to raise a thirst; Ravesteijn (15775-1657) brings a
Hals gives them
his pupils paints a
suggests that he has just stepped out of
And yet these same
Guards with professoriaHooking
us rows of Civic
certain relaxation to these stiff groups. Frans full.
At
choose to appear collectively. Dirck Jacobsz. (1495;-! 567) and Dirck
sitters
Barentsz. (1534-94)
pi.
portrait over three generations of painters.
come
man on
his
a
life
own,
which they savour
the
sitter's
jovial
to the
mien
often
convivial gathering.
people became rigid burghers again in their everyday
life; it
was
precisely
because Rembrandt attempted to shake them out of their complacent censoriousness that they turned against him.
Vermeer's
settings, as well as his people, are the
study of detail.
A
whole generation of
Vermeer could come and express interiors, so that
PL. VIII
92.
apportion
its
painters
their inner
life;
outcome of many
had
years of refinement
and
to analyse the structure of objects before
others discovered all there
was
to
know
about
he might compose with such accuracy the space enclosed within four walls,
light
and shade, and make
it
the repository of the elusive essence of being.
a
4 CI assicism
Our Western
civilization
seems unable ever wholeheartedly to
movement was gaining impetus
In the seventeenth century, while the baroque classical aesthetic
which had been
reject the classical spirit in art.
the glory of the
Rome
of Julius II
and Leo
in Italy, the
X took root in
Northern Europe and brought about what might well be called a second Renaissance.
Even
in baroque Italy, classicism retained
some adherents;
Albani and Domenichino
Sacchi, Sassoferrato,
—and
these included the painters
Andrea
ph
ijo-i
Lanfranco, too, in some of his works.
In architeaure, even that superb dramatist and orator in stone, Bernini, occasionally comes very near to classicism. In admitting this
make
to
we
should
a building baroque; otherwise time alone
of classicism, for
it
was once
sailles is called classical;
first
would have made and
brightly coloured inside
but Sant* Andrea
al
realize that bright colour
out.
The
is
not enough
model
the Parthenon the
Galerie des Glaces at Ver--
Quirinale would be no
less classical if
Bernini had
not embellished the magnificent architectural rhythm of his great portico, designed to encompass the
whole space of the church, with the baroque
figures
on the
cornice. In his rotunda of L'Ariccia, a
mark offa
finite
space in a
way which
more purely baroque
Regia (a sham
form with
all
the intellectual purity of
rhythm of the angel/borne garlands round the base of the dome
the Renaissance, the
Bernini's
rhetoric of the large, gesticulating stucco
is
gestures,
staircase) in the
the very essence of classicism.
All
this
can be
serves to
set
against
such as the fountain in the Piazza Navona, the Sea)
Vatican, the colonnade before St Peter's, or the fajade of ihe
pis 138-g
Palazzo Barberini. Pietro di Cortona, too, the most baroque of all
dome All
of
San Carlo
Roman
these
antiquity, for
al
baroque
were, in
artists
which they had
ancient works of art found in rise
Inigo Jones, Italy, in the
the
fact,
Rome
art
of
as the artists of the previous century. (It
is
convinced that they were recreating the
same reverence
most admired was the LaocoSn?) The faa that most of the dated from
late antiquity led to
a misunderstanding which
of the baroque.
who had visited Rome in
company
1603,
made
a
Grand Tour
of the Continent, including
of the Earl of Arundel in 161 3-14, and brought back a heavily annotated
copy of Palladio's I Quattro
Lihri
and
a desire to bring classicism to England.
his inspiration gave English classicism a classical art.
painters, designed the elegant classical
Corso.
true that the antique sculpture they
favoured the
Roman
form which deserves
The
source of
special study as a 'mode' of
93
STYLES The province
of Holland, the obvious leader of the United Provinces, was the
brand of mannerism by stripping 112
them
adopt classicism. Early in the century, Hendrick de Keyser refined Vredeman de Vries's
to
pi.
of
first
down
the ornamentation while retaining the structure, partic/
completed 1624, and Westerkerk,
ularly the vertical thrust of the tiered frontages (Zuiderkerk,
1620, in Amsterdam).
The
classical
reform was a result of the meeting between two men,
Constantijn Huygens, humanist, friend of Descartes, and secretary to Stadholder Frederick
Henry, and Jacob van Campen, an
The hallmarks
architect.
Dutch
of
pi.
208
Huygens
the house of Constantijn
The major
celebrate the benefits of peace
with
classical in style,
Campen tecture in
fruit
style later
its
and
civic order. It
is
on
superimposed orders and the
the scale of the
grew in majesty; Amsterdam, which
Europe, provides
many examples such
is
'Louis
Roman
dominating
tempietto
one of the
finest
as the Admiraliteitshof
Van Campen idiom is enriched by a light decoration which in France as
Van Campen and
of the collaboration between
the Raadhuis (town hall) of Amsterdam, created after the Treaties of Westphalia to
Huygens was
11^
The Hague:
dominant
(1633), the Sebastiansdoelen (1636), and the Mauritshuis, the palace of John Maurice of
Nassau, completed in 1643.
pi.
in
first
its
and a coping emphasized
horizontal lines, brick fa9ades adorned with colossal stone pilasters,
by a triangular pediment, appeared
classicism,
its
palazzi,
the classical style spread after 1650 to the other
to the provinces of the
who
la Vallee,
who had
The Van
roof.
museums
of archie
(1666) in which the
might almost be described
United Provinces and even
beyond. Prince John Maurice of Nassau, friend of the Rhenish princes, helped
de
is
XVr.
From Holland it
and
lower Rhine.
in 1634
It
even reached the Baltic; in 1637 a Frenchman, Jacques
had been summoned by the stadholder
introduced the French
to introduce
to be his chief architea
chateau to the Netherlands, carried the style to
and
Sweden,
In 1653, another Dutchman, Joost Vingboons, built (though admittedly in a»somewhat pi.
114
more baroque idiom) the Riddarhuset (House of the Nobles) in Stockholm.
The
style
of Versailles
was brought
to
Holland by a Huguenot, Daniel Marot,
who was
driven into exile by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685; and this too helped to turn
Dutch
architects
designs in the
PL. IX
house of Het sailles.
towards the baroque. This
Lang Veerhout,
Loo
it
very evident in the Royal Library built to Marot's
Hague, 1734-64. The same
architect embellished the great
with a staircase copied from the famous Escalier des Ambassadeurs
The United
confined
the
is
Provinces eventually adopted the rococo
style
at
Ver/
of exterior decoration, but
to a central motif of exquisite elegance, standing out in finely/chiselled relief against
a field of rose-coloured brick.
^
Baroque was never
•
-
which
entirely
unknown
consists almost entirely of
in Holland; seventeenth^century
memorials to the dead,
is full
of the baroque
country produced few sculptors, Huygens and Van Campen, when creating of the Raadhuis, Amsterdam, had to call on an Antwerp sculptor, Artus
own
country, the Spanish southern Netherlands, Quellinus
combined influence of 94
sicism.
Though
the architect
and
the humanist
Dutch
was
a baroque
his flexible talent
spirit.
sculpture,
Since the
the vast enterprise
Quellinus. In his
artist;
but under the
swung towards
clas^
the pediments have a vigour that retains a flavour of the baroque, certain bas
CLASSICISM reliefs
such as the
ofFahius Maximus or again the
Room representing the
mantelpiece of the Burgomasters'
friezes of the
or the friezes of frolicking children above the fireplace of the
Triumph
pis
i
pi.
i}2
pi.
133
pi.
117
is-6
Council Room,
manna (comparable in movement to a bacchanale) in the Court
Israelites gathering
and the
of the Magistrates, recall Poussin
finest of the
Renaissance creations inspired by the
antique, such as the Sala degli Stucchi or the Sala di Cesare in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua.
Spain in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, a country in decline, sought in the
a heaven/dominated country in which men's minds turn
a solace for her fever. Castille
is
towards fantasy; in the
century Castille had produced
fifteenth
seventeenth century Gregorio Fernandez. Andalusia
favourable setting for classicism; the only
is
Alonso Berruguete and
in the
a milder region, closer to reality,
and a
two major seventeenth/century Spanish
artists
remained untouched by the baroque were Andalusians. Francisco de Zurbaran was while Martinez Montaiies created some of the most profound of
realist;
and sainthood. Several times
in the history of art, classicism,
shown
medium
The
itself to
be a favoured
altarpiece, a
until the
form which
of a baroque
restore,
central to the history of
and
form
to the Idea, has
art,
remained firmly
classical
yet carves his religious
images with
was a
vast building^site.
baroque (Hotel de Ville,
Lauzun,
the expressive fervour
civil
many
wars with
La
made one
expect that France was going to go over
Rochelle, Hotel de Vogiie, Dijon). This tendency persisted
and was
visible
even to
later
in interior decors in
produce an
effect
which gilded
of superabundance (Hotel
Chateau de Vaux/le^Vicomte). Early in the reign of Louis
Le Vau and Le
entirely to suppress a natural
ruins to
For the sake of speed, most building was done in brick, but the
and stucco work combine
Paris, 1650-8,
architeas,
all
artist.
panelling, paintings
XFV
two
pi. 118,
PL. xii
Mercier, in spite of their efforts towards classicism, were unable
tendency to the baroque. In
abundance of ornament (Cour de Marbre,
Versailles),
Le Vau
and above
this
all
found expression in an
in a tension in the propor/
pi.
119
which betrays an inner conflict (Chateau de Vaux/le^Vicomte, Hotel Lambert de Thorigny,
Chateau de Saint^Fargeau (1657). Le Mercier, la
Spanish
France of Henry IV, emerging from a long period of
into the reign of Louis XIII,
tions
gives
images of divinity
for the expression of divine reality.
stone structures that were built might have to the
which
all
who
a mystical
second half of the seventeenth century. Gregorio Fernandez of VilladoUd designs his
altarpieces in a classical spirit,
The
is
baroque
Sorbonne (1629); but he
also
for his part, purifies his style in the
gave the ornamentalist Michel Anguier
Chapelle de
free rein to
embellish
the vaults of the church of Val/de^Grace.
The triumph largely the sart
work
of classicism over the baroque in seventeenth/century French architecture
was
of three great architeas, Francois Mansart (1598-1666), Jules Hardouin-'Man'
(1646-1708), his great/nephew, and Jacques/Ange Gabriel (1698-1782). According to
we should add who worked under Le Vau and
Albert Laprade, genius,
The
crisis
resolved
on
to these Frangois
M.
d'Orbay (1634-97). a draughtsman of
Jules Hardouin/Mansart.
through which French architecture was passing was both revealed and basically
the occasion of the international competition held by Louis
completion of the palace of the Louvre.
Not
XIV
in 1663 for the
surprisingly, the Italian competitors Rainaldi,
95
STYLES 10
pi.
da Cortona, Candiani and Bernini submined baroque designs; the French too (Cottart,
Pietro
Le Vau, Le
Marot,
inspired by foretaste of
what was
how
indicates
Le Brun, and even
Mercier,
a certain
Mansan) were
Frangois
still
more
or less
baroque emotionaHsm; only the plan of Leonor Houdin contained a actually canied out.
The faa
king had asked
that the
high was the prestige of Italian baroque in France
for plans
at this time. It
from
Rome
even seemed to
Louis that only Bernini could be worthy of him, and he received him in 1665 with the highest honours.
However
helped to
make up
his
own
the
own
good
1667 the task of drawing up a
Thanks
generations to come.
Then came an
and
bombastic design for the Louvre,
all to
seek a solution in the resources of
final
plan was entrusted to a committee.
XIV incUned the committee towards a
determining the whole development of French architecture for
Louis
to
XIV,
France found
classical
which
the might)' enterprise of Versailles, in
architect, Jules
his
sense of his minister Colbert, Louis
classical solution, thus vinually
pi ^^6
self-importance,
the king's mind; he decided after
countT)'. In
Guided by pis 11, 122
Bernini's
destiny.
its
men, a decorator, Le Brun,
three
Hardouin/Mansart, and a landscape gardener, Le Nostre, created the
first
major architeaural complex in Europe to be truly royaL Versailles proves that the royal idea
can be expressed without grandiloquence;
fixed
modular system of proportions, gives the
ideal of self-mastery,
and
as
it
imitation
was not based on
took Versailles as
The
real
model
its
with
its
controlled forms
and
aptest expression to the great seventeenth^century
German
itself.
principaHties imitated Versailles.
But the
understanding or sympathy; eighteenth^century baroque Europe
had taken the antique.
just as Bernini
interior decoration at Versailles
royalty;
state, classicism,
were epitomizes the idea of kingship
Europe was awestruck; even the smallest
harmony. While the
greatest strength Hes in
its
baroque expresses an aspiration towards a higher
made much
use of colour to convey the splendour of
but here too the rh)thm and order of classicism are evident. Partitioned, raftsacked by
dismembered by the Revolution and stripped of
later kings,
XIV
century, the Versailles of Louis
is
its
furnishings in the nineteenth
recognizable only in the Galerie des Glaces, the
Grand
Trianon and the design of the gardens. pi.
120
And
so France turned her
achieves a pi.
1
21
pis 12^-4
harmony
back on Rome. In the Grand Trianon, Jules Hardouin^Mansan
of proportion comparable with that of
Gabriel created a true counterpan in the
Petit
Trianon.
the Val'dc'Grace by Francois Mansart with the
gauge the measure of the Petit Trianon
All
that
down to
was
achievement.
was a
(hotel
The colormade
need only compare the
for the eighteenth century
and
life,
of the LouvTe
is
the French Parthenon;
certain revival of
was
to refine these principles
down
on
the themes of
in the seventeenth centur)'.
In
baroque architecture, of which Boffrand,
and in Germany, was the
and bring them
town mansion and
this period,
who
later
however,
had
great
chief exponent. In the field of interior
decoration, France contributed to the development of the rococo style, restraint
of
of the Invalides by his great^nephew to
creating infinite variations
chateau) laid
success in eastern France
96
dome
the French Erechtheion.
the scale of private
country house there
is
left
this
dome
Greek architeaure; Jacques'Ange
We
employed with more
than in the German'speaking countries.
rx Louis
Le Vau (1612-70) and Charles Le Brun (1619-90).
Escalier des
Ambassadeun,
Versailles,
model
^9=-^' ^^^^^^,1 vtr
,^/
I
ii
Vi
>.
/>
N, L»>
r*if^;i
;'^.^--^-
•i-
-^-Sif^-iSS.^
X Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665^. Neptune and Amphitrite
XI
Claude Lorrain (1600-82). Landscape: Cephalus and Procns icunited by Diana
i
-
CLASSICISM Sculpture did not follow the same pattern of development.
The
classical tendencies
which
were to culminate in the work of Frangois Girardon (1628-1714) were already apparent in the reign of Louis XIII. Lapses into the baroque idiom are apparent in the
work
of Michel Anguier
(Holy Family in Saint/Roch), in funerary sculpture in general (always a pretext for eloquence)
and
in the portrait bust,
which conforms with
individual through action. the exception
is
The one
which proves
In Girardon's ^;jo//o
Eighteenth/century French sculpture
from the
was more of a Genoese than
nymphs in the Grotte d'ApoUon
pi.
12^
P^-
^49
pi.
126
of the
Frenchman.
a
at Versailles, the
problem of
manner reminiscent of Pheidias.
classical idealism is solved in a
portraiture
life
whole/heartedly baroque sculptor, Pierre Puget (1620-94),
the rule; by training he
attended hy
(Jean/Baptiste Pigalle,
the spirit of the age in expressing the
divided between a disciplined form of baroque
is
1714-85) and an acuteness of psychological observation which Uberated
pomp
Houdon,
of the seventeenth century (Jean^Antoine
Voltaire). Caffieri
pi. 15
indulges his baroque imagination; while Pajou devotes himself to the service of feminine elegance in a delicate ^alant style Falconet.
Such
is
which
is
fined
down
femininity often recall the style of Fontainebleau
we might have
as
While painters
were pursuing
it
Champaigne innermost
Italy in 1627.
The
which were in favour
classical
in
its
excesses.
Louis
arrival of
religious
against the ecstatic express
expresses the inner struggles
pb ^8, 1 2y-8
but by darkness and poignant silence. Phihppe de
effects
disguising nothing
sitters,
maintaining the balance between
secrets,
XIV. The same
reality
restraint
and
yet respecting their
and appearances which
is lost
in the
appears in the genre paintings of the
Le Nain. and Claude Lorrain,
hard to understand contrasts
revered in
Rome
how
which
Northern European
to leave
they can have been at
are obvious to us
as the artists
a painter of landscapes,
who
home
settle
Rome. Today we
in
and
word,
for
succeeded in coming nearest to the antique; and Claude, as a genre
which was recognized
Poussin and Claude lived not so
historical painters.
them
Rome was
truly
They apprehended
Rome
only in
dimension of imagination, which in baroque
Louis Lc
pls x, xi
in an artistic milieu that appears so alien.
much
its
art led to
art.
as a speciality of
Rome
in the
an imaginary Rome, finding in the many reUcs of antiquity which
sense of the
find
were not so apparent then. Poussin and Claude were
was an exponent of
artists.
France and
Eternal City a congenial setting for the development of their
xa
influence did not,
conscious decision led the two painters whose names have become the very symbols of
But the
•4
sense of
tendency was reinforced by the influence of the
Rome. Georges de La Tour
penetrates the very soul of his
classicism, Poussin
past,
and
BeruUe and the doctrines of Jansenism, which turned French
portraiture of the age of
in
Clodion and
produced by the
deliberately, notwithstanding the effect
of the soul not by heavy emotional
it
(Houdon, Diana). Feminine
(Le Sueur, Philippe de Champaigne, Georges de La Tour)
sions of piety
A
his successors,
expected, favour the rococo, but served rather to restrain
religious teachings of
brothers
more by
seventeenth/century French architects hesitantly followed the path of classicism,
Simon Vouet from painters
still
the strength of tradition in French sculpture that this elegance
still
They were
evocation of the ancient
Vau (161^-70) and Andr^ Le Nosue (1613-1700). Chateau
the
both, in the true
the present through the
pure fantasy, led these
of their day as
abounded in
medium
of the
Romans. The
classical artists to
de Vaux^lc'Vicomte, 1660
loi
STYLES explore the world of the past: like their contemporaries, they had their dreams, and they nour/
them on
ished
books
Ovid and
the Metamorphoses of
the romances of Tasso.
Claude turned
to these
enchantment, Poussin for philosophical symbols. Both accepted imposed themes
for
They
only with great reluctance; and neither ever willingly conformed to a decorative scheme.
an object in
thought of a picture as their
own
by the
itself,
the fruit of personal speculation.
By
escaping from
age they sought and achieved a timeless quality which in Poussin's case was enhanced
fact that
he drew the laws of his
the antique. This
is
art
from Raphael and Titian, and thus
in keeping with the Platonic theory that there
which
forms, regarded as crude instruments the essential reahty contained in
all
is
from
indirectly
a certain constancy in
express for mankind's benefit the 'ideas'
which
are
things.
Under Louis XIV, while architecture became classical, painting moved towards the baroque. The teaching of Le Brun imposed on religious and secular art a style that had the gestures but not PL. XIV
the conviction of the baroque. that
it
was imitated
classicism (to
all
Rigaud
image of
created an
royalty
and of the
courtier so perfect
over Europe. In the eighteenth century French painters entirely abandoned
which a
large proportion of
French
architects
remained loyal) and returned
only with neoclassicism. Thereafter the classical tradition was not
priests.
Even today
vandalism of many parish
Yet history shows that although France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
produced the
finest
manifestations of the classical spirit the
baroque was a constant temptation. enriched French
art
and endowed
it
It
with
personality
and a
style,
but
case in point: in the style altogether too easily
many
modern world has known,
was the tension between its
classical
and baroque
which
finds expression too easily
rich possibilities are lost. Eighteenth^century
which we know
and too quickly.
the that
profound and individual humanity. The existence
of alternatives deepens the understanding; a talent
102
it
finally rejected until the
victory of impressionism; Delacroix, for example, regarded himself as a classicist.
in France a strong anti-'baroque prejudice survives, notably in the
to
as rococo,
German
artists
found
may
find a
Germany their true
is
a
path
5
Baroque
The baroque style originated in Rome between the pontificates of Sixtus V (i 585-90) and Paul V (1605-21). The Church had survived the crisis she had undergone in the sixteenth century; she
had renounced the dream, cherished by the Renaissance Popes, of unifying the
Italian
peninsula under the hegemony of the Holy See; but she had also checked the spread of heresy,
and the Popes celebrated
triumph by giving the Eternal City an appearance worthy of the
this
capital of the Catholic world.
A few works dating from
about the year 1600 show the easy transition from mannerism to
baroque. In the Pauline Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore, built between 1605 and 161 contain the tombs of Paul lines of the Sixtine
V
Chapel on
the other side of the nave, built for Sixtus
Fontana; but the slight alterations in the design tending towards
to
pi 134
V
by Domenico
stricter architectural discipline,
richer sculptural decoration, reveal the tendency of the
combined with
1
and his predecessor Clement VIII, Flaminio Ponzio follows the
work towards
the
baroque.
A comparison between the fajade of Santa Susanna (1597-1603), that of
Giacomo
della Porta's
from Counter/Reformation with
its
meagre
severity to
pilasters, suffers
wall, broken by a
Chiesa del Gesu on which
baroque magnificence.
from a kind of constraint;
few bays which
it is
are out of scale
mannerist feature). Maderno's facade, with
its
composition of volumes in light and space;
it is
by Carlo Maderno, and
pi 136
based, illuminates the transition
pi 13s
Giacomo
it is still
della Porta's fagade,
no more than a large decorated
with the building
as a
whole (a characteristically
columns and jutting
interplay of
pilasters, is a
a lyrical work, expressing a feeling of freedom,
but always subject to a rhythm that imposes an overall discipline.
During
The
the
same period, a few
artists
were to deliver painting from the torments of mannerism.
Carracci brought an end to the scrappiness, the insubstantiaUty and the compositional
vagueness which typify the century learned from principle based
on
art
of their immediate predecessors;
them how
all
the painters of the seventeenth
to organize the figures in a picture
a single action.
The
according to one unifying
Carracci brought the painter back to a rational study
human body; they restored its common people. In his frescoes on
of the masters, but also to a study of nature and principally of the robustness,
and did not
hesitate to seek
models
among
the
the roof of the Gallery of Hercules in the Palazzo Farnese, sense of
monumental composition achieved by Michelangelo
same methods, drawing
his
Annibale Carracci recaptures
the
pi.
153
in the Sistine Chapel; he uses the
rhythm from the power of the human body, usually nude.
Illustrating
103
STYLES gods of Olympus, Annibale opened up a rich source of images
for a cardinal the loves of the
on which
artists all
Even more than pi.
1S4
draw
over the w^orld were to
come.
for years to
human
the Carracci, Caravaggio dedicates his art to the
body. In the
ContareUi Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi (Scenes from
the
Santa Maria del Popolo (Crucifixion of St Peter and
Conversion of St Paul, 1600-1), his
with
figures,
shown
their
of St Matthew,
c.
1600) and in
powerful physique inspired by the porters and stevedores of the Tiber, are
drama of
in the throes of a
strength; their
life
world
is
life
God
without
and death which has been reduced
to a simple trial of
abandoned even by Nature, plunged
or gods, seemingly
in the darkness of the Creation or the Apocalypse.
Before 1610, the illustrative
and decorative
fruit of the solitary
who
Rome showed
of
artists
painting, integrated into a social setting,
anguish of genius.
lived in Italy between 1600
The
pontificate of
was
and 1608,
the orders of Paul
V in
to synthesize these
Peter's, already
1605. In 1629
two paths
and
that of dramatic painting,
two
tendencies.
era of magnificence for
Urban VIII
pi.
140
and church furnishings of bronze,
Peter (1656-65)
imitated
all
The Pope's major
genius.
entrusted Bernini with the decoration
He
It
animated
it
with
tombs of two Popes, the Throne of St
the
and the Baldachin, the 85/foot high canopy over the high
over the world.
Rome, an
provided with a nave by Carlo Maderno
of the interior, which he conceived as a veneer of marble, stucco and gold. gigantic statues
to follow: that of
the unique achievement of Peter Paul Rubens,
the inexhaustible riches of his
achievement was the remodelling of St
on
It
Urban VIII (1623-44) inaugurated an
on which Bernini lavished
era
the world of painting
altar,
subsequendy
incorporates 'Salomonic' or 'barley/sugar' columns, modelled
those from Constantine's old St Peter's
which had been preserved and
recused in the
on
new church.
Their spiral form expresses an ascending impulse better than straight shafts could ever do.
In the course of his long influenced the entire of the
Kingdom
artistic
life
development of the
of Italy. For
him
rigid supports,
Roman
and enriching
city until the
was
the task of architecture
cence; but he remained loyal to the principle of
Michelangelo and the
stamp on
(i 598-1 680) Bernini set his
monumental
day
Rome
when
to express stability
it
in a
became the
which was
number
of elements, as in the
is itself
inherited
perspective treatment of the upper arcades. 1
41, fig.
1
42, fig.
8
capable of creating a noble intimacy in a
g
Via XX. Settembre contrast to Bernini,
acts as a foil to
who
is
a
man
little
how Bernini enriches and complicates
from the antique (the Colosseum), notably by the
Though he church
loves to handle colossal dimensions, he
like Sant'
Andrea
Francesco Borromini's San Carlo
of the theatre, Borromini
is
al
Quirinale,
alle
laid
down by Vignola,
opment
to
which Bernini remains
to the fajade, deepens the perspective
loyal.
which
new modes
of
modify the orders
as
a poet, fascinated by
While Bernini gives a harmonious
and composes
is
in the
Quattro Fontane. In
expression in preference to established traditions; thus he does not hesitate to
104
A comparison
between Bernini's fagade of the Palazzo Barberini and the court of the Palazzo Farnese, as designed
a traditional theme which
pi.
the legacy of
Empire, expressing weight by the use of solid entablatures and
the style only by an increase in the
by Giuliano da Sangallo with three rows of arcades, shows
pi.
capital
grandeur and magnifi/
square before St Peter's, surrounded by colonnades with four rows of columns. pis 137-8
wly which
devel/
the building in terms of masses,
BAROQUE Borromini seeks
for contrasts of angles, diagonal
movements, the
sliding,
rebounding
effects
of curves and counter^curves, spiral movements, the spatial contrasts created by complex planes; in a word, he treats space in torsion, as a symbolic form. Borromini, a mystic, with a
melancholic temperament (he eventually commited suicide), worked almost exclusively for the
Angels
religious orders.
architectonic, Borromini's
The
white stucco.
among
are
is lyrical;
—
he has a
San Carlo
exquisite
into one pier of St Peter's
the leitmotive of his ornamental
an ardent
is
cell,
Bernini's art
—which
would
a celebration of the impulse
is
pure tones of
distaste for colours, preferring the
Quattro Fontane
alle
While
style.
fit
which
comfortably
leads the soul
out of the earthly shadows into the hght. In Sant' Ivo alia Sapienza he suspends over the church a
dome
in the
form of an open
rose,
For Bernini, Borromini and the
crowned by a pagoda.
and Carlo Rainaldi, and Martino Longhi, scope the decor, but in the plan,
became a subject
The All
stability
his statues
much
love,
which ceased
for invention lay not
show
only in the elevation and
be subordinated to functional considerations and
to
pure formal speculation.
Bernini imposed on his architectural works
away by passion a
for
such as Pietro da Cortona, Girolamo
architects of their circle,
absent from his sculptured figures.
is
characters caught in the instability of an impetuous
Two
or ecstasy.
groups
movement, carried
fully illustrate this quality: the Ecstasy of
St Teresa,
pl. xiii,
pi.
40
misunderstood work which has been seen by some as containing overtones of profane
and the Apollo and Daphne,
morphosis that attracted so of her humanity.
Other sculptors of Bernini's
the
artist
artists.
has caught in marble that instant of meta^
Frozen in the cry that
eyes already blank, passes
is
;'/.
1
pl.
572
4j
the last expression
from one kingdom into another.
such as Alessandro Algardi and the Fleming Frangois
circle,
Duquesnoy, showed themselves
statues in
which
many baroque
Daphne, her
Piacenza, Francesco
in
to be
more
attracted
Mocchi devoted seventeen
by the noble gestures of classicism. In
years of his
to creating the
life
bronze of Alessandro and Ranuccio Farnese, in which he expresses
two the
all
equestrian fire
of the
heroic temperament in the nervous step of a pacing horse.
The the
painters of seventeenth/century
Carracci
— Guido
—concentrated
Reni,
their energies
Rome, most
Albani,
on
of
them products of the Bolognese school of
Carlo Dolci,
Church
who realized the classical ideal; while certain Rome genre painting and the love of ruins.
exteriors (except for die facade)
painting, sculpture
were usually sober;
and ornamental modelling were devoted
all
Northern painters,
the resources of the arts of
to transforming the interiors into
The compart^
worlds peopled with statues which seem engaged in a contest of sacred eloquence.
mcnted decor of ceilings such
pis 1^0-1
decorative painting, leaving easel painting to the foreigners
Poussin and Claude Lorrain, the bamhoccmti, brought to
Domenichino
Guercino,
Lanfranco,
as that of St Peter's
was replaced by trompeA'ml paintings of structures
which, continuing that of the church, open out to the sky, revealing a paradise inhabited by cloudborne
saints.
The most
skilful of these trompeA'ceil painters
his masterpiece is the ceiling of Sant' Ignazio,
the guise of saints Jesus.
and
Rome, where
the
was
a Jesuit,
whole universe
allegorical figures to celebrate the glory of the
Andrea Pozzo; is
assembled in
pl. iv,pl.ji6
founder of the Society of
The powerful, rounded arches, the majestic entablatures and Corinthian pilasters symbolize
105
STYLES by
their horizontal
him
revealed to
The
emphasis the earthly
But
ceiling.
influence of Caravaggio
Kingdom
Manfredi) but in the
and
open
in the
life
which
the Christian aspires to leave for the paradise
this terrestrial life is
was profound, not only
not a vale of
Rome
in
of Naples, where he stayed for
some
tears, it is
a palace.
(Gentileschi, Borgiani,
time. Battistello in Naples
Pietro Novelli in Sicily were the best assimilators of the severe quality of his art; while
was transformed by the Spaniard Pedro Ribera divisions of Italy favoured the
martyrdom and
into a rhetoric of
Florence lingered in her dreams of formal perfection.
As
it
asceticism.
in the preceding age, the political
development of other provincial schools of painting,
all
tending
towards a certain romanticism. They will be considered in another chapter.
In architecture the provinces,
on
the principles elaborated in
a certain delay, produced their
after
Rome. Venice
(as in Baldassare
faithful to her traditions of decorative opulence; Naples, Sicily
an exuberance which brought reached them as
their art close to
a product of Spanish
consists not of veneers of stucco or
the building the richness of a
rule.
own
Longhena's La Salute) was
and Apulia (Lecce) displayed
Andalusian baroque, an influence which
In Naples, and even more in
Sicily, interior decoration
marble panels, but of marquetries of
work
distinctive variations
of jewellery (as in the decor of the
In the eighteenth century, Naples, once again the capital of a
rare
marbles which lend
Lady Chapel, Monreale).
kingdom, was decked out with
churches, monasteries and palaces. Ferdinando Sanfelice invented the most ingenious variations
on
the
theme of the
staircase;
Ferdinando Fuga and Luigi Vanvitelli served the megalomaniac
Bourbon King Charles VII. Following the city produced
The most architecture
great
inspired
decorative
the impetus given by
painters: Solimene,
and
intersections
which was
in the previous century,
Mura, Giaquinto.
and far/reaching contribution of provincial
was made by Guarino Guarini, who
interplay of curves
Rome
Italy to the
development of
in seventeenth/century Turin pioneered the
to be characteristic of the rococo architecture of
the following century. Guarini treats interior space like a musical theme, instinct with vibrations,
echoes and resonances. In Turin, in the eighteenth century, Filippo Juvarra returned to a more pi.
220
static
Berninesque baroque; sometimes, as in the church of
La Superga (1715-27), he
anticipates
the coldness of neoclassicism.
Just as Bernini dominated Italian artistic life
PL. XVI
of Flanders.
art,
Rubens
The phenomenal
after his return
vitality
of this giant
expression in compositions {Kape of the daughters
oblique and spiral movements. In his vast studio in
Europe, supplying the princes recognized themselves. His a
pi 1^8
new
pi 160 106
prelates of the
Italy
came
among baroque
of Leucippus)
which
to
painters finds
are
Antwerp Rubens worked
dominate the
sequences
for the
its
of
whole of
baroque age with paintings in which they
second marriage to a
girl
of sixteen, Helene Fourment, brought
note of personal feeling into his work; his portraits of his wife evoke (sometimes almost
indiscreetly) the sensuality
seem
late
and
from
to breathe in
Meanwhile,
his
and tenderness of his
love.
His landscapes, open
to infinite horizons,
unison with the soul of the universe.
Flemish contemporaries became more and more specialized, each painter
methodically exploiting one aspect of
reality:
Snyders and Fyt animals, David Teniers and
BAROQUE Adriaen Brouwer country flowers.
Van Dyck was
life,
Jan (Velvet) Bruegel landscape, Daniel Seghers and Bruegel
the only Flemish
reap the benefit of the teachings of Rubens,
artist to
coloured with a marked Venetian influence (Amarilli and Mirtillo); the elegance of the court
England was congenial
of Charles I of
which was maintained
painting a tradition
and he brought
to his sensitive nature,
for the
baroque
of the seventeenth century
of Rubens. In 1657
style
which
in Louvain, in
latter part
work was begun on
synthesis
achieved in the
is
still
charming and
^66
theme
lively
with the architecture.
The same
houses of the Grand' Place, Brussels, dating from the 1690s.
earliest
pi.
remained
the Jesuit church of Saint-'Michel
truly integrated
is
to English
do we find an architeaural equivalent
the sculptured decor, using as a leitmotiv the
oiputti disporting themselves in the 'sacred vine',
i^g
end of the eighteenth century.
until the
Sculpture in Flanders followed the example of Bernini, though architecture mannerist; not until the
pi.
After Holland, France was the country which most firmly resisted the baroque. If the original decor of Versailles were intact,
now
that
would undoubtedly appear
it
has been reduced to a simplicity that
it
adopted a decor in the Italian
is
repeated by
an
its
essentially
magical
effects.
down
yet the
down
should
which Louis
in 1689 to raise
than twenty tons of
the effect of ostentation; this
and the dark inside wall
reflection in the mirrors,
What
consider classical. Mansart
is
does
it
and Le Brun all
the
a true charac/-
whole concept of the Galerie des Glaces, in which the decor
baroque principle which the
silver furniture
melt
And
of classicism.
more baroque than
but tempered by a rhythm which, by blending
style,
elements into a harmonious whole, tones teristic
we
to us
we
say
XIV
money
if
Italians
we could
is filled
with
and Germans were
light, incorporates
later to use to
obtain
see sparkling in those mirrors the splendid
ordered from the Gobelins in 1660, and which he had to for the
War
Augsburg?
of the League of
It
yielded
no
less
silver.
After the school of Fontainebleau, France had no more real decorative painters; Marie de Medicis,
Henry IV's widow, had
to call in a
Flemish
artist
(Rubens), and
Anne
of Austria,
Louis XIII's widow, an
Italian (Romanelli), to obtain paintings of truly
Le Brun's
teachings
the merit of producing painters capable of decorating ceilings
large scale.
He
no more than
had
put his
own
creditable;
monumental
effect.
on a
precepts into practice in the Galerie des Glaces, but the results are
no French
painter, heir to a
monumental
tradition in sculpture, has
ever been completely successful as a decorator, being unable to conceive a picture otherwise
than as surface. Even
achievement (a
Mignard was painting
less is the
relatively
French
capable of trompeA'oeil on curved surfaces. For his
undistinguished one) in decorating the
hailed as a prodigy
Le Brun
artist
alternates
and was even
between the
the subject of a
classical
mode {Holy
dome
of the Val'de/' Grace,
poem by
Moliere. In his easel
Family, Louvre), a moderate
'
baroque {Adoration oj the Shepherds, Louvre) and an exaggerated baroque in which he puts into practice his personal theories of expression {Magdalen, Louvre).
from the teachings of Le Brun was Rigaud, the courtier. sories,
By
his figures' attitude as
much
who as
The
artist
gave to baroque Europe
by the movement of
he makes each individual a model of the station in
life
who its
benefited most
perfect
draperies, wig,
which he
image of
and
PL. xiv
access
'excels': military leader,
107
STYLES minister, dignitary of the
Church, monarch or
on
the contrary,
conform
to the ideal beauty she
XV the
Louis
it is
Le Brun was
of
Away from the
Catalan.
making
eclipsed
formality of the court, there
more akin
of his court ladies
XIV
and
their children as
Cupids.
by the baroque vigour of Rigaud, the hot/blooded
and Antoine Rivalz, and the Provencal
Parrocel, were
character's individual
the courtier into a demi/god;
was
movement
a spontaneous baroque
the South of France; in Toulouse, for example, the draughtsman Pierre
to use profession
thought herself to possess. In the reigns of Louis
Muses, Vestals, Dianas, Hebes or Minervas, with
The formalism
seem
make each
out to
sets
fashion spread for portraits in costume,
ladies appear as
his subjects
a baroque tenet that Unes of experience in a face are a proof of
Mignard, on the other hand,
strength of character.
All
Rigaud in no way tones down each
or status as a kind of mask. Nevertheless features;
courtier.
La
in
Fage, the painters Jean^
painters of battle scenes Joseph
and Charles
French contem/
to the seventeenth/century Italians than to their
poraries. pi.
14^
Pierre Puget, too,
works of
to his
and above
architecture
strength; but a
more
owes
work
like his
often prefer to interpret
Provencal origins the baroque instinct that he reveals in certain in his sculpture,
all
Milo of Crotona
power
is
and
a cult of physical
exceptional in French sculpture; French
in terms of the
the line of demarcation between baroque
which seems possessed by dominance of
artists
reason. Generally speaking,
French sculpture
classical in seventeenth/century
corresponds to the division between sacred and profane themes. Court sculpture tends towards classicism; funerary or religious sculpture answers pis ig-20
more the need
for 'expression'.
The
portrait
busts of Coysevox, however, like the paintings of Rigaud, depict character in the heat of action,
whether the subject be painter or minister {The Great Condi, Louvre).
The
teaching of
painters
and
to galant
and rococo
Le Brun brought which was
sculptors,
art
Michel^Ange Slodtz,
to persist
La
(Charles de
Pierre
into being a
Le Gros
throughout the eighteenth century, existing parallel
Fosse,
Lemoine
An
all
the baroque
over-simplified view
faithful
and rococo
art
would tend
at
Inigo Jones.
The
situation
England
to regard
is
once recognized
About
all
things considered,
in fact far
portance in his
wing
visit to
of the Louvre
had not yet been
exercises
XIII
on a
scale
at a
settled
enabled
worthy of a capital
its
ideal,
and
and
Versailles
neoclassical principles laid
on a constant to this style
Rome.
time
when
Sir Christopher
Wren
with the
than France. to achieve
Wren
an im/
did in fact meet
the question of the building of the east
by the victory of classicism. The
city.
flirtation
by force of circumstances was
Bernini's in
France in 1665,
London on 2-5 September 1666 108
man who
own country equal to
Bernini during a
Adam,
more complex. Temperamentally inclined
England gave more expression
the year 1660 emerged a
Sigisbert
as entirely hostile to the baroque,
classical
towards neoclassicism, English artists nevertheless carried baroque;
Lambert
of the eighteenth century.
throughout the two baroque centuries to the
down by
in painting;
in sculpture).
Versailles was the baroque Olympus. Europe
influenced
decorators, both
whole school of baroque
to carry out
a large
fire
which destroyed
number of
architectural
In the fifty^one parish churches he rebuilt,
Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Ecstasy of St Teresa, in Santa Maria
Wren
della Vittoria,
Rome
V Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743). Cardinal de Bouillon
XV Diego Velazquez (1599-1660). Maids
of
honour
XVI Paer Panl Rubeos ^1377-164^^. S^pe
oi ibc iio^g^isrs a:
Laicppus
BAROQUE showed
the catholicity of his taste; the desire for variety
and
Other of
voids.
itself
his buildings,
such as Chelsea Hospital (1682-92) and the rebuilt
Greenwich
portions of Hampton Court, are in the classical idiom; but the majestic colonnades of
Hospital (1694 Bernini. first
etc.)
Although
show some
much
design as too
trace of inspiration
from the square of St
inspired by
St Peter's,
it is
Rome, by
Peter's,
Royal Commission on the rebuilding of St Paul's had
the
in fact true that the vast
analogies with the latter are undoubtedly due to the wishes of
which extended from 1675
Commission
to bring
for a central plan
wanted a
it
own
to his
continued to
to 1709,
conceptions. His
formal
Its
Wren, who throughout
alter
its
the plan approved by the
idea,
first
Wren's
rejected
which was
rejected,
was
with incurved walls, surmounted by a Bramantesque dome; the Commission
basilica in the
in obtaining his
back
pis ijp, ^83
London church
holds the same position in the Anglican world as does St Peter's for Catholicism.
construction,
and by
a baroque instinct,
dynamism, a tension between
his designs possess a certain
comparison with those of Inigo Jones solids
is
form of a Latin
dome, even keeping
piers set in a circle, after hesitating
cross,
its
its
centre
surmounted by a tower.
Wren succeeded
primitive character of a rotunda by standing
whether
to base
it
on
eight
its
13
pi.
17$
ph
ij^-So.jig. 18
pi.
182
design on Michelangelo's rhythms or
its
As for the decoration of St Paul's, with its somewhat pon/ Roman models, it is much more akin to the baroque than to
those of the peristyle of Bramante.
derous magnificence, recalling
Jig.
the classical ideal.
At
the
end of the seventeenth century the course of English
baroque under the influence of two
Wren, and size,
John Vanbrugh. The
Sir
derived from Versailles, inspired
in England, Castle
begun in 1705
Howard, begun
for the
Duke
a reward for his victory at
end the
turned decisively toward the
who worked
Nicholas Hawksmoor,
under
concept of a palace with several courtyards of colossal
Vanbrugh
two most baroque
to build the
in 1699 for the Earl of Carlisle,
of Marlborough, to
whom
Blenheim. Vanbrugh had
it
was
structures
and Blenheim Palace,
presented by a grateful nation as
political differences
with the Duchess,
work on Blenheim Palace, which was continued by Hawksmoor; two architects joined forces. The size of Vanbrugh's buildings, and the theme
and was forced the
architects,
art
to stop
in of
glory which plays so important a part in the conception of Blenheim, give evidence of a desire for ostentation.
Vanbrugh
achieves his effects by the disposition of masses, by contrasts of
proportion and by a general display of grandeur;
all this
occasionally reminiscent of the
is
grandiose eclectic architecture of the second half of the nineteenth century.
In
1
71 5 began the Palladian reaction
of neoclassicism.
It
which brought English
should not be thought, however, that
everyone. James Gibbs, a Scots Catholic
and a Tory,
Carlo Fontana (a disciple of Bernini), remained outside of Architecture in 1728 are evidence of his eclecticism
and of
back
to the
path
path was followed bUndly by
this
who had it;
architecture
been schooled in the studio of
the examples he gives in his Book his
Uking
for
'modern' French and
Italian architecture.
His RadcUfFe Camera, Oxford, though
baroque;
St Mary^le^Strand (1714-17) in London. The famous London church
so, too, is
of St Martin/'in^the^Fields (1721-6), baroque in
its
built in
1737-49,
interior, displays in the
is
design of
distincdy
its
exterior
a noble classical harmony inspired more by French and Italian rhythms than by the antique.
113
STYLES James Gibbs conceives ham),
his interiors in
as does the Venetian/'born
fact the rule
an
entirely
the end of his is
Park, Surrey, 1733). This was in
throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; though architecture alternated
between baroque and classicism, the decorative
ijj
Orleans House, Twicken/
style (as at
Giacomo Leoni (Clandon
himself took his inspiration for theatrical pi.
baroque
sets
he designed the Double
life
arts
from
remained resolutely baroque. Inigo Jones
Italian
Cube Room
at
baroque scenography; and towards
Wilton House (about 1649), which
inspired by the baroque decors then fashionable in France.
has close
It
Palladian movement, also conceived his interiors in the baroque of Palladianism scarcely affected the decorative
arts; it :s
style.
on
a shock,
In
fact,
entering
associate in the
the purist reforms
some sober
dian mansion, to discover a baroque, Gothic or rococo decor, or even an array of
The pi. 266, fig.
5
Palladian era witnessed the flowering of an indigenous English furniture
by rococo, Gothic and
pi.
ijS
in
and made famous by Thomas Chippendale in
The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754). Until then the
collection arts
chinoiserie,
England had been derived from France and
Gibbons,
who
created the choir/stalls of St Paul's to
The
Italy.
Charles II
architecture,
style,
At
Heaven
allegorical figures soaring in front of a
his celebrated
of the decorative
Restoration
the
Room of Burghley
background of sham
A Frenchman, Louis Laguerre, was called in for the decorative painting Queen Anne,
worth. In the time of
taste
inspired
woodcarver Grinling
Europe.
a Neapolitan painter, Antonio Verrio; in the
House (1694-7) Verrio painted
style
Palla--
chinoiserie.
an overripe baroque design by Wren, used
the motif of coiled acanthus leaves then current throughout
summoned
great
with the
affinities
Chateau de Cheverny. William Kent, Lord BurHngton's
interiors of the
veered between the French (Charles de
at
Chats/
La
Fosse,
Jacques Rousseau, Baptiste Monnoyer) and the Venetians (Gian Antonio Pellegrini and the
two
Ricci, Sebastiano
English houses
and
Bugatti).
painter, Sir
PL.
XXIV
and
at this
his
nephew Marco). Stucco^workers from
time (Octagon
The Queen Anne
Room
at
Italy also
came
to decorate
Orleans House, Twickenham, 1720^ by Artori
period did, however, produce the only great English decorative
James Thornhill, a master of
trompeA'oeil
who
fills
and
the walls
Painted Hall of Greenwich Hospital with an multitude of figures
who seem
ceiling of the
about to invade
the space of the room.
In easel painting, England long remained faithful to the Flemish school. Sir Peter Lely, a
Fleming, painted the court of Charles
II, just as
Van Dyck had
painted that of Charles
I.
These and other Netherlandish baroque influences had a decisive influence on the development of English painting. Hogarth owes
Though Joshua pi.
i^y
the
much
to
Rubens and
to the
Dutch baroque
mannered elegance of Gainsborough approaches the
artist
galant art of the French, Sir
Reynolds' deep involvement with his great predecessors, particularly
Rembrandt, links him
closely with seventeenth^century
baroque (Lord
artists
Rubens and
Heathfield,
Gallery); in his large compositions he submits to the prevaiUng classical
Thus English
Frans Hals.
National
style.
were not entirely strangers to the baroque. Nevertheless their view of the
baroque was a somewhat formaUstic one, retaining the magnificence and the triumphal character, but missing the poetry and the imaginative impulse which carried the 114
German baroque
into the realms of fantasy.
artists
of the Italian
and
BAROQUE Spain, declining and finally defeated, found an escape from
While
the sixteenth century
had
seen a flowering of royal
The
almost entirely religious in inspiration. for the decline of the
reality in a
baroque dream-world.
the art of baroque Spain
art,
revival of court art by the
Bourbons was the
was
signal
Spanish baroque.
In the seventeenth century in Seville, the sculptor Martinez Montanes and the painter Zurba/ran expressed the heights of religious feeling in a purely classical
style;
pis 132-^
meanwhile, however,
the Castilian Gregorio Fernandez, heir to a tradition established in the previous century by
Alonso Berruguete, had already begun His baroque himself,
to turn devotional art
statues are often set in classical altarpieces,
which
illustrate
how
towards mystical expressionism.
many
them designed by the
of
lagged behind the figurative
far architecture
arts.
The
artist
Seville
school of painting tended finally toward the baroque, of which Bartolome Esteban Murillo
pi.
1^6
(1618-82) was to be one of the principal exponents in Europe. The theme of the Immaculate
Conception, which he chooses frequently in response
by
is
its
very nature impossible to treat realistically;
to the
Marian fervour of the Andalusians,
essentially
it is
baroque. In
many
of his
compositions, however, Murillo tempers the mobiHty of baroque forms with a sense of stabihty derived from classical Andalusian tradition. His contemporary and rival Juan de Valdes Leal,
on
the other hand, gives rein to his romantic fervour,
which has been
expressive violence
excelled by
endowing
the
no other European
theme of death with an
painter.
Diego Velazquez
is
pi J55 PL.
xv
a product of the Seville school of reahsm, which he practised in his early period (as in the famous
Old woman
however, he was appointed
cooking e^gs). In 1623,
contact with the decadent court of to
Madrid he began
to paint
painter to the king,
first
phantom
figures,
and on
seldom linked
one another by any action; they express the despairing sense of man's isolation which
the Spanish soul.
The form
which the supreme
52
pi.
166
pi.
161
pi.
162
evaporates, to be replaced by a modulation of touches of colour, to
virtuosity of the
explored the resources of his
art
brush lends a mysterious evocative quality. Velazquez
more completely than any other
After Montanes and Fernandez, Spanish the
pi.
afflicts
Granadan Pedro de Mena;
to
art
painter
who
has ever lived.
soon became fixed in an academic mould with
Alonso Cano, who produced
little,
we owe
exquisite figures
heralding the grace of the eighteenth century.
The development is
of architecture
is
hnked
to that of the altarpiece,
the central feature of the church. This clifF/like structure with
and
statues has a role similar to that of the
above the high
altar of a
Spanish church
Peter's,
the
is
The
the one
first
distinctly
coloured or gilded shapes
its
a kind of triumphal arch, giving access to the
baroque
still
classical in design, stand
altarpiece, inspired
made by Pineda and Roldan
for
La
new
out
by Bernini's Baldachin in St
Caridad,
end of the century, under the influence of Jose de Churriguera,
with a
in the Iberian world
church portals of the Middle Ages; the altarpiece is
supernatural world. Early seventeenth/century altarpieces, against bare walls.
which
Seville,
altarpieces
in
1670.
element of monumental splendour, the Salomonic column. In Portugal, the
piece developed along similar lines; but something in the national
At
were endowed altar/
temperament endows Por/
tuguese altarpieces, such as that of Sao Bento, Oporto (1701), with an added element of structural discipline.
115
STYLES In the course of the eighteenth century, both in Spain and in Portugal, the structure of the
became overlaid with a luxuriant growth of forms which
altarpiece
by some biological
force.
church of San Salvador, pi.
i6j
The doorway and Seville,
of 'glory', so dear to Bernini
province of
New
Spain
have reverted to pi.
280
his
this decorative
forms,
which
altar
contemporaries, to
Holy Sacrament
in the
its
Mexico
apotheosis. In
—the
architects,
seems on reaching the
New World
to
Architectural discipline succumbed to the anarchic growth of
state.
all
the creations of Iberian Christianity
Tome,
of the cathedral of Toledo, by Narciso
I discuss in a later chapter
transparent structure, through
the
exuberance takes on the force of tropical vegetation;
Europe by the
baroque ornament. The strangest of
behind the high
Roman
—
wild
its
Chapel of
by the Portuguese sculptor Caetano da Costa, carry the theme
and
the baroque, held in check in
altar of the
proliferated as if impelled
which an
is
the Transparente
a mass of thrusting vegetal
under the heading 'Art Nouveau'.
altar or
The
idea of a
a reliquary can be glimpsed rather than seen,
has often fascinated Spanish architects, and the idea of the withdrawal of the sacred into a secret place finds expression in the
and behind the pis ip8-g pi.
altar.
invention of a speciahzed form, the camar'm, situated above
The same theme
rococo architecture, where
it
of transparence reappears in Bavarian
and Swabian
Die Wies).
dematerializes forms (as in the church of
In the eighteenth century the luxuriant forms of the Spanish altarpiece began to influence
16$
architecture.
Gradually the whole church became encrusted with a layer of stucco. Italian
had used
architects
this material
mainly on
in Spain the absence of marble led to
its
ceilings,
on
use
where marble would have been too heavy;
the walls, while in Portugal gilt
wood was
used instead. Here the pattern established in seventeenth/century Spanish sculpture was neady reversed.
Andalusians
—such
as the
—turned to the baroque while
Figueroa family
at
Salamanca
the CastiUan Churriguera family remained faithful to the architectural principles of the Renais/ sance.
Fernando de Casas y Novoa,
at
Compostela, and Pedro de Ribera,
into stone the wild exuberance of Spanish baroque stucco
The baroque permeated into the Tyrol,
Central Europe from
Italy,
Munich, Prague and Vienna. After the
and wood
at
Madrid^ transposed
carving.
by way of the Veneto, Ticino, Orisons,
close of the sixteenth century Italian artists
poured into Austria, Germany and Bohemia, and in
spite of the aaivity of native artists, the
migration continued until the eighteenth century. Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), received lessons
He
from Palladio, was summoned
to Salzburg
designed a gigantic cathedral on the model of St Peter's,
was
built
by Santino Solari and decorated by
Until about 1680 the
new
style
who had
by Bishop Wolf Dietrich in 1604.
Rome; somewhat
Italian painters
and
scaled
down,
stucco-'workers.
can be seen emerging very slowly from the native Gothic and
mannerist traditions, both in the building of mansions and palaces and of churches. After uncertainties, the influence of II its
1660, basilicas in the true
Munich, begun by 16
Gesu became
many
a rival force to local styles of religious architecture;
notable adherents included the Vorarlberg school.
About 1
this
Roman
style
made
their
appearance; the Theatinerkirche,
the Italian Barelli in 1662, the Jesuitenkirche zu
den Neun Choren der
Engel, Vienna, begun in 1662 by a Ticinese architect, Carlo Carlone, the Universitatskirche,
BAROQUE Vienna (1701-3) by Andrea Pozzo (1703). Weingarten in Swabia by Franz Beer
twenty--
pi.
175
Schlierbach, illustrates the progress of baroque influence,
pi.
174
(i 716) all
show
Roman
a faithful adherence to the solemn
Italian plans gradually
made
their appearance, disposed in a
style.
Stucco
employed borders of
interiors
made baroque by Wessobrunn
at
iji.^p
pattern adopted by the Vorarlberg school. This development also affected the palace
and the mansion, where massive French
pis
abbey of Melk by Jakob Prandtauer (1706), and the Benedictine abbey of
the Benedictine
basilical
the cathedral of Fulda by J. Dietzenhofer (1704-1 1),
their exaggerated size
Swabia soon
in
Europe. Church furnishing in the seventeenth century
spiralling acanthus leaves,
and pronounced
reHef.
rivalled that of Italy, sending
gilt
had shown
wood soon abandoned
with mannerist cartouches
A
its
school of stucco/workers
craftsmen
all
the mannerist style
signs of developing into a premature rococo,
over Central
which
early in
and adopted a
baroque manner characterized by the use of twisted Salomonic columns; a comparison between a pulpit designed about 1670, such as that of the Altmunster, Linz, five years later, that of the Stiftskirche,
and another dated
displayed in fuller reUef and luxuriant ornament.
The finest flowering of the baroque in Austria and Bohemia occurred about
1680;
it
coincided
with the enhanced national consciousness which followed the victories over the Turks, and constitutes indeed a
brought about Italy
kind of manifesto of the Imperial
Two
ethos.
development, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach,
this
between 1680 and 1685, and Lucas von Hildebrandt,
the offspring of an Imperial engineer officer
Rome
and
his
who was
Italian wife,
who had
and who had studied in
emperor, princes, bishops and abbots, in a truly imperial
uments, churches, casdes, palaces and monasteries. gained the favour of Joseph
I
by winning a competition
monarch's entry into Vienna in 1690, Fischer's official for the palace of
It is
lived in
born in Genoa in 1668,
and been honoured by Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Bohemia and Austria
artists built for
also in
architects of the Italian school
style,
these
two
triumphal mon/
symptomatic that Fischer von Erlach for
after his election as
triumphal arches to be built for the
Holy Roman Emperor.
Several of
commissions have an imperial significance; the colossal plan (not executed)
Schonbrunn (1691-2), the Karlskirche in Vienna (1716) and the Hofbibliothek,
Vienna (1723).
We
pis i6g-jo
might also include the Pestsaule, a votive column erected in the
Graben, Vienna, between 1682 and 1688, the pedestal of which was the work of Fischer von Erlach. Imperialist enthusiasm
communicated
itself to
the Premonsttants, the Benedictines, the Augustinians rebuilt
on
colossal plans inspired
the
and
Church. Ancient orders such
the Cistercians
had
as
their monasteries
by that of the Escurial; the Emperor Charles VI,
who
for a
few years had been king of Spain, acknowledges the debt in his magnificent palace^monastery
The monastery became
of Klosterneuburg. the sciences
and the
arts,
a kind of symbol of universality, a palace of theology,
including grouped around the church, imperial apartments {Kaiser"
zimmem), an entertainment hall (Marmorsaal), a gigantic library
which was
an
museum, a
art
miinster),
and
staircase (Treppenhaus), a decorated
a kind of temple of learning, princely apartments for the prelate (PrelaturhoJ),
natural science collection, sometimes even
finally pleasure
an observatory
(as at
gardens which might contain luxurious pavilions (as
at
Krems/ Melk).
117
STYLES In decoration, Fischer von Erlach applied to permanent buildings the same opulence which
had marked
his
57^
I
With
in 1690.
secular architecture the motif of the Atlantean, derived
Michelangelo supports
for the
—an
Turks by
tomb
of Julius
more
rather
same heavy magnificence. Sculptures crowded on
practised the pi.
triumphal arches for Joseph
restraint,
Hildebrandt
and
cornices; in
to pilasters
from the
figures of slaves created
by
used abundantly in lower rooms, staircases and balcony
II, is
image of defeated strength which
for the Austrians recalled the crushing of the
Western armies.
the
In the general conception of their buildings, particularly their churches, Fischer von Erlach
and Hildebrandt
more from Borromini and Guarini than from Bernini. The innovations
derive
which were almost without influence
of these architects,
baroque churches of Austria, with the
Here
plans.
vibrant pi.
i6j
Fischer
von Erlach
sets his
domes not on
time that soaring spatial quaUty that he was to repeat endlessly in
the KoUegienkirche in Salzburg (1694), the pi.
16^
on a
a circle but
tenser curve, the ellipse;
Ahnensaal (Hall of Ancestors) in Frain (Vranov) in Moravia (1690), he achieved
in the first
hnes of their elevations and
characteristic intersecting
forms lend vigour to the external mass, and quicken the internal space to
elastic
life.
in Italy, find their fulfilment in the
the Karlskirche in Vienna. This church
is
all his
for the
plans, notably in
Hofbibhothek (now the Nationalbibliothek) and
a kind of epitome of
Roman
architecture;
it
has the
dome of Berettini's San Carlo al Corso, and the towers designed Column appears not once but twice; there is a replica of it on either side of the west door. In Prague a member of a Bavarian family of architeas, Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, made use of projections, gliding diagonals and intersecting planes to peristyle of the
by Bernini
Pantheon, the
for St Peter's. Trajan's
which gave
create supple articulations, imperceptible transitions,
inspiration to the rococo of
Swabia and Bavaria.
The heavy
magnificence of Fischer's imperial baroque was purified by a provindal architect,
Jakob Prandtauer, pi. iji
Melk (church Danube. His
pi.
J2 1
who
built
used
it
to create
harmonious
effects; his
between 1706 and 1726), magnificently
son/in/'law, Josef
monastery of Altenburg) but
Munggenast,
masterpiece
sited
on
refines his style to the
its
is
the monastery of
promontory above the
point of elegance (as in the
of the preciosity of the rococo, a style almost
is free
unknown
in
Austria.
While Swabia and rococo
style.
Bavaria, mingling French
349
setting for royal festivities, the
1706
for the
prominence
of Sanssouci, near
on pi.
118
37y
the
Louis
itself,
model of an
XIV,
in Europe.
to
were developing the
to the solemnity of the baroque. In
built for the opulent
Augustus
the Strong an open/air
Zwinger, which perpetuated the memory of a carrousel given in
king of Denmark. In
further, giving
In Berlin
Italian influences,
North Germany and Saxony adhered more
Dresden in 1709, Daniel Poppelmann pi.
and
it
he
carries the
monstrous Atlanteans
exuberance of Fischer von Erlach a stage later
imitated by KnobelsdorfFin the palace
BerUn (1745-53). in the late seventeenth century, Italian palace,
and from 1693
Andreas
Schliiter
began the royal residence
to 1700, taking his inspiration
erected a bronze equestrian statue, of the Great Elector,
which
is
from Girardon's one of the
finest
BAROQUE In the German/speaking countries, mannerism in sculpture persisted until the seventeenth century,
At
most notable representatives being Martin and
its
end of the century, however, numerous ItaHans came
the
bringing with them the Berninesque
Carlone family.
Among
style.
Among
work
to
them were
IVlichael
half of the
Zurn
the elder.
Germany and
in
several
latter
members of
the
Austria,
immense
the earliest Berninesque sculptures are the extraordinary kneeling
marble angels by Michael Ziirn the younger which adorn the
lateral altars of the
monastery of
pi.
i$2
pi.
1^1
ph
18^-6
Kremsmiinster (1685). They are represented in the posture of the bronze angels surrounding the altar of the
Chapel of the Holy Sacrament in St
angels bearing the instruments of the Passion
on
Peter's,
Rome, but
the Ponte Sant'
movement
their
is
that of the
Angelo. The unearthly nature
of these celestial beings has perhaps never been so well suggested as in these figures, pitating with the
motion of
from beyond the
their flight
In eighteenth-century Austria the ample
Georg Rafael Donner tempered
sculptor
Donner's high
cathedral of Pressburg (Bratislava), Bernini's motif of adoring angels
and
far
from the expressive
the perfection of a court
Even pean
intensity of the angels of
the provincial Ziirn
artist;
before Peter the Great, Russia
art penetrated as far as
Vienna
the
the spirit of Italian baroque with something of the
nobility of Girardon's bronzes in the gardens of Versailles. In
cold,
pal^
skies.
of Bernini continued to flourish. In
style
still
was not
is
altar for the
elegant, but
is
somewhat
Michael Ziirn. Donner has
all
an inspired poet.
entirely isolated,
and
the great currents of Euro^
Moscow. The elements of the baroque were implanted
there about
1680, at about the same time as in Central Europe, and in spite of strenuous opposition from the conservative clergy.
Moscow was
gradually surrounded with large fortified monasteries.
At
Rostov, Yaroslav and Dubrovitsy, the characteristic pyramidal Russian church became baroque.
Here
as in Latin
fruits.
icons,
America, the transplantation of the baroque produced strange and exotic
In the iconostases of the
churches sculpture in
and the use of Salomonic columns enhanced
Portuguese altarpieces.
on
new baroque
As in
Spain, the
to the fabric of the building
The pace
style
took the place of
resemblance to the Spanish and
of the interior decoration was eventually transposed
itself.
burg an appearance resembling that of Amsterdam, he
Frenchman Leblond
Versailles.
Leblond
to give the city
living in Paris,
who
built the
palace of Tsarskoye Selo
wood,
this is
an
and
visited Paris
overall plan,
Versailles in
which
Bartolommeo
Winter Palace, the
Rastrelli,
by the
on the
sea'.
Peter
pi.
547
pi.
184
son of an Italian architect
great monastery of
(now Pushkin); ornamented with
1717 and
the latter did
also designed the palace of Peterhof, 'Versailles
the Great's daughter Elizabeth called in
gilded
wood
of Westernization quickened in the time of Peter the Great. After giving St Peters^
called in the
model of
their
gilt
Smolny, and the immense
a rich decoration of stucco and
one of the most remarkable examples of the baroque in Europe. Under
Catherine the Great, however, Russia turned towards classicism, largely under the influence of the St Petersburg
Academie
des Beaux^Arts, in
Poland adopted the baroque that
was
all
(as at the
which French
Franciscan monastery
the greater since in a Catholic country there
which was encountered in Russia.
It
was from Poland
ideas predominated. at
Krosno) with an enthusiasm
was none of the that the
pi i8j
ecclesiastical opposition
baroque reached Russia.
119
6
Rococo
Scarcely
had Louis
XIV
enjoyed the splendours of his grand apartment
with marble and adorned with subjects from mythology,
around the Cour de Marbre an
The pi.
1
1^
plan of
solemn than franfaiie,
this its
the necessity to have built
decoration, though
Its interior
outer facing of marble in the Italian style, being
lacquered and gilded. In the
felt
apartment' where he could Uve rather more privately.
'interior
was decided in 1684.
when he
at Versailles, faced
latter
still
sumptuous,
is less
composed of woodwork
Sun King
part of his reign the
a la
increasingly
felt
oppressed by the vastness of the palace he had created, and escaped to the more intimate atmos^
new
phere of Marly or the Trianon, setting the precedent for a
style,
in
which
the
mansion was
substituted for the palace.
Inside the great
town houses
{hotels) that
to be replaced
were built in Paris in the
first
two decades of
the
rhythm of orders and entablatures gradually disappeared,
eighteenth century, the architectonic
by a system of arches of equal height encompassing doors, windows and mirrors.
The tympanums above
the lintels of doors were often occupied by a decorative painting
by an elaborate carved frame; the panels inside the arches were ornamental sculpture in high
relief,
now
set
off
decorated only with
continued in stucco on a low ceiling which ^vas seldom
adorned with paintings. Cumbrous and unwanted, the great masterpieces of the previous century or of the Renaissance were put pi.
188
away
in a special gallery or even relegated to the lumber/
room. The salon of the Hotel du Petit^Luxembourg in Paris (1710) style.
The new mode
of ornamentation
was
the result of a
of the seventeenth century through the influence of tration of
it is
Versailles, in
is
a typical example of this
movement which developed
artists
such
Lepautre; a
as Pierre
at the
fine illus/
provided by the sculptured stone trophies decorating the piers of the chapel
which Robert de Cotte has sought elegance
A whole succession of Paris mansions,
many
of which are
still
in existence today, give us a
and
sinuosity of line;
examples are Vasse's panelling for the Hotel de Toulouse (171 8) and Boffrand's designs salon of the Hotel d'Assy (1719). Designers specializing in ornamentation, such as
Nicolas Pineau and
later
pis i8g, igi
Nancy (1710), Boffrand, imitating
The Salon
for the
Oppenord,
Meissonier, helped to influence taste in the direction of rocaille orna^
ment, and one of them, Franjois Cuvillies,
120
at
rather than grandeur.
picture of the progress of the rococo tendency towards profusion of forms
near
end
later
made
his fortune in
Germany. At La Malgrange,
the oval salon at Marly (1699), exemplifies the transition.
de la Princesse in the Hotel de Soubise, Paris, by Boffrand, (1738-40) and the
great Spiegelsaal (hall of mirrors) in the
AmaUenburg
pavilion of the
Nymphenburg
palace
ROCOCO near
Munich by
Cuvillies (1734-9) are similar in conception. Both are oval rooms, ornamented
with large mirrors, and where the walls meet the ceiling the surfaces are out of
from one plane
transition
into facets,
The
to another.
and the pronounced
reflections in the mirrors
—
ities
which explain why French
differences
reveals interesting differences, as well as similar/
have refused
art historians
can writer Fiske Kimball that the rococo originated in France
XIV. The
sculptured decoration of the Hotel de Soubise
abstract; at the
creations
which
Amahenburg
was a
the
of a people
German mind
is
itself,
European schools
rhythmical instina, and during the same period there
and Germany in the
its effect
dialectic of cause
use of rocaille,
Rome,
down
effea,
German thought by
and even more the asymmetrical
For
derives his
the dialectic latter,
even
We
might
distribution of ornament,
therefore describe the style of those
name sometimes
given by the Italians
Italy in this period, in architecture at least,
such
as that of the
remained
Palazzo del Grille or the
and even in Piedmont Juvarra conceived was
influence; here the taste
German
style.
abandoning the patterns,
and
the great central
for
woodwork
a
la fran^aise,
fashion (decoration of the Palazzo Reale).
yet the rocaille artist
The
crafts--
Tiepolo cuts his clouds into
rocaille^
with figures astride them, carried round in an endless spiralling space. Guardi
ig2
pi.
1%
is
pi.
326
pi. igj,
PL. xviil
forms explode in convulsive touches of the brush,
fragmented by zigzags.
are the riches of Italian art that
itself exploit.
his
;)/.
on mirror frames,
Brustolon overloads his chairs with figures in
perspectivist use of architecture,
his compositions are
Such
but heavily
The ceilings of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo express the rococo spirit in paints
undoubtedly the most rococo of painters;
not
a
complex synthesis.
the principles of the former, whereas the
rocaille decoration
is rare,
rocaille in the
furniture;
a heavy baroque
and
and
in a
of Venice could give graceful curves to asymmetrical ornaments in stucco,
on painted
hke
work is
of the hunting/lodge of Stupinigi in elegant baroque terms. In Turin, however, the minor
came under rococo
ing;
of music. Rameau's
and resolving them
that rejeaed the rococo as harocchetto, the
baroque; in
ornamented with
or
an extreme.
on the laws of harmony, whereas Bach
hesitating between opposites
church of Santa Maddalena
men
field
to carry to
We could perhaps see reflected in this pattern of answering voices
to their art of the eighteenth century.
arts
\
Most
fairy/tale.
roots in medieval scholasticism.
The immoderate
room
a society salon;
is
its
are the defining characteristics of true rococo.
essentially
in Paris
revealed in
antithesis; Descartes laid its
The room
belongs to the world of
Swabia and Franconia were
French thought proceeds by the
in Hegel, has
therefore
of
from counterpoint.
and
and
artists
similar divergence between France
of thesis
Renaissance.
Nymphenburg park
progression of chords, relying for finest effects
purely ornamental,
Amalienburg Cuvilhes experiments with an asymmetrical system of
metry, whereas in the
spirit
with the Ameri^
to agree
end of the reign of Louis
the decorator of the Hotel de Soubise has been faithful to the principle of sym/
all,
ornamentation which the stucco
The
is still
at the
the imagination of Cuvilhes breaks out into a host of fanciful
recall the grotesques of the
the pavilion in the heart of the
important of
break up a confined space
outline of the rocaille completes the disruption of the architectural
But a comparison between the two rooms
lines.
true, to soften the
it is
The pioneer of asymmetrical
many formal inventions which it did rhythms was a stucco artist from Palermo, Giacomo
responsible for
pi.
1^4 121
STYLES Serpotta,
who
created for his native
town
exquisite chapels in
tudes of the figures are balanced contrapuntally.
Lorenzo, in 1699, and continued to practise his tation remains baroque, his figures are the
found
its finest
He
art until his
show
to
first
which
death in 1732.
and
atti/-
that of
San
the gestures
all
began to decorate the
first,
Though
his
the active, fugal rococo style
ornamen/
which
later
Germany. The salon eloquence of Serpotta becomes a kind of
expression in
Sangro in the church of San Severo, Naples, the work
expressionist frenzy in the Cappella di
who
of Francesco Queirolo, Giuseppe Sammartino and Antonio Corradini,
can make even
marble transparent. Naples, where painters adorned ceilings with soaring visions worthy of Tiepolo, can
show examples
of rocaille,
of the church of Santa Chiara,
The French
was destroyed
eighteenth/century decorative
could very appropriately be termed pi.
igo
not of rococo; the
if
in the
style,
finest rocaille
decor in the
city, that
Second World War.
which almost never made
use of asymmetry,
France did, however, produce some genuinely
barocchetto.
rococo furniture; about the year 1730 four designers, Lajoue, Meissonnier, CuvilUes and Mon--
don, produced collections of ornaments in an asymmetrical
The working
particular derived inspiration.
curved
of precious metals
profiles, swellings, dislocated surfaces,
pamphlet ostensibly addressed that Nicolas
Cochin made
and
Lancret and Pater
is
his protest against the rococo. Faience
among
late to
Loos); and
which loved
fact in a
makers imitated the metal/ be influenced by the rococo.
refined into rococo grace; a tendency towards realism
Van
was in
various tendencies: a poetic strain derived from Watteau,
Boucher and Fragonard. The society, a society
especially suited to spiral forms,
to the goldsmiths of France (his Supplication auxOrjevres, 1754)
din); an official baroque current following the teachings of
Coypels and the
is
from which goldsmiths in
irregular projections. It
workers' forms; but porcelain manufacture reached France too
Painting was divided
style,
talent of
to
a
finally
style
French
contemplate
whose
artists itself;
in
and intimacy (Char/
Le Brun
(Francois Lemoine, the
were
definitely rococo, that of
qualities
made
which
painting a reflection of the
tastes
of
the art of the seventeenth century, deeply
concerned with problems of form, had been a mirror reflecting every visible object. More than ever,
mankind enjoyed
formal, sometimes
the contemplation of
more natural in
favourites, aristocrats or bourgeoises,
century
it
was even accepted
that
dominate style
women
in painting, sometimes
but always compelling.
style,
de la Tour's subjects tempers his severe
own image
its
the
Women,
stiff
and
whether queens or
whole epoch. The feminine grace of Quendn
with a touch of elegance; by the end of the eighteenth
might be painted by women.
In Spain, rococo decoration found expression almost nowhere but in the royal apartments of
—such
the Palacio Real in Madrid. Religious art
as that of the
Churrigueras in Salamanca or of
—elaborated upon the baroque. The one exception
the Figueroas in Seville
decoration of the sacristy rocaille style
were occasionally made to the ornamental
suited to use in
122
the rocaille stucco
woodwork
of altars, where
it
was well
combination with mirrors.
Portugal, as usual contrary to Spain, all
is
of the Cartuxa of Granada. Chiefly in Latin America, changes in
Europe. Rocaille
is
already
coming
(1720-3), where the decoration of the
was with Germany the most
strongly rococo country of
into flower in the library of the University of
woodwork,
gilded
and lacquered in
Coimbra
the Chinese style,
is
ROCOCO still
symmetrical in character; but in the dissolution of forms
The
from baroque
transition
to
was
it
painters
who
preceded
Nossa Senhora da Luz, Rio de Minhos, Borba, dated 17 14).
sculptors (as in the cartouche in
The second John V
style
Oporto fashioned
like goldsmiths, while in the north, at Braga and elsewhere, rocaille in
and stone
takes
of the reign of
it
made
use of all the possibilities of rocaille; the decorators of Lisbon
on a swollen, inflated,
Manuel
I
visceral quality,
(1495-1521). But
in
of
wood and
a half.'caste
stone
Swabian church
202
pi.
204
was
it
Brazil that
produced the
known
as
O
Aleijadinho (the
which have, though on a more
state
finest true
rococo
of Minas Gerais,
pi.
20^
and
wood
almost like a revival of the Manueline
asymmetrical rocaille) decoration, between 1770 and 1800. In the Francisco Lisboa,
pi.
rococo in church woodcarving occurred about the year 1740,
style (i.e.
Antonio
httle cripple), created decorations
restricted scale, all the soaring lyrical quality
interiors.
Austria in the eighteenth century, unlike Germany, remained faithful to the baroque. This eighteenth/century baroque tary,
while the ornament
of the church ast,
is
refined
is
and harmonious;
To
symmetrically disposed.
and hbrary of
the forms are never excessively fragmen/
take an example, the pohshed baroque
the Benedictine monastery of
Altenburg
painter Paul Troger, decorator Franz Josef Holzinger)
(architect Josef Munggen/
wellbeing, very different from the swooning ecstasy of the churches of Swabia. that of the interiors of the imperial palace of
rococo was a
style reserved for
Schonbrunn, proves the
The
court use.
pis ij2, igj,
524
communicates a sense of peace and
One
exception,
rule that here as in
Spain
other exception, the church at Wilhering, can be
explained by Bavarian influence.
England, the land of paradoxes, succumbed
and
to the
charms of the rococo in
furniture in the very heyday of Palladian architecture.
interior decoration
Rococo triumphed about
1750. Here more than in Portugal, Chinese influence was decisive in determining
ment, showing
itself
in the serpentine curves of the 'English' garden
who
Chippendale family. Thomas Chippendale, models
entitled
The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's
in the design of his mirrors.
Verney
The
conflict
to build a severe Palladian
wind
Director, uses
between
classical
markedly asymmetrical
and rococo inspired
mansion, Claydon House, whose
Nouveau It
functional. In the
work
fluidity characteristic of
adorn
much
genius of the ItaUan Renaissance. for every landed prince
Bavaria,
its
balustrade.
The
German
poUtical divisions of
wished to have
his
pi.
2ji
art
Art
and Catholic
of art. French art historians are inchned to attribute
originality of the
The
206
some of them sober
greatest splendour. Protestant
importance to Italian and French influences in Germany; in
weighed no more heavily upon the
pi.
a century before.
attained
Germany plunged joyfully into a magic world
j
staircase so delicate
its
styles,
pis 20^, 266, jig.
Edmund
of Charles Kandler (about 1730) rocaille returned to the
Dutch work
was in Germany that baroque fantasy
far too
Sir
features
interior reveals Palladian
and a wrought^iron
rustling in the ears of corn that
of the goldsmith was flourishing; goldsmiths employed a variety of
and almost
the furniture of the
published in 1754 ^ famous collection of
doors, a rocaille salon, an extravagant Chinese room, that one can almost hear the
and
the year
develop/
its
own
external influence
Germany favoured
Versailles. In the
Swabia and the Rhineland, the house of God
fact,
rococo than did antiquity upon the
Cathohc
this
movement,
areas,
Franconia,
rivalled that of the prince. In the
Lutheran
123
STVLliS areas.
Saxony, Prussia and Bayreuth,
artistic creativity
was focused on
valent nature of the regime of Saxony, a Protestant country
converted to Catholicism,
pi 333, fig-
1$
is
church of the court and
the Lutheran Frauenkirche alas,
in the
were united in the person of a single
ruler,
prince^bishop.
grand
ph igs~^
scale.
Perhaps the
which
felden.
^^
°^^ °f
^"^^
l^^"^?'
family
Towns were
most magnificent
None, however,
Palais at
war. In certain
of the finest sacred buildings districts
human and
faith
wielder of both temporal and spiritual power
is
Ludwigsburg,
that of
is
that of
built
by the dukes of Wiirttem^
(now
destroyed)
many
Pornmers'
at
residences of Frederick the Great of
and Charlottenburg,
the Stadtschloss
and Neues
the monasteries (Stifte)
and the pilgrimage churches
which enhanced
the richness of their architect
situated in rural surroundings
As in
and decoration.
Austria, the ancient orders (Benedictines, Premonstrants, Cistercians,
Augustinians) had their old Gothic buildings reconstructed, providing the
most poetic expression of an ancient
German
ideal, that of the 'City of
rococo achieved the fusion of all the
the time of the Renaissance, the sculptor
architect; they
the setting in conflicting
God' dreamt
arts that is the central
and
which they would appear. The lack of unity
demands
of sculptor, painter,
of by St Augustine.
principle of
painter filled in the 'spaces'
conceived their works as creations in themselves, and gave
and ornamentalist and
left
all
baroque
art.
for
them by
the
Uttle consideration to
mannerism
in
and perhaps
last
due
to the
the disappearance of the
domi/
is
partly
nant role of the architect. In Italian baroque the architect once more takes control; in*St
Rome, and
in Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, Bernini conceives architecture, decoration
ture as a whole,
and Borromini does
the
same in San Carlo
Giovanni in Laterano. The decoration of Louis XIV's Apartment', was the painter,
pi.
362
result of close collaboration
Le Brun. But
decorator, painter is
and
in
German
what makes the building. In
length of the grand staircase
is
1^^
two
igS
creators of those
The
124
Quattro Fontane and San
alle
between an
architect,
which they can deploy
'Grand
Mansart, and a decorative
their art; the decoration, in fact,
the Residenz at Wiirzburg, the visitor's slow ascent to the full
intended by the architect, Balthasar
by
Neumann,
Tiepolo glorifying Bishop
in Bavaria, or
Dominikus and Johann
to
make
Schonborn.
it
possible
On occasion,
Kosmas Damian
Zimmermann,
Baptist
the
twin jewels, the pilgrimage churches of Steinhausen and Die Wies.
unifying principle of the baroque was architectonic, that of
Although since
Asam
and sculp'
Versailles, theVersailles of the
brothers entered into partnership, uniting in themselves all the arts, as did
and Agid Quirin pi.
first
Peter's,
rococo the architect no longer does more than prepare for the
sculptor a space in
to take in gradually the ceiling painting /'/.
—the
Wiirzburg, built by the powerful Schonborn
splendour of the
rivals the
was concentrated around
( Walljahrtskirchen),
At
divine laws
Potsdam, and the palace of Sanssouci.
Cathohc
ture
last
—one
imposing residence of the prince/bishops of Bamberg
Prussia, the palaces of Berlin
were
Electors
covered with palaces and churches, for the princes built on a
largest residence
also built the
two of whose
by the two churches of Dresden, the Catholic
aptly expressed
of the Western world, destroyed,
monarch. The ambi/
the
the exteriors retain their
monumental
German
majesty, in the interiors
Greek and Roman times had served to emphasize the
to serve the decorator. Capitals are like precious necklaces
rococo was musical.
all
the elements
architectural structure
around
were
which
now made
piers that are shafts of glittering
—
6
ROCOCO columns
light, or
and
spill
heavens.
delicately painted in imitation of marbles that never existed; cornices undulate
outwards
At
to
mask
At Rohr (by
the
Asam
Ottobeuren
at
dome above
church on the trompeA'oeil of the
is
upward
to reveal the
to the Paradise painted
on which
is
Uke the prosceniiim of a
a painting of Pen^
pi.
J2^
from which
pi.
igg
pi.
ig8
pi.
^16
pi.
i^p
theatre
Assumption of the Virgin Mary. The Ught colours of the
the spectator contemplates the
whole
skilful tricks of perspective centre the
the crossing,
brothers) the nave
open
ceiling; ceilings
Steinhausen, a round dance of pillars leads the eye
by Dominikus Zimmermann, and
tecost.
and
the transition between walls
stuccos,
pale rose, sky-blue, pastel blue, violet, amaranth, straw-colour, orchid, pure white or milk-white, all
touched with gold and sometimes with
The
quality. light; in
silver,
help to give the building a completely ethereal
artful use of transparent screens (as in the choir of
German
rococo, Ught, the supreme Christian
At Die Wies
fullest extent.
the
whole church seems
be drawn towards the ceihng rather than to support
Thus the great age of Western thing
is
tuation, that cature
—
is
was
is
on dynamic
which emich
contrasts.
close in a
excess, because everything
is
their
necessary. is
art destroys
by Ghiberti and Alberti. The
is
still
is
on tempo and
in
style
broken,
which
structure than
on
by ornaments
are provided
it.
decorators,
accen-' acciac^
For the miraculous
is
in
should be wary of analysis, which could simply
answered elsewhere by another, all
its
antithesis
and
its
the old laws of geometrical perspective conceived
Italian decorators of the seventeenth century
horizon
is
still
observed perspec
at a
entirely
and handle space
Rome,
is
waves
dating from the most ancient times
necessarily built
becomes transcendent
spirit.
appearance in 1715 and its disappearance in 1770, rococo architecture contains
its first
—an evolution
whole evolution
difficult to define, so rich are the personalities
Benedictine church of Weltenburg in Bavaria, built by the still
rococo church
in vibrating
thousand points, produce a rich harmony, a dissolution of artists
transformed into pure
German
replaced by the heights of the Empyrean.
on the other hand, eliminate depth
has been reahzed; the soUd matter of which the church
and 1723,
hke
only to ethereaHze sohd substance; irregularities are
space into light and music. Here a dream of Christian
Between
is
convergence upon a harmonic centre. Nothing
We
once and for
which, intersecting one another
tal; it is
every^
this unity
thinks in terms of perspectival depth, but a depth converted from the horizontal to the
vertical; the distant
The
appear to
using insidious devices of acceleration, deceleration or distortion. In Sant' Ignazio,
Pozzo
a
pillars
a response to the call of another, every turn of ornament,
to fly off into the absurd, is
This
less
Chromatic quahties
added matter
reduce unity to chaos; every gesture
justification.
based
symphonic
relationship
the melodic Une, Hghtening rather than burdening
that the result of all this
which appears
is
used to the very
is
and the
it.
draw to its
whose rhythm
blended into a fundamental unity by
tive,
to
floods the church with
symbol of Divinity,
to float in the air,
Hnked in a musical unity. Since every architectural
that of melodic compositions
faa
art
Die Wies)
has some baroque features
Asam
—the ornamentation appUed
who
created
flat
to the wall, the stage
perspective leading the spectator's eye horizontally towards the scenography of the transparente
the high altar,
by the same
where St George
architects,
we
are
slays the
still
it.
brothers between 171
on
dragon. In the Augustinian church of Rohr (1717-23)
in the world of the theatre, but here the Assumption at the far
125
STYLES end of the church leads the eye upwards towards the heavens, where the angels welcome Mary. In one of their
last
works, the 'Asamkirche' adjoining their palace in Munich (173 3-5),the Asam
bonds of horizontal depth and suspended the image of the Trinity in the
brothers broke the loftiest part
at
The
of the church.
Steinhausen (1728-3
purest
harmony was achieved by
and Die Wies (1746-59)
1)
ring of arches. Here again the eye
drawn up towards
is
church of Birnau near Lake Constance, decorated by
mayr (between 1748 and 1758), the movement,
and we pis 200-1
and
from matter,
sense a recoil
achieve a state
decorated by
convulsed in a
figures are
an
suspended upon a
when
the rococo exceeds
the stucco artist Joseph
rising
sort of
like that of
of pure contemplation.
Zimmermann, who
the highest point.
In the period from 1745 to 1760 there are moments
frenzied; ornaments
the brothers
create a vision of Paradise
from
crescendo to
crescendo,
nervous spasm which
ascetic
who
In the
itself.
Anton
Feicht/
becomes
recalls Berruguete,
mortifies the flesh in order to
In the Benedictine abbey church of Zwiefalten,
Johann Michael Feichtmayr,
the asymmetrical irregular ornamentation dislocates
space, destroying the architectural rhythm. Perhaps the rococo might be said to have passed
through a mannerist phase of It
was in reHgious
found
Church
truest expression.
its
own.
its
rather than in the palaces of kings
art,
architecture,
rococo treatment than did the palace,
better to
paid special attention to the design of
and sought
was done
mirrors; this
The
in certain
power
dignity of royal
some
God is One;
and
which afforded space effect
feet
light, centres
Residenz in Munich, and the
Selo, are examples of this.
graceful rococo of Johann
he must be honoured in unity. spirit.
in length;
on
the
imagination to
Versailles.
At
state
apartments of
Charlottenburg and Potsdam, on
August Nahl belongs with
the elegance
A display of opulence
is
not enough
—matter
it
on which
youthful
like the very source of
its
Choir
stalls,
fills
when
being.
less
basilica
building, radiant with
upon
church in the symbol
the world.
A joy like that
spring approaches the majesty of ripeness without
church in the heart of the Swabian orchards, where wor/
to kneel before an old
its
The whole
the light of Truth spread out
this
no
stucco ornament and paintings are
glorification of the universality of the
of the year
ardour—
come in crowds
is
combines the cruciform symbol, the processional theme of the
Whitsun—the moment its
must
A complex of buildings Uke the monastery of Ottobeuren (1710-64)
dome, with
of Pentecost, the day
126
for their
of comparatively small rooms by using
executed with a perfection that makes every detail a jewel.
shippers
of
that decoration should be seen to be overdone to
demanded
the unitary concept of the central plan.
losing
much
number
undoubtedly the supreme expression of the baroque. The church, begun in 1746,
than 290
of
lent itself
inevitably divided into a
space provided by a church offered an ideal setting for plastic experimentation.
be subordinated to is
rococo
and the intimacy of chamber music.
The vast single ^40
also
and
the other hand, the light
of the salon
imposed unity of plan, is
German
rooms (now destroyed) in Louis XIV's second
extent; Cuvillies' Reichzimmern in the
Wiirzburg and Tsarskoye
pi.
staircases,
minimize the cramping
to
its
which
princes, that
When they did work for royal patrons, rococo designers understandably
sections of different sizes.
soar,
with
and
Roman crucifix radiant in the cenure of the church
7 Neoclassicism
Like the baroque, classicism
is
the Renaissance. Neoclassicism differs
This neoclassical, purist
and
a free interpretadon of principles developed by antiquity
from classicism by
aesthetic, elaborated in
virtue of
its strict
observance of
rules.
England, brought an end to the baroque age
throughout Europe.
Some
critics
and hence is
have found
surprising that Inigo Jones should have thought in Palladian,
it
when
neoclassical, terms at a time
easier to
explain
if
we
the baroque
Tudor
aissance. In architecture, at least, the
Gothic, while the decorative
styles
had been
had quickly succumbed
arts
Rome and
his principles of the purity of style not
from
Queen's House, Greenwich, with
six/pillared loggia,
and
graceful proportions,
was
its
anomaly
more than renewed forms of
little
to
mannerism. Inigo Jones derived
Vignola, but from Venice and Palladio. its flat
a Palladian villa transported
is
flourishing in Italy. This
Jones as England's discovery of the Ren^
see the architecture of Inigo
roof,
its
rusticated
from Vicenza
to the
ground
floor
pi.
2oj
banks of the
Thames.
Although during
appeared.
It
was even reinforced by Dutch
to classicism after 1630,
English architect
company
of
Buckingham, brought
mode
central motif, a
London
need to rebuild
in an
it
their distinctive, rather Puritan
to
England the
largely because of the
Great Fire of 1666.
and remained
baroque
Court styles);
it is
styles
of
It
became
the
so until stone returned to
London and
other English
May's imitation of the Dutch 's
style
was
towns often
Gravesande in The
mode of building survived Wren, Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor (which were (c.
1664). This
pi 208 pi.
210
evidence of the underlying strength of Puritanism in England,
kinship with that of Holland.
The Duke
of Marlborough, for
whom
Palladian movement, which began in 171
A XX
after the
of the day,
Hugh
The
practice of building in brick with a stone
lends the older quarters of
charm.
Pieter Post.
in Holland in the
II's exile
method which became widespread
economic manner
(1636) and May's Eltham Lodge, Kent
in a certain sense its
Campen and
can be seen by a comparison between the Sebastiansdoelen by Van
despite the popularity of the
and
Holland having gone over completely
spent the years of Charles
town houses
of building for
fashion in the Victorian era;
literal, as
influence,
under the leadership of Jacob van
Hugh May, who
ornament upon the
Hague
many
inclined
towards baroque forms of expression, the neoclassical tendency by no means dis^
architects
standard
Wren
the Restoration period the influence of Christopher
Robert
Blenheim Palace was 3,
was in
Adam (1728-92). Interior of Syon House,
built,
the nature of a
1760-9
was a Tory; and the
Whig
reaction. Its leaders
131
STYLES members of
were, in faa,
the
Whig
aristocracy,
Lord Burlington and
the Earl of
Pembroke,
humanists with an enthusiasm for architeaure. Palladianism was founded on
observance of the precepts of three great masters, Vitruvius,
strict
Palladio and Inigo Jones. They were declared in the Vitruvius
between
Britannicus (published
1715 and 1725 by the architect Colen Campbell), which brings together various models, proposes
new
classical
doarine.
condemns
ones,
book on Palladio
1715 there appeared a
In
Giacomo Leoni, who
and formulates a national
the licence of the baroque school,
in 1726
made
a translation of Alberti's
De
by
Venetian^born
the
while Lord
Architectura,
Burlington himself published several works during the same period. All these works unleashed
on
a flood of studies, theories, manuals and reviews
architecture;
England throughout the
eighteenth century remained something of a laboratory of the art of building.
In taking inspiration from Palladio, English architects were adopting as the greatest of
all classical
perhaps attributing too
works. Palladio was a interpretations of
architeas. Recent critics have attempted to see Palladio as a mannerist,
much importance to the man steeped in antique
Greek
architecture to achieve
proportion. Perhaps the atmosphere of Venice, better for the rediscovery of
simple idea of the
villa,
urban palaces pubUc or seeking
after effect
surfaces
and
the
and
guide one of
their
Greek
than the
art
Basilica in Vicenza,
private, helped
rhythm of the
him
is
an
intuitive recreation of the
still full
Roman
him from
Greek canons of
him
that inspired Vignola.
The
spirit,
the grandiose conceptions of
to achieve a purity of style
which renounces
classical orders.
Among these
his intuitive preference
Roman
Greeks;
classical
all
was
for the
architects preferred the
Corinthian and Composite, the orders which might be called imperial.
•
passion for Palladio in England went as far as direct plagiarism; the Earl of Pembroke,
who had
inherited
Wilton House,
built
by Inigo Jones, had a Palladian bridge
park by Roger Morris (1736). This was copied Selo in Russia.
pb2og,2ii
Roman
by a simple harmony of numbers, a marriage of calm
Doric and Ionic, the two orders used by the
The
early
prepared
of the Hellenistic
background
one of his
beyond
culture; in his villas he goes
the country residence, freeing
creates beauty
which
The
at
Prior Park,
at
Stowe and
Villa Rotonda, Vicenza, inspired an imitation by
built in the
later at
Tsarkoye
Colen Campbell
at
Mereworth in Kent (1723), followed immediately by another, Chiswick House by Lord BurUngton (1725); this 'type' was repeated in all the English-speaking countries, and on the continent of Europe,
an
architect
and
up
to the
first
Lord BurUngton was himself
half of the nineteenth century.
his followers included a
Colen Campbell, Giacomo Leoni, Henry
number
of professional architects,
and William
Flitcroft
William Kent,
Adam; Roger
Morris
later
broke away from the group to join that of the Earl of Pembroke.
William Kent was the responsible for persuading pi. 21']
work
is
architect
him
most closely associated with Lord Burlington,
to turn
from painting
Holkham Hall, Norfolk, which owes much
to architecture. Kent's
most
to Burlington's influence.
who was
representative
The
design of
the exterior, as well as the hall, conforms to the Palladian style, but in the interior Kent,
1727 132
(at the instigation of
Lord Burlington) had published The
Jones's noble, grandiose, weighty
style.
Kent was
the
first
who
in
Designs of Inigo Jones, returns to
to see the role of the architect as
NEOCLASSICISM extending to the entire decoration of the
and
interior,
including the design of the furniture. In his
he practises what has been called 'the English grand
interiors
by the
revitalized
The most complete Country
spirit
based on that of Versailles
of the Italian Renaissance.
was
application of Palladian doctrines
wateringz-place
style',
which developed
the rebuilding of Bath, the
West
rapidly after the year 1727 under the influence of
Wood I and his son John Wood II turned the town into a kind of English Vicenza; John Wood I created the Circus, a kind of circular forum which resembles the Colosseum turned inside-'out, and John Wood II invented the semi/elliptical street^plan known as the Nash. John
crescent,
which has been much used
The second
generation of Palladians (Robert Taylor and James Paine in
Carr in York) was associated with the
and eventually
to Ireland
to
House and Synagogue
who had
State Capitol at
to follow the
Southern France and
visit to
architect Clerisseau
and
inspired by the antique,
achieving
German for
it is
at last that
artists
at
it
United
Adam,
Italy in search of inspiration,
pi 22J
the rococo.
Roman
The
to neoclassicism
name, made a
during which he met the French
back with him a new
exterior design
Adam style is
pi 21^
and and
its
directly
contents
which
than the Palladian,
less classical
Empire, recreating under the cloudy
style,
interior decoration,
skies of
England
pl.
xx
the
from Pompeii and Herculaneum;it becomes more purely Grecian
inspired by the figures
on
vases unearthed from the reality
it
tombs of Tuscany and
Greek; an example
is
the Etruscan
Room
half of the eighteenth century witnessed a
a passion for chinoiserie
and Gothick;
it
was
time that Chippendale introduced his rococo furniture, which had considerable success
abroad, in
New
fine materials
England, in Portugal, and even in
and
exotic woods, notably
products from British colonies in the
due
models archie
style.
the outer shell of a building
upsurge of rococo, which brought with
The
remained true
the eldest of the four brothers of this
Heveningham Hall by James Wyatt. The Adam movement had its rivals. The second
at this
States
has taken on the role of a national
Latium, then thought to be Etruscan, but in
late
their
one of the purest of Palladian temples. Charles Bulfinch
harmony between
had achieved in
when
is
which he imposed both on
graces of a Hellenism derived
of
took as
Newport, Rhode Island. After Independence, Thomas
the Italian Piranesi; he brought
inspired by the late
in character
doctrines spread to Scotland,
architects
their buildings a particularly hght, graceful quality as in
Adam style. The
longer than England; there
Between 1754 and 1758 Robert long
and Palladian
London, John
been to France, made use of French models in addition to English; his
Richmond, Virginia,
was more inclined
much
Adam style,
North America. American
one of brick and wood, which gives
Jefferson,
^61
books from England, often converting the combination of brick and stone into
tectural pattern
the Royal
pi.
over England.
all
eclecticism of architecture
partly to the absence of a
and
Italy.
This furniture was enriched with
mahogany, made available by the
West
lifting of tariffs
on
Indies.
interior decoration in late eighteenth/century
Court capable of giving the lead in matters of
England
artistic style as
is
the
French court did. The English constitution evolved rapidly in the direction of parliamentary rule,
and
the
first
Hanoverian kings, although they gave
their
name
to the
Georgian
era,
could
13 J
STYLES never
command
any case
the status of sovereign of the arts that belonged to absolute monarchs; in
somewhat
their
colourless personalities did not
fit
them
for the role of
Maecenas.
In the second half of the eighteenth century the reaction against the rococo spread
all
over
Europe, except in the German^speaking countries. This reaction was encouraged by a revival of antique influence inspired by archaeological discoveries in Pompeii, Herculaneum and
and
Etruria,
Graecia and Sicily, just as in the Renaissance the discovery of
had enabled the Florentines
antiquity
baroque
Magna
later in
itself
to free themselves
claimed to be inspired by the antique? For Western civilization, the antique
appears as the equal of Nature, by turns
which can
from the Gothic. But had not the
its
adversary and
a fundamental principle from
its ally:
most contradiaory forms.
derive the
In the second half of the eighteenth century European architecture
pi 10
and thus one type of palace design appeared in widely separated
was
on two
It
the palace
floors,
columns
it
at
with rustication on the ground
floor
and on
or pilasters, a revival of the palace designs of
was introduced by Juvarra in
used 224
in the direction of
classical unity,
colossal order of
pi.
moved
his design for the Palacio
areas; this
the next floor a
Raphael and Bramante.
Real in Madrid in 173 8, and Vanvitelli
Caserta in 1769 for the king of Naples. Jacques^Ange Gabriel uses a similar formula
in the Place de la Bourse in
Bordeaux (173 1-55) and the Place de
from the colonnade of the Louvre (1753-65); he
also
proposed
it
la
Concorde
in Paris, derived
for the rebuilding of the palace
of Versailles, only a fraction of which was carried out (the Aile des Reservoirs).
It
was
also
used by Rinaldi in the Marble Palace in St Petersburg (1768-72).
Under
antique influence, the increasing use of the load^carrying
column and
the development
of the peristyle began to give European architecture a certain monotony. In 1733 Servandoni,
an
Italian stage designer
who had
of the fagade of Saint^Sulpice,
pi 218
setded in Paris, used these features as the basis for his design
and
Soufflot followed the
inspired by St Paul's, of the church of Sainte/Genevieve
Under Louis
XVI
several architects,
architecture of the south of Italy.
same
(now
notably Ledoux, took
About 1755
rocaille in
style for
the fagade
ind dome,
the Pantheon) designed in 1757. their inspiration
France tends
from the Greek
to disappear, panelling
follows an architectural pattern like that of the seventeenth century, and in furniture curves are
succeeded by straight
lines.
Eighteenth^century Italy was almost entirely unaffeaed by the rococo (the Cantoria of
Maddalena,
Rome
1736,
is
an exception). In Rome, works
Laterano, the fountain of Trevi by Nicolo Salvi,
Ferdinando Fuga, bear witness Sculpture, too,
was
still
b'ke the fajade of
San Giovanni
La in
and the fagade of Santa Maria Maggiore by
to the loyalty of the Eternal
City to the Berninesque baroque.
inspired by Bernini's principles; incidentally, the finest collection of
eighteenth/century Italian works in this style
is
that of the palace^monastery of
Mafra in Portugal.
In Italy the reaction against the baroque began in the provinces; in Catania, Vaccarini attempted to restrain the
134
anarchy of the Sicilian baroque, and in Naples Vanvitelli imposed a suict archi/
pi jji
teaural discipHne on the grandiose projects elaborated for Charles VII. EarHer, Juvarra had
pi 220
reduced the suuctural complications of Guarini to a simpler Berninesque architectural scheme,
which in
the Superga, Turin (designed in 1715)
is
distincdy neoclassical in character.
The
NEOCLASSICISM where the
regions
prepared for
and
its
of Palladio had flourished, Treviso, Venice and Vicenza, were naturally
art
humanists such as Count Algarotti, Count Pompei, the architect
rebirth; here
and the Venetian
theorist Millizia
Lodoli preached a return
architect
as the beginning of the eighteenth century
Andrea
to Palladio.
As
San
Tirali modelled the fagade of
early
Vitale,
Venice, on the facade of Sant' Andrea della Vigna; in the promos or recessed portico of the
Chiesa dei Tolentini
his style
was markedly more antique. The Venetian church of San Simeone
Piccolo, built in 1718-38 by Giovanni
Antonio
Scalfarotto,
was inspired by
the
/»/.
215
Pantheon in
Rome.
The
for the antique.
The Villa Albani,
second half of the eighteenth
until the
Then, under the influence of the German
century.
mania
movement did not reach Rome
neoclassical
historian
Winckelmann,
there arose a
between 1743 and 1763 by Carlo Marchionni
built
house Cardinal Albani's collections of antiques (of which Winckelmann was curator)
baroque in
and
its
though the Caffe^haus
feeling,
to
some
extent Palladian. In
Rome,
Rome now became once more what it had
century, a meeting^place for
and David,
Italians
such
artists
of all nations.
as Benfiale
the baroque
Gavin Hamilton and
style,
as
which had borne
the
is still
it
found
been in the early seventeenth
Vien, Subleyras, Clerisseau
and Pompeo Batoni, Germans such
Rafael Mengs, Angelika KaufFmann,
the Scotsman
Frenchman such
as
Anton von Maron,
Wilhelm Tischbein, 'Anglo-Saxons' such
American Benjamin West,
its last fruit
pi.
228
reacted violently against
pi.
22g
in the art of Tiepolo.
stiffly
pi. 22']
as
They
revived historical
from the antique,
painting, with a didactic or Neo^Platonist tendency, drawing inspiration
Raphael and the school of Bologna, and brought a
pi. 22c,
neoclassicism
attendant enthusiasm for the antique inspired the painting of Pannini before
expression in architecture.
Anton
is
to
dignified style to their portraits. In
terms of pictorial technique, the change was expressed particularly by a deliberately cold,
impersonal touch, contrasting with the virtuosity of baroque painting, which uses brushwork as a
medium
of expression.
Only David
century, tempered but not chilled
The
neoclassical school
derived from Pompeii art
drew
retained the sensitive technique of the eighteenth
by neoclassical its
inspiration
in
serenity.
from two sources; a
and Greece, which was the natural sequel
Rome
first
in 1784;
exponents.
influence
it
The two
showed
still
1
a
more
manifesto David's Oath of
style of the Napoleonic period,
genres were also practised in sculptqre,
(Pigalle's Mercury fastening his sandal,
and Monument
virile
'Roman'
the Horatii,
which under
pi.
2^0
painted its
Hellenistic
and sought a somewhat
Houdon's Diana). In
his early
works,
styles (Portrait
of Pope Clement XIII).
780s neoclassicism triumphed throughout Europe. In Spain
flourishing baroque through the efforts of the
style,
it
Academia de San Fernando;
prepared by the French influence which was present out the persistent native baroque
tendency
and effeminate
and Prud'hon was one of
belong to the eighteenth century, the Italian Canova practised both
of Paolina Borghese
In the
its
and
a great fondness for childhood themes (Clodion)
mannered elegance
which
became the
'Hellenistic'
to the galant
of the eighteenth century (typified by Vien's Vendor oj Loves, 1763)
tendency. This heroic manner was to have as
pi. 2^1
at the
a royal decree of 1777
Bourbon
superseded a the
court. In order to
made the approval
still
way had been
of the
stamp
Academia
135
STYLES de San Fernando obligatory for any r^ew secular building. Ventura Rodriguez, trained by court architects, set
an example in
his
own work and
paved the way
for the art of Juan
German rococo was even more tenacious than Spanish baroque; Pigage, Simon^Louis
du Ry and Ixnard tempered
here the
de Villanueva.
Frenchmen Nicolas
the exuberance of their predecessors. Prussian
rationalism provided a favourable environment for the growth of neoclassicism, as practised pi.
226
by KnobelsdorfF(Opernhaus, Berlin) and Carl Gotthard Langhans (Brandenburg Gate, Berlin 1789-94)-
The swing towards
who followed all of Rome that she to
neoclassicism in Russia occurred during the reign of Catherine the Great,
the latest trends
from Western Europe, and was such an enthusiast
ordered Clerisseau to
have Raphael's Vatican frescoes copied
Loggia were in
for her palace (only those of the
Frenchman Vallin de
reproduced). Neoclassicism was introduced by the .taught architecture at the
for the art
design her an antique palace and museum, and wished
academy founded
in 1758 by the
a German. Cameron, of Scots descent but born and
la
fact
Mothe (who
Empress Elizabeth) and by Velten,
trained in
Rome,
decorated the famous
Adam, Flaxman and Wedgwood. King Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski, who had lived for several years in Paris and had been deeply aiFected by French influence, introduced the neoclassical style into Poland. He had the interior of the royal palace at Warsaw redecorated in the new manner by Domenico Merlini, agate
pi.
21Q
rooms
at
Tsarskoye Selo in the
of
style
architect of several other royal residences, the
Palladian palace by the Vistula.
Rome,
The
reflects
The
painter
the art of Benedetto Luti
most elegant of which
Simon Czechowicz,
Prague, a grandiose Venetian villa built in the its
incurving
This pi. 2^1
is
a pupil of Carlo Maratta in
Europe
late eighteenth
is
and
the palace of
>
before The Oath of the Horatii, illustrates
A
the
at
Meledo.
modern world was being born,
the object of the rising sciences, should also
which was
inevitably puzzling. Surely nature, to the arts
moment when
Kacina near
early nineteenth centuries;
designed by Palladio for the Villa Trissino
essentially reactionary tendency, at a
have furnished inspiration
Lazienki, a graceful
and Pompeo Batoni.
purest creation of the Palladian revival in Central
peristyles recall those
is
masterpiece by David, painted in France four years
how, if the
return to antique models
had not taken
place,
a renewal of the art of historical painting might, without breaking with the baroque tradition,
have opened the way to realism and romanticism. painting St Rock
interceding with the Virgin
the Virgin reminds one of Ingres. But it
figures of the
plague victims, in the votive
Mary, foreshadows Gericault and Gros, while that of
David was
rarely to find his
way back
to this realist vein;
reappears in revolutionary works such as Marat murdered.
European
civilization
fidence attendant
on a
false
course
embraced neoclassicism
on the rise of technology and
an escape from a
as
science.
and long prevented from heeding
loss of artistic selfz-con^
The nineteenth century was thus embarked
its
own
profound impulse towards nature.
the
fetters
which
energy of a Gericault, a Constable, a Delacroix or a Courbet could break the
the
statues.
Only
Landscapes were painted in a manner which had been learned from copying
eighteenth century 136
The
continued to
had had wrought for the
hamper
the
work
nineteenth,
and which
of most painters and sculptors.
until the rise
of impressionism
GOTHIC The completion of the cathedrals Classical France, in spite of theoretical
contempt
for
continued to employ
of medieval buildings. seventeenth
Gothic,
this
style
completion
for the restoration or
the
its
During
century,
new
Gothic churches were actually being
it
in
built
provinces.
some French
Strangely
was Louis
XIV
enough,
himself, the
creator of Versailles,
who
ve^
toed the building of a 'modern'
fagade
and
for
insisted
Orleans
on
a
cathedral
design
in
keeping with the original Go^' thic of the rest of the fabric.
55 Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742).
Fagade, Orleans cathedra!
Milan From
cathedral: the unfinished giant
the sixteenth century
a fagade to
of projects, most of finally
onwards the need
Milan cathedral inspired
executed
them Gothic. The one
after
the
to
add
to a succession
that
was
competition of 1886
is
based on a project dating from 1653.
Survival and revival In Great Britain, Gothic has a permanent quality; it
has never ceased to be used, notably for religious
and educational establishments. Meanwhile
in
Be
hernia, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, architect of Italian origin,
drew upon Gothic
59 Nicholas
138
Hawksmoor
• •
• •
•
• •
e>
•
Johann Santin Aichel,
inspiration in a
baroque church buildings.
an
number
of his
56 Francesco Castelli cathedral, 1648
(1661-1736). All Souls College, Oxford, 1734
(_/?.
1648-
Project for facade of
Milan
"^mM
i^#># '}s^ ^
Zwettl or Salem; sometimes
a great Gothic statue
is set
\
i
'in glory' in a \
baroque
was Michael Pacher's
setting as
^
;
\
Virgin
Salzburg before a
and Child in
misplaced zeal for the removal
stylistic
\
unity led to
sumptuous
of the
1
I
setting \
(shown
here) in
I.
which pious hands had
enshrined the masterpiece. ^
1 62 Anon. Head of
God
the Father, in Miinster,
Breisach, sixteenth century
63 Michael Pacher
(c.
1435-98). Virgin and
child, in Franziskanerkirche, Salzburg
64 Thomas Weissfeld (1671-1722). St Hubert, in Zisterzienserkirche,
Kamenz,
Silesia
65 Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger 1775). St
Anne
(detail), in
(f.
1690-
church of Metten,
Austria
66 Josef Munggenast
^'.
(d. 1741).
Decor
in choir
of Stiftskirche, Zwettl, Austria, 1722-35
i
Windows in the Prefettura.Lecce,
67
sixteenth century
68 Francesco Borromini (15991667). Vault, in chapel of Collegio di
Gothic inspiration in Italy,
draw
The Gothick
Italy
which had
rejected the Gothic, did not always disdain to
inspiration
Borromini and Guarini took delight
from
in rib vaulting; at
boyant
style
it.
Lecce the accolade motif of the Gothic flam/
surmounts
Holland, too, in
classical doors
spite of
its
Lutma
{c.
1
In Great Britain in the eighteenth century, while the Palla^ dian movement
set
the seal
on
the
triumph of neoclassicism
over the baroque, a fashion for Gothic decoration swept the country houses. This eighteenth^century neo^Gothic
and windows.
leaning towards classicism in
design, retained certain Gothic echoes in decorative
69 Janus
Propaganda Fide, Rome, 1649-66
often
called
Gothic and
art.
'Gothick' to distinguish its
later
antiquarian revivals.
^
584-1669). Choir screen of St Catharinakerk, Amsterdam, 1650
m
f^>
--*-»*
—
..-T"'^
-"'**^l
feji
is
from medieval
it
a pi
^ H^Mii IvH^^Bf
t
Fl ITllI
u |y|
-^~.^==^ \'
//
70 Fran^ois'Joseph Bellanger
(
1
744-
1818). Design for pavilion, Bagatelle,
France
71
Stucco tracery of window,
Arhury Hall, Warwickshire, eighteenth century
72 John Chute (1701-76). Library of Strawberry Hill,
begun 1766
MANNERISM Northern
Italy
In the second half of the sixteenth century, active centre of mannerist architecture, lasted into the next century.
and
Milan was an the
movement
Three church facades
(ph'
73~5) progress from mannerist multiplicity to baroque unity.
In the
field
longer (pis
of stucco decoration, '/6-'/).
In
Lombardy
eighteenth century that
mannerism it
was not
lasted even
until
the
churches became wholeheartedly
baroque. Genoese architecture in the seventeenth century
was equally steeped
73 Galeazzo Alessi (1512-72). Santa Maria presso
San Celso,
Milan, c 1565-70
74 Vincenzo Seregno
(c.
15x0-94).
Madonna
dei
Miracoli,
Saronno, 1556-66
75 Sant'Angelo, Milan
76 Domenico Frisone Battista
Laino
Barberini (d. d'Intelvi,
(JJ.
1622) and Giovanni
1666).
Stucco decor in San Lorenzo,
Lombardy
77 Diego Carlone (1674-1750) and Carlo Carlone (1686-1775). Decor in Santa Maria, Scaria,
78
Giacomo
della Porta
Intelvi,
Lombardy
(1537-1602). Santissima Annunziata,
Genoa, 1587
in the mannerist spirit.
Mannerism
lingers
In European architecture as a whole, the baroque
was never birth,
fully assimilated until
years after
fifty
its
even longer in certain regions. In France,
England, the
Low
Countries, Spain and Germany,
the mannerist spirit lingered throughout the
first
half
of the seventeenth century. Mannerist structure
by a tendency to compartmentalize
characterized surfaces
in
is
syncopated rhythms, a persistence of
Renaissance decorative motifs, and a tendency to juxtapose themes which
son between two in
1
690 and the other in
basic schema,
is
from mannerism 79 Etienne Martellange (1569-1641). Chapel
ot
College de
differ in scale.
German church 1
71
1
,
A compari.one
built
share the
same
facades,
which
a perfect illustration of the transition to
baroque
(;'/y S-/-5).
La
FIcche, France, 1612
80 Lievende
UC
Key (i 560-1 627). VIeishal (meat
hall),
Haarlem, 1602
81
Canterbury Quadrangle, St John's College, Oxford, 1631-36
1
82 Francois Aguillon (1566-1617) and Peter Hiiyssens 1637). Saint^Cliarles'Borromee,
(1577-
83
Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54
Antwerp, 1615-21
84 Georg Dientzcnhofer (1643-89). Martinskirche, Bamberg, 1690
85 Valentino Pezani (d. 1716). Neumiinster, Wiirzburg, 171
147
86 Lukas Kilian (1579-1637)- Grotesques
87 Wendel Dietterlin (c 1550-99). Design
for
doorway
Mannerist fantasy In
Germany
in the
first
the mannerist style of decoration flowered
thirty years of the seventeenth century
under
the influence of a revival of Gothic formal elements.
Engravers indulged in
flights
were imitated by decorative
tween a doorway in the
of imagination
artists.
castle of
A
which
comparison be^
Biickeburg and an
engraving from a work by Dietterlin clearly reveals the true source of the complexities of
German
mannerist
ornamentation. 88 Johann Smieschek (f. 1618).
89
Doorway
Ornament
of gold room, Schloss Biickeburg,
c.
1620
,-»:j&.
A.*. '
^ ^Mkt
yi fi
f
i
i
lji
tSU^4MM.ir6AUliiii:.
':
k^j!JJ;;iii.^i;..i
'..^KC --(r^W'tWM
e-iH
^
%
m
m^
4-s '
i
-y
Mannerism in the north
The beginning
of the seventeenth
century was a remarkably
German
period in
tive
The
on Jorg Ziirn's
decoration
Uberlingen
produc
sculpture.
altar
anticipates
the
convolutions of the so-called 0/;(v mnsdiehtil.
At
the beginning of the century,
the chapel
of Frederiksborg
characteristic tially
product of the
anti'architectonic
mannerism;
laden
silver, alabaster is
and
a
nature of
with rare
is
essen--
marble,
woods,
it
jewellery rather than architecture.
90-1 Jorg Ziirn altar
and Column,
92.
and
{c.
1583-c. 1630).
of Miinster, Uberlingen, detail o( pi.
Hans Steenwinkel others.
Slotskirke,
near
c.
High 161
3,
go
{c.
1545-1C01)
Frederiksborg
Copenhagen, 1600-20
152
93
Claude Deruet
(i
588-1660). Hunting
scene (detail)
94 Juan de
Roelas
las
Crucifixion of St
95 Claude
(c.
1560-1625).
Andrew
Vignon (1593-1670). Croesus
displaying his treasure to Solon
96 Bernardo Cavallino (1622-54). St Peter
and the centurion
97 Jean Tassel (1608-67).
Virgin and Child
Mannerist painting All over Europe, certain schools of painting remained of the previous century.
Magnasco late
in
oriented,
mannerism
painting, too,
Spanish painting before Velazquez
Genoa and Cavallino
sixteenth century
faithful to the
(cf. pi. 22^).
in
Naples retained certain
In Lorraine,
flourished (Lallemand,
was mannerist
until
which was
mannerism
is
mannerist.
features of the still
German.-
Vignon, Deruet, Varin). French
Simon Vouet
returned from
Rome
in 1627.
153
98 Joseph
Wright
of
Derby
(1734-97). Experiment with an air
pump
99 Domenico Santini (f. 16721684). Armillary Sphere accord' ing
to
the
planetary
system
Heracleides of l^ontus
100
A. Magny. Microscope,
eighteenth century
of
REALISM.
exact
The' age of experiment
and eighteenth
^^^^ seventeenth sciences;
experimentation
theoretical speculation
centuries witnessed the rise of the at
which had
ledge in the preceding centuries.
last
took precedence over the
know
retarded the advance of
The
passion for scientific enquiry
spread beyond the narrow circle of specialists, and in the eighteenth century
it
even became a drawing-room entertainment.
scope, symbol of the
The
realm of visual observation, was treated
as
in the
an ornamental object; mean^
while amateurs were assembling collections of objects of interest.
micros-
enormous progress which had been made
scientific
(See also pis 275, J^o.)
loi
Cabinet of natural
history, Seitenstetten, Austria,
1760-69
.
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10 Guarino Guarini (1624-8 3). DivinaProvidencia, Lisbon
II
Dominikus Zimniermann(i685-i766),
12 Balthasar
Neumann (1687-1753
Vierzehnheiligen, Bavaria, 1743
Die Wies, Bavaria, 1746
was in the Central European rococo
It
found
its finest
expression.
The
that the art of spatial
harmony and counterpoint
simple basilical plan persisted in Austria, however; and in
Bohemia, Switzerland, Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia the Vorarlberg school maintained the basilical principle to the very
plans took
many
end (Zwiefalten). The idea of reconciling the
different forms.
The
central .tendency
middle of a long nave (Neresheim); sometimes there
by Fischer von Erlach
are based
on a Greek
cross.
von Erlach, Hildebrandt and Munggenast it
all
was given
its
tion
axial
marked by a dome in
a rotunda (Ettal),
the
and many churches
ellipse inspired several plans
in Austria
and Die Wies, with
and Agid Quirin
their ambulatories.
in Austria, the axial tendency of the elUpse
nave.
often
and
Asam
by Fischer
in Bavaria;
most poetic expression in the churches of Dominikus Zimmermann, above
those of Steinhausen
is
At Die
Wies, as
at
Altenburg
virtuoso of rococo architecture, might claim
achievement the pilgrimage church of Vierzehnheiligen, where, taking inspira^
from Guarini's Divina Providencia, he
ducing an array of
elliptical
domes.
Jig. 11
emphasized by a long choir added to the oval
Johann Balthasar Neumann, the protean
as his finest
is
The
is
central
sets
pi.
^^2, fig. 12
the simple basilical plan to music by intro^
The rococo
love of invention, comparable with the
289
THEMES on
musician's urge to improvise variations
a theme, led the architects
(Andrea Maini, Do/
who
minikus Zimmermann, Simpert Krammer, Josef EfFner, Johann Michael Fischer) called in as advisers
on
the possible combinations of axial
and
central plans.
duced a church in the form of a Latin by which
two
the spectator
is
invited, as
checked
rigidity of neoclassicism
church design firmly back to
first
Churches
At
he
as
which the nave enters, to the
is
pro--
no more than an approach
dome,
its
gyration supported by
when
the time
new
at its
most rigorous in Spain, under
Academia de San Fernando.
the
policies, their Protestant
new form corresponding
new
features of the
plans of the Middle
The
and
was
the Catholics of the Counter/Reformation were having to revise the plan
of the church in the light of
completely
magnificent proliferation of forms and brought
this
principles. Restraint
the influence of Ventura Rodriguez
Protestant
cross, in
soon
This architectural research laboratory
all
three/quarter rotundas.
The
The
were
the building of the Benedictine church of Ottobeuren, to try out
to the needs of
contemporaries had to invent a of the essential
The complex
worship, both Catholic and Protestant, was preaching.
Ages were abandoned
Protestants, although they too hesitated
in order to
group the
around the pulpit.
faithful
between the axial plan and the central plan, were
conceive buildings in terms of function, since they were
freer to
One
reformed religion.
less
bound by
tradition
and
tended, as iconoclasts, to reject decorative splendour and architectural rhetoric along with images.
The Church of the forms
bear the
of
mark of
many
design, based
which he
the Protestant dislike of graven images.
churches built by
St Paul's
field for study.
for
separately, since this Protestant sect retained
and ceremonies of Catholicism, although post^Reformation churches in England
The London fi- 13
England must be studied
on a finally
Wren and
a special case; although a Royal
is
central plan, because
it
Great Fire
his disciples after the
was too much
Commission
offer
rejected
lik« St Peter's in
an excellent
Wren's
Rome,
first
the design
succeeded in winning approval bore even more resemblance to the mother
church of Catholicism,
for
it
combined
the central plan with the axial plan reintroduced by the
Commission.
The and set
other City churches
elliptical
P^-33^
base, or St Benetfink
them
woodwork which
retain the basilical
side aisle; but the arches are
which Wren 290
The
are
compromises with circular
consists of a large circular
(now demolished) which was
treated as
its
dome
a decagon with a central
modest dimensions) and
so wide and the
nave with subordinate
an opportunity
aisles,
and
a perfect
aisles.
All
Most
although some have only one
pillars so slight that they give the
impression of a
these churches have tall steeples
to display his resourcefulness
eighteenth century continued along the lines established by
the axial plan
well/lit,
plays so important a part in Protestant church building.
convention of nave and side
single space rather than a large
14
Mary Abchurch which
a rectangular assembly hall, spacious (despite
of
Some
dome. Most of the churches, however, tend towards a genuinely functional design:
setting for the
pi. iS2,fig.
a great variety of plan.
formulae, such as St
on a square
elliptical
show
and
versatility,
Wren.
Hesitation between
the central plan persisted. For St Martin/in/the/Fields,
London, Gibbs
THE CHURCH
13
Christopher
Wren
1723). St Paul's,
(1632-
London,
1675
14 James Gibbs(i682-i754). St Martin-'in^the/Fields,
London, 1722
submitted designs of both types; the axial one was accepted, and for
churches in
all
this
church became a model
the English/speaking countries.
Protestant churches built in France in the sixteenth
and seventeenth
destroyed, were particularly spacious; that of Charenton, built
centuries,
now
all
by Salomon de Brosse in 1623-4,
P^-
337
pi.
555
could hold a congregation of more than four thousand, divided between the large nave and the three
tiers
basilica of
of galleries
Fanum
which ran
right
round the church
was perhaps borrowed from Holland and Germany. Some central plan; the churches of
accommodate
six
—a
design recalling that of the
by Vitruvius. This system of galleries, whose purpose was
Lyons and Rouen were
entirely functional,
Protestant architects favoured the
circular, that of
Dieppe, which could
thousand people, was oval, that of Montauban octagonal, and that of
Normandy dodecagonal. The Dutch Calvinists occupied many
Petit
Quevilly in
images and
their
ornaments, seem to have
Catholic churches which today, stripped of their
lost all their spiritual quality.
The
painter
Saenredam
has well expressed the melancholy of these great empty spaces, bodies without a soul. Protestant religious fervour
must be sought elsewhere, in smaller churches in the Dutch counuy towns,
simple assembly halls whose ornaments are the
woodwork,
In the more ambitious churches in the large towns, axial plan
and the
central plan.
the pews, the pulpit
and the organ.
Dutch
Calvinists hesitated between the
who
built the three great churches of
Hendrick de Keyser,
Amsterdam, adopted both formulae: a rectangular plan
pi. 556'
in the Zuyderkerk (1607-14), basilical
pi.
112 291
THEMES with two transepts in the Westerkerk (1620-30), and the Greek cross in the Noorderkerk (1620-5).
The
central plan
was
the
most
rational; this
can be seen in the old Gothic cathedral
(Johanniskerk) in Gouda, inside which at the end of the eighteenth century there was built a
kind of wooden pi.
554
-
tiered
amphitheatre centred on the pulpit.
Many
churches were built on an
fictagonal or
Greek
one
church built between 1649 and 1656 by Pieter Noorwits and Bartholomeus van
classical
cross plan; a composite plan
was used
for the
Nieuwekerk in The Hague, a
Bassen.
The at
churches of Lutheran
Wolfenbiittel (1604)
is
Germany show
a very great variety of plans.
a hall church in the mannerist
style,
and
is
The Marienkirche
indistinguishable from a
Catholic church. Certain churches have two arms in the form of a set/square, such as Freuden/ stadt (1601-88),
by wooden
and
galleries
Elsfleth;
many adopt
the functional type of the rectangular hall surrounded
Worms, 1709-25,
(Dreifaltigkeitskirche,
1719, and Pfarrkirche, Grossenhain, 1744). Lutherans also built a j?l-333,fig-iS
fi^^^^
^^^
^^^ Frauenkirche in Dresden, built between 1726
Uned with
corner turrets,
was surmounted by a pear-shaped dome supported by
with pure
light, this
rows of
prayer.
which were reached by four
church could hold a congregation of 3,600;
rising succession of pulpit, altar,
religious
galleries
and organ
With
the tiered benches
and
seats in its it
was
numerous
1604.
The
which
architect, is
there has been nothing
292
1$
left
its
focus
its
spiral staircases in
eight tall pillars.
was
Flooded
the magnificent
Georg Bahr (1666-1738). Frauenkirche, Dresden, 1726
church resembled a
the church of Wolfenbiittel in
greatest beauty possible in architecture,
harmony between form and
but ashes and rubble.
to the musical expression of
galleries, the
begun in
Georg Bahr, had achieved the
derived from a
The
the masterpiece of Lutheran church design,
the magnificent crowning of an evolution timidly
that
of rotundas.
—the organ being a key point of the church in a
community whose founder had given such importance
vast theatre, or rather a large concert hall;
number
and 1743. The rotunda, with
circular aisle,
six
Niederoderwitz,
Pfarrkirche,
function. Since the bonibing in 1945
THE CHURCH It
was only in Protestant and Slav countries
Jews were able openly
to build places
these resembled Protestant churches, the Protestants
having adapted
of worship. In
some points
some Hebrew
traditions. Just as
focal point of
Jewish
around which the
with
galleries,
may
faithful
which
is
gather.
A synagogue
is
is
a need for a pulpit or
generally a rectangular hall lined
the hechal or tabernacle, containing the Sepharim, the
from which the rabbi gives
faces a dais or teba
Books of the Law,
Books. Various annexes, a
his readings of the
bakery for unleavened bread and a mikvah or bath for the ritual purification of
grouped around the building or on a
gogue
consists in
lighting,
its
floor
The
below.
women,
are
principal decorative element in a syna/
numerous lamps being hung from the
ceiling.
Two fine eighteenth/
century synagogues have been preserved in France, at Cavaillon and Carpentras, the Popes
having paradoxically received in
their territory of
these are elegant buildings in the
Louis
Avignon
XIV style.
the
women
The thousands
pi-
339
pi.
223
Jews expelled from Languedoc;
In the synagogue
at
Newport, Rhode Island,
the architect Peter Harrison has taken advantage of the need for galleries (which are for the
The Synagogue
the central activity in Protestant worship, the
reading of sacred texts; thus there
ritual is the
dais
in
preaching
that the
set
aside
of the congregation) to create fine neoclassical colonnades.
of monasteries
which
existed in
Europe in the baroque age had
retained, almost
The Monastery
unchanged, the plan which can be seen in a ninth/century drawing preserved in the library of the Swiss abbey of Sankt Gall.
The monastery
buildings were grouped on one side of the
church, preferably the south, which received more sun. Other buildings, used for agriculture, industry, art or study, were usually disposed without any overall plan.
in
new monastic
around
several courtyards.
new form
The
for the monastery.
Philip II began in 1563 an
turning-point
In fulfilment of a
immense
came with Philip
vow made
construction,
II's Escurial,
at the battle of
which in
—a
Augustinian canons, a royal pantheon, a hospital, a museum, a library rich in rare books.
'City of
cloisters,
86
God' took on
a
which
created a
Saint/Quentin (1557),
several courtyards disposed
the central axis of the church incorporated various institutions
9 towers, 15
There was, however,
foundations, a tendency for the buildings to be arranged more rationally
about
royal palace, a house of college, outhouses,
and
a
This huge complex included 16 courts, 88 fountains, 13 chapels,
staircases,
1,200 doors and 2,673 windows.
new meaning;
the monastery
The
ancient
became a microcosm of
dream of the
civilization, the
symbol of the centralized monarchy of Divine Right.
The work soon became known of Pedro Perret, an
artist
were printed from each Peru alone); a only
after the
of culture
new
all
over Europe, thanks to the thirteen magnificent engravings
who had come plate,
edition
and
had
to
to
Spain from Antwerp in 1584. Four thousand copies
distributed all over the
world
was taken up outside Spain. The
A
new triumphal
felt
sets
that the idea of the palace^monastery as a
signal for this
went it
to
was
microcosm
development was the wave of triumph
which swept through Germany and Central Europe following
was
hundred
be printed in 1619. Despite this wide circulation,
end of the seventeenth century
in 1687. This
(three
the decisive defeat of the
Turks
to be a victory of civihzation over barbarism, of the faith over the infidels.
style
now
appeared which was to produce the
last great
achievements of
293
THEMES Christian
art.
In the
Germany began
two decades of the seventeenth century
last
to rebuild their monasteries
on
and
the abbots of Austria
a colossal scale; the Benedictine monastery
of Kremsmiinster, the Augustinian monastery of Altenburg, and the Premonstrant house of
Obermarchtal were among the century the
movement spread
first
to
undergo
into all the
this glorious
metamorphosis. In the eighteenth
German/speaking Cathohc
1 780s the various orders feverishly strove to outdo each other.
by what the Germans could be found
artists
call the 'building bug', the
The
pi.
pis
340
342-3
is
countries,
all
seemed
and
to
until the
be possessed
seems incredible that enough
It
meet such a demand; however, the native talent was supplemented by
to
a strong contingent of Italians,
Vorarlberg school.
Bauwmn.
They
finest
and by numerous
dynasties of architects
who made up
of the plans directly inspired by the Escurial, in
the axis of symmetry, are those of Ottobeuren, Swabia,
which
the
the church
and Einsiedeln, Switzerland, by Moos/
brugger (begun 1719), Gottweig, designed by Hildebrandt
(after
171 8, unfinished), Melk,
designed by Prandtauer (begun 1700), Weingarten, by Moosbrugger (begun in 17 14, unfinished),
and Altenburg, All
all
in Austria.
these grandiose plans
were attempts to symbolize the
totality of the civilization
created them. There were lodgings for the abbot, divided into winter apartments and
which
summer
apartments, a suite of rooms for the Emperor, decorated with fantastic luxury, a marble banq ueting/ pis ^44, 5^2
hall
{Mamomal or Kaisemal), a library designed as a temple of knowledge, a theatre, a museum of
art (often pi.
j8j
pi. 101
latter
was demolished), a
of science, is
containing pictures from the original Gothic church, carefully collected
and
Bildersaal
often even
with
its
an observatory,
both a meteorological observatory and a
as at
Kremsmiinster where the Mathematischer Turm
scientific
museum.
richly decorated, notably the refectory (often there
pilgrims
who came
to venerate the relics
A colossal
The
par excellence of a palace, led to the imperial apartments.
The
when the museum
walls covered by contemporary paintings, a
staircase, the
emblem
monastery buildings were also
were two, one for winter and on« for summer).
were not forgotten, and a Weinstuhe was provided
where they could sample the wines from the monastery vineyards. All around were farm outbuildings, kitchen gardens, pavilion for
summer
and ornamental gardens
receptions.
in
which
the abbot sometimes
had a
Innumerable stucco and painted images drew on an icono/
graphic repertoire infinitely richer than that of the Middle Ages, incorporating elements of
mythology, geography and history as well as the Bible.
The
general theme
The
religion
the princes, the true lords of the baroque age.
Berthold von Dietmayr, imperial counsellor,
were humble. The built grandstands
pis
294
344-S
attained only
and monarchy, priesthood and empire.
abbots of those monasteries which possessed great
his monastery in 1700,
the glorification
which could be
of faith and of learning, the splendour of Christian civilization
by the intimate union of
is
These
estates
were, perhaps even more than
prelates,
men
like the
who commissioned Jakob
were inspired by a true
aristocratic pride
even
abbot of Melk,
Prandtauer to rebuild
when
their
own
origins
abbots of Kremsmiinster were such enthusiasts for stag/hunting that they
from which they and
their guests
could watch the
kill.
There was one imperial enterprise in Austria that was direcdy inspired by the Escurial
—the
rebuilding of the monastery of Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, no doubt on the advice of Dietmayr
THE CHURCH of
Melk and of
brief
Count von Altham. Charles VI,
the imperial minister
Spanish reign (1705-11), wished to follow the example of Philip II by building
which would
gates of his capital a palace/monastery
Roman Empire. The
roof of each of the buildings
borne by the Hapsburgs.
by the Milanese
Work on
this project,
Donato
Felice Allio,
architect
anticlerical 'enlightened despot'
The
Joseph
was begun
it
German^born architea who was
styles. It
and
Holy
affirm the transcendent glory of the
was
to
be surmounted with one of the crowns
begun in 1730 on magnificent plans drawn up
was stopped in 1755 on
the orders of the
II.
was
the fulfilment of a
from
materials were sent
under the overall supervision of Lodovice,
in 1717
strongly influenced
vow made by John
ecclesiastical
by ItaUan (and
V for the cure of his
later
by Portuguese)
Works
sterility.
of art
over the world for the building of Mafra, as they had been for
all
St Sophia in Constantinople; Brazil contributed
and
at the
palace/monastery of Mafra in Portugal was more fortunate. Conceived as a baroque
version of the Escurial, a
nostalgic for his
still
ornaments came
wood, while
statues, devotional
from France, Spain, Holland, Liege,
objeas, bells
Rome, Venice and
Florence.
The
idea of the monastery as triumphal
Examples of it in Latin America
movement even spread
to
are
monument
San Francisco
Orthodox Russia, where
inflicted
at
the Gerolamini
Lima and Sao
Francisco
at
Bahia.
The
Empress Elizabeth commissioned from
on the monasteries by the movement inspired by the French
Revolution has obliterated almost still
at
the
over Europe, except to Spain,
all
Smolny, modelled on the Escurial. Outside Central
her architect Rastrelli the great monastery of
Europe, the destruction
spread
all traces
and Santa Chiara
of this great monastic revival. In Italy there are
in Naples, the colossal unfinished Benedictine monastery
Catania, and the enormous Certosa (Charterhouse) of Padula in Calabria, in which every
monk was
provided with a palazzina and the grand
Colosseum. Belgium the wonderful
still
cloister is large
enough
to contain the
has the abbey of Pare, near Louvain, and France, though she has lost
abbey of Saint' Armand4es/Eaux, can
still
boast the monastery of Saints Waast,
Arras, that of Premontre, cradle of the Premonstrant order, and the monastery and convent at
Caen; but
The
ancient
these are
refectory, decorated asteries is
mere
shells, stripped
of their decoration, their libraries, and their furniture.
and once noble monastery of Saint^Pierre in Lyons, with stuccos worthy of Serpotta.
was undoubtedly Les Genovefains
greatly disfigured.
The abbey
in Paris,
The
finest
von
wood
Pfaff,
a cabinet/maker
and
is
its
own
has
still
its
pi.
341
mon/
a high school
and
a fine example of an eighteenth^ is
—the work of an
decorated with magnificent
Austrian nobleman. Baron
sculptor to earn a living after being exiled from
Austria for his part in a duel. Such interchanges were civihzation; every people expressed
museum,
which has now become
of Les Valloires in Picardy
carvings, quite unique in France
who became
a
of these French baroque
century monastery comparable with those of Austria; the church
rococo
now
spirit
at the heart of eighteenth
with a freedom that was
all
century European the greater for
its
freedom from the pressures of nationalism.
295
2
The Court
The Royal Palace
Ideas beget forms.
The
quity, reappeared in
century the palace
with
finials the
on the imperial
royal palace,
scale
Europe only when absolute monarchy
was imprisoned within
modern
of creating another to replace
remained a
it still
V
the Palazzo Strozzi
outside world only hostile facades. All Italy followed this model.
Even
the Floren/
form and proved incapable
withdrawn
is
anti'
of France adorned
fortified castle.
architecture, inherited this medieval
it;
was conceived by
it
reappeared. Until the sixteenth
the fortress; though Charles
Louvre of Philip Augustus,
tines, the originators of
on which itself
into
offering to the
itself,
Only Venice, where
a wise
government maintained civic peace, could afford the luxury of building palaces with facades opening wide on try, it
to the
Grand Canal.
was only to immure himself in another fortress;
mansion
as
open
Rome
on the
carried
the first architect
of Poggio a Caiano.
villa
The Palazzo Veneto, and
tradition of Florence.
Palazzo Farnese - the masterpiece of
who conceived the country
was Giuhano da Sangallo, when
to nature, in the style of the antique villas,
he built for Lorenzo de' Medici the
took refuge in the coun/
If the fifteenth/century Florentine
this type
—keep
seventy years later the
to the introverted Florentine style.
Weary
of these dark abodes, Italian Renaissance potentates built themselves outside th» walls of their ancestral
palace
which, since
it
—sometimes
was not
was of great symbolic rested
from the
into a
world of even
Mantua and
its
adjoining
the seat of power,
it
—a
palazzo
was
a
strength
with the gods and heroes
and a consciousness of
his
own
garden palace
a
exterior.
delizia,
government, not by a return to a more natural
greater artifice; in contact
new
del giardino,
had no need of an imposing
significance in the life of the prince. It
fatigues of
garden, he gained
closely
This residence
a pleasance, where he life,
who
excellence.
but by plunging
peopled palace and
The ducal
pleasance, the Palazzo del Te, are perfect examples of this duplication.
Since the sixteenth century the royal palace has been a combination of palace and
were sometimes built conjointly, according to an overall plan; thus, sixteenth century for a
pentagonal
Vignola rocca
built for
The first
palace
on
on the
a royal scale
hill
was
years before
villa.
The two
Caprarola in the mid/ castle,
based on plans
by Baldassare Peruzzi and Anto/
he built a charming
casino in
a mythological
the product of the union of official residence
pleasance; Julius II ordered Bramante to join together by
and Innocent VIII's Belvedere, producing the 296
at
Cardinal Alessandro Farnese a feudal
which had been drawn up
nio da Sangallo the younger; and
garden.
palace of
two long
colossal
galleries Sixtus
IV's Vatican
complex which we known
Vatican. In due course this procedure was imitated by two other sovereigns.
and
The
as the
formidable
THE COURT mass of buildings which constitutes the Louvre
Henry
pursued by
II,
later
the fruit of a 'grand design' conceived by
is
kings and only completed under Napoleon
palace of the Louvre to the 'garden palace' of the Tuileries,
III, to join the ancestral
which Catherine de Medicis had
commissioned from Philibert de I'Orme. Later, in St Petersburg, Catherine the Great joined the Winter Palace built by Elizabeth to the Hermitage, the residence she herself pleasure
and relaxation on the banks of the Neva. These
were not designed as a whole, but were the
on a
royal scale in
imitations.
The
took a Louis
XIV
outbuildings, opening
The formula
for
Charles
XIV
had evolved. Under
on
a
wide
had created
sixteenth century, with an
A
tangle.
chateau
entrance.
The
earliest
palace
numerous
front
this
was ahead of
and one oval
internal courtyards
and
forecourt,
Whitehall Palace, was neither carried out nor imitated.
on
colossal
and
unified,
to a nature transformed into
with numerous
an abode of the gods.
Golden House. this ideal royal residence, the
the garden.
dual palace in the Italian
style
one side of the square had been removed so
The u^shaped
plan,
which had appeared
early in the
open court before or behind, thus takes the place of the closed
development, which took place in
Italy
and France
at the
that
is
a
rec^'
good
same period. The
took an open form, by means of a vast courtyard which served as a monumental
From
fortified casde,
complex
time,
its
comparison between the Palazzo Barberini and the Palazzo Farnese
illustration of this
French
I's
king of Naples; but
the influence of the villa,
windowed facade overlooked
a
three palaces, the largest in the world,
organic growth.
form of royal palace,
to revive this
originated at Nero's
Before Louis
for the
gigantic plan with
drawn up by Inigo Jones It
built for
Western Europe was the grandiose complex of buildings which Giuliano
da Sangallo (1445-1516) designed
had no
result of
had
the reign of
turning
it
Henry
III in the late sixteenth century, architects transformed the
outward towards nature instead of inward upon the
interior court.
In the seventeenth century a similar process, but accomplished more slowly, was to transform the as
town mansion
into a hotel entre cour
an inner court.
16 Carlo Maderno (1556-1629). floor of
Palazzo Barberini,
Ground
Rome, 1626
17 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini(r598-i68o).
Palazzo Farnese,
Rome
et jardin, its
rooms overlooking an outer garden
as well
ph
i^j-8,figs 16-ij
THEMES pi.
^46
This, then,
Marbre, a
was
was
Galerie des Glaces. Louis
as that of Federigo
palace a place
ment
set
finally
The
common
had
the garden side
run of men,
built the Palazzo del filled
had
be
to
made
princes
fell
with royal
accommodate
to
to be built for the ministries,
effect
it
terrace
on which
Te
its
in
to
make
the
seat of govern-'
and the organs of
created.
present mutilated it
—
was the
'grace', a true 'sacred
the court
and a town
had on a Europe which knew
century the absolute monarchs of Europe, great and
German
was a
intention in building Versailles
universal admiration that Versailles arouses even in
us to imagine the stunning
was the Cour de
the entrance side
breaking with rebellious Paris, he transferred the
to Versailles, enlargements
administration, annexes
XIV's
Gonzaga of Mantua when he
apart from the
But when, on
palace'.
on
of the hunting/lodge of Louis XIII;
relic
later built the
same
XIV's first Versailles; on
the form of Louis
its full
form may help
glory.
For a whole
small, strove to imitate the inimitable.
The
victim to the Bauwurm with a vengeance; at every court the Kavalierarchitekt
(gentleman architect), often a Frenchman, held a position of great honour. They themselves
dabbled in architecture; his ideas
on
paper. 'This
Max Emmanuel,
to be created in the future gives his mistress.
Members
pleasure
when
I see
my
drawings and papers,' he wrote
of the noble family of Schonborn, originally from the
both secular and
to
Lahn Valley, who
principalities,
and Austria,
on a huge correspondence on the subject of buildings. The technical expen
creator of the
^48
me
possessed numerous carried
among them was Lothar pi.
Elector of Bavaria, could not refrain from scribbling
may always be of use in times to come, and the very thought of buildings
Mainz from 1695 to 1729, who was the of Pommersfelden, and guided his nephew Johann Philipp
monumental
staircase
Probably the first monarch to seek
von Erlach drew
to
up
the plans for his residence.
emulate Versailles was the Emperor Leopold
the plans for a colossal palace to be built at
just outside Vienna. This Berninesque imitation of Versailles
but
still
very impressive, dimensions. In
Tiirkenlouis,
for
seems to have given the lead;
him an immense
Rhineland, Franconia
Franz, bishop and Elector of
Franz, prince/bishop of Wiirzburg, in drawing
in 1690 Fischer
ecclesiastical, in the
Germany at
'royal
town'
at
for
more
to
practical,
the Margrave Louis of Baden, the
Rastatt the Italian
whom
Schonbrunn, then
was reduced
famous
Domenico/Egidio Rossi
built
palace inspired by Versailles. His neighbour the duke of Wiirttemberg was
immense palace
not to be outdone; by 1704 he was planning to copy Versailles by erecting an
and
I,
Ludwigsburg. The
transition
from the closed palace in the
Italian style to
the open palace on the Versailles pattern is illustrated in the building of Schlessheim near Munich.
Towards 1690 Enrico
Zuccalli, director of buildings to
Max Emmanuel
of Bavaria,
had
prepared plans for a closed structure inspired by Bernini's plans for the Louvre; but in the course
who had
of construction the architect EfFner, Cotte, altered these designs to bring berg's palace at Stuttgart
and
them
spent a long period in France under Robert de
nearer to the Versailles model.
that of the Elector Palatine at
Second World War, were designed by Frenchmen, Froimont. palaces
298
The
prince
would send
and followed courses of
The duke of Wiirttem/
Mannheim, both
Pierre de la Guepiere
and Jean/Clement
his Kaualierarchitekt to study in France,
instruction at the
Academie
destroyed in the
where he
visited
d' Architecture or at the private
academy of Jacques'Fran5ois Blondel. Boffrand's advice was much sought
after
by these
artists;
THE COURT he interested them particularly because he was the truest rococo architect of them
1720 and 1725 French architeas almost everywhere supplanted the
Wilhelmina,
called in by rulers of the previous generation. Margravine
the Great of Prussia, wrote: 'Every
though his grandfather
may
had a passion
which
French
for status
Frenchman who has
their
German
abroad
this residence the finest in
—
Frenchmen
for these
The importance
The whole Schonborn
family united to
Germany. Balthasar Neumann was entrusted with designing
his
own
in 1720,
came
to
plans
is
sent
Neumann
still
not satisfied with the design;
to Paris to consult
illustration of
The Bauwurm from Muscovite better
way
how
a
German could
spread far to the East. traditions,
When
the
laid
Johann Philipp Franz
Robert de Cotte and BofFrand, and BofFrand
Neumann
Wiirzburg in person in 1724. The way in which an
it,
sent
Maximilian von Welsch. The foundation stone of the new palace was
but the Schonborns were
Schonborn
no
him
Lucas von Hildebrandt, and the bishop's uncle Lothar Franz, Elector of Mainz, architect
of
than
better
but the Austrian Schonborns, feeling that he was young and needed support, sent great
been
noble as a king,
and the 'Germanization' which they underwent, can nowhere be seen
ideas,
Between
of Frederick
sister
as
is
protectors took care to satisfy.
in the palace of the prince/bishops of Wiirzburg.
make
settled
have been a steward or a lackey in Paris'
all.
who had
Italians
transformed BofFrand's
infuse baroque feeling into a French design.
Peter the Great, breaking
founded the new capital
away from Moscow and
city of St Petersburg,
own
to Westernize his court than to have his
Versailles,
he could think of
which he
created at
Peterhof on the Gulf of Finland. His daughter Elizabeth surpassed her father's achievement by
pi.
j^/
building the immense Tsarskoye Selo, which was continued by Catherine the Great.
The
spirit
of Versailles reached Spain direa from
the grandson of Louis
Madrid, on a
XIV, Phihp V,
whose coolness contrasted with
site
by Juvarra, resembles the Escurial in that
begun in 1738,
also departs
its
Bourbon
source, the
summer
is
a chapel.
dynasty. In 1719
La Granja
residence at
the heat of the Escurial.
focal point
from the Bourbon
construction (his master Juvarra
its
decided to build a
The
tradition. Sacchetti,
La
Palacio Real in Madrid,
who was
in charge of
upon
itself.
In England the inertia of the constitutional monarchs of the eighteenth century aristocracy to create residences in emulation of Versailles. this scale
was Queen Anne; but
great general the
Duke
The movement
The
architecture, inspired
ception the royal sport for in the
move
for herself
who
built
but for her
fig.
18
of Marlborough.
spread to the courts of
all
was not
to the
left it
only English monarch
the resulting palace, Blenheim,
Italy.
The hunting/lodge
created in 1729 by Juvarra for the king of Sardinia, Victor
achievements in
its
had died in 1736), reduced Juvarra's grandiose plan and,
returning to the Spanish tradition of the alcazar, closed the palace in
on
near
Granja, designed
which
it
Stupinigi near Turin, II, is
one of the
by the idea of expressing in the harmony of
was designed. The most
megalomaniac brain of Charles VII of Naples and his court to Caserta,
at
Amadeus
he asked Mario Gioffredo
its
finest
con^
colossal project of all
was conceived
When
he decided to
III of Spain.
to design
what was
virtually a royal
bringing together in one building, divided by eighteen courtyards, and with a
town,
dome in the centre,
apartments for the royal family, a public library, a university, an observatory, a
museum, a
^99
**
18
J-i
JVl
Ji
1
O
John Vanbrugh (1664-1726). Blenh eim
Palace, Oxfordshire, 1705
19 Gernuin for
Boffrand
2o^James Paine
300
(1667-1754).
Chateau de Malgrange,
{c.
after
Project
171
17K5-89). Kedleston HaU.
j
THE COURT seminary, a cathedral, a bishop's palace, law courts, and ministries;
by a rampart
after the style
was
all this
to be
surrounded
of the Kremlin. Luigi Vanvitelli had reduced the project to manage^
able proportions by the time thefirst stone
was
laid in 1752.
He kept the idea of buildings organize
ed around a centre, and to accentuate this centralized plan he recessed the entrance, so that the
whole complex centred on the main Following the examples of Louis mate than that of
stairway.
XIV,
dotted with chateaux.
The abundant demand gave The
the conception of a country residence. at
more
sovereigns built country houses in a style
their official residences; the nobility imitated their lords,
and perfea
architects the opportunity to refine
on two
great oval hall
floors that
Le Vau had used
Vauxz-le^Vicomte, in France, had a great success in Germany; Fischer von Erlach,
a passion for the eUipse, planned palaces in this style
is
an
early
composed
entirely of oval
work, the Ahnensaal (Hall of the Ancestors)
at
Frain (Vranov) in
Donato
Felice Allio later imitated in the palace^monastery of Klosterneuburg.
by enormous oeiUde^oeuf windows
pi.
16
pi.
544
—a theme which
Bohemia
is lit
who had
rooms. His finest achievement
(1693), the ceihng of
which
inti/
and Europe was soon
Another
popular arrangement, four wings arranged in a St Andrew's cross around a central rotunda,
was
projected
Fischer
by the French
architect BofFrand
von Erlach, who had used
it
Leopold of Lorraine
for
before Boffrand,
made
inspired Juvarra's plan for the hunting/'lodge of Stupinigi; Paine for the
complex design of Kedleston Hall
(c.
employed
it,
—the gallery and the
thought to have evolved in medieval
castle.
Italy,
staircase.
it
1745).
The
but in fact
and
it
fg. 1^
with variations, Jig.
In the interior arrangement of these palaces, architects liked to concentrate their bravura pieces
Malgrange.
at
several designs in this style,
long room,
gallery, a spectacular
skill is
20
on two
sometimes
developed in France from the grand hall of the
The Chateau de Fontainebleau had no
less
than
six.
The
gallery
came back
to
favour in seventeenth^century France, enriched by the version created by the Carracci in the
Palazzo Farnese.
The
Galerie des Glaces designed by Mansart and
the fashion all over Europe,
Le Brun
though the Germans often preferred a
hall
spread
at Versailles
with greater width
(Marmorsaal or Kaisersaal). In England the long gallery also evolved from the hall of the Middle
Ages.
It
was
situated in the centre of the building
often including
an upper
gallery supported
and occupied
by a row of
the
whole height of the house,
pillars.
In the baroque age the stairway was a symbol of dominion. Since the first
floor (still often called in
nature of an initiation.
French
The Itahan
of perspective, even accentuating
Vatican.
The
guest who
I'etage noble)
architects of the seventeenth century
them
elite
artificially, as
made
It
was
—a vast
Maria Giovanna staircase
theatre arranged
Battista,
became a
wishing to rebuild the Palazzo
at Versailles
(1672-9), designed
real
XFV
by Warin.
triumphal symbol.
Madama
At
Caserta, as
PL. ix
wood,
frescoes, gilded
Queen
in Turin, began with the
—but the reconstruction was never completed and today Juvarra's monumental
of steps leads to a dark tortuous medieval building.
in the
great use of effects
around the white marble bust of Louis
in the eighteenth century that the staircase
was
Bernini does in the Scala Regia of the
mounted the Escalierdes Ambassadeurs
by Le Brun from drawings by Le Vau, was surrounded by marbles, painted stucco
always lived on the
the ascent of the stairs of a palace
we have
flight
seen, Vanvitelli
pi.
361 301
THEMES
21 Villa Malvagna, Bagheria, near Palermo, eighteenth century
made
notably Sanfelice, showed endless ingenuity in their staircases, both interior and
exterior,
combining
straight flights
laden with stuccos, their function
was
At
amazement.
he cUmbs the
pillars, caryatids
enable
him to
pi.
44
The
theatre
creating unexpected effects by the use of
statues,
Often supported by huge Atlantean
and decorated with a wealth of
an enchanted world,
to
figures,
paintings,
induce in him a kind of awed
skilfully directs the eye of the visitor, as
take in, from one turn to the next, the entirety of the illusory
At Wiirzburg
the staircase
is
a triumphal approach to the painted
the four corners of the earth
and the gods of Olympus
Carl Philipp von Greiffenclau; the
celebrate the glory of Prince/Bishop
The Theatre
and
Pommersfelden and Bruhl the architect
steps, to
to
and
to lead the guest into
on which Tiepolo summons
from which
spirals,
true heart of the palace.
space which surrounds him. ceiling,
and
were nowhere more sumptuous than in Central Europe and Germany,
where they constituted the
362
palace. In Naples the architects of the baroque
palaces,
trompeA'oeil. Staircases
pi.
theme of the
the stairway the central
to
staircase is a theatre
contemplate the ceiling.
was a
vital
any great occasion;
I
element in the
of the court. Plays were part of the
life
have already mentioned
how
the Teatro Farnese at
festivities
Parma,
marking
built in the
early seventeenth century, constituted the very heart of the palace.
The
rise
of the theatre
is
associated with the renaissance of antique drama. In the
Ages, plays were given in public squares, churches or palaces. The be built in stone was the Teatro of an antique odeon, with the
form of a wall with
tiers,
OUmpico
stage wall
three bays,
Scamozzi,
who
permanent
theatre to
in Vicenza, designed by Palladio in 1580 in imitation
which could
The
had a permanent
'set'
in
represent either the interior of a palace or
its
and upper
gallery.
fagade; behind the central opening there were three
302
first
Middle
exaggerated the perspective to give an
streets,
stage
created in
illusion of depth.
wood and This stage
stucco by is
designed
THE COURT primarily as a vehicle for words, that
to say for antique
is
drama; the
opened in 1585
theatre
with Sophocles' Oedipus Rex.
The visual
theatre of the seventeenth century
was designed
an entertainment that was both
for
and musical, and was expected to provide comfort, in a lavish
made
in the design of the theatre thus concerned both the
The
modifications that architects
stage
and the auditorium. The invention of movable
century brought with
the widening of the
it
which normally accommodated members of formance of court
Thus
ballets.
sets
stage; in the
in the
first
auditorium,
and boxes, leaving
replaced by several storeys of balconies
noble audience.
setting, for a
half of the seventeenth
tiers
disappeared and were
in the centre a pit, without seats,
the audience but could also be used for the per^
the auditorium
became a
spectacle in
a brightly/lit setting
itself,
—the audience.
for a glittering cast
These developments
are already
foreshadowed in the Teatro Olimpico, Sabbioneta, designed
by Scamozzi in 1588. The amphitheatre runs along the side walls
detach
itself
from the
hall for the prince
in 1617-18,
and
is
(in relief)
The Teatro
his suite.
opening out
to
Farnese
mixed form. The auditorium
a
two rows of arcades, blind
carries
reduced to
form boxes
back.
at the
is
at
The most important
The
rooms,
its
backcloth.
floor
still
From
stage
very narrow
is still
on the
the early seventeenth century
effect
tiers
of
built
sides,
straight
is
pi 44
seats,
but
that of
an ornate proscenium arch which it
now
of perspective.
onwards
to
back of the
at the
transformation, however,
and shallow, but
being raked to improve the
low enough
large enough to include twelve
attached to the walls)
(i. e.
is
Parma, designed by Aleotd and
the stage; the proscenium wall disappears, to be replaced by
frames the stage.
colonnade which
five tiers, so that the
and curve round in a semicircular empore
side walls
and
and
is
the proscenium wall (in trompeA' oeil)
has wings and machine
The
scenery consisted of a
theatres multiplied in Italy, their archie
endeavouring to keep up with developments in stage design while increasing the comfort
tects
of the public. Bologna had three Barberini, built at
pubHc and
Le Quattro Fontane
complicated machinery and movable
sixty private theatres.
The
prefect of
Rome, Taddeo
a hall for three thousand spectators, equipped with
sets;
Bernini worked
on
it,
and
was opened in
it
February 1632. The Venetians, passionately fond as they were of every kind of entertainment, especially at carnival time, played
the
an important part in the development of the
composer CavaUi developed opera in the grand manner. The patricians
were
later
organized on
admitted to the
pit
and
theatre.
built theatres,
a paying basis, private individuals hiring boxes and the the 'gods' (the old upper gallery).
It
In Venice
was in Venice
which
pubUc being
that boxes were
developed, extending to cover the sides of the auditorium, although from them the stage perspec/ tive
was
The
falsified
(examples are the Teatro Grimani, 1639, and the Teatro San Samuele, 1639).
Italian style of stage
was brought north of
successor as chief minister of France.
have an opera house.
He
Having sung
called in the Italian
the
Alps by Cardinal Mazarin,
in rehgious dramas in
Gaspare Vigarani, a
which was completed in 1662, was
machine room. The auditorium was
still
Rome, he wished
specialist
who had
to
built
The most remarkable
feature of
the deep stage, extended by an
enormous
several theatres in Italy, to design the Theatre des Tuileries. this theatre,
Richelieu's
reminiscent of the old tiered amphitheattes;
it
was
pi. 4$
3oj
THEMES composed of two superimposed
upper order formed a balcony, while the lower
orders; the
contained projecting boxes supported by consoles.
below the lower order, but reign by
up
to a
Le Mercier
this
was a
for Richelieu; this
great
was
advance on the
still
threcarched portico flanked by two
A few rows of
seats
were
still
theatre designed in the previous
an amphitheatre, with twenty^seven
tiers
found
to be
tiers rising
of balconies.
In the eighteenth century the Venetian type of theatre, with rows of boxes running up to the
proscenium arch, became established. This circular or oval form, however, became the object of heated controversy in which national pride played
its
everywhere both as stage designers and as builders of
theatres.
particularly,
worked
all
over Europe. In France, where
part, since Italians
many
were called in
The famous Bibiena
theatres
were
family,
built, the
debate
turned mainly on the question of whether to return to the antique semicircular amphitheatre plan.
The
of the royal palace of Naples has the exceptional form of a simple
teatrino di corte
French
rectangle, like that of the
real tennis courts, 'jeux de
paume, where plays had been per^
formed in the sixteenth century.
The main
contribution of the eighteenth century to theatre design was in the realm of decora^
wood and
tion; the interior, of
queting^hall,
and the
stucco, painted
still
have some very
gilded,
from the
royal box, standing out
Europe and Germany
and
fine
rest,
was
treated like a
became a
One
rococo theatres.
sumptuous ban^
stage facing a stage. Central
of the largest and richest
the Altes Residenztheater of
Munich, which by being dismantled was saved from the
which destroyed
itself
to designs
the Residenz
by the French^trained
almost completely in 1944.
^^
was
built
from 175 1
architect Frangois de Cuvillies. Its principal
to
is
fire
1755
ornaments are the
Atlanteans of the second row of boxes, and the trophies (ornaments representing arms and
armour) treated in fabrics pi. ^7
rocaille; the colours are
—exceptional
for this period
white and gold for the stucco and wood, red for the
when
decoration was usually blue and gold, (like that of
Margravine Wilhelmina's Markgrafliches Opernhaus
at
Bayreuth, the exterior of which
is
by
her Kaualierarchitekt Joseph de Saint^Pierre, and the interior by Carlo Galli Bibiena after drawings
by
his father Giuseppe).
royal box. This exquisite
The
smallness of the auditorium lends particular prominence to the
little
theatre,
which miraculously survived
World War, is undoubtedly a masterpiece of its kind. The neoclassical style brought coldness to theatre decoration; to the atmosphere of festivity
and
court theatre of the ancien regime
Gabriel, gold, this
is
which has
fairy tale
was
which
the air raids of the
its
far better suited
naturally belongs to the theatre.
the opera-house at Versailles,
just been restored to
was
the rococo
former splendour.
Second
The
last great
completed in 1769 by
Its interior,
in tones of blue
and
based on the rhythm of the monumental orders so dear to the heart of its creator. However,
monumental rhythm
defines the space too sharply; the elastic lines of rococo succeed better
in joining the world of the auditorium to the imaginary world of the stage.
Meanwhile, the organization of the stage changed the structure of the building. portico; in
304
some
They gave
it
cases the pillars continued
rangement lacked the advantages of the
little;
architects turned their attention to
a facade in the antique
earlier
round the building
to
mode with form a
a
monumental
peristyle.
This
ar^
fashion for a high portico (as at Bayreuth), which
5
THE COURT made
it
possible to have an outside balcony opening from a first-floor foyer
access to the lo£es d'homeur.
The number
of exits
was
and the
increased,
integrate the annexes into a unified plan. In the interior, in conformity it
was
the staircase that
was expected
to
produce the most striking
which
architects sought to
with the
effect;
in turn gave
style
the finest of
of the day, all
was
the
one designed by the architect Victor Louis for the Grand Theatre in Bordeaux (1772-80),
which occupies more than one
amid
grass
and
trees,
the layout of the stage, with
might also be
its
built of rocks, as
^60
pi.
j4g
third of the length of the building.
numerous open/air
There were from the seventeenth century onwards usually set
pi.
hke the one
at the villa
wings and podium, were those
at
is
of Marlia, near
theatres.
Lucca
{c.
They were
1652), where
marked by chpped yews. Rustic
theatres
Hellbrunn and Bayreuth.
Tournaments and other open-air entertainments took place in
a large court or square
on
which temporary buildings were ereaed. One of the most remarkable monuments of German baroque, the Zwinger
at
Dresden, built for Augustus the Strong, encloses a kind of oval open
space for the holding of tournaments, carrousels, contests, ladies' races,
and
for opera, another for
comedy, and
sleigh rides.
balls,
The Zwinger complex
galleries of art
the theatricality of the architecture of the Zwinger, visitors (particularly the
Many
banquets, triumphal processions, crossbow also
included an indoor theatre
and mathematics. These funaions explain
which
is
usually misunderstood by foreign
French).
villas in Sicily, instead
of opening on to a garden, were surrounded by a lobed precinct
Such
enclosing oval or circular courts, rather resembling the Zwinger.
is
the strange Villa
Palagonia near Palermo, where the monsters carved in stone along the top of the wall hold a non-'Stop burlesque performance,
an infernal
pl.24$,jig.22
charivari.
12 Villa Palagonia, Bagheria, near Palermo, begun 171
^
^
305
THEMES The Garden
In accordance with their
new
men
conception of the antique, the
the garden a sort of microcosm, furthering the illusion that the prince
Baroque
made
Italy
little
with a succession of fountains.
this
The
scheme.
among which were
terraces,
make
it
It
was the
centre of the world.
garden incorporated a steep slope
placed grottoes, shrines of nymphs, and
was
The
in.
only innovation
to increase the size of the garden,
give prominence to architectural features at the expense of nature.
introduced a
new
of this
Italian
was designed not simply to be seen, but to be walked
Italian gardeners of the seventeenth century
by the
PL. XII
change in
new ideal
the park of Vaux/le/Vicomte, created by
It
Le Nostre
finance minister, Fouquet, in 1656-61. Shortly afterwards the same
artist
made
and
was France
The
conception of the garden, adapted to the needs of royalty.
was
had made
of the Renaissance
that
reahzation
first
Louis XIV's
for
was
to
upon
called
to
lay out the gardens of Versailles (executed, with many changes, between 1662 and 1688). Le
was
Nostre's innovation
and
to
make
the garden into an ensemble of walks, ornamental parterres
fountains, arranged geometrically between formal groves of trees
—transversal
completed by a grand canal f£. 24
at
Vaux,
on
either side of a vista
longitudinal and continuing the view
at
Versailles. This garden, peopled with statues, was a kind of theatre, a continuous drama unfolding
beneath the monarch's
first-floor
windows;
in order to enjoy this view the palace,
entrance side has wings flanking the courtyard, extends along a wide front
on
which on
the
the side facing
the park.
The
central garden fa5ade of the palace to the raihng
by the
large
126
effects
its
every kind,
and
more than 3,600
reflecting the sky, a canal
style
end of the
miles away.
five
the
vista,
On either
had
hidden in groves ef trees. Water
French garden, lending
with a
some of which could be grouped
fleet
of boats
XIV
to
itself to
on which water and
there
there were as
many
many
carnivals could
gates,
domes, or
as 1,400 fountains at Versailles.
installed a profusion of statues, in a classical
very different from the naturaUstic style of those in Itahan gardens; they were
its
or, for the fountains,
subsidiary features
—a
kinds of
were fountains of
form gigantic arches, bowers,
under the direction of Le Brun, there was
marble or bronze
bronze or gilded lead.
The park
itself,
made
Uke the
which was
first
faced with faience and
then rebuilt in
of
palace,
menagerie on both banks of a transverse canal, and facing
smaller palace, used as a retreat,
it
a
pink and
—
the Trianon.
white marble
All the resources of mythology and allegory were called upon the monarch, a theatre
and
where
to
all
symboHze the
universe. Palace
and garden,
kinds of entertainments were put on
operas, ballets, masquerades, balls, cavalcades
306
yards; the
is
use added 'marine' entertainments to those of the land,
organ^pipes. In the time of Louis Finally,
creations of every kind were
increasingly important feature of the
—mirrors
beheld;
122
From
aspect.
side of the central vista, grottoes, rocaille, theatres, architectural compositions, enchanted islands,
became an
pi.
is
end of a grand avenue,
village of Villepreux, at the
pools, mythological ensembles
pl.3S2
truly royal
marking the end of the small park (surrounded
park containing hunting preserves),
marked by the pi.
them a
sheer size of the gardens at Versailles gives
magical world where an exceptional race of
all
and firework
human
to celebrate the excellence of
closely
Unked
together,
formed
the year round; solemn receptions, displays, all helped to
make
beings led an enchanted existence.
it
an
THE COURT In contrast to this type of royal garden, which the French term setting for a 'baroque' life (a
the irregular 'English' or 'landscape' garden
1750;
Stowe.
ham
was Alexander Pope who
(after
1719).
The myriad
first
garden that might be called rococo. This was
which
name
has become associated with the
It
popularized the genre,
at his
have invented
this irregular
as the patterns of rocaille
is
a characteristic paradox;
at
at
Twicken^-
are so capricious that
had had too much
pi 257
to drink;
ornament. That the English should
when
rococo type of garden at a time
turning towards Palladianism
country house
and streams
serpentine curves of the paths
much
England between 1720 and
flourished in
of William Kent, designer of the garden
they look, as someone said at the time, as though the gardener they resemble nothing so
but which was the
proof of the pointlessness of setting these two terms up in opposition
to each other), the eighteenth century created the
it
'classical'
in architecture they were
constitutes another proof that they
it
were more drawn towards the baroque than they care to admit.
Nowhere
is
the contrast between the house
and
its
surroundings more marked than
at
Chis"
pi 55^
wick, where Lord Burlington himself designed an irregular garden as the setting for a mansion built in imitation of Palladio's Villa
At
when
the time
Rotonda.
the 'English garden'
the significance of the garden.
came
into being, there
The park now became an
was
a profound change to
encyclopaedia, full of plants of the
most varied species (sometimes, indeed, with a temple dedicated to Botany), with every kind of landscape feature inspired by the paintings of Ruisdael, Salvator Rosa, Claude Lorrain and
Dughet. There were meadows, volcano
hills, ravines,
groves, rocks, alpine gardens, dark caves, even a
—with water in the form of springs, streams,
of waterfall 'classified as
host at Ermenonville
"foaming"
Bresse, at the country
Thebaid with huts
been allegorical,
now
a Swiss chalet, a
Chinese
Roman
the gardens of the
Ablon
Love
it
all
all varieties
there
was even
a
The
Styhtes.
earlier
where formerly the approach had
direct imitation.
One
might come upon
(real or
Comparative
religion
was not overlooked
—there
sham), Chinese pagodas, mosques and Druid temples,
full of allusions to great
pi 2^8
men
pi 255
(busts, epitaphs, cenotaphs, even real tombs);
Ablon, near Franconville, were a Pantheon, placing alongside the
Homer, Pindar, Solon, Seneca, Cato, Dutch physician Boerhave;
there
forebears of
the contem/
was even
a
'Temple
Christ'.
This was a one. In
and
and pyramids, tombs of the Pharaohs, medieval,
ruins, Palladian bridges.
family Montaigne, Rousseau,
Dying
Anthony, and Simon
was represented by
porary Swiss physiologist Haller and the of the
islands)
de Girardin, Rousseau's
paviHon, a Dutch windmill, or a Persian kiosk. History was well
were Gothic churches in ruins
The garden was
M.
sand where nothing grew but broom, heather
also been microcosms; but
the universe tea
Paul,
represented; there were Egyptian obelisks
Greek and
to
house of M. de Beaurepaire, this wilderness was a miniature
for the hermit saints
and French gardens had
Italian
ponds (with
and an authority on the English garden. Sometimes
'wilderness', as at Ermenonville, a vast stretch of
and juniper. At
rivers,
"smooth" ', according
or
pi 557
fuller
microcosm than the old
Italian garden,
and
its
significance
was a moral
were numerous edifying inscriptions, and the virtues of Innocence, Friendship and
had
their temples; the
temple of Philosophy, says
M.
de Girardin, should be
left
307
THEMES unfinished to symbolize the state of
human knowledge. There was
TiUmaque in the gardens of Sanspareil
as Fenelon's Aventures de
Nouvelle Heloise at Ermenonville.
The
of Confucius, hermitages temples
and
huts.
—
had become human.
tion of the glory of the
monarch
it
offering endless subjects for reflection.
found many spots
stroller
The garden was no
often a literary theme, such at
for quiet meditation; houses
longer conceived as an illustra/
was
It
Bayreuth, or Rousseau's
the philosopher's garden,
All these devices were hidden from view, only revealing
themselves by the twists and turns of the path; every path chosen led the visitor to one surprise,
but deprived is
the last
him
of another, returning
—the anxiety of a
new
significance
The anguish
itself.
him
that
baroque
society at the crossroad of
man had hidden
Melancholy, with a symbolic
Under
The
'English garden'
two
ages, a society in search of
Luzancy
in France there
here
is
on
was a Vale of
altar.
the influence of Jean^Jacques Rousseau, the picturesque garden gained great popular
in France just as
many
started.
beneath a cloak of make-believe
the very threshold of consciousness. In the gardens at
rity
where he
to the point
Western manifestation of the ancient myth of the Labyrinth, which here takes on a
creations
it
it
was declining
in England.
There remain only a few
inspired, the most complete being the Petit Trianon,
built a 'hamlet' for her pleasure
on
the eve of the Revolution.
gardens, that of Ermenonville (1766-74), contains the
scattered relics of the
where Marie/Antoinette
The most
'philosophic' of these
tomb of Rousseau, who died
there.
In eighteenth'century Europe, however, the form that gained favour was the mixed garden,
combining French, English and even were groves of
style
trees
in
Italian styles.
which were both
On either side of a grand vista in the French
the exotic creations of the English garden
and the
mythological conceits of the Italian. Petty kings and princelings, megalomaniac in inverse pro' portion to the size of their domains, emulated the splendour of the Allee Royale of Versailles. pi.
555
At
Caserta the gardens could be toured only by carriage.
the palace, passes through pi.
3S^
and ends
it,
in the Italian style
Landgrave of Hesse a gigantic
closed by a hill
vista,
on which stands a kind of
Gardens
are
more
fragile
have been preserved almost to designs
to
pi 3S4
1
619,
by the
is
a
known
is
surmounted by a
where flows
as the Octagon. This
it is
a water tower,
is
waterfalls of every size.
It is
crowned
colossal replica of the Farnese Hercules.
than any other work of man. Fortunately, in Central Europe many intact.
The park
of Schloss Hellbrunn, a pleasance built probably
Italian architect Solari for the
charming garden in the ItaUan
surprise fountains, there
itself is
from beyond
hill,
connected with the town by a long avenue;
fort
from which flow stepped cascades, grotto streams, and by a high pyramid which
starts
the rising slope of a
At Wilhelmshohe the Italian Guerniero designed
a chain of cascades, an old Renaissance motif. for the
The immense vista on
and hydraulic machines.
a 'rock theatre' dating from the
Graf Hohenems, bishop of Salzburg from 1612
style,
On
whose main
a hillock
features are
its
nymph
grottos,
surrounded by mythological
same period, where the
first
figures
Italian operas given in the
German/Speaking world were performed. In the eighteenth century the garden was provided with a hydraulic mechanical
La Granja 308
near
outside France
theatre,
which
is still
working today.
Madrid and Caserta near Naples
on the model of
Versailles.
On
—royal gardens—were the
finest to
be built
the edge of the French garden at Caserta there
THE COURT was is
laid out in
1782 an English garden,
a real paradise.
The
full
and
of Mediterranean
park of Veitshochheim near Wiirzburg
treatment of the French garden. In the early eighteenth century
is
it
exotic species of trees,
a curious
was
laid out as a regular
by Prince/Bishop Johann Friedrich von GreifFenclau; half a century Seinsheim brought drama
The
calm spot with a whole
to this
later
which
example of baroque
Adam
garden
Friedrich
von
frenzied world of extravagant statues.
sculptor Ferdinand Dietz, imitating the old 'fountain of Parnassus' at Versailles, turned the
pandaemonium, with
peaceful haunts of Apollo into a
the muses playing frenetic music
on the top of the fountain Pegasus seems
suited to a bacchanale;
to
pi 550
more
be stumbling into an abyss
rather than taking wing.
In the sentimental genre, Poland
possesses the gardens of Arkadia.
still
of Sanspareil, created by a caprice of the Margravine Wilhelmina, 'park with a theme'. Here the subject
Margravine's French architect, a ruined medieval castle,
made
is
is
At Bayreuth the garden an
early
example of a
Tek'maque. Joseph de Saint^Pierre, the
Les Aventures de
use of an existing natural landscape containing rocks
which only needed
a Httle retouching to create a setting evoking Fenelon's
famous novel, a work which had had considerable influence in Germany. Rocks and were peopled with
was
life/sized figures
the rock theatre
which
is still
when
Wilhelmina had her colonnade
in existence today.
The
Margravine could also enjoy
delicate
where
rustically furnished cells
the Margrave feh the desire to play the hermit. In front of this hermitage
pi
275)
pi.
555
pi.
255
an orangery, a semicircular colonnade resembling the
architect build
at Versailles,
grottoes
based on characters from the novel, and the central feature
a retreat to the curious Hermitage built by her fathernn/law,
received the court
and
but with each arch leading into a
nymph
grotto.
Germany offers an intact example of a synthesis of the French garden and the English garden— the park of Schwetzingen near Mannheim. It was laid out in two stages by the French designer Nicolas de Pigage for Elector Palatine Charles Theodore, and structures,
broken up
some of which came from at
the gardens of
King
still
retains all
Stanislas in Lorraine
its
statues
when
and
these were
the end of the eighteenth century. Beginning in 1758, Nicolas de Pigage laid out
in front of the old palace a regular garden in the French style, with arrangements of fountains,
lawns
(tapis verts), statues,
and a
transverse canal (as at
continued beyond the canal by an avenue leading Schell, after a study of parks in France
including ornaments which were pile of rocks,
and
the
all
forming the background
for
Vaux),
down
to the
its
work
—a
of Pigage
an open/air
work ending
trellis
spout
of water
jets
Luneville.
On
upon
which
is
Rhine. In 1775 the gardener
theatre
circular temple of
Apollo upon a
where pastoral plays were perform/ Mercury, a rock of Pan, a
on
to
in a
an owl
its
exquisitely designed interior, opens
Roman
—an
amusement brought from
he had sworn he would enjoy one
Schwetzingen again ?
on
to
an
dome, under which birds operated by hydraulic devices the park of Malgrange, near
the edge of the park Pigage created a graceful court theatre.
right to say that
a vista
ruined aqueduct, a temple of Botany, a Chinese bridge, a mosque, and a
bathing pavilion. This elegant place, with
arbour of
centred
England, created groves of trees in the English style,
ed, a very classical temple of Minerva, a ruined temple of
water/tower and
all
last
Was
not Voltaire
consolation before he died: to see ^09
3
The City
The diadem
of beautiful
cities
tion of the baroque age. If
which present-day Europe
we
set
apart the
is
new towns
in the process of ruining
and
(villeneuves
the crea/
is
villefranches) created,
notably in France, for political or military reasons, the towns of the Middle
Ages were almost
invariably spontaneous growths, developing anarchically within the circle of their ramparts;
wonderful buildings
any
effort
being
made
fitted as best
them
to set
they could within the existing urban fabric, usually without
off.
Town planning came into existence in Italy in
the fifteenth
century under the influence of Vitruvius; but the Renaissance contribution was above theoretical,
its
practical achievements being
Rome
In the
on
of JuHus II there began the great town/planning
to the cities of Europe. JuHus's sense of the greatness of the
Catholic world into one immense building built
no
less
churches
done
than
—and
fifty^three
new churches
sixty palaces, to
to encourage building.
site.
which must be added
Church was
the
until
Peter's
own
to turn the capital of the
which went back
Rome became
IV and
to Sixtus
the capital «of Italy, rich
who
were
wealthy or
houses which they rented to others. Assisted by an architect of genius,
Domenico
(1585-90) in giving our
face
less
Fontana, a Pope with grandiose ideas, Sixtus
streets
new
and the rebuilding of ancient
property/owners were granted the power to expropriate neighbours
who owned
that gave a
same number of villas. Everything was
to city regulations
Gregory XIII, and which remained in force
movement
In the course of the sixteenth century were
—not counting St
According
all
a modest scale.
times.
He
Rome
an overall plan,
provided the
city
V, succeeded during
certain parts of
his short pontificate
which were not
carried out until
with drinking-water, and improved the flow of
thronged with thousands of pilgrims by means of
viae rectae, vast straight
traffic
in
thoroughfares
linking the great churches, permitting redevelopment, and creating perspectives marked by an
antique or modern
monument: church,
obelisk, triumphal
column, or fountain. These
streets
were designed to radiate from some central point, in accordance with the radial principle so
men
of the Renaissance, for
whom
scheme has been
carried out only in part;
Rome
dear to the
as the three streets leading off the is
contains
was
many
the perfect form. Usually this
fragments of an ideal
great straight avenues of Sixtus
was
to gain great popularity all over
the seventeenth century,
such
Europe.
V satisfied the Renaissance taste for effects of perspective;
they also expressed the organizing spirit of the Counter^Reformation. 310
city,
Piazza del Popolo which form an angle of which the bisector
the Corso; the resulting bird^foot pattern
The
the circle
Roman
city
planning in
dominated by the powerful personality of Bernini, was very
different.
THE CITY was beauty
Bernini's object
an
to curves.
rather than utility; in his
He abandoned the
problem.
aesthetic
Far from seeking perspective
minimize the perspective, by making the basilica
and by making
view the building of a
rectilinear patterns
was primarily
city
used by Fontana and gave preference
effects,
he
straight
colonnades open out towards the fagade of the
the oval wider than
it is
out in his piazza before St Peter's to
sets
long.
He
colonnade
originally intended the
be closed by a great portico so that there would be no vista of St Peter's until the
Today
actually entered the piazza.
vista,
ConciHazione
della
thus ruining Bernini's intended
are the very essence of the baroque.
The
visitor to
effect
went from one
Brosses remarked in the eighteenth century,
as the
pi.
565
to
had
Peter's at the
of surprise. Spectacular surprise
baroque Rome,
15^
by Mussolini
built
Bramante and the Counter/Reformation) places St
(reviving a project dating from
end of a long
wide Via
the
visitor
pi.
effects
Frenchman Charles de
surprise to the next.
This
effect
was
V; Counter/Reformation town advance. The approaching visitor
the reverse of what had been intended by Fontana and Sixtus
planning was intended could analyse the attitude
to place the object in
monument
was expected
before
The baroque
houses and
Towns which have grown exciting to
visit,
on
one might say that
the other hand,
m
he proceeded along the it
was addressed not
and
of curves.
elasticity
He
had no
buildings; these should
desire to bring uniformity to the
charm
the spectator by their variety.
spontaneously, such as Salzburg or Compostela, are by far the most
the richest in discoveries. Seen from a distance, Salzburg appears gainst the
streets in
of this town, I
which
found
right angles
and
frontal views are rare; standing in
round
that the walls
its
perimeter
made up
in the sixteenth, seventeenth
and
eighteenth centuries.
is
a
maze of
one of the squares
a total of seventeen angles.
many
Spain, a country fundamentally baroque in temperament, contains
grew up
His
but to the
to reason
backcloth of the Kapuzinerberg as a tangle of palaces and churches. Compostela plazas
recta.
corresponds to the principles
endeavoured to turn the meanest spaces to advantage by the
architect
fragmentation of planes, by the facades of different
at his leisure as
to be a rationaUst one;
of classicism. Baroque planning, senses.
him
view well in
An
similar
towns which
actual desire for irregularity
new towns, such as Lerma near Burgos, a develop/ 1604 for the Duke of Lerma, or a century later (1709)
seems to have governed the building of some
m£nt planned by Francisco de Mora in
Nuevo Baztan
near Madrid, designed by Jose Benito Churriguera for the banker Goyeneche.
In Sicily, south of Syracuse, there earthquake of 1693
is
a
whole
series
of towns that were entirely rebuilt after the
Comiso, Ragusa, Modica and Noto. Here
:
the architects started with a
clean sheet; but instead of imposing the regular plan dirtated by economic considerations, they treated each
town
as a
at will as if inspired
town
work
of
art,
playing with palaces and churches, varying facades and plans
by sheer caprice. In Modica the architect used an imposing
into a stairway of churches.
At
the foot of the slope
and magnificent facade, conceaHng the steps leading to by a serpentine route which curves visitor
way and
Pietro
San Giorgio.
shows
its
pi. ^6.f
stepped forecourt
The summit
that past palaces
turn the
is
approached
and churches which
the
when he thinks he has seen the last one, he discovers San Giovanni. The city can be experienced only as a sequence of
always come upon by surprise; just
at the very
varied
this
San
site to
top the church of
and exciting
events.
3^'
THEMES The key
points of a
town
are
open
its
spaces: the approaches to bridges, the
open spaces
before buildings, the commercial squares, the formal plazas that the French call places royales.
The
square in the baroque city was a secret place,
which pi.
569
to
walk
or, in
the secluded Piazza
even today, the
visitor
a lake, and the
Roman
Navona
comes upon
as if
it
in
Rome, which
jjo
of
finest
all is
streets, in
It
also served as
an open/
in the form of an ancient circus; it
was transformed
which
up
to
led to the creation in Spanish
it,
plays, religious ceremonies, bullfights,
and
towns of
were held. The
autos dafe
Salamanca, designed by Alberto Churriguera in 1728, and completed by
that of
built the
town
hall.
Wheeled
was allowed only along
traffic
In Paris the two squares built by Henry IV, the Place Dauphine and the Place
sides.
Royale (now the Place des Vosges),were enclosed spaces until the intrusion of modern Jig.
27
into
nobility staged displays to the great delight of the public. This idea of
Andres Garci^ de Quinones, who two
is
of the busy
traffic
by accident. During carnivals
a square as a place apart, with no vista leading
/'/.
apart from the
southern towns, to seek the shade of colonnades.
air theatre, like
the plaza mayor, in
set
altered their character.
XIV even the
Under Louis
Place
Vendome and
streets
the Place des Victoires
were away from the main streams of traffic.
French classicism brought with
on a checkerboard continued
styles
towns were
after the interruption
25
Provence, clustered its
pi.
565
is
the picturesque
XIV. The
On
and
Grand'Place in Brussels. guilds, built
which began
provenfale
It
its
first
with
Cours Mirabeau, and
tortuous streets
its
originally the
more curious
is
is
its
When this
The
way
south and north
on
sides,
had been
the ville^ranfaise, with
the development of the
six livery
hall
the west side
show
to
make each
the greatest variety. There
the architect could start
from
companies behind a uniform fagade
scratch,
known
and
the so/
bombardment
guilds rebuilt their houses, often
but with a kind of asymmetrical rhythm.
total,
baroque palaces
square was destroyed by Marshal de Villeroi's
merely reconstructing the ruins, but going out of their the next; the houses
in Aix^en^
market square, bordered by the houses of the
it.
destruction
half of the seventeenth
around two asymmetricallyplaced medieval buildings, the town
Maison du Roi.
its
layout of certain towns shows the classical and
regular facades. Still
was
gardens and in
its
of the baroque age the vistas
in the
the north-west side of the
in 1695, the municipal authorities hastened to rebuild
grouped
spirit
around the university and the cathedral; on the south-east side
dead/Straight streets
called
ville
respects the evolution of Renaissance
of mannerism, returned both in
a grandiose scale. This tendency,
baroque conceptions juxtaposed.
many
But in harmony with the
to the concept of perspective.
now on
unvarying facades, straight avenues
regularity of design,
or radial plan. France, where in
century, increased under Louis Jig.
it
is
On
the
facade different from
same
diversity
on
the
the east side, where the
and here Guillaume de Bruyn
as the
Maison des Dues.
Sometimes baroque feeling lends a quality of flexibility to a regular French/style design, as pi.
j68
in the imposing eighteenth/century sequence of buildings built by Here for
Duke
Stanislas of
Lorraine (erstwhile king of Poland) in the capital city of Nancy, in order to link the old town
with the new. The Place Royale (now the Place Stanislas) gives access, on one of its long to a short
312
avenue ending in a triumphal arch. This arch
tilting/ground
known
as
La
Carriere; the visitor
who
conceals
sides,
an elongated square, an old
approaches
it
sees
only the Hotel du
THE CITY
23 Aix'Cn'Provence
Gouvernement
at the far
space widen out
on
end, but as he passes through the arch he has the surprise of seeing the
either side into
an
elliptical plaza.
Two
corners of the Place Stanislas are
occupied by fountains and gilded wrought iron gates, one of which opens out into a large park called
La
Pepiniere, laid out obliquely.
Thus Here,
a disciple of Boffrand, succeeded in creating
a regular and symmetrical arrangement in the classical French effects like
but Dutch.
canals,
sandy
soil,
had won
to
to
show
off a
a reputation as builders of bridges, dykes, pile foundations
and
Dutch
civil
of
work
property/owners, and to add
Europe has come down
Dutch urban
on
the help of
designers to reject perspective effects, to refrain
of architecture to advantage or impose a 'plan*
to their streets the
to us intact; this
is
charm
of canals.
Amsterdam,
One
cities despite
The marked
pl-3^5
indivi^
—canals whose Amsterdam among —would seem to curves the spectator
class
the early appearance of classical tendencies in
In the seventeenth century the kingdoms of
cities
laid out in the seventeenth century
duahty of the houses succeeding one another along the canals follows without once being able to see a formal vista
on individual
of the most beautiful
along concentric canals forming a demi^ellipse backing upon the harbour.
baroque
Italian nor French,
contend with the problems of land reclamation and
Baltic countries, faced with similar difficulties, called
It is characteristic
from trying
in
development in Northern Europe was neither
city
The Dutch, who had
and the
engineers.
while achieving surprise
those of a baroque architect.
The first wave of new shifting,
style
Dutch
Denmark and Sweden had
architecture.
a political importance
out of proportion to the size of their populations, and Scandinavia was the most active centre of city development in Europe. Christian
towns
for military or
Copenhagen,
illustrates
gave his
new
of
Denmark (1588-1648) founded numerous
economic purposes which bear the stamp of the Dutch a transition from the Dutch to the French manner,
Before Peter the Great at first
IV
left
city the
Amsterdam
name
for Paris in 171 7
of Pieterburg.
He
at
first
style; his capital,
as does St Petersburg.
he was infatuated with Holland, and
wished
to build a
town with
canals
313
THEMES on the
islands of the
site
new
chosen for the
Finland; he changed his mind, however,
capital, near the after his visit to
Frenchman Francois Le Blond, who drew up a gave St Petersburg
upon
its
decisive
mouth
of the
Neva
in the
Gulf of
France, and in 1717 sent for the
radial plan. Catherine the Great (1762-96)
French stamp, but here and there in Leningrad one can
still
come
corners of Holland.
Eighteenth^century France imposed
its taste
urban design on the whole of Europe,
in
as a
of the prestige enjoyed abroad by Versailles and by the transformation of ancient French
result cities.
A
new kind
—the palace/city.
of city appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century
—Cardinal
not a king, but a minister
when he
created in Poitou, near his
Richelieu
new
—who
chateau, a
It
was
laid the foundations of this concept
new town
bearing his name. In this case,
however, town and palace were simply associated, not linked together in an organic unity. This
fS-24
unity appears in the
addition of the pi.
346
The
palace
first
plan of Versailles as
Grand Canal) which
and park form a
is
it is
shown
in an engraving of 1665 (before the
essentially a repetition of the
central axis for
two groups of
24 Versailles,
plan of Vaux/le^Vicomte.
three avenues in the 'bird/foot*
c.
1665
25 Karlsruhe, 1715
lili pniillil
rm
fTTT^ FTiTTi
rrm f't^
I^Bi vr^r^
ESI
26 Aranjuez, 1748
pattern, one, in front, leading to the Place d' Armes of the rear, radiating
town
of Versailles, the other, in the
out into the country. This return to the radial theme was to become veiy popular.
Though the palace/city of Ludwigsburg, created in 1704, is still a mere annexe to the that of Mannheim, as rebuilt by the Elector Palatine in 1699 after the ravages of war, palace as
its
axis, but this
is
situated at
one end of an
elliptical
palace,
has the
checkerboard plan. In 1715 the
Margrave Charles William of Baden/Diirlach laid out Karlsruhe on a magnificent circular radial plan, comprising nine
other three. Elsewhere
it
streets
in one quartetz-circle
was the 'bird^foot'
pattern
and twenty^three park avenues
which was
formulated in the palace of Aranjuez in Spain, as laid out
imitated. This plan
sometimes used the same formula; Le Blond made use of
where three diverging three miles long
streets start
and ends
at
making twenty
streets
several great avenues share
Mexico
the cities of
—where
it
'bird'foot' pattern to
Washington
converge on the Capitol.
The
at the
in St Petersburg is
often taken over
North America, in
French Protestant refugees, such
certain as
more or
this less
end of the eighteenth
advantages of a plan whereby
a single point of perspective are obvious.
was
fii-26
designers of
—one of them, the Nevsky Prospekt,
checkerboard plan was preferred for economic reasons; colonial
it
The
the great baroque monastery of Alexander Nevsky. Another
Frenchman, L'Enfant, took the century,
from the Admiralty
very clearly
of 1748 by the Italian
after the fire
Bonavia; behind the palace, avenues radiate across the park as at Karlsruhe. great cities also
is
h-25
in the
was
Often, however, the
the case in
many towns
intaa from the Aztecs
Scandinavian towns, and in
—in most of
cities built
Erlangen near Bamberg. Pombal, when he
in
rapidly for
rebuilt
Lisbon
eanhquake of 1755, linked the Pra^a do Recio with the Praga do Comercio (which overlooks the Tagus) by a checkerboard pattern based on three longitudinal streets. Wren, in
after the
his plan for the rebuilding of
London
after the
Great Fire, adopted a checkerboard scheme, but
31j
— THEMES broke tion.
its
monotony by
The
crossroads.
It
Wren's design
is
and
streets
that he does not plan his
network of
streets
his squares are
format
star
around key
little
What was lacking in the rebuilding of London, which was overseen
more than
by a committee,
the force of royal authority to impose a 'prestige' scheme.
was French urban design
was
that
to define the all/important role of the square, destined to
become the major element in the beauty of a
The
creating the place royale.
—the
Two
by associating
it
with the splendour of
famous
best
way
to celebrate the hero
was
—which in
this
depia him on
to
fifteenth^century condottieri in bronze are each the point of departure for
a different interpretation of the equestrian statue.
thought which existed in fifteenth^century
They
Italy, that
represent the
two schools of
and
of the hracceschi
on
school of Braccio di Montone) relied for success
hracceschi (the
state
origins of this concept are closely connected with the development
respect followed classical antiquity
horseback.
city,
and of the equestrian statue in particular. In the Renaissance
of the royal statue,
The
converging around squares in
marked by open spaces around important monuments;
points,
was
defect of
great oblique axes
military
that of the sjorzeschi.
the impetus of a direct
frontal attack; the sjorzeschi (the school of Francesco Sforza) preferred the complexities of strategy.
The calm
Cattatnelata
by Donatello, in the costume of an ancient
in/chief (imperator), his face expressing intelligence,
warrior standing
up
in his stirrups,
is
a sforzesco; Verrocchio's CoUeone, a
is
a hraccesco.
When
should he represent the general in the heat of action, displaying
artist
clumsy
artifice
a horse at
of a branch of a
was faced with
a choice;
courage and daring, or was
all his
more fitting to symbolize the power of command? Leonardo opted
showed Francesco on
fiery
Lodovico Sforza commissioned
Leonardo da Vinci to create a statue of his father Francesco, the
it
Roman commander/
for the
first
alternative
and
the gallop; to solve the problem of equilibrium he devised the
tree,
and
finally
had the
belly of the horse supported
by a van/
quished warrior. Faced by the practical difficulties ofsuch a pose in the colossal propostions he had imagined, Leonardo
finally
came round
to the antique
theme of the
astride a slowly pacing horse, like the Marcus Aurelius of
Donatello.
He
imperator, master of himself,
Monte Cavallo
had inspired
that
returned to this theme in his project for the memorial to Marshal Trivulzio.
who had a high idea of their princely virtues, celebrated them by commissioning portrait statues. To glorify the founder of the dynasty, Cosimo I, Grand Duke The grand dukes
pl.jyi
Ferdinand in 1594
I
was
of Tuscany,
commissioned from Giovanni Bologna an equestrian set
up in
prestige of the antique
the Piazza della Signoria. This
was no longer
so high;
with spurs, on a calmly pacing horse.
Cosimo
is
in the mannerist period,
this statue derive
two
others, also
figure of
commissioned in 1604 and erected in 1614 on the Pont/Neuf in
Paris,
The
1
when
the
by Giovanni
Henry IV
and
of France,
that of Philip III of
616 in the Casa del Campo, Madrid.
attitude of the rearing horse
Velazquez made use of
members of
bronze which
represented as a contemporary general,
Bologna but executed with the aid of Pietro Tacca; the bronze
Spain, erected in
316
From
was
statue in
it
had a vogue
at the
court of Philip
IV
of Spain, where
several times in his equestrian portraits of the king, the princes or
the court; in painting, of course,
it
presented no. practical difficulties.
pose was forced on Pietro Tacca for his equestrian statue of Philip
IV
The
in Madrid, for
rearing
which
THE CITY he was sent paintings by Rubens heaves
The
mediocre composition in which the horse
as a guide; this is a
ponderously off the ground.
itself
aesthetic of
baroque
symbol of power. In the two
Mocchi showed
which expression was movement, made
Italy, in
figures of
Ranuccio and Alessandro Farnese
the horse into a
Parma, Francesco
in
pi ^j2
himself capable of expressing in the attitude of a walking horse a quivering
animal energy, restrained by Ranuccio, driven forward to the attack by Alessandro. Bernini, returning to the style of his equestrian Constantine in St Peter's, seated his Louis
bounding monster more
like a hippogriff than a horse,
This bombastic statue greatly displeased the sovereign, the park, after having Girardon transform
The Paris
statue of
(now
Louis
the Place
XFV executed in
Vendome) was
be more than an intrepid general idea of royalty; a king
it
relegated
XIV, bewigged and
on
image of royalty.
a rearing horse
and Desjardins'
It is
(Le Brun's
the attitude of the gallop
for
order for a statue of
triumphal
came
Aix-'en-'Provence)
XV for the
Louis
Paris, he hesitated for a time over
of the Great Elector, Frederick William Schliiter
Schliiter's
work
is
stay in Italy? This serenity,
different;
plaster
up
but impetuous energy.
model on
— became XIV
When
Bouchardon
the Place de la
received the
Concorde)
in
adopted the type
in other countries. In his bronze figure
William and
but of
mood, however,
Parma during
statutes of the Farnesi in
pL ^jj
Andreas
yet cast in bronze,
his visit to Paris in 1695. In
Hkely; both Frederick
A
imperator riding
destroyed
III, for the Kurfiirstenbriicke in Berlin,
had he seen Mocchi's
would appear
an
pacing
his
in the Louvre, Puget's for Marseilles,
took inspiration from Girardon's Louis XIV, which was not
which he must have seen a
alas,
attitude to give the horse, but finally
of the imperator in triumph. This formula was taken
On
of projects for figures of Louis
nothing.
to
57J
scarcely suited to the
style, is
—now,
Louis^XV (now
Place
which
number
monument
is
pi.
monarch should
and not impetuous.
majestic
dressed in the antique
significant that a
for a
A
better calculated to satisfy the king.
and
Louis^le^Grand in
for the Place
in his triumphal procession. This masterpiece of monarchic art the accepted
to the furthest corner of
it
into a Marcus Curtius.
on horseback should appear
horse, Girardon's Louis
on a
balanced by an awkward4ooking rock.
who
1689-99 by Girardon
officer,
XIV
his
pi.
J72
pi-
374
pi.
575
his steed express not
mediocre imitation of Girardon's Louis
XIV
is
the elder
Rastrelli's Peter the Great, erected in St Petersburg in 1743.
There were monarchs, however,
who found
the baroque image of the galloping horse more
in keeping with royal greatness. Charles II of the for a square in Messina, a statue in this attitude
destroyed in a
riot,
preserved in the
but which
Museo
is
is
which was
The
also in this style.
to St Petersburg the
tail is
The most famous
is
the only one to
which
1681
Giacomo
—a
fine
Serpotta,
work, since
a model which has been
homage
of
all
equestrian statues at a
to Peter the Great, for
who
executed
it
which she
between 1766 and
used as a device for balancing the bronze colossus
(with the aid of a serpent, symbol of rebellion). horses, this
cast in
know from
French sculptor Falconet,
1778. As in earlier equestrian statues, the
ordered from
Augustus II prancing in the market place of the
the one erected by Catherine the Great in
summoned
Sicilies
are fortunately able to
Pepoli, Trapani.
Neustadt, Dresden (1735) gallop
we
Two
Of
all
the royal effigies
mounted on
the sculptor has succeeded in giving a real elan.
rearing
317
THEMES Several of these royal statues, at the corners pi.
3j8
on
foot or
royal statue
its
significance
by Pietro Tacca between 1615 and 1624
Livorno
to
commemorate
may be
Victoires, the slaves
his victories over the
symbohze conquered
Around
Barbary
Grand Duke Ferdinand
pirates; or
it
may
XIV
the statue of Louis
show
I
be allegorical,
at the
Place des
nations.
Matthias Steinl's equestrian statuettes in ivory of the Emperors Joseph
3^6
marked
with the four Moorish slaves carved
literal, as
at the foot of the statue of
symbolising Heresy, Discord or Rebellion.
pi.
pedestals
by the figures of slaves in chains. This motif is derived from Renaissance symbolism.
At the foot of a erected at
on horseback, stand on rectangular
a symbolic figure trampled underfoot by a rearing horse; this
is
I
and Leopold
a return to a theme
I
first
used by Leonardo in his design for the statue of Francesco Sforza, and also envisaged by Antonio
whom
Pollaiuolo, to
Ludovico, impatient of Leonardo's
project. It is probable that the idea of
pi 3JP
its
vanquished might,
felt
delays, at
one time entrusted the
by the victorious Austrians in
all
epic grandeur, contributed to the spread of the Atlantean figures, supporting balconies,
which gained
staircases, ceilings or entablatures,
great popularity in
Vienna
after
Thus
1700.
the princes of the baroque period were constantly reminded of their power, both in architecture
and
in decorative
strength
when
art,
by
Before the reign of Louis statue
of
theme of the barbarian in chains
this
not governed by the
XIV,
was the Piazza Capitohna
Marcus Aurelius brought
of the municipality of
pontiffs.
—a testimony to the
resides in the divinely
Rome,
laid out in
1546 by Michelangelo to hold a
from Monte Cavallo in 1538. Situated in
this statue
Rome and
This idea bore no immediate
had a symbolic
the new, the fruit; all
Rome
significance;
the riverside.
face the Place
As
until the reign of
it
Royale (Place des Vosges),
Louis XIII, when
it
statue
bore witness to the
and the
of the emperors
was space
Dauphine, but on the Pont^Neuf he forms
for the Place
Rome
and
of the
early seven/
available.
In Paris,
part of the scenery of
was not provided with a
it
statue
received an equestrian statue of that king, seated
bronze horse made by Daniel de Volterra for a figure of Henry After the Peace of Nijmegen (1681) Marshal de
la
II that
Feuillade presented to Louis
built to set
a fine one that the Marshal ordered a replica of
it off.
it
in bronze,
XIV
eighteen degrees. Mansart surrounded style
that Blondel was to
Mansart repeated Ji£.
2j
finest
call 'the
this layout in the
expression of this theme
it
optimum
was
and
a
The
its
it
was
diameter was
angle of elevation, which was
with facades of uniform design on a colossal
court dress of French architecture'.
form of a
a
and a square was
This was to be the Place des Victoires. Laid out by Mansart in 1683,
circular in form, corresponding to the shape of the base of the statue,
calculated so that the king should be viewed at the
on
was never completed.
standing marble figure of the king that he had commissioned from the sculptor Desjardins.
work was such
of
this place, the seat
the statues of the late sixteenth
teenth century that I have mentioned were erected wherever there
Henry IV does
futility
appointed monarch.
the only square to be designed expressly as a setting for a
in
there
Rome,
continuity between the old
wisdom which
semicircle, this time for
A
an equestrian
the Place Louis/le/Grand (Place
scale, in a
year later in Dijon,
Vendome)
statue.
The
in Paris, a
rectangle cut off at the corners, originally intended as a setting for Girardon's masterly statue of 318
Louis
XIV. The
provinces imitated Paris; Tours, Lyons, Caen, Rennes, Mompellier, Aix/
27 Jules Hardouin^Mansart (1646-1708). Place Louis^cGrand (Place Vendome),
en'Provence, Marseilles and other
Royale
as
an expression of
cities
on horseback. In 1765 the en France a laglohe de Louts
(now bout. in
finest
Louis/XV
with a
monograph on
statue, either
this subject,
of these squares in the provinces
harmonious ensemble
laid out
was
on
foot or
Mommens
eriges
that of Bordeaux
by Gabriel overlooking the har'
building of these squares sometimes presented difficulties because occupiers were slow
coming forward; one
until the sites
Louis/XV
a 'Place
architect Patte wrote a
the Place de la Bourse), a
The
monarchy. In the eighteenth century Rennes, Nancy,
all built
XV. The
1698
endeavoured, not always successfully, to have their Place
loyalty to the
Bordeaux, Valenciennes and Paris
Paris,
solution
was
to build the fagades
first,
as at
Bordeaux, and then wait
behind them found takers before building the houses themselves. The Place
work
(Place de la Concorde) in Paris, also the
scheme; built on the western side of the
between Paris and
its
natural setdng.
city,
which was
Only one
of
of Gabriel, followed an entirely
as yet litde developed,
short sides
its
it
new
pi. 224, fig.
28
created a link
was occupied by buildings,
while the other gave on to the Seine, and the two long sides on to the gardens of the Tuileries and the Champs^Elysees; long
in France. Gabriel's Place
Place
Vendome, but
promenades were characterisdc of eighteenth/century town planning
Louis/XV
is
not a focal point, like the Place des Victoires or the
part of a design in perspecdve. It
was intended
of the Seine, so that the spectator could see the statue of Louis
to be seen
XV framed
from the bank
between the two
buildings by Gabriel (in imitadon of the colonnade of the Louvre) in the background, and
backed by the Rue Royale receding
was not
built until the next century.
to the site of the
Here the
statue
proposed church of
is
sacrificed to
La
Madeleine, which
the grand scope of the design.
319
THEMES
28 Jacques'Ange Gabriel (1698-1792). Place
Louis'XV
(Place de la Concorde), Paris, 1755
Other European
cities
wished to have xhdt place
royale,
Brussels as a setting for the statue of the
Austrian governor Charles of Lorraine, Copenhagen to honour Christian VI. After the
re^
building of Lisbon the minister Pombal, loyal to the monarch beneath whose shadow he wielded absolute power, decided to pay
him homage by
setting his effigy
on a bronze horse
of the Praga do Comercio. In accordance with his belief in encouraging local arts
in the centre
aqd
he commissioned the statue (ereaed in 1775) from Joaquim Machado de Castro,
industries,
who
seated a
helmeted and beplumed King Joseph on an unwieldy steed, trampling on thorns and serpents.
The
architeaural theme of the square received
Bath in England. This watering/place on the
Richard 'Beau' Nash with the backing of
site
its
of a
apotheosis in the building of the
Roman city was popularized
several speculators,
town of
by the elegant
among whom was
the architect
John Wood. During the eighteenth century it was the setting for a glittering life which attracted the whole of London society, fashionable, literary and artistic, and even the royal family. The first
plans were
drawn up by John
Wood
in 1724
tinned until the end of the century by his son
show
off"
John
the squares to the best advantage, the
and
the development of the
Wood
Woods
II,
town was con/
succeeded by Palmer. In order to
concentrated architectural ornament
within them, giving houses elsewhere a functional simplicity.
The
Circus, which
is
a hundred
yards in diameter, has three classical orders superimposed, and the others have frontages adorned
with giant columns or pi.
367
All the 1775,
?20
pilasters.
The
oldest, a rectangle cut off at the corners, is
crescents are of imposing proportions; the oldest,
hundred yards from end
built
between 1767 and
— Lansdowne Crescent,
to end.
It
was followed by
Crescent, Somerset Crescent. Bath
is
another Vicenza under a misty English sky.
is five
Camden
Royal Crescent,
Queen's Square.
others
THE CITY For a France of Gallicanism and the beginnings of square was
wonderful
a royal statue; for of
series
Rome it was
free
Roman fountains was completed
characteristically
baroque fashion, by a tiny square whose space
On the other hand the great fountain loses its effect if
it is
it
consequently shows to
its full
at
is
given
columns
free rein.
monumental
The
monuments
a twisted
is
effect;
provoke amazement. Naples, Vesuvius.
Paris, a single jet,
monument,
advantage only in an engrave
finest
like
column made up
of clouds. These
the Guglia del Gesu,
Jesuit for the glory of his
and eighteenth saints.
was
is
^81
was
set
celebrated by
—the ending of the plague of 1656
up on a wave of popular
Order (1748). Milan was another pious
centuries about a
But Milan
pi.
did not
Vienna, was ravaged by the plague, but also by the lava of
that the Neapolitans call gu^lie (needles)
all,
artists
the object erected in the square must be marvellous, must
cessation of these disasters, attributed to divine intervention,
of them
which baroque
allegories, in
Cuglia di San Domenico, that of the eruption of Vesuvius in 163 1 by the Guglia
The
needs a
it
Their sculptors were not deterred by any improbability; the column
Modling (near Vienna, 1714)
seek to create a
in
and eighteenth centuries produced
with statues and
(Pestsaulen) laden
rocks,
it is set off",
occupies almost completely.
by Bouchardon in the Rue de Crenelle,
ing. In Central Europe, outbreaks of plague in the seventeenth
fantasy
it
not seen from a distance. Conceived as a classical
'viewpoint' to be fully appreciated;
a quantity of votive
and created of
the product of the inventive genius of Salvi (1732);
is
for a
by the most monumental of all, the fountain
of Trevi. This colossal composition, linked with the fagade of a palace
water and sculptured stone,
monument
thought, the ideal
a fountain or an obelisk. In the eighteenth century the
hundred columns dedicated
di
San Gennaro.
piety initiated
city, erecting
by a
pi ^80
in the seventeenth
to Christ, the
Virgin and the
and only one of
the most ravaged baroque city in Italy,
by the
these
columns
exists today. It
would be wrong
to consider the building'achievements of the seventeenth/
century city only from the aspea of ostentation. This effort
of imagination
needed to
is
The
what
most apparent today, whereas an
is
understand the enormous labours which were required
to
them, teach them, and provide
for
phenomenon which affeaed
all
provide a city with public services, house roads and public health.
is
and eighteenth/
its
citizens, care for
increase in urban population, a
Europe, especially in the eighteenth century, led municipal authorities to
make
plans for expan/
new housing developments, thus putting money in the pockets of architects, who then as now were men of business. No city could consist entirely of palaces; the connecting fabric was made up of modest houses, often built sion necessitating the demolition of city walls
to a standard pattern.
some
disaster,
establish the
such as
and
the creation of
Many of these still stand today, London and Lisbon, where the
custom of
large/Scale
particularly in cities reconstructed after
need to rehouse the homeless helped to
development based on standard designs. Certain quarters of
Copenhagen, and of Clermont/l'Herault in France, can dating from this period. Venice, a
Middle Ages
town
that has
to the eighteenth century the full
still
show
been preserved
true working/class intact,
can show from the
range of types of habitation, from the patrician
palace to mass/produced speculative housing. But the systematic setting apart of inhabitants of a certain social standing
is
housing
districts for
a product of the bourgeois instincts of the nineteenth
B-zr
THEMES century. In Paris, a wealthy
man who
built himself a
house with a frontage on the
kept the kage noble for himself, and rented out the other floors position; the
Roman more
common people lodged on the lower floors,
palaces sheltered in their basements
no
often than not, paid
and the
rent; they lived there
by
between the
different classes of society,
constituted
its
political
The population for these there
was
the attachment of the
were added, in
hospitals
it
did not regard one another as enemies the baroque age in any country,
populauon in general
health, parliaments
later eras,
by
and foreign wars
had multiplied
and kings issued
this
religious
congestion and demanding distress.
sick;
endowments.
money from
To remedy
and an orphanage. The edia gave a of those built under the andett regime principle of the general hospital
was
confinement of the poor' ordering the intern^
at the
these measures there were
beginning of the reign of Louis
passers-by; the disturbances of the
XIV, adding
Fronde caused
to
still
these e\ils a royal declaration ordered the founding of a
was
at
once a hospital,^a poorhouse
great stimulus to the building of hospitals
many examples still
was more important than
by
element in the population. For the sake of public
'general hospital' in all large towms. This general hospital
of the soul
and the
flourished in the
that ravaged France in the sixteenth centur)',
'edicts for the
thousand beggars in the capital
more poverty and
one
which
To the incitement of piety civic considerations. It ill became the pomp of monarchy if a city sick people, prostitutes, beggars, robbers and pickpockets. Un^ for
ment of beggars in prisons and of vagabonds in poorhouses. Despite forty
to the regime
and poorhouses. The building of hospitals had
was provided
full of vagrants, cripples,
increasing pauperism,
nobles and
led to a certain
backbone.
fortunately the domestic
still
Rome,
of a city always includes the homeless, the poor, the infirm,
must be
Middle Ages, when there
much
who
To understand
were to do in the nineteenth century.
can never emphasize too
The huge
tradition, being considered, according to
which was a communal one. This
plebeians rubbed shoulders at the entrance,
as they
attic.
and atucs a whole heterogeneous population which,
the old Latin system, as 'clients' or dependents of the prince. In Paris as in
familiarity
formerly
varied according to
at rates that
the mezzanine
street
still
exist today,
that of the hospices of the
that of the body.
At
over France;
all
though much
Middle Ages;
altered.
The
the salvation
the heart of the hospital, where
we
should today have the main clinical block, there was a church. In order to segregate the elements of the fig.
2g
unhappy population, some of whom were
up of several naves de
radiating around the high altar. This
la Salpetriere, designed
by Le
Vau
in i66o
cell'Hke chapels are arranged in star formation
ravaged by the wars of the seventeenth
king of the
Two
forget the poor;
Sicilies,
he
set
and
is
infectious, this
322
made
which four naves and four
his court the
The megalomaniac Charles VII,
immense palace of
Caserta, but did not
out to institutionalize every beggar in his kingdom, a superhuman task
'Albergo dei poveri' which would provide 50
often
around an octagon. All the countries of Europe,
on which he embarked by commissioning Ferdinando Fuga
fig.
is
the plan of the chapel of the Hopital
built in 1670, in
centur)', built hospitals.
planned for
church
shelter for
to build for
Naples a colossal
8,000 people. This institution was to
measure 600 by 135 yards; the plan showed two wings (of which only one was belatedly com' pleted) flanking a
huge church with
six naves,
cenaed upon a rotunda with a high dome. The
THE CITY 29 Louis Le
Vau (1612-70).
Hopital de
la Salpetriere, Paris,
30 Ferdinando Fuga (1699-1782). Projea
for
r66o
Albergo dei Poveri, Naples,
c.
1760
;r{IIIIClIIIIIh:Tr;:77H7r::n \T:.:::M """-r\ q
arrangement of the buildings was designed by Fuga in a most rational
HotePDieu
the various departments. After the burning of the era began; the for
its
numerous
reconstruction
to
meet the needs of
in Paris in 1772, however, a
was held
projects submitted in the competition that
showed a new concern with
way
technical considerations,
new
to select a design
and
for architects
planning a hospital the church was no longer the main preoccupation.
Among were
had
built
by monarchs
As
served them.
purpose. Perhaps the first
1604 Henry
finest
work of
Hardouin/Mansart
is
it
this type
later
London
gave also
royal palace.
to create a
was
the Hotel des Invalides,
it
Almost more than Louis XIV's Hotel in place of the chapel.
Here
bratc the glory of the British
It
its
Sir
background of
is
one of the master^
it is
(now
Wren
many rooms were
pi.
^82
pi.
12^
pi.
5^5
Royal to
succeeded in joining
complex overlooking the Thames.
a true palace, containing a grand hall
Queen Anne
Navy, and between 1708 and 1727 created the only
rocaille panelling,
the
William and Mary decided
James Thornhill was commissioned by
of English baroque painting comparable to that of Inside these hospitals
that
his design
a magnificent
des Invalides,
XIV
which Louis
pensioners' hospitals; here the idea of the
was in 1694
new in
who
a plan similar to that of the
a second chapel which
had
Royal Naval Hospital. In
the old buildings harmoniously with the
a
pensioned or disabled soldiers
of France had founded an institution for this
perhaps even more touching, for Greenwich Hospital
Naval College) was once a
and enlarge
IV
and which was designed by Liberal Bruant on
pieces of classical architecture.
hospital as palace
that belonged to the luxury class; these
to ensure a tranquil old age for the
early as
projected in 1670,
Escurial. Jules
alter
some
the hospitals of the baroque age were
Germany and
great
to cele/
ensemble
pl. xxiv
Italy.
elaborately decorated, notably the dispensary.
Against
pl.
^86
earthenware jars containing herbs and unguents were
arranged like the collections of porcelain of the same period.
Baroque university building can Spain in
this field
now
be appreciated almost only in England and Spain,
continued the movement begun in the Renaissance period,
built like palaces, merely substituting
baroque decoration
when
colleges
were
for the 'plateresque' or silversmith's
32J
THEMES Catalonia's six universities
Style.
V
had been combined by Philip
La
into that of
Cervera,
an imposing ensemble of baroque buildings begun in 1718, on which work progressed slowly enough for the last of them, the chapel, to be in the neoclassical style. New college buildings at
Oxford and Cambridge took their place alongside the pi.
5^
All Souls College, Oxford, Hawksmoor made
The
modern
university of the
era included a
it
old, often adopting their style.
Rebuilding
a Gothic pastiche.
new
feature, the dissecting theatre.
When
the
study of anatomy from corpses, regarded as a sacrilege until the early sixteenth century, finally
came pi.
384
by the Church,
to be tolerated
A few European universities Sweden,
still
have
On
the demonstration.
is
the duty of the university to practise
Second World
tiers
is
the other hand, the anatomical theaue at
rotunda, but
its
a rotunda, with a diameter of forty
baroque walnut
its
form was
in
good view of
Bologna (1638-49), destroyed
it is
without
to be derived the amphitheatre
generously
feet. It is
seats for the professors,
and
which
is
its
Lit,
is
The
school of
interior furnishings.
its
That of Barcelona, founded in 1762 by the physician Pedro Virgih,
kept
Uppsala
War but now restored and incorporating a few pieces of its original fabric,
surgery of the university of Paris has kept
is
it.
purely functional, lighted
of seats to enable the students to have a
decorated with fine panelling and statues of the founders of the art of medicine.
theatre
and teach
their old theatres; that of the university of
1662-3 by the famous professor Olov Rudbeck,
built in
by a double lantern and with steep
in the
was
it
intact; here, too, the
with stone
four cabinets in the same
tiers,
style.
the classic pattern for the lecture
and has
From
this
rooms of mo^
dern universities. Certain of the ceremonial rooms of European universities are often sumptuously decorated; that of the university of Breslau
ornate stuccos is its
and
remarkable for
paintings.
new
That of the
university of
1732) resembles a church, with
Coimbra,
buildings were added to
Coimbra
of the kings of Portugal, and
in the eighteenth century;
gilt
woodwork
it
possesses
laboratory
With
was
built,
adorned with a harmonious
made
transverse desks
available still
designed
large
chem/
classical fajade.
the revival of learning the library underwent a major transformation.
of books
flowers.
one of the
(talha dourada), excellently
from the functional point of view. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century a istry
its
built in the seventeenth century,
tapete, its portraits
form of an upturned boat painted with a decoration of acanthus
of university libraries, a masterpiece of
finest
Silesia (c.
walls tiled with azulejos de
its
fine ceiling in the
Several
(Wroclaw) in
by printing eventually made
it
The
large
number
abandon the system of
necessary to
in use in the Renaissance (as in the Laurentian Library, Florence, built by
Michelangelo), and to arrange books along the walls on shelves or in presses, often ornamented
with perpendicular
by a
gallery.
by Herrera, time
is
finials,
into
two
second being reached
levels, the
The Ubrary of the Escurial, with its wonderful bookcases in precious wood designed is arranged in this way. The passion for knowledge that possessed the men of this
expressed in the rich decoration of the libraries of universities, colleges, monasteries and
palaces; the library
became the shrine of the
an imitation of that of the 324
and frequently divided
essentially of portraits of
arts
libraries of antiquity,
famous
scholars, writers
and
sciences. Its earliest
known from many and
form of decoration was
descriptions,
and consisting
philosophers, usually in the form of busts;
THE CITY this Style
was used
que Mazarine,
for
Paris)
chiefly for their effect
many
years (as witness the university library of
and was
on
their
by
the style adopted
the libraries of
Bologna and the Bibliothe^
English colleges, which
panelUng and woodcarving an example
is
;
College, Cambridge(i69i) with
its
the library of Trinity
Grinling Gibbons busts. There has recently been discovered in
two hundred
the Bodleian Library, Oxford, a painted frieze 230 yards long decorated with
Church, and theologians and
portraits of classical authors, Fathers of the
and the
This
years of the seventeenth centuries.
first
been
its
frieze served a 'functional'
is
it
found
at the date
seem
Chapter Library, Durham, where the
at the
painted in 1668, in the Biblioteca Corsini,
Rome, which
dates
jp;
pi.
^^2
pi.
ijo
purpose, constitute
content corresponds to the catalogue of 1620. This ingenious device
widespread;
fairly
pi.
scholars of the sixteenth
ing an illustrated guide to the most important works possessed by the library executed;
rely
from 1754,
was
it
to have
was
frieze
^'^^ ^^ the city library
of Valenciennes, built in 1742 at the expense of the rector of the Jesuit college. In addition to the portraits of
famous men
there
were often inscriptions taken from
Giovanni in Parma
The
similar inscriptions are
on
and
the ceiling of the Benqdictine library of
San
still
combined with
a graceful decoration of grotesques.
ceiling of the library of the Escurial (1587) develops
humanism and
Christian
works, another heritage of
bears the favourite sayings
antiquity; the ceiling of the library in Montaigne's house
quotations of the author of the Essais, and
their
the parallels between theology
an encyclopaedic theme inspired by
and philosophy,
law. This encyclopaedic theme appears, embellished by every decorative device
baroque genius, in many
libraries in
Austria and Germany. Sometimes
—
is
the finest in Austria, the bookcases are so minute that
guish them amid the sumptuous decoration.
Approached
built over a curious funerary crypt, decorated at the
requires
library,
reminding them that
are a snare set to lead
human knowledge
mankind from
the
way
is
—with
an
at
that of
effort to distin/
with
its
three
domes,
same period with a kind of rococo Dance
of Death. This chapel was used for the funeral services of the monks, library
to the
by a magnificent staircase ornamented
with the four elements and the four seasons (cosmic symbols), the is
it
known
pursued even
it is
which
the expense of the books; in the library of the monastery of Altenburg,
Ardmont
and natural
revelation
its
position under the
but vanity, and that the temptations of science
We are in the house of God.
of salvation.
In the house of Caesar, the Hofburg in Vienna, a library was built betwen 1723 and 1726
by Emmanuel Fischer von Erlach
enormous
hall
is
to
an original design by
bisected by one of those oval
with a painting glorifying Charles VI;
it is
Johann Bernhard.
his father
The
domes beloved by Johann Bernhard, decorated symbol of the
a cathedral of the written word, a
universahty of the Empire.
The museum, an
institution
whose development began
the baroque period. In 1727 a Latin treatise graphia
on the
subject
in the Renaissance, prospered during
was published under
by Caspar F. Neickel, a merchant of Hamburg. The
expressions of
baroque
human knowledge,
galleries in
the products of art
which were displayed
and of modern times, and the
the
and the
title
gathers together
creations of nature.
The
Museo^ all
the
splendid
works of the masters of antiquity, of the Renaissance
collections of curiosities,
were in process of being discovered, were
museum
the
wonders of
attributes of the
noble
a
Nature whose mysteries
life.
All
life,
human and
3-25
THEMES natural, all the past
and
its
marvels, must be
drawn
house a place of excellence, a dwelling for the
his
museums were
see this display, for these private
scholars
were
and
artists;
Museum, Oxford, collections of ancien regime
economy
of the universe. Others were invited to
open
to a
pubUc of aristocrats, amateurs,
its
Ashmole, who had
university by Elias
John Tradescant and undertook
tourist itineraries
Ashmolean
public museums, such as the
them
to preserve
for posterity.
inherited the
Museums
might take the form of collections of objects crammed together with the
of the
greatest
of space, or collections forming part of the furnishings of a grand reception
Rome
still
Hence
hand
(in
the
modern
room
museum
use of the term 'gallery' for a
of
from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the magnificent Colonna,
retains
Pamphili/Doria and Pallavicini the other
entirely
England had
presented to the
in a noble house, often a gallery. art:
spirit
from the seventeenth century onwards museum guides and
best/sellers just as they are today.
make
into the orbit of the prince, in order to
galleries,
with
German Wunderkammer),
all their
contents.
used more for
is
The French word
cahinet,
scientific collections; there
on
were
collections of exhibits concerning mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, conchology,
mineralogy, history, and numismatics. Other pi. ^Sjifig.
1
even paintings, the
latter
cahinets
crowded together frame
contained
ohjets d'art,
porcelain, glass or
to frame. In all these colleaions
overcrowding
was the rule, not only because of lack of space, but because the baroque aesthetic identifies wealth with profusion. Nearly
wood,
all
these collections
often decorated in rocaille.
Nouveau woodwork which housed pi.
jgo
lost all its its
The most
were housed in
fine
extravagant decor was undoubtedly the Art
the collection of Bonnier de la
Mosson
Wunderhammern, apart from that of Clement Lafaille, which
furnishings in the
Northern Europe.
Musee de La Rochelle. However,
No
cupboards in precious
there are
is
in Paris. France has
preserved intact with
still
many
in Central
all
and
expense was spared to display rare Chinese porcelains, which were
given magnificent settings of carved and gilded wood; the Dresden porcelain cqjlection was
Germany, notably
dispersed during the last war, but others survive intact in collections of
pi j8g
Potsdam. The palace of Rosenborg in Copenhagen
unique glass collection placed on show in 1714 by Frederick V, 1708 had become an enthusiast for Murano Before the eighteenth century,
museum
palace. Galleries were conceived as
still
has
who on
a
on
the exquisite
top floor a
its
visit to
Venice in
glass.
architecture
is
barely distinguishable
grand reception rooms
;
their architecture
from that of the
was designed
so
that the objects could be incorporated as features of the decoration (as in the 'Antiquarium'
in the Residenz,
Munich, about 1600).
be created specially to antiques,
set
It
was in
the eighteenth century that the decor
began
to
off the objects; this 'functional' tendency began with galleries of
and derived from the renewal of Graeco/Roman
eighteenth century galleries in various parts of
influence. In the second half of the
Europe were designed in the
neoclassical style,
considered to be the noblest and best setting for the masterpieces of antiquity. In the Uffizi,
Grand Duke
'
Peter
Leopold
the Villa Medici in pi.
326
^88
who had
built a gallery to display the
Rome. In Stockholm
famous Niohid brought in 1775 from
just been assassinated, a public gallery of antiques
A similar enterprise,
more
Gustav
in 1792, in accordance with the will of
in the character of a
museum
was
in the
III,
created in the royal palace.
modern
sense of the
word, was
THE CITY the
Museo Pio'CIementino
in the Vatican, built by
Clement XIV. The
architect, Simonetti,
did not hesitate to destroy part of the Belvedere, the heritage of the Renaissance; in the layout
and
architecture of the
decoration. This
The
rooms and
'Roman'
style
galleries
was
he took inspiration from the
to persist for a
is
Museo Pio^Clementino.
based on the
where they constitute
Utilitarian buildings interest us today only in the exceptional cases
works of art. This was by no means so
was
for
anyone
designed as
to conceive of
artistic
rare in the
baroque age as
and measures, meat markets and
fish
architects lavished the
today; indeed, the difficulty
it is
an object that was not a work of
monuments. Dutch
baths and their
long time to come in museums of antiques.
Andquarium by Klenze (1840-9)
St Petersburg
Roman
Stock exchanges were
art.
same care on
of weights
offices
markets as on their ornate and beautiful town
halls.
Even
the industries that developed in the eighteenth century contrived to produce masterpieces of architecture.
The Bourbons
stimulated the industrial growth of Spain by founding textile factor
owed much
ries
and
in
709-1 1 by a Fleming, Jose Prospero de Verboom.
1
glass
and porcelain works;
these
to a corps of military engineers
One
of these
designed the Real
officers
Fabrica de Tabacos which the Government had decided to rebuild in Seville.
was begun
in 1728,
large rectangle
and
after a certain
period of delay
made
self-'contained;
it
monumental
a chapel, a prison, and a residential mansion approached by a
rates
Work on
rapid progress after 1750.
200 yards by 159, surrounded by a moat and wholly
formed
this
It is
a
incorpo^ staircase.
In the tobacco factory proper everything has been designed functionally, including provisions for maintaining the necessary relative
ventilation shafts.
On
humidity by means of an underground water system and
the entrance side the building has an ornamented facade like that of a
baroque palace; the Spanish crown spared no expense to make a factory a finished work of architecture.
building
In the
found
But the
(now
State tobacco
the university)
latter part
monopoly was
so profitable that the cost of this magnificent
was no more than half
the net annual income.
of the eighteenth century the geometrical forms of antique architecture were
to be particularly suitable for industrial buildings. Furnaces lent themselves readily to the
shape of Egyptian pyramids, as in the Marie^ Antoinette glassworks
cannon foundry proposed by Ledoux. For the Salines de Chaux created a magnificent Grecian ensemble in severity of the
world
—that
which the
Doric order and the vigour of the
spirit
rustication.
salt
though finding expression in
Creusot, or the
mines (1775-9) Ledoux
of industry
is
symbolized by the
But Ledoux belonged
of neoclassicism; he comes within our field because he
fantasy which,
Le
at
classical forms, is
is
moved by
none the
less
to another
a
spirit
of
an offshoot of
baroque utopianism. In the eighteenth century progress in the
art
of tactics caused the art of
direction of mobility; in the seventeenth century military operations
in the siege parts,
and defence of
and new ones
fortresses.
Throughout Europe old
built to be used as fortresses.
Italy
who
From
to evolve in the
had consisted
essentially
were surrounded by ram^
Mihtary engineering had become a science
in the fifteenth century, in answer to the need to create resist artillery fire.
cities
war
new forms
the latter half of the fifteenth century there
of fortification,
was
scarcely
which could
an
architect in
did not concern himself actively with the subject; and the design of fortresses was an
327
THEMES opportunity to apply geometrical knowledge in conjunction with
The
principle of medieval fortification lay in the
on prominent resses to
features of the landscape.
The
be dug in, so that often the natural
command
introduction of
artillery
relief is perceptible
had been completely transformed by
tower {Maschikuliturm) which Balthasar
Neumann
new
the
the art of siege.
of towers and curtain walls standing
Traditional forms were so slow to die that the medieval idea of a in plans that
and
ballistics
built in
made
it
'commanding
art.
necessary for fort^
only in relation to the moats. position' persisted
A work like the
machicolated
1728 in front of the lower curtain/
wall of the citadel of Marienberg, Wiirzburg (based on plans by Maximilian von Welsch, a 'mediocre' architect), might have been dated
The
of
art
modern
fortification
and
of the innumerable treatises
XIV. Vauban was
Louis
He
economist.
essays
on
centuries earlier.
the subjea by Marshal
Vauban,
not only an engineer but a gunner, a sailor, a
France about a hundred
built in
of purely military struaures
The
two
was spread throughout eighteenth^century Europe by means
fortified
military engineer to
town planner and an
towns, in which the severity of outline
sometimes relieved by a certain showiness, notably in the
is
gates.
'porcupine' principle of defence required, as well as the oblique lines necessitated by flank-'
ing, the adoption of polygonal
and star^shaped plans which show profound and inescapable
analogies with the expanding forms beloved of baroque decorators, such as the sunburst. Every
period has
its
own
creating a secret affinity between the various forms
style,
unmoved by
lover of architeaure could remain pi.
3^5
Fort Carre in Antibes
and of those
all parts to
which
the whole.
Here
art is the
by the
spirit
of geometry
are ruled
and compact a form
What
as that of the
equal of nature in her most mysterious creations,
—
circle of the
courtyard and the threatening
extensive,
the
is
so perfea
engenders.
has the beauty that consists in the exact relation of each part to another,
It
'.
it
star
shells, crystals, starfish.
By
the union of the
of the bastions, this form, at once intensive and
symbol of the classicism of the baroque
age, the consciousness of great strength
mastered.
At
the
mouth of the Gironde, on
the reign of
Henry IV.
Its
the limestone
islet
of
Cordouan, a lighthouse was
upper portion was reconstructed in 1788, and
western outpost, just as the eighteenth century bequeathed pi.
5^4
which,
like
many
it
to us. It
is
it is still
a fine classical
utilitarian buildings of the ancien regime, contains a chapel,
the second floor. This
an elegant rotunda,
is
built in
in use, this
work
which occupies
and
richly decorated with a Corinthian order
fes'
toons and garlands of stone, surmounted by a coffered dome, and richly paved in black and
God
white marble. Thus
paintings of the ancient
triumph over tempests,
is at
the heart of this tower of light, the Pharos
Catacombs was if
God
the
symbol of
does not sustain
him >
of the creator of this marvel, the engineer Louis de Foix:
salvation.
which
What
avail
in the Christian
man's
efforts to
A long inscription celebrates the virtues by this, it reads, thou hast acquired
AN INFINITE HONOUR, WHICH WILL END ONLY WHEN THIS BEACON OF GLORY, BY THE ENDING OF THE WORLD, ITSELF MEETS ITS END. A richly significant play on words here at this 'land's end',
on
Beacon of glory 328
one
to
mark
its
.
the edge of infinite space. .
.
This phrase, which sums up the whole subject of our study,
completion.
is
a
fitting
331
Guarino Guarini (1624-83). Dome, San Lorenzo, Turin
THE CHURCH
3^9
33-2
Balthasar
Two cults
Neumann
(1687-1753J. Wallfahrtskirche, Vierzehnheiligen, Bavaria, 1743-72
Catholic churches are focussed on the the pulpit
and the organ. This
is
especially so in
choral music plays a central role. Protestant Frauenkirche in
altar; Protestant
With
its
churches on
Germany, where
tiered
balconies, the
Dresden (destroyed in 1945) was
laid
out like a concert hall.
333 Georg Bahr(i666-I738). Frauenkirche, Dresden, 1726-43
334 Pieter Noorwits
(d. 1669).
Nieuwekerk,
335 Pieter Jansz. Saenredam (1597-1665).
The Hague, 1649-56
336 Kerk, Alkmaar, seventeenth century
View
of St Janskerk, Utrecht, 1645
338 Christopher
337 Salomon de Brosse (1571-1626). Temple, Charenton
Wren
(1632-1723). St James's, Piccadilly,
London, 1700
Protestant church building 539 Synagogue, Carpentras, France, eighteenth century
Whether
or not
it
has been built specially for a Protestant
form of worship, the Protestant church tends of images
pose
is
and correspondingly
to gather
free
to be
of ornament.
devoid Its
pur^
worshippers round the preacher; hence
the widespread use of balconies.
The synagogue The
design of the synagogue
of the
Protestant church;
is
its
not very different from that
purpose
is
to
enable the
congregation to hear readings from sacred texts (see
pi. 22j).
9
Th e monastery
340 Johann Michael Fischer
(1691-1756) and
others.
Ottobeuren, Swabia, 171
341 Refectory, Couvent Saint-Pierrc
(Musee des Beaux^Arts),
Lyons
^B
In the eighteenth century,
all
over Europe, the ancient
monastic orders rebuilt their houses on a grand
The movement began century,
and spread
into Central Europe, the
Countries, France and even
Abbots and
scale.
Italy in the seventeenth
in
Low
Orthodox Russia.
their architects
abandoned
the asym^
metrical medieval plan for a layout consisting of a
number
of courts centred on the church, a plan
derived from the Escurial. In Central Europe the
monastery
ments
is
a palace,
for the abbot,
comprising luxurious apart'
magnificent guest rooms
known
as 'imperial apartments' ( Kdserzimmer) , for distin^
guished
visitors,
a
banqueting'hall
(Kaisersaal
or
Marmorsaal), a theatre, a library decorated like a
church,
an
art
gallery,
a
scientific
museum, and
sometmies ornamental 'French gardens'.
342 Jakob Prandtauer (1660-1726). Melk, begun 1700,
engraving
after F.
Rosenstingl
343 Lucas von Hildebrandt (166S-1745). Gottweig, Austria,
after
1718, engraving after F. B.
344-5 Donato Felice Allio
and
(c.
Werner
1690-c 1780). Marble
overall vicu, Klosterneuburg, Austria,
t730-50
hall
II3
346 Louis
Chateau de
LeVau
(1613-70) and Jules HaitlouiivALinsart(i646-i708).
Versailles
THE COURT
The
347 Bartolommeo Rastrelli (1700-71). Fagade, Peterhof (Pyetrodvorets), near Leningrad, 1715-57
royal palace
34S Balthasar
Neumann
(^1087-1753). Residenz,
engraving
Of
the
two
types of princely residence,
pattern rather than the
Italian
which
it
all
Wurzhurg,
Salomon Kleiner
the French
prevailed.
course of the eighteenth century palaces were, modelled on Louis
was
after
In the
over Europe
XIV's Chateau de
Versailles.
349 Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736). Zwinger, Dresden,
1709-19,
engraving showing a carrousel
>A^!>^^
337
,, ,.,
1^
I
>..„..
350 Ferdinand Dietz (d.
Wiirzburg, 1765
The French garden More
even
than
the
French
ornamental
Nostre
at
French
garden,
created
Vaux^C/'Vicomte
was imitated
at Versailles,
however,
was
in general
interpreted in
and
and
as far afield as Russia;
the noble classicism of Versailles
ary
Le
by
xx)
(PL.
developed by the same designer
the
clidteati,
in the
baroque terms, both
in the status
grandiloquence of the
351
vistas.
Giovanni Francesco
Guerniero
(i\
1665-1745).
Cascade, Wilhelmshohe, Cassel, with Hercules by Johann Jacob
Anthoni, 1701-17
c.
1780).
Lake
\\itli
Parnassus group, Veitshochheim, near
%' .jt-k \^li^[-w t.;AJA;»*£9
«1 ' ™M.. .aat.xr'::n:r
3;,::
Jc.in
B.ipiibie
Tuby
(1635-1700),
after
Charles \x Biiin (1619-90).
Lake of Apollo,
Versailles,
1668-70
353 Cascades, Giardino Reale, Caserta, near Naples, begun 1773
339
354 Santino Solari (1576-1646). Trick iouiuams in near Salzburg,
c.
1610
Roman
theatre, Schloss
Hellbrunn,
355 Nicolas de Pigage (1723-96).
Apollo, Schwetzingen, near
The garden
as
Temple
of
Mannheim
microcosm
In the course of the seventeenth
and
eighteenth
centuries
three forms of garden,
the
Italian,
French and English, came tc gether in grandiose garden signs
dc
which had something of
the quality of
all three.
35G Filippo Juvarra
(f.
Piedmont, begun 1729
1676-1736). Stupinigi,
Chinese influence
and the 'English' garden The
formal French garden was
fol/
lowed in the eighteenth century by an^ other type
garden,
known
perhaps better described as
'Anglo^Chinese'. the
'English'
the
as
1720s
was
It
under
the
created in
of
influence
William Kent. Sometimes
it
appears
in juxtaposition with a French garden, as at Versailles
Germany.
and
at
many
places in
In spite of the ostentatious
'return to nature' implied in
its
ser^
pentine forms, this form of garden
crowded
with
monuments
carry a moral significance.
is
which
Mythology
gives place to philosophy as a theme. 357 Hubert Robert (173 3-1808).
View
of park, Mereville
m
'^*%~ «-
Neumann
c.
1750
mm
^^^
**v.*
-J_
,-1'.'i'
363 Salzburg, Austria I
364 Modica, Sicily
THE CITY
•^^
r. ."..Jr^^. .y'
\]
ii
^^HiT-
8
365 Grand' Place, Brussels,
1700
c.
366 Amsterdam
Town The
planning
timid attempts
been
made
at
urban design which had
in the Renaissance
were succeeded
in the
baroque age by planning on the grand
scale.
Architects extended their imaginative
scope to comprehend an entire a single
work
varied;
some
of
art.
The designs are immensely
are based
on
patterns, while others take
the land.
It
eighteenth
Europe
was during
centuries
first
city, treated as
that
rigid geometrical
account of the
lie
the seventeenth the
great
of
and
cities
of
acquired the overall arrangement
have today.
that they
still
367 John
Wood
I
(1704-54). Royal Crescent, Bath, Somerset,
c.
1750
g '.
The
SCJUare
A It
vast open-air theatre, the central square
takes
Piazza
many
forms.
Navona
in
Some
368
the focus of interest in any city.
follow the configuration of an ancient
Rome, which has
drome). Others are the
is
result of a
inherited the form of a
site
(such as the
Roman
hippo'
long process of organic growth (the plazas
may ores of Spain). Others
are created in order to serve as forecourt to a palace,
like the Place Stanislas in
Nancy.
Emmanuel Here
(1705-63). Place Royalc (Place Stanislas), Nancy, Lorraine, eighteenth century
Wi ;^^|||}^>,«,_l:^f 369 Giovanni Paolo Pannini
(f.
i692-i'.
1768). Piazza
Navona
flooded,
Rome
370 Alberto Churriguera and Andres Garcia de Quiriones. Plaza Mayor, Salamanca, 1728-50
371
Giovanni Bologna (1524-1608J. Cosmic
de' Medici, Piazza della Signoria, Florence,
374
Ciacomo
Charles
II
Serpotta
of the
Two
(1656-1732).
Sicilies
Model
for
I
1594
statue of
372
Francesco
Mocchi (1580-1654J.
Model
tor
statue
of
Alessandro Farnese
375 Etienne Falconet (1716-91). Peter the Great, St Petersburg
(Leningrad), 1766-82
nmo
rWiH9
373 Francois Girardon (1625-1715). of Louis
Model
for statue
XIV
376 Matthias Steini (1644-1727). Ivory figurine of Emperor Leopold
I
377 Andreas Schliiter
(c
1660-1714).
French origin, the
place royale
The Great
Elector,
Berlin
Place royale
Of
centred
on
is
an urban focal point
symbol of monarchic
a
royal
statue:
centralization.
With
rare exceptions, the statue
trian one,
designed
traditions dating
on
a
a
is
back
an eques^
Renaissance; the prince
to the Italian
reflecting the serenity of a
and the warrior curbing
image of Louis
is
m accordance with one of two alternative
walking horse,
procession,
it
a
rearing, fiery steed.
XIV as a Roman general in
by Girardon, made
its
influence
felt
triumphal
all
The
triumph, created
over Europe.
Strength subdued
The theme
of strength
subdued frequently
served to embelHsh equestrian statues where
it
symbolized the victories of the prince con^ cerned.
The theme
of the strong
was invented by Michelangelo.
man in chains From the late
sixteenth century onwards, the victories of the
Imperial forces over the Turks established a fashion for fettered Moorish or Turkish slaves in art
(see
statues.
uous
effort
world
p^ls
2^y-8) which spread to royal
The Michelangelesque theme
in the
was much used
in the
form of the Atlantean
of stren^
baroque
figure.
378 Pietro Tacca (1577-1640). Moorish slaves on base of statue of Ferdinando
I
de'
Medici by Giovanni
Bandini, Livorno, 1620-23
379 Lucas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745).
Oberes
Belvedere, Vienna, 1714-21, with Atlantean figures
Commemorative monuments All over Europe monuments were
pubHc
squares.
Many
set
up
were votive columns,
are these, erected in thanksgiving for the
in as
end of
outbreaks of plague.
380 Guglia del Gesii, Naples, 1748
381 Dreifaltigkeitssaule, Modling, near
Vienna, 1714
382 Liberal Bruant (c.
1637-97). Hotel des
Invalides, Paris,
begun 1690
383 Christopher
Wren
(1632-1723). Royal Hospital (Royal Naval College), Greenwich, 1694
384 Olov Rudbeck (1630-1702). Anatomy theatre, Uppsala, 1662-63
385 Jan Cornelisz. van
't
Woudt
(c.
1570-1615).
Public buildings Baroque town planning incorporates functional
essays
in the design of such public buildings as universities hospitals.
But these
their place in the
and
utilitarian structures, as they take
urban panorama, always have the
external appearance of palaces.
386 Dispensary of hospital, Besangon, France, eighteenth century
2ES!
Anatomy
theatre,
Leyden, 1616
388 Gustav
387 Picture room, Herzogenburg, Austria, eighteenth century
Museums
The museum
is
II's
Antikmuseum, Stockholms
Slott,
1792
one of the most remarkable of the creations of the
baroque age. Monarchs, princes, rich
citizens
and monastic com^
munities had rooms crowded with scientific specimens (see also pi.
389 Glass collection, Rosenborg, Copenhagen, 1714
2-]f),
ohjets d'art,
antique sculptures and paintings.
390 Cabinet Lafaille,
La
Rochelle, eighteenth century
391 Frieze, Bodleian Library, Oxford, f.1630
Libraries
Whether
in a palace, a monastery or a university, the
particularly
sumptuous
portraits of great
institution.
The
oldest
baroque library
is
a
examples are decorated with
men. In eighteenth^century Central Europe they became
temples of learning, laden with allegory and symbol (see also
pi. 25).
392 Bartholomaus Altomonte (1702-79). Library, Ardtnont, Austria, 1776
393
Sebastien
Le
Prestre,
Marquis de Vauban (1633-1707). Fort Carre, Antibes
394 Louis de Foix (b. 1535).
Chapel of lighthouse, Cordouan, France, begun 1585
Utilitarian buildings Public works in the baroque age were treated as works of art.
Sometimes,
as
in
Vauban's
fortifications,
beauty
springs from the logic of form perfectly suited to function.
But even
in
purely utilitarian buildings such as light'
houses, the engineer could
himself an architect.
rise to
the occasion
and make
.
.
Bazin, Germain. 'La notion de
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des
dans
baroque au Bresil, Paris
et la sculpture
London
1963; Baroque and Rococo,
Blondel,
"I'interieur"
Beaux^Arts, Paris January
1963-
.
Jacques'Frangois. Architecture fran^aise, ou
recueil des plans,
coupes et profls des iglises,
ilivations,
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.
.
de France, Paris
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BoFFRAND, Germain. De d' architecture
.),
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.
(Livre
liber...
de. L'ltalie
..en ij^g
et
y a cent ans, ou Lettres
il
1740
.
.
.,
Paris 1836.
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Bari 1949.
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Naples 1742-3.
Rosa
.
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The
Eugenio
(Zur
Evelyn, John. Sylva ., London 1664. Felibien, Andre. Entretiens sur les vies et les ouvrages des
determine par la mesure de
.
plus excellens Peintres anciens
et
modernes, Paris 1685-8.
Felibien, Jean^Frangois. Les Plans de
deux des plus
maisons de campagne de Pline
belles
consul; avec une dissertation touchant et
I' architecture
FoRSSMAN, iiber
gothique
et les descriptions
.
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,
I'architecture
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Paris 1699.
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Francois, R^ne
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(i.
e.
ages, tions,
de.
ou des moyens d'embellir Paris
De
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London 1783. GraclAn, Baltasar.
Rouen
la composition des
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Ordculo manual y
arte de prudencia,
Paris 1740.
,
des lumieres
siecle
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1922.
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lingue e letterature moderne, I' age
Studien zur
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di
Florence 1951; La Littirature
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Don Juan
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Bau",
BiW
todesca della Archie
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Santos, Reynaldo
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Tapie, VictorxL. Baroque et classicisme, Paris 1957'Triumpho eucharistico exemplar de christandade luzitana em pubUca exaltagao da Fe na solemne
Cornelius.
Geschichte
des
Barockstiles,
Creation of the Rococo,
and Portugal and
Soria.
their
Art and Architect
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Franpis d'Orbay,
Grands
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.
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aos 24
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Varagnac, Andre.
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trasladacao de divinitissimo sacramento
Maio 1733 (Lisboa
Kubler, George, and Martin
XIV {Les
Amiens
Redescubrimento de America en el arte,
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Laprade,
et
.les observa^
.
STRZYGOwsKi,]osd. AufgangdesNordens,L.ei]p2igi9'i6.
Kimball, Sidney Fiske.'Tfc
Louis
.
The
Oracle, Lon.-
Stuttgart 1887-9.
1 £00-1800,
...
Sandrart, Joachim. L'Academia
Rosario 1941 and Buenos Aires 1944.
ture in Spain
etc.
Louis. L' Europe fran(aise au
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2nd ed. Madrid 1653; tr.. The Courtier's don 1694, The Oracle, London 195 3-
GuRLiTT,
de Maupertuis
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Guido, Angel.
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M.
pays'
Essay on Land'
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1622.
autour des habitat
An
Lo
d'.
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de
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Girardin, Renc'Louis
Mrs.
Profanbaues
Erik. Dorisch, jonisch, korinthisch. Studien
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Reau,
de
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Life and
Galileo as a Critic of the Arts,
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Table ronde, Paris September 1961. .
. .
XIIL Cen^
in France,
Vita e opere di Salvator Rosa, pittore,
Panofsky, Erwin. Hague 1954-
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Art
1824.
OzzoLA, Leandro. poeta, incisore
note
Bologna 1678.
Sydney.
London
,
Bibliographical
,
Religious
tr..
Pittori Bolognesi .. .,
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De
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Male, Emile. L'Art religieux du Xllle siecle en France
1752-6.
Paris 1745.
Brosses, Charles icrites d'ltalie
architectura
Larsen, Erik. Frans Post, interprete du Bresil .. ., Amsterdam and Rio de Janeiro 1962. Le Brun, Charles. Conference ... sur I'expression Amsterdam and Paris 1698; gineraleet particuliere tr.. The Conference... upon Expression, London 1701 etc. Leonard, Emile G. Le Protestant franpis, Paris 1953.
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Civilisation traditionnelle et genres
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WiLHELMiNA OF Bayreuth. Mmoires
de Frederique
Sophie Wilhelmine de Prusse, Margrave de Bareith, Paris Architecte
de
Architectes), Paris i960.
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tr..
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.
,
London
1812, 1887.
WiNCKELMANN, Johann Joachim. Nachahmung
der griechischen
Wercke
Gedancken
in der
Bildhauer'Kunst, Friedrichstadt 1755.
iiber die
Mahlerey und
357
1
List
MONOCHROME
of illustrations 1
PLATES
Titian (1489-1576). Presentation of the Virgin in
Sttong. Albertinum, Dresden. Skulpturensamm^
theTemple.Accademia,Venice.M«/wf//'yl«(/e/-w«.
2 Tintoretto (1518-94). Presentation of the Virgin
Img, Dresden.
22 Anon.
in the Temple. Santa Maria dell'Orto, Venice.
Titian (1489-1576).
Assumption of
Museum, Vienna.
Kunst^
I.
Kunsthist.
Museum.
Frederick
Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Assumption. MuseesRoyaux des Beaux^Arts, Brussels, yl. C.L. 6 Fra Bartolommeo (1472-1517). Virgin and Child with saints. Lucca cathedral. ManselUBro^i. 7 Jacopo da Pontormo (1493-1557). Virgin and Child with saints. San Michele Visdomini, 5 Peter
de Versailles. ManselU Alinari.
24 Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678). Triumph of Prince
Anderson.
4 GirolamoBedoliMazzola(i 500-69). Immaculate Conception. Pinacoteca, Parma. ManselUAlimri.
Henry (detail), Huis ten Bosch, Nether^
R. K. D. Daniel Gran (1694-1757). Emperor Charles VI 25 surrounded by allegories, Hofburg (Nationals lands.
bibliothek), Vienna, after 1722.
26 Joseph Vernet (1714-89). Sporting contest on the Tiber at Rome (detail). National Gallery, Lon^ don. By courtesy ofthe Trustees of the National Gallery.
27 Giacomo Ceruti
Florence. ManselhAlinari.
(fl.
1750).
Woman
spinning,
with beggar. Private collection, Brescia.
Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Mystic Marriage
28 Los Hoes, farmhouse at Twente, the Netherlands,
of St Catherine. Eglise des Augustins, Antwerp.'
seventeenth
A. C. L.
kenkunde, Arnhem.
9 Alonso Sanchez Coello (15 1 5-90). Sacred Form, in sacristy of the Escurial, Madrid. Mas.
Rijksmuseum voor Vol^
century.
29 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Ceiling of the Mar/ morsaal, MeUc, Ausuia, 173 1.
10 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Third
30 Jean^Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85). Memorial to
project for east front of the Louvre, Paris, engrav/
Marshal Maurice de Saxe, in Saint^Thomas,
ing by Jean Marot.
Strasbourg, 1773. Giraudon.
11 East front of the Louvre, Paris, engraving
by
3
Blondel.
La Madalenha, FaU
Staatliche J.
pftege,
Nuremberg 1586.
Satteling.
Silver
candelabrum, Amsterdam
0"
33
Hamburg.
Hamhurger, Amsterdam.
Augsburg 1745-47. Evangelische Kir^ chengemeinde St Anna, Augsburg. 17 Simon Guillain (1581-1658). Louis XIII (de^ tail). Musee du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon. 18 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Fran/ cesco I d'Este. Galleria Estense, Modena. ManselU
19 Ahtoine
Coysevox (i 640-1 720). The Great Conde. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon. 20 Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720). Louis XFV. Chateau de Versailles. Giraudon. 2.1
Paul Heermann (1673-1732).
Augustus the
Baden/Baden,
Amt fur Denkmah *
Traunkirchen,
Austtia,
Stairway of the Five Senses,
34-5 Charles
eighteenth
Bom Jesus do Monte,
Le Brun (1619-90).
sion: profile
and
full face
of a
Studies of express
ram and
a
Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre,
man. Paris.
^GR.4CJ. 36-7 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Bles^ sed soul
and Damned
soul.
Santa Maria in
Rome. ManselUAnderson. Georges de la Tour (1593-1652). St Peter
Monserrato, 38
tant (detail). Cleveland
Hanna Fund. Museum
Museum
repen/
of Art, Gift of
of Art.
XIV
and other figures in a carrousel, 1662. Chateau de Versailles. Cliche des Musics
39 Louis
Alinari.
Stiftskirche,
Braga, Portugal, 1730-37.
16 Bernhard Heinrich Weye. Silver baptismal ewer tray,
in
century.
15 J. Caffieri. Silver three^branched girandole, Paris, eighteenth century. Private collection, Paris.
and
Margrave Louis William of Baden,
Karlsruhe.
32 Pulpit,
Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.
1770. Collection Erich Schliemann, Premsela
to
eighteenth century. Staatliches
perra, Portugal.
13 Nicolaus Schmidt. Silver ewer,
14
Memorial
'Tiirkenlouis',
12 Detail of rocaille ornament.
358
Emperor Leopold
1695).
XIV. Chateau
the Virgin.
Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice. Mansell-
8 Peter
(c.
historisches
23 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Louis
Maiisell''Anderson. J
,
natioiiaux.
40 Anon, (seventeenth century). Bernini's Ecstasy of St Teresa (see pl. xiii) in Santa Maria della Vit^ toria,
Rome.
Staatliches
Museum, Schwerin.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
41 Giacomo Torelli (1604-78). Set Pelee et ie
for
Les Noces
Ustau Pamatkovi Pice, Prague, Vera Pospisilovd.
ie
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.
Thetis.
62 Anon. Head of
42 Giacomo Serpotta (1656-1723). Temptation of St Francis (detail), in
in Franziskanerkirche, Salzburg.
64 Thomas Weissfeld (1671-1722). St Hubert, in
43 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). St Lon/ ginus, in St Peter's,
Rome.
45 Gaspare Vigarani (c 1586-1663). Theatre des Tuileries, Paris, 1662 (model by Durignaud). Desprez
Stage
(1743-1804). 46 Jean/Louis Drottningholm, Sweden. Helga SchmiduGlassner.
set,
47 Giuseppe Galli Bibiena (1669-1757) and Carlo Galli Bibiena (1725-87). Auditorium of Mark/ grafUches Opernhaus, Bayreuth.
48 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio {c. 15621609). St Jerome. Cathedral Museum, Valeria, Malta. Gaiinetto fotografico nazionale.
49 Daniele Crespi (1598/1600-1630). St Charles Borromeo at table. Chiesa della Passione, Milan. Alinari.
50 Ferdinand Bol
(f.
1610-80). Philosopher in medi/
ration. Musee du Louvre, Paris. ManselUAlinari. 51 Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Philosopher. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Ciraudon, 52 Diego Velazquez(i599-i66o). Philip FV. Museo
del Prado, Madrid. Mas.
53 Francisco de Zurbaran (1598-1666). Fray Fran/
Zumel. Academia de San Fernando,
Madrid. Mas. 54 Gerrit Terborch (1617-81). Portrait of a man. Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Munich. Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen.
cathedral. Giraudon. {ji.
1648-88). Projea
for
fagade of Milan cathedral, 1648. Milan cathedral. ArchwioyBiblioteca, Ven. FabbricadelDuomo diMilano.
57 Carlo Buzzi (d. 1658). Project cathedral, 1653.
for fagade of
Milan cathedral. As
Kamenz,
Silesia.
St
Anne
(detail), in
(c.
1690-1775).
church of Metten, Austria.
66 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741). Decor in choir of Stiftskirche, Zwetd, Austria, 1722-35. Bildy archiv der osterreickischen Nationalbibliothek.
67
Prefettura, Lecce, sixteenth century. Alinari.
68 Francesco Borromini (1599-1667). Vault, in chapel of Collegio di Propaganda Fide,
1649-66.
Rome,
Instituto Editoriale Electa.
69 Janus Lutma (c. 1584-1669). Choir screen of St Catharinakerk, Amsterdam, 1650. Rijksdienst
Monumentemorg.
70 Frangois/Joseph Bellanger (1744-18 18). Design for pavilion. Bagatelle, France, from S. G. Krafft, Recueil d'architecture, 1812.
71 Stucco tracery of window, Arbury Hall, War/ wickshire, eighteenth century. Edwin Smith.
72 John Chute (1701-76). Library of Strawberry Descrip' Hill, begun 1766, from H. Walpole,
A
tiott
oj Strawberry
Hill.
73 Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-96). Santa Maria presso San Celso, Milan, after 1583. Alinari.
74 Vincenzo Seregno (c. 15 10-1594). Madonna dei Miracoli, Saronno, 1556-66. Alinari. 75 Sant'Angelo, Milan. Gabinettofotografico nazionale. 76 Domenico Frisone (Jl. 1622) and Giovanni
Stucco decor in San
Battista Barberini (d. 1666).
Lorenzo, Laino d'lntelvi, Lombardy.
55 Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742). Fagade, Orleans
CasteUi
Zisterzienserkirche,
65 Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger
Anderson.
44 Giambattista Aleotti (1546-1636). Teatro Far/ nese, Parma. ManselhAlinari.
56 Francesco
the Father, in Miinster,
63 Michael Pacher(c. 1435-98). Virgin and Child,
San Lorenzo, Palermo.
Anderson.
cisco
God
Breisach, sixteenth century. Foto Marburg.
Bildarchiv der osterreichisclteii Natioitalbibliothek.
Milan
^6.
58 Giuseppe Brentano (1862-89). Fagade of Milan
begun 1893. ManselUAlinari. 59 Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1736). All Souls College, Oxford, 1734. National Buildings Record. 60 Christopher Wren (1632-1723). Tom Tower, cathedral,
Christ Church, Oxford, 1681-82. A. F. Kersting. 61 Johann Santin Aichel (1667-172 3). Monastery
church of Kladrau (Kladruby), 1712-26. Stdtni
77 Diego Carlone (1674-1750) and Carlo Carlone (1686-1775). Decor in Santa Maria, Scaria, Intelvi,
Lombardy.
78 Lorenzo LomelUni. Decor of nave, Santissima
Aimunziata, Genoa, 1587.
Alinari.
79 Edenne Manellange (i 569-1641). Chapel, Col/ legede LaFleche, 1612. Archives Pbotographiques. 80 Lieven de ket),
Key (i 560-1627).
Haarlem, 1602.
81 Canterbury
Vleishal (meat mar/
Rijksdienst
Quadrangle,
St
Mommentenzorg. John's
Oxford, 163 1-6. Royal Commission on
College, Historical
Monuments (England). 82 Fran9ois Aguillon (1566-1617) and Peter Huys/ sens (1577-1637). Saint/Charles/Bonomee,
werp, 1615-21. A. C. L.
Ant/ 359
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Museum, Rotterdam. Boymans'van B. Museum. Heda (1594-1682). Still-life. Hamburger Kunsthalle. Kleinhempel.
83 Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54. Mas.
84 Georg Dientzenhofer (1643-1689). Martinskir' che, Bamberg, 1690. A. F. Kerstin£.
104 Willem Claesz.
85 Valentino Pezani (d. 1716). Fa5ade of Neumiin/
105 Roelant Savery (1576-1639). Flower piece. Cen-
ster,
Wiirzburg, begun 1711. Gimdemann.
86 Lukas Kilian
Ornament, from
1618).
(J?.
Huysum (1682-1749). Flower piece. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Rijksmuseum. 108 Frans Hals (1580-1666). Banquet of the guard of
c.
1620. CourtauU
ster,
91
(c.
Uberlingen,
Column,
c.
High
altar of
545-1601) and
1
Frederiksborg,
near
others.
Copenhagen,
(detail).
Hunting scene
des Beaux'Arts, Orleans. Archives
Roelas
las
15 60-1 625). Crucifixion
(c.
Andrew. Museo Provincial, Seville. Mas. Claude Vignon (1593-1670). Croesus display 95 ing his treasure to Solon. Musee des Beaux^Arts,
Judith
dam. Rijksmuseum.
Wine
(1617-92).
Museum
Montreal
clavichord.
Woman
at
of Fine
the
Arts.
Purchased 1894. Tempest Fund. Montreal
Mu^
112 Hendrick
de
Keyser (1565-21).
Zuiderkerk,
Tours.
114 Joost Vingboons Palazzo
centurion.
Corsini,
Rome.
Gabinetto
98 Joseph Wright of Derby (1734-97). Experiment with an air pump. Tate Gallery, London. By Santini
1672-84).
(Jl.
Armillary
Sphere according to the planetary system of Heracleides of Pontus. Science, Oxford.
A. Magny. historisches
Museum
Museum
of the History of
of the History of Science.
Microscope,
Kunsthistorisches
eighteenth
Museum,
century.
Vienna.
Kunst'
Museum.
der
osterreichischen
National'
and
insects.
(1640-79). Flowers, 6uit,
Musee du Louvre,
Paris.
with
la
Stockholm,
1650. Refot.
Quellinus (1609-68). *Triumph of Maximus and Israelites gathering manna, Raadhuis (now royal palace), Amsterdam.
Fabius in
Kunsthistorisch Institut der Rijksuniversiteit tt Utrecht.
117 Doorway, Hotel de Vogiie, Dijon,
1610.
c.
118 Bedroom on second
1650-58.
119 Louis Le
Vau
begun
sailles,
floor.
Hotel Lauzun, Paris,
AGRACI. (1613-70). 1
Cour de Marbre, Ver-
66 1. Archives photographiques.
120 Jules Hardouin-Mansan (1646-1708). Garden
Grand Trianon,
fagade.
Versailles,
1687. Foto
121 Jacques-Ange
Gabriel
(1698-1782).
Garden Giraw
fagade, Petit Trianon, Versailles, 1762-6.
shells (detail).
Ill Colonnade,
east fagade of
Louvre, Paris 1667-70.
Giraudon.
123 Frangois Mansart (1598-1666). Val-de-Grace,
Archives photographiques.
103 Balthasar van der Ast life
1650-70) and Jean de
Riddarhuset,
don.
hibliotliek.
Abraham Mignon birds
c.
c.
(fl.
(1620-95).
Marhurg.
loi Cabinet of natural history, Seitenstetten, Austria,
1760-69. Bildarchiv
Vallee
Giraudon.
courtesy of the Trustees of the Tate Gallery.
99 Domenico
Monumentenzorg.
115-6 Artus
97 Jean Tassel (1608-67). Virgin and Child. Musee de Langres.
360
1610-68).
Rijksmuseum, Amster-
Amsterdam, 1603-14. RJjksdienst Monumentenzorg. 113 Admiraliteitshof, Amsterdam, 1661. RJjksdienst
fotografico nazionale.
102
(c.
Leyster at the virginals.
of St
96 Bernardo Cavallino (1622-54). St Peter and the
100
Rome. GsW-
seum of Fine Arts.
Photographiques.
94 Juan de
Jan Miense Molenaer
111 Emanuel de
Deruet (1588-1660).
Musee
courtesan. Palazzo Barberini,
netto fotografico nazionale.
no
detail of ;>/. go. Etigen Ktisch.
1600-20. A. Brandt.
93 Claude
and
Miin^
161 3. Siegfried Lauterwasser.
92 Hans Steenwinkel (c Slotskirke,
Frans Hals Museum.
109 Hendrick Ter Brugghen (1585-1629). Musician
of Art.
Institute
1583-f. 1630).
Museum, The Hague.
George. Frans Hals
St
89 Doorway of gold room, Schloss Biickeburg,
90 Jdrg Ziim
(1606-83). Flower piece.
107 Jan van
161 8.
Biichkiii,
Heem
Gemaldegalerie, Dresden. Deutsche Fotothek.
87 Wendel Dietterlin (c 1550-99). Design for door' way, from Architectura, Nuremberg 1598. Neues Groteschgen
Uttecht. Centraal Museum.
106 Jan Davidsz.de
Neves Gradesco BuMein, 1607.
88 Johann Smieschek
Museum,
traal
(1579-1637). Grotesques, from
1590-c 1656). StillBoymans-van Beuningen (c.
Paris,
12^ Jules
1645H55. Giraudon.
Hardouin-Mansan (1646-1708).
Saint-
.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Louivdesxinvalides, Paris. Archivesphoto^raphiques.
Holy
125 Michel Anguier (1612-86).
family,
in
Saint'Roch, Paris. Archives photo^raphiques.
126 Frangois Girardon (1628-1715) and
Thomas
Regnaudin (1622-1706). Apollo attended by nymphs, in Grotte d' Apollon.Versailles,
1 666-75
•
Giraudon.
127 Philippe
Champaigne
de
(1602-74).
Mere
Catherine^ Agnes Arnauld and Soeur Catherine
de Sainte^Suzanne
(detail).
Musee du Louvre,
Le Sueur (1617-55). The Muses Clio, Euterpe and Thalia. Musee du Louvre. Giraudon. 129 Louis Le Nain (c. 1593-1648) and Mathieu Le Nain (c. 1607-77). Venus at Vulcan's forge. 130 Francesco Albani (1578-1660). Triumph
of
(f.
Rome.
Mansell^Anderson.
Le Brun (1619-1690). St Mary Magda^ Musee du Louvre, Paris. Archives photO"
148 Charles len.
149 Pierre Puget (1620-94). Milo of Crotona. Mus^e du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon.
Fernandez
150 Gregorio
Museo
{c.
1576-1636).
Pieti.
Provincial, Valladolid. Mas.
Donner (1639-1741). Angel, formerly
Museum
in Pressburg (Bratislava) cathedral.
of
Kremsmiinster, Austtia, 1682-5. Helga Schmidt^ Glassner.
Clemency (detail), in
sacristy of Seville cathedral,
Carracci (i 560-1609). Diana and Endymion, in Gallery of Hercules, Palazzo
153 Annibale
Farnese,
1606. Mas.
133 Gregorio Fernandez
15 76-1 63 6). Altarpiece,
(c.
Las Huelgas, Valladolid, 1618. 134 Flaminio Ponzio (c. 1560-1613). Pauline Cha/ pel, Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 1605- 11. Anderson.
Giacomo della Porta {c. 15 37-1602). Fagade of II Gesu, Rome, 1584. Anderson. 136 Carlo Maderno (1556-1629). Santa Susanna, Rome, 1603. Anderson.
135
137 Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1483-1546). Palazzo Farnese,
Rome.
Rome.
139 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Square before St Peter's, Rome, begun 1656, from edifices
.
Rome,
1633. ManselU Alinari.
141 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (i 598-1680). Sant' Quirinale,
Rome,
1560-
(c.
Martyrdom of St Matthew. Contarelli chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Anderson. 1609).
155 Juan de Valdes Leal (1622-90). death. La Caridad, Seville. Mas.
Triumph of
156 Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1617-1682). Imma^ culate Conception. Museo Provincial, Seville. Mas. 157 Joshua Reynolds (1723-92). Lord Heathfield. National Gallery, London. By courtesy of the Trustees of the National Gallery.
at Steen.
National Gallery, London. By courtesy
1658. Foto Marburg.
142 Francesco Borromini (1599-1667).
159 Anthony van Mirtillo.
Dyck
(1599-1641). Amarilli and
Gothenburg Art Gallery, Gothenburg.
Gothenburg Art Gallery.
.
140 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (i 598-1 680). Balda^ chin, in St Peter's,
Gabinetto fotografico nazionak.
of the Trustees of the National Gallery.
Alinari.
Barbault, Les plus beaux
Rome.
154 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio
158 Peter Paul Rubens (i 577-1640). House and park
Anderson.
Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Pa^
lazzo Barberini,
Dome
of
Sant'Ivo alia Sapienza, Rome, 1660. Foto Marburg.
143 Francesco Borromini (i 599-1667). San Carlo alle
San Sisto, Piacenza, 1698. Alinari. 147 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Apollo and Daphne (detail: Daphne). Galleria Borghese,
Rome. A.
Capitolina,
132 Juan Martinez Montanes (1568-1649). Christ of
Andrea al
(jpl.
containing eighteenth/century copy,
1581-1641). Miracle of the pool
Galleria
Villani.
138 Giovanni
now
Fine Arts, Budapest. Museum of Fine Arts. 152 Michael Ziirn the younger (b. c. 1625). Angel,
Diana. Galleria Borghese, Rome.
of Bethesda.
286),
151 Rafael
des Beaux^Arts, Rheims.
131 Domenichino
II
graphiques.
Paris. Giraudoti.
128 Eustache
Musee
Gesu, Rome, 1668-S3. Alinari. Lady Chapel, Monreale. 146 Frame made for Raphael's Sistine Madonna of nave,
145 Altar of
Quattro Fontane, Rome, 1638-40. ManselU
the
left
Game,
fruit
Albert Newport
hunt.
and
attributes of
Gallery,
Zurich.
Albert Newport Gallery.
161 Pedro Roldan (1624-1700) and Bernardo
de Pineda
(Ji.
Simon
1641-89). Altarpiece, La Caridad,
Seville.
162 Altarpiece, Sao Bento, Oporto, 1701. 163 Altarpiece,
Santa Clara, Queretaro, Mexico.
164 Detail of fountain.
Alinari.
144 Antonio Raggi (1624-86). Stucco decor on
160 Jan Fyt (i6ii-6i).
Bom Jesus
Portugal, eighteenth century.
do Monte, Braga, 361
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
186 Columns, Chapel of the Miraculous Fountain,
165 Oratory on Pucnte de Toledo, Madrid.
166 Pedro and Miguel de Borja. Santa Maria
la
Dome
Blanca, Seville,
c.
Zagorsk, near Moscow, 1686-92.
of sacristy,
1652-57. Mas.
187
Statni Ustati Pamdtkove Pice a
Bohemia, 1690.
(1660-1726).
Stiftskirche,
170 Joh. Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656-1723). Prunksaal, Hofbibliothek (Nationalbibliothek),
Hofburg, Vienna, begun 1722. Tcni (1660-1726).
172 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741).
Historical Guide
Stiftskirche,
osterreichhckn
der
Wren
Nationalbibliothek.
(1632-1723).
Facade
of
.
,
from Strange,
An
ipoj.
eighteenth century.
194 Giacomo Serpotta (1656-1732). Humility, with putti, in San Lorenzo, Palermo, 1704. Alinari. 195 Lucas von Hildebrandt(i668-i745).Kaisersaal, Residehz, Wiirzburg, with frescoes by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, 1752.
Wren
Naval
(1632-1723). Royal Hospital
College),
Greenwich,
1694.
Ministry of Works.
177 Inigo Jones (i 573-1652). Double Cube Room, Wilton House, Wiltshire, 1649. 178 Crinling Gibbons (1648-1720). Staircase from Cassiobury Park, Hertfordshire, 1677-80. Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Fund, 1932.
Yorkshire, begun 1699- Copyright Country
Life.
180 John Vanbrugh. Hall, Castle Howard, York' Copyright Country
Wren
181 Christopher
Bow, London,
(1632-1723).
St
Mary^c
W.
Agid Quirin Asam (1692-1750). High
altar,
200 Johann Ivlichael Feichtmayr 11 (c. 1709-72). Stucco decoration, Zwiefalten, Bavaria, 1747-51. Hirmer Verlag.
of
Anton Feuchtmayer
(1696-1770).
from Wallfahrtskirche,
angel
Head
Frauenberg,
man
(Bodensee). Jeannine Le Brun.
202 Cartouche with Virgin and Child, Nossa Sen' hora da Luz, Rio de Minhos, Portugal, 1714. Aleijadinho (1738-1814). Doorway, Sao 203
O
Newbery.
Rascrelli
Wies, Bavaria, 1754. Foto Marburg. 199
Baden. Collection Graf Bodman, Schloss Bod^
1706. A. F. Kersting.
History of St Martinyin^the'Fields.Pi'^nPiaonuls
Ltd. Sydney
Zimmermann (1680-1758) and Domimkus Zimmermann (1685-1766). Die
198 Johann Baptist
201 Joseph
Life.
Gibbs (1682-1745). St Martin/inHhe^ London, 1721-26, from The Pictorial
183 Bartolommeo
197 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741). Decor, Prelatur, Altenburg, Austria.
Rohr, Bavaria, 1717-23. Foto Marburg.
Museum.
Metropolitan
196 Wolfgang van der Auvera (1708-56). Decor of Spiegelsaal, Residenz, Wiirzburg. Gundermann.
The
New York, Rogers
179 John Vanbrugh (1664-1726). Castle Howard,
(c.
1700-71).
Petersburg (Leningrad),
Winter 1754-68.
Martin Hiirlimann.
of state apartments, Tsarskoye Selo
(Pushkin).
362
.
193 Francesco de'Guardi (1712-93). Wedding of Tobiolo (detail). Palazzo Grassi, Venice. Archivio
Hiirlimann.
176 Christopher
184 Doorways
.
39. Hirmer Verlag.
Alten/
London, 1775-1710. Martin
transept, St Paul's,
St
1693-1750). Design
fotografico veneziano.
175 Christopher
Palace,
(c.
192 Alcove in breakfast room, Palazzo Reale, Turin,
174 Pulpit, Stiftskirche, Schlierbach, Austria, 1690.
Fields,
salon.
191 Frangois de Cuvillies (1695-1768). Spiegelsaal,
FrodlKraft.
182 James
Oval
Amahenburg, Nymphenburg, Munich, 1734-
begun 173 1. Eva FrodhKraft. 173 Pulpit, Altmiinster, Lin2, Austria, c. 1670. Eva
shire.
AGRACL
for cenffe^piece, Paris, 1734,
Stiftskirche,
Austria,
(Royal
du Petit^Luxembourg,
Hotel
Salon,
190 Just&'Aurele Meissonier
Schneider.
Melk, Austria, 1702-26. Foto Marburg.
Bildarchiv
Poland,
Institut Sztuki,
Hotel de Soubise, Paris, 1738-40. John Webb.
169 JohannBernhardFischervonErlach(i656-i72j). Karlskirche, Vienna, 1716-25. Eva FrodhKraft.
Prandtauer
Krosno,
church,
189 Germain Bofftand (1667-1754).
Melk, Austria, 1702-26.
burg,
Grand
Paris, 1710.
Prandtauer
171 Jakob
Franciscan
Pracownia Fotograficzna.
188
Ochrany Pnrody.
168 Jakob
Dome,
1647-50. Polska Akademia Nauk,
167 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (16561723). Ahnensaal, Schloss Frain (Vranov),
185 Monastery refeaory, Zagorsk, Moscow, 1686-92.
Francisco de Assis,
204 Doorway
Bom
Ouro
Preto,
1766 and 1774.
of chapel. Terrace of the Evangelists,
Jesus
do Monte, Braga, Portugal, 1767.
205 Thomas Chippendale
(c.
1709-79)- Design for
fireplace,
from The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's
Director,
London
1762.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
206 Stucco in North Hall, Claydon House, Bucking/ hamshire,
ture
and Painting. CoUeaion Conte L. Vecelh,
Rome.
1775. Edwin Smith.
c.
207 Inigo Jones(i573-i652). Queen's House, Green/ wich. Ministry of Public Building and Works. 208 Arent van 's/Gravesande (b. 1600). Sebastians/
The Hague,
ManselUAlinari.
Kauffmann (1741-1807). Ariadne
228 Angelika
deserted by Bacchus. Gemaldegalerie, Dresden.
Deutsche Fotothek.
1636.
229 Gavin Hamilton (1723-98). The Eighth Duke of Hamilton. Coll. Duke of Hamilton. Tom Scott.
209 Richard, Earl of Burlington (1695-175 3). Chis/
230 Joseph Vien (1716-1809). Vendor of Loves. Chateau de Fontainebleau. Giraudon.
doelen (Gemeentemuseum), Rijksdienst Monwnentenzorg.
wick House, Middlesex, 1725.
Ministry of Public
Building and Works.
210
1664. Copyright Country
Lodge,
Kent,
Castle,
Kent,
Vitruvius Britannicus,
212 Christian
1715-25, vol.
Friedrich
213
Thomas mond,
Anna
233 Gerard Honthorst (1590-1656). St Joseph the
Mellon Bruce Fund. National Gallery of Art.
Waltrova.
Jefferson (1743-1826). Capitol,
(c
1676-1736).
Rich/
Basilica
(c.
1700-64). San Simeone
Soufflot
(1713-80).
Holkham
1685-1748).
(c.
Great
Hall,
Hall, Norfolk, begun 1734. National
Buildinp Record, B. T. Batsford.
218 Jacques/Germain
Soufflot
(1713-80).
Sainte/
Genevieve(Pantheon),Paris,beguni757.G/raMi/u«.
219 Domenico Merlini (1731-97). Rotunda, La/ zienki,
Warsaw, 1784-93.
220 Filippo Juvarra
(c.
Basilica
di
Round Paris.
salon
on ground
floor.
Hotel de Fersen,
AGRACI.
museum,
St Petersburg,
c.
Fates.
1683). Portrait of a
Museo Civico, Padua.
Fondazione Giorgio Cini.
237 Francesco del Cairo (1598-1674). Herodias. Museo Civico, Vicenza. Museo Civico. 238 Francesco Maffei (c 1620-60). Adoration of the Magi. San Tommaso Cantuariense, Padua. Edizioni Artistiche Florentine.
239 Vittore Ghislandi (1655-1743). bella
Portrait of Isa/
Camozzi de'Gherardi. Collection Conte Alinari.
240 Gaspare Traversi (1732-69). Brawl. Museo di Soprintendenza
Laboratorio Fotografico della
alle Gallerie,
Naples.
241 'Monsu Desiderio'. Fantastic ruins with a vision
222 Charles/Louis Clerisseau (1722-1820). Projea for
(d.
San Martino, Naples.
Superga, Turin, 1717-31.
221
Three
(1581-I644).
Camozzi/Vertova, Bergamo.
Foto Marburg.
1676-1736).
Sttozzi
236 Sebastiano Mazzoni
captain of halberdiers. Sainte/
Genevieve(Pamheon),Paris,beguni757.G/'wHJo«.
217 William Kent
the Detroit Institute of Arts.
zis Bernardo
Piccolo, Venice, 1718-38. Edwin Smith.
216 Jacques/Germain
234 Artemisia Gentileschi (1597-1651). Judith and Holofernes. Institute of Art, Detroit, Courtesy of
di
Superga, Turin, 1717-31. Alinari.
215 Giovanni Scalfarotto
Carpenter. San Silvestro, Montecompatri. Gabi^ netto fotografico nazionale.
Virginia, begun 1785. Ewing Galloway.
214 Filippo Juvarra
AGRACL
232 Orazio Gentileschi
(1753-1832).
Kacina, neat Prague, 1802. Stdtni Ustau Parnate koviPece a Ochrany Pfircdy,
Rock Private
(c. 1565-1639). Lute player. NationalGalleryofAn,Washington,D.C.,Ailsa
3.
Schuricht
Mary (detail).
Campbell,
from
1723,
(1748-1825). St
interceding with the Virgin
Collection, Paris.
Life.
211 Colen Campbell (d. 1729). Elevation of Mere/
worth
David
231 Jacques/Louis
Hugh May (1622-84). Eltham
c.
of St Augustine. National Gallery,
London. By
Courtesy of the Trustees of the National Gallery.
1780.
of Congress.
242 Henry Fuseli (1741-1825). Titania and Bottom. Kunsthaus, Zurich.
224 Carlo Marchionni (1702-86). ViUa Albani,
243 Salvator Rosa (1715-73). Witches. Collection
223 Peter Harrison (1716-75). Synagogue, Newport,
Rhode
Island,
Rome, 1746-63.
1762-63.
Library
Alinari.
225 Jacques/Ange Gabriel (1698-1782). Hotel de la Marine, Place Louis/XV (Place de la Concorde), Paris, 1754. Giraudon.
zz6 Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732-1808). Bran/ denburg Gate, Berlin, 1789-94. Martin Hiirli" mann.
227 Pompeo Batoni (1708-87). Architecture, Sculp/
Busiri Vici.
Magnasco (1667-1749). Woman and soldiers at table. De Jong Memorial Museum, San Francisco, Calif. Dejong Memorial Museum.
244 Alessandro
245 Grotesques
in
grounds
of
Villa
Palagonia,
Bagheria, near Palermo, 1774-82.
246 King with
bearers,
from the
Indes, Gobelins, Paris, 1687.
first
Tenture des 363
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
247 Prince Eugene's bed, in Kaiserzimmer, Sankt Florian, Austria, eighteenth century. Bildarchw
267 Jean'Philippe Carel (fi. 1712). Lacquer com/ mode. Connaissance des Arts, Jacqueline Guillot.
der osteneichischen Natiomlbibliothek.
268 Wenzel Jamnitzer
248 Console table with figures of Moors, in Palazzo Colonna, Rome, seventeenth century. Vasari. Frans Post (c. 1612-80). Oxcart in Brazil. Musee 249
Munich.
(i7i9-95)-
odalisques embroidering.
Vilk
Musk
Musee de Nice. Musee.
d'Art
et d'Histoire.
253 Nicolas de Pigage (1723-96).
Mosque
of the
Moslem Troubadour, Schwetzingen, c. 1780. 254 Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz (1716-96). Turkish 'tent', Drottningholm, Sweden. Comaissance des Arts. Desjardins.
of
Company of
271 Charles Kandler
1734). Wine-cooler. Her/
(Jl.
milage, Leningrad.
272
Adam
vanVianen(c 1569-1627). Ewer. museum, Amsterdam. RJjksmuseum.
garden, from
New
des Arts, Jacqueline Guillot.
274 Base of fountain, Cordoba, eighteenth century. 275 Johann Baptist Pedrozzi (1710-78). Zedern/ saal, Neues Schloss, Bayreuth.
di
Palazzo
Reale,
Instituto Bancario
Germanisches Nationalmuseum.
Toledo
Frankenthal,
Dos Aguas,
Valencia. Courtauld
St John. National Gallery,
eighteenth
Institute
of Art.
London. By
courtesy
of the Trustees of the National Gallery. barber's
bowl,
Kakiemon
style.
283 Bachiacca (1494-1557). Virgin and Child with
&
St John. Formerly Collection Bruscoli, Florence. 284 Sassoferrato (1609-85). Virgin and Child. Gal'
Saxony, eighteenth century. Collection Herr Frau P. Ludwig, Aachen. Foto Hinz.
263 Silver tea caddy, London, 1748. Worshipful of
Goldsmiths,
London.
Wor.>
Company of Goldsmiths.
museum.
26$ Plate with 'Hob in the well' motif, Chelsea, eighteenth century. Irwin
Untermyer Collection,
Pompeo
Rome.
Anderson.
Batoni (1708-87). Virgin and Child.
Rome.
286 Raphael (1483-1520).
ManselUAnderson.
Sistine
Madonna
(detail).
Gemaldegalerie, Dresden. Deutsche Fotothek.
287 Jean/Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Vows of Louis XIII (detail: Virgin and Child). Montau/
ban
cathedral. Bulloz.
288 After Charles Le Brun (1619-90). Louis
York.
266 Thomas Chippendale
Borghese,
leria
285
Galleria Borghese,
264 Rochus Jacobsz. Hoppesteyn (c. 1650-92). Jar, Delft, c. 1690. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Rijks^
New
Transparente,
cathedral, 1721-32. Mas.
282 Raphael (148 3-1 520). Virgin and Child with
century.
shipful
1715-38).
(Jl.
281 Ignacio Vergara (1715-76). Doorway, Casa de
eighteenth century. Scala.
Company
»
Tome
280 Narciso
San
Torino (Pizzi).
262 Porcelain
Collection
279 Pavilion of the Hermits, Eremitage, Bayreuth,
260 Oval room, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples, 261 Porcelain tea caddy,
1750.
c.
1715 Cinese,
Turin, eighteenth century. Paolo
Venice,
cradle,
278 Stone garden seat, Germany, eighteenth century. Germanisches Nauonalmuseum, Nuremberg.
1755. Martin Hiirlimann.
259 Decor in Gabinetto
Wooden
Saint/Pierre,
AmeUs.Ca.rtei.'V emce.Bayerisches Nationalmuseum.
Principles of Gardening, 1728.
258 Figures, Chinese pavilion, Sanssouci, Potsdam,
Rijks'
273 Physics exhibit. Cabinet Bonnier de la Mosson, Paris (engraving after Courtonne). Connaissance
277
of Art.
for centre^
piece. Uffizi, Florence. Mansell.
256 Christian IV of Denmark (1577-1648). Spire of Royal Exchange, Copenhagen, 1620-40. Courts Institute
London.
Goldsmiths,
276 Jacques Berger (1693-1756). Pulpit, Louvain, 1742. A. C. L.
257 Batty Langley (1696-1751). Design for Chinese
staatlichen
Goldsmiths.
255 Jean'LouisDesprez(i743-i8o4).DesignforChi^ nese pavilion, Drottningholm, 1788. Riksarkivet.
mid
364
Company
shipful
Worshipful
Geneva, Fondation Gottfried Keller.
de Geneve,
der
Seen.
269 Paul de Lamerie (1688-1751). Gilt ewer. Wor/
with
Sultana
252 Jean^Etienne Liotard (1702-89). Countess of Coventry in Turkish costume. Musee d'Art et d'Histoire,
Verwaltung
md
270 Jacques Callot (1592-1635). Design
Nationalmuseum, Stockholm.
Amed^e van Loo
Garten
Schlosser,
du Louvre, Paris. Archives Photographiques. 250 Claude Audran III (1658-1734). Grotesques. 251
1550-99). Ewer. Residenz,
((.
Bayerische
{c.
1760, one of pair. Sothehy
1709-79). Mirror,
&
Co., London.
c.
visits
the Gobelins factory.
Paris. Giraudon.
Musee
XFV
des Gobelins,
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
289 Johann Joachim Kandler (1706-75). Porcelain love temple, Meissen. Museum fiir Kunsthand^ wetk, Frankfurt
am
As
Main.
Museum, London.
Museum, Crown Copyright.
c.
Mme 1760.
de Pompadour
as
Wadsworth Athene
um,Hartford,Conn. Courtesy WadsworthAtheneum.
294 Nicolas Ransonnette (1745-18 10). Tide page of L'Art de la porcelaine, 1771. Bibliotheque de la Ma' 295 Retrospective decree of Louis
XV incorporating
crown institution, 1760. Archives de la Manufaaure Nationale de Sevres. the Sevres factory as a
296 Porcelain manufacture, from the of Diderot and d'Alembert, 1777.
Encyclopedie
297 Porcelain teapot (soft paste), Vincennes, Viaoria and Albert Museum, London.
O
Aleijadinho (1738-1814).
Crown
c.
1750.
Victoria
William of Orange,
for fountain. Piazza
Vaticana.
century.
318 David
Bailly
Leyden. By
Private
collection,
AGRACI. London.
Reproduced
by
302 'BVRB'. Desk, Paris, eighteenth century.
Cob
Mrs Charles B. Wrightsman. Museum of Art. 8c
303 'BVRB'. Bureau de dame with Oriental lacquer. Paris, eighteenth century. Schloss
Sclilosser,
Bayerische
Verwaltung
Nymphenburg, der
staatlichen
Garten und Seen.
304 Bas rehef of St Valentine, Veneto, 1662. Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona. Museo di Castelvecchio. 305 Altar, Fazen de Santo Antonio, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
K.
Vosylius.
306 Ivar Gundersen Ovstrud (171 1-75). Stone coffer (detail: Angel). Nordiska Museet, Oslo. Museet. 307 Jaguar
(detail),
Embii, Brazil, eighteenth century.
Alinari.
{c.
artist.
Vanitas: Stedelijk
H. TerryEngell
still/life
Museum, Gallery.
1676-1736). Stage design.
Museum, London. Victoria Crown Copyright. 320 Giacomo Lecchi and Carlo Carlone (1686and Albert Museum,
1776). Frescoes, Villa Lechi, Mortirone, 1745. Georgina Masson. {c.
148&-1546).
Dome
dei Miracoli, Sarotmo, 1534.
Lanfranco
ManselU Alinari.
permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.
Munich.
800.
Victoria and Albert
Paris.
of drawers, France, eighteenth century. Collection,
courtesy of
319 Filippo Juvarra
323 Pietro da
vate collection, Paris.
Metropolitan
1
Minerva, Rome. Biblioteca
(1584-1627).
San Gennaro
joo Faience dredger, Rouen, eighteenth century. Pri^
Mr
(detail).
Biblioteca Vaticana.
Delft,
AGRACI.
Rome.
Jesuit missions, Sant' Ignazio,
322 Giovanni
lection
Isaiah
317 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Design
A GRA CI.
figurine of
Wallace
Rio
eight'
Congonhas do Campo, Brazil,
321 Gaudeiizio Ferrari
Copyright.
eenth century. Private collection, Paris.
301 Chest
and
Hess.
Madonna
eighteenth
Bolivia.
Ivliguel,
Sul, Brazil, seventeenth
Bom Jesus,
298 Faience wine-cooler, Moustiers, France, eighth
299 Faience
Sao
(details),
with portrait of young
nujacture Nationale de Sevres.
and Albert Museum,
Saints
de Belas Artes.
Potosi,
316 Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709). Allegory of the
de Ceramica.
293 Porcelain figurine of Friendship, Sevres,
Lorenzo,
eenth centuries. Marcel Gautherot.
315
292 Plate with allegory of Architeaure, Alcora, before 1750. Museo de Ceramica, Barcelona.
San
of
Grande do
291 Porcelain plaqueshowing Maria Theresa, Doccia,
Museo
1667-72. Academia Nacional
tugal,
310 Doorway
311-14 Anon.
sewn fiir Kunsthandwerk.
Victoria and Albert
Le Brun, Konstanz.
Einsiedeln. Jeannine
309 Virgin, Santuario de Mosterio, Alcobaga, Por^
2go.
290 Porcelain coffee service, Vienna, 1760. Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt am Main. Mu'
1745. Viaoria and Albert
Anne,
308 Christoph Daniel Schenk (d. 1691). St
(1582-1647).
of
As ^22.
Dome
of
chapel, Naples cathedral, 1641.
Conona
(1596-1669).
Dome
of Santa
Maria in ValliceUa, Rome. ManselUAlinari. 324 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Dome of Stiftskirche, Altenburg, Austria. Verlag F. Bruckmann. 325 Giambattista Piazzetta (i 682-1754).
SS. Giovanni
e Paolo,
Venice,
c.
Dome
of
1725. ManselU
Anderson.
326 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770).
world pays homage
to
of Art, Washington,
The
Spain. National Gallery
D.
C,
Samuel H. Kress
Collection. National Gallery of Art.
327 Kosmas choir,
Damian Asam (1686-1739).
Klosterkirche,
Weingarten,
Ceiling of
Germany.
Verlag F. Bruckmann.
328 Matthaus Giinther (1705-88).
Triumph
dith, Pfarrkirche, Wilten, Bavaria, lag F.
of Ju^
1754. Ver^
Bruckmann.
329 Johann Jakob Zeiller (1708-83). Pentecost,
dome
above crossing, Ottobeuren, Swabia, 1763 Hirmer. .
330 Johann Georg Bergmiiller (1688-1762). Ceiling
365
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
of
Zwiefalten,
nave,
Bavaria.
331 Guarino Guarini (1624-83).
Hirmer
Lc
renzo, Turin. Alimri.
kirche,
Vierzehnheiligen,
Bavaiia,
335 Pieter Jansz. Saenredam (i 597-1665). View of St Janskerk, Uorecht, 1645. Centraal Museum, Utrecht. Centraal Museum.
336 Kerk, Alkmaar, seventeenth century. 337 Salomon de Brosse (i 571-1626).
Wren
(1632-1723).
London, 1700. A. F.
Roman
(Musee
Louis (1731-1800). Bordeaux,
Theatre,
des
Grand
Staircase,
1772-80.
Helga
Schmidts
Glassner.
361 Luigi Vanvitelli (1700-73). Staircase, Palazzo
(c.
1690 -f. 1780). Marble
Klosterneuburg, Austria, 1730-50.
345 Donato Felice Allio (r. 1690-f. 1780). Kloster^ neuburg, Austria, 1730-50. BiMarchiv der oster^
Aerofilms.
347 Bartolommeo Rastrelli (1700-71). Fagade, Pe^ terhof (Pyetrodvorets), near Leningrad, 1715-57.
Wiirzburg, engraving
Residenz,
(1678-175 3). after
Salomon
Kleiner.
Martin von Wagner.'Museum, Wiirzburg. Ver^ Gundermann.
349 Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736). Zwinger, Dresden, 171 9, engraving showing carrousel.
begun
1752.
Residenz, Wiirzburg,
(1678-1753). c.
Staircase,
1750. Verlag Gundermann. «
363 Salzburg, Austria.
364 Modica, Sicily. Germain Bazin. 1700. A. C. L. 365 Grand' Place, Brussels, 3'7- ^™-'fig^-
123, 202
Asam, Kosmas Damian
313, 321; Frederiks'
borg 82, 92, Rosenborg 244, 326, 389, Royal Exchange 217, 256'
307, 2og, 3^8
Cairo, Francesco del 237 Callot, Jacques 270
Altomonte,
19, 122
Cordoba: cathedral 44, fountain
Bernini,
344-5 Altenburg:
Cochin, Nicolas
79
Biickeburg: castle 82, 8g Bulfinch, Charles 133
Sanssouci 118-9, 25S
Alessi, Galeazzo 36, 78, 75
133,
Coello, Alonso Sanchez 9 College de La Fleche, chapel 79,
36s Brustolon,
Charles'Louis
136, 222
Buzzi, Carlo 75, 57
226, Kurfijrstenbriicke 317, 577,
Aleotti, Giambattista 203, ^4
AUio, Donato
Johann Georg 330 Brandenburg Gate 136,
Bergmiiller,
125,
35,
Claude Lorrain 101-2, 307, xi Claydon House 123, 206
Briihl: palace 243,
Pompeo
Batoni,
Bruegel, Jan ('Velvet') 91, 107
Charenton: Temple 291, 337
333,
Chelsea: Hospital 113, porcelain
panisches Palais 230, Zwinger
faaory 218,
Chippendale,
114, 123,
133, 218, 205, 266, fig. 3 Chiswick House 132, 307, 209,
358 Churriguera, Alberto 312, 3^0
Chute, John 77, 72
Neustadt 317, Ja'
46, 118, 225, ios, 349
2659
Emmanuel
312-3, 368
Herrera, the Elder 80, 324
Herzogenburg: picture room 38J Hildebrandt, Lucas von 117, 118,
Henry 209, 242
Fyt, Jean 106, 160
289, 294. 299, 195. 343. 379 Hobbema, Meindert, 90, Vll
Gabriel Jacques 55, 75
Holkham
Gabriel,
Jacques'Ange
95,
96,
134. 304, 319, 121, 22$, fig. 28
monastery
Hall, Norfolk 132, 217
Holzinger, Franz Joseph Ignaz 76, 123, 65
Clement 84, 326, 3^0 Laino d'Intelvi: San Lorenzo 78, 76 Lafaille,
Lanfranco, Giovanni 240, 322
Langhans, Carl Gotthard 136, 226
Le Blond, Frangois 314, 315 Le Brun, Charles 40-1, 96,
Huyssens, Peter 79, 82 loy
Jean^Dominique 232, 287
Wenzel 221, 268
Thomas
133, 213
Loo, Amedee van 219, 2^1 Lorrain, see Claude Louis
XrV
10, 23, 25, 27-30, 37,
218, 227, 230, 232, 297, 298, 301, 306, 317, 318, 323, 328, 20, 23
Louvain:
Saint--Pierre
276
Lutma, Janus 222, 6g Lyons: Saint'Pierr^295, 341
Maderno, Carlo 75, 103, 287, fig.
136,
16
102,
La Granja
299,
Palacio
308,
Maffei, Francesco 238
210, 244 Male, Emile 17, 42, 43 Malgrange, Chateau de 301,71?. ig Mannheim 315: Schwetzingen
Claude
Nicolas
134,
3^7 loi,
i2g
Le
Leoni,
Le Le
220, 309, 2S3, 355 Mansart, Frangois 95, 107, 124, 301, 318, 123
Nostre,
Andre
96, 219, 306,
Mansart, Jules Hardouin^
see
douin'Mansart, Jules
XII
Jefferson,
290,
Magnasco, Alessandro 77, 208,
Huysum, Jan van
Jamnitzer,
Mary Abchurch
St Mary^le^Bow 181, St Paul's
301, 306, 34-s, 148, 288, 3^2, IX Lecce io6: Prefettura windows 67
Gentileschi, Orazio 207, 2J2 Ghislandi, Vittore 209, 2j^
Girardin, Rene^Louis de 307-8
St
,290, 1 82,
107, 108, 122, 124, 220, 227-8,
Le Mercier, Jacques 95, 304 Le Nain, Louis and Mathieu
Giof&edo, Mario 299-301
St
1 1 3
Real 241-2, 299, 326, Puente de Toledo 165
Hoppesteyn, Rochus Jacobsz. 264 Huygens, Constantijn 39, 90, 94
Ingres,
338,
Juan de Valdes 115, 209, 155
Leal,
Gentileschi, Artemisia 208, 2^4
182,
St
Piccadilly
Madrid: Escurial 79, 293-5, 324> 325, g, Casa del Campo 316,
Ledoux,
Gibbons, Grinling 114, iy8 Gibbs, James 11 3-4, 290-1,
290,
Langley, Batty 77, 257 La Tour, Georges de 44, loi, 38 La Vallee, Jean de 94, 114
233 Hoogstraten, Samuel van v
78,75
James's,
24,
Benetfink
St
297,
Lamerie, Paul de 25, 224, 26^
Galileo Galilei 50, 89
Annunziata
119,
J52,
Honthorst, Gerard 21, 90, 207,
Santissima
Duke
318, 378
51, 95-6. 102, 124, 126, 216,
Gainsborough, Thomas 114
Genoa:
I
Louis, Victor 305, 360 113,
Heda, WillemClaesz.91, 238, 104 Heem, Jan Davidsz. de 91, 106^ Heermann, Paul 21 Here,
78, y8
Fuga, Ferdinando 106, 134, 322-3, Fuseli,
Hawksmoor, Nicholas
do Comercio do Recio 315
113,290, i7S.fii-i3 monastery
von 118, 136
32i, 120, 124, 346,fig. 2j Harrison, Peter 293, 223
Ferdinand
fig. 14,
monastery
Hals, Frans 90, 92, 114, 108
57i
Praga
315, 320, Praga
Martinin'the'Fields
San Lorenzo 78, San Michele Visdomini 7, Laurentian Li' 3i
Ashmolean Museum
Church
77, 60, St John's
Quadrant
Monreale 106, 1^5 Montanes, Juan Martinez 80, 95, 115,235, 132 Moosbrugger, Joseph Simon 294
Palagonia,
Altes
Residenztheater
Nepomuk'Kirche) phenburg 25,
120,
126,
Nym/
121,
igi,
Residenz 126, 304, 326 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban 115,
fig-
209-10,
Prince
Palermo: San Lorenzo 46, 122, 42, ig4,
Bagheria/^.
Stanislas)
368 Naples 106: Albergo dei Poveri iZ2,f£. 30, cathedral 240, 322, di San Martino 79,
Certosa
del
Museo di San Severo
Gesu 321, Capodimonte
380, 260,
122, Santa Chiara
76, 295 Nash, Richard 'Beau' 133, 320
Neumann, Johann
Villa
21,
Palladio,
Pak'
Andrea
16,
Balthasar 124,
116,
131,
132, 302
Pannini, Giovanni Paolo 56^ Paris 322: Les Genovefains 295,
Hopital de fig. 2g,
la
Hotel
Salpetriere
322,
Fersen
221,
de
Hotel des Invalides 96, 323, 124, Lauzun 118, Hotel
382, Hotel
Rigaud, Hyacinthe 102, 108, xiv
Farnese
46,
Roelas, Juan de las 80, 94
Rohr: Augustinian church 125-6,
Piazzetta, Giambattista 209, 241,
igg
Rome
Piedmont: Stupinigi 16, 3^6 Pigage, Nicolas de 136, 220, 309, 255,
50
Pineda, Bernardo Simon de 115,161
68, II Gesii
103, 286, 13s, 144. fig- 5- Palazzo Barberini 297, 138, 104, fig. 16,
Quirinale
del
Palazzo
240, Palazzo Farnese 103, 104,
297, ^53137. Palazzo Veneto 296,
295.
Ponzio, Flaminio 103, 134 Poppelmann, Daniel 118, 549
Giacomo
Biblioteca
322:
310,
paganda Fide 76,
355
Pigalle, Jean'Baptiste 44, 1 01,
Porta,
21,
Corsini 325, CoUegio di Pro/
della 103, ^8, 13^
h-iJ' Piazza
Capitolina 318, Piazza Minerva 244, 317, Piazza Navona 223, 312, 36g, Piazza del Popolo 3 10,
Porta, Giambattista della 41
San Carlo
Post, Frans 216, 24g
104-5, 303,
alle
Quattro Fontane
i42,fig. g,
San Carlo
Potsdam: Sanssouci 220, 25S
Corso 93, San Luigi dei Francesi 104, 154, Sam' Andrea
Poussin, Nicolas 16, 40, 42, 95,
al
Post, Pieter 131,
101-2, 215,
222
al
Pozzo, Andrea 16, 105, 125, 238, 240-1, 242, 316, IV Prandtauer, Jakob 118, 294, 168,
171,342,359 Pressburg (Bratislava):
Quirinale
104,
141, fig. 8,
Sant' Ignazio 105-6, 125, 340-1.
X
242, 243, 316, IV, Sant' Ivo alia Sapienza 105, 219, 143, Santa
Maria Maggiore 103, 134, Santa Maria del Popolo 104, Santa
Puget, Pierre loi, 108, 149
Maria in ValUcella 323, Santa Maria della Vittoria 46, 105, 40, XIII, Santa Susanna 75, 103,
Notre'Dame 74, Place de la Concorde 317, 319, 22^, fig. 28, Dauphine 312, 318, Place
Pushkin: Tsarskoye Selo 119, 126,
136, St Peter's 36. 75. 93, 104,
318, Place
QueUinus, Artus 94-5, 115-6^ Queretaro: Santa Clara 163 Quiiiones, Andres Garcia de 312,
du Petit'Luxembourg de
Soubise
Louvre 96, 296-7, 312: Place Royale (Place
Guglia
24^,
22
Hotel
is6
Palazzo
Sisto 146
Pommersfelden 298, 302 Pontormo, Jacopo da 7
gonia 305, 24s, fig. 22
'Asamkirche' (Johannes^
San
valho e Mello 315, 320
Paine, James ioi, fig. 20
Munich:
Piacenza:
Capi'
Robert, Hubert 557 Rodriguez, Ventura 136, 290
119,299,347
Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de Car^
Pacher, Michael 76, 63
66, 1J2, ig-j
palace
State
133, 213
Roldan, Pedro 115, 161
Molenaer, Jan Miense 91, 110
Munggenast, Josef 118, 123, 289,
(Pyetrodvorets):
Paula 14
Dreifaltigkeitssaule 321,
Mortirone: Villa Lechi 244, 320
Peterhof
tol
Pezani, Valentino Sj
gle 80, 8t
Nancy
228,229, 313, 317.575
126, 242, 290, 294, 32g, 340,
Modica
3 1
Reni, Guido 208, 215
Pater, Jean^Baptiste 122
Pembroke, Earl of 131, 132
College, Canterbury
Mora, Francisco de
Pascal, Blaise 8, 9
Oporto: Sao Bento 162
Christ
38,
Bartolommeo 119, 295,
117,183,347 Rembrandt van Rijn 44, 52, 90, 92, 207-8, 215, 217, 242, 51, in
Olinda: Conceigao 236
326, Bodleian Library 325, 3^1,
311, ^64
Rastrelli,
Reynolds, Sir Joshua 114, 228, 157 Ribera, Jose 208, 234
Mocchi, Francesco 105, 317, ^^2
304,
An'
17, 40, 89, 102, 134, 136,
207, 232, 239, 286, 282, 286
Pedrozzi, Johann Baptist 275
78, /j Millizia, Francesco 16, 135
Modling:
302, 303,
Raphael
Olerys 230, 2g8
Ouro
107-8
Mignon, Abraham 91, loz Milan 78: Cathedral 74-5, 56-^, Palazzo Clerici 242, San Paolo Converse 78, 240, 242, San Sebastiano 45, Santa Maria presso
Aleijadinho
tonio Francisco
XIX
239, 286, 287, 318
Mignard,
325, Teatro Farnese
44
Melk: monastery 42-3, 118, 216,
Merlini,
45,
Ducale 46, San Giovanni 240,
210 May, Hugh Mazzola, Girolamo Bedoli 4 Mazzoni, Sebastiano 209, 2J^
294. 2g, 168, i^ji,
Syna^
Theatre des Tuileries 303,
Val'dc'Grace 95, 96, 12J Parma: cathedral 239, Palazzo
Place Royale 312,
Vendome
120, 188,
120,
i8g,
10, 11, 122,
312, 317. 3i8, 3i9,
des Victoires fig.2j. Place
312,
318, 319, Pont du Change 28, Pont'Neuf 316, 318, Rue de
Crenelle 321, Sainte^Genevieve 134, 216, 218, 125,
school
Saint'Roch 96,
of
surgery
324,
cathedral
119, iji
132, 136, 299, 184
370
124, 244, 286, 287, 43. 140, St Peter's square 311, 139, Vati/
can
93,
296-7,
327,
Villa
Albani 11^,224 Rosa, Salvator 16, 208, 210-15, 307, 243
Rousseau, Jeanjacques 16, 308 Raggi, Antonio 144 Rambouillet, Chateau de 25, xxill Ransonnette, Nicolas 294
Rubens, Peter Paul 20, 21, 24, 35. 104, 106, 114, 215, 217, 227, S, 8, is8,
XVI
3
INDEX Rudbeck, Olov 324, ^84
Seville: cathedral 132,
Ruisdael, Jacob van 90, 307, VI
La Caridad
Real Fabrica de Ta/'
155, 161,
bacos 327, San Salvador 116,
Santa Maria
Saenredam, Pieter Jansz. 291, 555 St Petersburg 26, 313-14, 315:
Antiquarium 327, Museum, pro' for 222, Marble Palace 134, Winter Palace 119, i8y, Peter
jea the
Great 317,575
Saint'Pierre, Joseph
Salamanca:
de 304, 309
Plaza
Mayor
312,
370 Salzburg, 311, 565; Franziskaner^ kjrche 6j, y6, Kollegienkirche
Solari, Santino 116,
308,554 Jacques'Germain 134,
216, 218
Hans g2
Venice
241, 525,
Joachim von 21, 24
Sanfelice,
Ferdinando 106, 302
Sangallo,
xx
Antonio da 286, 287,
296, 297, '37
Sankt Florian:
staircase
55^
236, pi-i4,fy. 4 Sao Paulo: Santo Antonio 505
Madonna
Saronno:
dei Miracoli
(Santa Maria) 45, 78, 239, 240, 74' 321
Sassoferrato 232, 284
Savery, Roelant 210, 105 Scalfarotto,
Thornhill,
Sir
James 114,
323,
Giovanni
Antonio
Scaria d'Intelvi: Santa Maria 36, 7S. 77
Schmidt, Nicolaus 15 Schuricht, Christian Friedrich 212 Seitenstetten: mineralogical collec/
Toledo: cathedral
1
16, 224, 280
Tome, Narciso 116, Torelli, Giacomo 41
214,
220,
Reale
Capella
ig2,
della
San
25^,
42.194,374 Servr.ndoni,
134
Giovanni
Niccolo
126, 120,
Ambassadeurs fig. 24,
house
Twickenham: Strawberry Hill
77,
Oberlingen: Miinster 82, 235, go,
Uppsala: Theatrum Anatomicum (dissecting theatre) 324, 384
Utrecht: St Janskerk 33^
Casa de Dos Aguas Los Desamparados
281,
M
7 2^7, Valladolid: Las Huelgas 95, 133 Sir
John
113,
131,
Thomas
76, 64
177
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim
Emanuel de
111
Wolfflin, Heinrich 16-7, 18
Wood, John Wood, John
I 133, 320,
II 133,
567
320
1
Woudt, Jan Cornelisz. van't 38^ Wren, Sir Christopher 24, 60, 77,
Teatro
108-13, 114, 131, 290, 315-61
Vien, Joseph 135, 230 Vienna 47: HofbibUothek (Na^
Wright, JosejJi (of Derby) 84, Wiirzburg 84, 302: Neumiinster
Trianon 96, 120 Adam van 222, Basilica
272, fig.
132,
Olimpico 302
323, 175-^, 181, 338. 383, fig. 13
tionalbibliothek) 117, 118,242, 170,
Karlskirche 44, 117, 118,
^
83,
S5,
Residenz
ig
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