Germain Bazin. "The Baroque. Principles, Styles, Modes, Themes".

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The

Baf&i^ie

Principles

Styles



Modes



Themes



GERMAIN BAZIN Conservateur en chef au Musee du Louvre

Between the decline of Italian Mannerism and the rise of Neoclassicism, during a period of about 200 years

before

the

of the 19th century, European art

start

passed through an age of unparalleled

and grandeur known univer^

richness

which

sally as Baroque,

this

the subject of

is

book. Germain Bazin, recognizing

the complexity of his subject,

attempt

reduce

to

it

an

to

unity. Rather, as he says,

makes no artificial

was an age

it

rich with all the potentials of

Western

artistic culture.

The book political

begins

and

'life

second

review

a

intellectual principles

helped to form

when

with

part

and

art

was

itself

deals

stylistic traditions

life

an

with

which

a time

at

The

art'.

major

the

coalesce in the

Baroque period and lead eventually the

Rococo and

work

at

to

produce

this

forces

complex and

fascinating era in post^Renaissance

which

by

conflicts

both

and the

man and

his

Baroque

More

inner

work of

artist.

than

author's

art,

vast politico^ecclesias^

tical forces are reflected in the

the

to

Neoclassic.

and four deal with the

Parts three

of

which

425

own

illustrations

choosing,

of

of

the

which 24

are in color, capture the inexhaustible

energy and variety of Baroque

complement provoking

a challenging

text.

cd^,

418 plates, 24

in

50

y^

text figures

.

art

and

and thought^

:Hmi^ffiH8S8Ha&^a^l8®5BiiB^aa.W>BBra»8ilBiffll^

Due

Ml5

7:n709.4

Bazln, Germain The baroque: principles, styles, modes, [Translation by Pat Wardroper] themes. Greenwich, Conn., New York Graphic Society [cl968] illus. (part col.) 368p.

Bibliograph^^p

.

"'"".

357.'^

^

i 1

MARIN cJLrf;

J^^'

\^ .

que

V

I.

Title

THE BAROQUE

1

rlxl/

PRINCIPLES

BAROQUE STYLES

MODES THEMES

GERMAIN BAZIN CONSERVATEUR EN CHEF AU MUS£E DU LOUVRE

NEW YORK GRAPHIC SOCIETY GREENWICH, CONNECTICUT

TRASSLATION BY PAT WARDROPER

BLOCKS MADE BY KLISCHEEVTERKSTATTEN

DER DCDUSTRIEDIEKST, WIESBADEN, GERMAXY' PRINTED BY DUMONT PRESSE, COLOGNE, GER«4AN-1BOUJOJ BY VAN RIJMENAM N. V.. THE HAGUE, HOLLAND LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGCE C.\RD NO. 68-25737

©

1968

THAMES AND HUDSON, LONDON

ALL RIGHTS RESER\"ED PRINTED IN WESTERN GERMANY

Contents

INTRODUCTION I

7

PRINCIPLES 1

Definitions

14

The word 'baroque'

2

From

Italian

i^So-iySo:

3

13

its



meaning and history

Europe

political

to

rococo as the fulfilment of the baroque



French Europe

20

and cultural patterns

The Milieu Absolutism



27

the royal

and imperial

ideas

the ideal



of self-mastery

God

and the prince

4 Ethic and aesthetic

40

Rltetoric and the techniques of expression

II

allegory

and symbolism

ostentation

and angst

STYLES 1

73

Gothic

74

Survival and revival

2



Louis

Orleans cathedral



resurgence in Northern

Europe

Mannerism

78

Persistence in architecture

Northern Europe

3

XIV and

and

the

minor

arts



mannerist symbolism and the grotesque

in

mannerism as a source of German baroque and rococo



Realism

84

Optics and science



consciousness and reality in

Dutch

painting



Vermeer and

the microcosm

4 Classicism In Holland and

5

93 in

Rome

Poussin and Claude



triumph of French classicism



Versailles

Baroque Seventeenth-century

Rigaud



103

Rome



dynamism

in decorative painting

the fervour of Spanish baroque



and sculpture



Rubens and

Fischer von Erlach and Hapsburg splendour

6

Rococo Intimacy

120 asymmetry and

rocaille

Germany:



the

symphonic style

7 Neoclassicism

131

Inigo Jones and Palladianism

III

the



harmony of numhers

David and



the end

of

the baroque

MODES I

Romanticism The

z

20s

206

individual against society



melancholy and darkness



hohemianism and the picturesque

216

Exoticism America, Turkey and China

in

European

art

the

Tenture des Indes



sharawaggi and

the English garden

3

Art Nouveau The

4

221

Academies and

216

factories

Governments intervene

5

the Toledo Transparente

pure vegetable forms

tendency towards formal anarchy



academies and state enterprise



the Gobelins

faience and porcelain

233

Regression Medieval survivals



the evolution of European artistic form recapitulated in the

Art

IV

as deception

World

^238

6 Trompe^-roeil •

New

the flying figure



multiple perspective



the illusion of infinity

the mirror

THEMES 1

285

Simple and complex:

2

286

The Church central

and axial plans

harmony and counterpoint



^96

The Court Absolutism and the colossal palace

3

baroque curves



theatre design



the garden

and the park

310

The City Baroque town planning the fountain

hospitals



the palace^city

and public buildings

equestrian statues and the idea of the city square the university



libraries



and fortifications

BIBLIOGRAPHY

357

LIST OF PLATES

358

INDEX

369

INTRODUCTION

— What

a strange monster

is

man: a

curiosity, a

prodigy, a chaos, a contradiction, judge of all things

and wretched earthworm, repository of truth and sewer ofdouht and

error,

glory and dross of the universe.

BLAISE PASCAL

MOST WORKS OF THIS KIND follow a

set pattern;

the author considers the artistic production

of each country in turn, and within each country the 'descending' scale of the various architecture, sculpture, painting,

minor

arts. I

have nothing against

this plan,

myself in a short historical study; but for the present book, which

me more

seemed to

it

advisable to seek, in the vast mosaic

seventeenth

and eighteenth

within

this

book

such as

classical

would have

whose

were

they

tastes

set

of any other period.

all

as diametrically

having used

work

European

overrides nationality.

it

of synthesis, art in the

The

divisions

Our modern

tendency to see these terms

and eighteenth/century Europe,

of seventeenth

than exclusive. Indeed, the exploratory fervour with which

the possibiUties of

which underlay both

opposed.

men

surprised the

The first and

is

a

alone. I have preferred not to regard formal concepts

style

eclectic rather

out to exploit

principles

on

and baroque

as absolutes

which

centuries, a principle

are based

which

is

arts

form and image has not been matched by the men

book therefore

fourth parts of this

life

and

art

in the seventeenth

set

out to define the unifying

and eighteenth

and the

centuries,

second and third parts examine the enormous variety of modes of expression employed by the •

of the period.

artists

To

distinguish between the different

thought merely to substitute one mosaic sary for

The life

art; life itself its

by

on

of the age had within them

beyond the classicaPbaroque

to be

this

art. is

The

the baroque age

kind of analysis

lies

in

its

artistic

is,

I

may be

think, neces^

contradictions. art.

This was a time

when

creation of this period cannot be

we should follow Taine in was not so much conditioned by

not to say that

the contrary, art

his life

art.

The men is

was an

milieu; but this

determinist view of the history of art;

far

but

age of baroque and rococo was the golden age of Western

was impregnated with

life

which were those of

an understanding of a civihzation whose richness

considered in isolation from

as

'styles'

for another;

many

contrary impulses,

antithesis defined

whose expression in

art

goes

by Wolffin. The source of these contradictions

found in the disruption of the unity of the

civilized

world which occuned

at

the time

of the Renaissance.

Medieval

man

world which

is

enjoyed that sense of continuity between the psyche, nature and the supernatural

characteristic of all primitive civilizations.

with himself and with the world

God, and

returned to

God.

The medieval

Christian was at one

—a world in which every creature and every thing came from

Sin, an apparent flaw in

God's handiwork, was an

integral part

INTRODUCTION of this harmony;

was

it

man,

the price of the liberty of

by

created

God

in his

own

Creation was included Redemption. The hatred of heresy sprang from the

which

self-preservation

led society to seek to maintain

came, did not come from heresy; theologians

had

as

its

separates

all costs.

The

grew insidiously with the development of

tolerated only as the

aside to take Nature

That which

it

unity at

its

'handmaiden of the

faith',

image. In

instina

spUt,

reason,

of

when

which

it

the

but which eventually turned

—and created science.

object

is sin,

and

the Renaissance committed the second original sin.

Though

human intelligence dissociated that which is God's from that which is Man's, offering human nature a path of its own, the path of knowledge. The Greeks had become conscious of a similar dichotomy between the divine and the human at the time of the Sophists. Socrates' 'Know thyself', revived by the Renaissance, launched the individual upon an adventure of self/discovery; and now that 'I know' was no longer a synonym not openly in conflict with

of

'I believe',

self/discovery

man' was a

course 'modern

God,

the

went hand believer

hand with

in

—even a passionate believer—but he no longer believed so

naturally, so instinctively, as the medieval Christian.

Freud would have called a neurosis



demanded

The

result

know demanded

came

the lost unity of

Now

what

nothing

and

to accept that faith

to

was

quia ahsurdum'. Pascal was to say: 'Take holy water and be stupid'.

This from a mathematician! Pascal's controversy with the Jesuits

The Jesuits, the aposdes

ficance of this conflict.

conflict leading to creativity.

the repression of belief,

the repression of knowledge. Believers even

necessarily absurd: 'credo

was a

and to a tremendous fever of

could be achieved without a struggle; to believe

Of

the discovery of the physical world.

of Christian

illustrates the

deeper

signi^'

humanism, endeavoured to recapture

Christendom in a fusion of natural and divine law such

as

had been achieved

Theologiae, inspired by the Aristotelian conception of the world

in

Thomas Aquinas' Summa

as

governed by harmony. But Pascal was torn by the agonizing problem of Grace, which in

the seventeenth century renewed in Protestant

Augustine; and Uke the

and

the attractions of

and Catholic aUke the inner

saint, seventeenth/century

man

conflicts of St

was torn between the Christian faith

humanism.

In a penetrating study of Macchiavelli, Marcel de Corte

sees the

neo/Platonism which

supplanted Aristotelianism as one of the sources of Macchiavellian pessimism. Neo/Platonism,

which

is

purely intellectual, distinguishes between the world of ideas,

harmony, and a material world

new Manichaeism world ultimate entomologist,

evil.

could resolve

to a pursuit of

without principles of order.

world of ideas

who

represents absolute

observed Renaissance

as the victim of a tension

man

The

is

governed by

result is a

good and the

kind of material

with the acute vision of an

between the disparate elements of his

own

Corte).

affirm his identity, he

up

the

'Macchiavelli,

saw him

nature' (Marcel de

Man

which

in

entirely

which

this tension

was forced

only by the acquisition and exercise of power; in order to

into the role of conqueror. Sixteenth^century

power which could

'Plus oultre ('yet further')

was

find satisfaction only in unlimited aggrandisement.

the motto of Charles

This was the primitive age of power.

man gave himself

V, and Hercules

the

symbol of the monarch.

— INTRODUCTION Then came

the

power was no longer

age:

'classical'

who owed

trated in

one exceptional being

dynasty.

Power was thus no longer something

whom

This man, in

a tendency

the prince

had won;

it

France,' wrote Louis

XIV

in his Instruction to his grandson the

Of this same

person of the king.'

him, and the will of

land of tyrants that was Macchiavelli's in

de Bourgogne;

resides

'it

who

king

to the

is

The

over the destinies of

rival dynasty, that of the

too shifting and too various to give

territories

it

in

in search of power, in that

condcttiere

possessed

power

demigod chained

Hapsburgs, suffered

dependence on an outworn concept of empire and from the

its

right.

right of

not the same thing as

is

able to replace the symbol of Hercules, the

the incarnation of the royal ideal.

once from

The

had given way

Italy,

by divine

his

power not by

elect

by Olympian Apollo. Circumstances predestined the French monarchy

to his endless tasks,

become

XIV was

Louis

all its fullness.

Due

an

king, Bossuet could write: 'All the State

the people resides in his will.'

all

was

his

conquest but by virtue of a metaphysical political idea. 'The Nation

entirely in the

concent

state,

his excellence to the fact of belonging to

was more than human, held

everything

but a

fact that

to at

presided

it

firm support. Louis

XIV,

undisputed possessor of a heritage gathered around the monarchy by the slow v/ork of centuries

and

which he himself had contributed by

to

within the kingdom of his impar': 'equal to

The men

many

of baroque art

an unequalled glory; he could

new

provinces

justly

—could enjoy,

proclaim

it

'nee

plmhus

[together]'.

of the seventeenth

on two planes

living

fathers,

the annexation of

at

and eighteenth

is

withdrew from

and one imaginary. Perhaps

once, one real

—in which everything

centuries

their inner conflicts

by

the most surprising feature



is how men who in thought and deed make-believe. One might pretend to be

designed to astonish

new worlds could indulge in childish games of Apollo, Rinaldo, the Grand Turk, or even Confucius, but never simply oneself: as if the art of Uving consisted in flight from the self. As we shall see, the idea was put forward* that one created

might even disguise oneself as oneself

borrowed from the herd.

was worn

It

.

.

until the very

end of the

clear for the blade of the guillotine.

and

still

more conquests, again the

disguise

is

the Great:

his

is

armour. Louis

Napoleon

ruler

which

—when

it

set

had

history repeats

must always

estate

one put on a mask: the wig

the wearer apart from the

again there must be conquests

press 'yet further' to satisfy his lust for

XIV

in his

own kingdom was

able to think of himself as Louis

all

restraint.

it

XIV's

was an age

in

10

call

the terrible wars of the

first

classical

half of the seventeenth

which

all

the combatants

pursuing the same end, the preservation of the balance of power. Thus

XIV, by the

baroque; but

which many European monarchs were models of

Once Europe had emerged from

really

we

maturity and the French Revolution could well be given the

century, a tacit entente reduced clashes of arms to limited conflicts in

were

paroxysm

empires was foredoomed to disintegrate.

period encompassed by the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries

of classical;

common

perforce to be taken off to leave the

itself:

the conqueror could be content with nothing less than the final

the time between Louis

name

act

Here

man's

trampled underfoot by the successor of the ruined monarchy, a hero whose

of power, an empire, which like

The

On reaching

accessories of the ancient theatre,

way

power. Europe

.

we

see

Louis

Treaty of Utrecht, establishing his grandson on the throne of Spain, but renouncing

INTRODUCTION for

him

so

much

kingdom was needed

the throne of France; only one

crown of Spain

desire the

passed the bounds of moderation

Louis

XV,

for his

—that

visiting the battlefield of

XVI, made how much

blood

see

men;

true glory consists in sparing

So strong was greatest

is

Fontenoy with

his son the

the horrors of

The blood

the feeling that a balance

was

ever

later father

made by

of our enemies

of

a king.

the blood of

is

minds the conqueror appeared as the enemy. Frederick the Great wrote an AntuMachiavel;

such that

is

and Muscovy,

made up

a true Anti^Machiavel

all its States

said:

'A prince

On the contrary, the

gain acceptance, there

believes

condition of

Guienne needs Brittany and Brittany needs Anjou. Europe

as

number

of a

when he

depend on one another. France needs the opulence of Poland is

one State

of provinces.'

Before the royal ideal, the image of a

had

monarch

solidly established within his realm,

weakening of imperial

to be a

pretensions.

Even Francis

could

I of France,

in the true Renaissance spirit found conquests attractive without regard to their practical

usefulness, allowed himself to be

adopting

But

Dauphin,

war

necessary for the health of Europe, that to the

he will be the greater by the ruin of a neighbouring State.

who

would have

it.'

and Montesquieu showed himself to be Europe

did not

should be united with the crown of Austria.

the price of a triumph!

'You

XIV

dynasty as wish to prevent what

comments on

one of the noblest

Louis

it

own

to be a king. Louis

this rather contradictory

was

it

left

of a limited

To

for the

formula: 'The king of France

is

his rival Charles

emperor in

ensuing age to formulate the idea of kingship

his

V

into

own kingdom.'

as the absolute possession

territory.

be a king,

all that is

confines of a stage.

Under

needed

territory.

a kingdom; and some kings were content with the narrow of Westphalia

up and maintained

they afforded a safeguard against

annexations of

is

the treaties

princes were deliberately set

mount

provoked by the pretensions of

Each of

in

and the Pyrenees a host of

power by

the French

German

government because

Hapsburg power without involving France these princeUngs

petty

in unprofitable

needed no more land than was necessary to

a repeat performance, with continual embelHshments, of the inimitable pageant

first

-

staged at Versailles.

The chronic insecurity of powers in decline (Spain), complex powers (Austria), and miniature powers (the principalities of Germany and Italy) led their monarchs to seek compensation in dreams of power and transcendental universe.

In

This

Rome,

is

the

glory, creating

Church abandoned

the attitude of contrition

and invented

a baroque

triumphal pomp, a spiritual sovereignty which

power dreamed of by

of the nation,

the psychoanalysts call a substitute

the essence of the baroque.

the Counter/Reformation,

In England, a

what

new

formahsm which

it

had adopted during

expressed, in terms of

an implicit renunciation of the temporal

the Renaissance popes. political system led to the subordination of the

and a new conception of power

poUtical, industrial

is

which

and commercial

arose

power of the king

to that

which was based on a combination of

strength. English art largely lacked the stimulus of royal

patronage; but England steered a course between classical and baroque, true always to a dream

ii

INTRODUCTION of classical antiquity

which

is

really the

same mirage of the South

that so often haunts northern

peoples.

For one,

'classical'

and 'baroque'

more fantasy

are not opposites.

still

enter the

cence.

12

we do

reason enters into the composition of the

into the composition of the other; but both are facets of a lost

believe. If we smile at the spectacle of grown

perhaps

More

so for fear of

weeping

men amusing themselves with

at the state of

enchanted kingdom, but only by

first

Then, and only then, the baroque heavens

our

own

real

finding the

will

open

world.

way back

for us.

world of make^

fiddles It is

to

and furbelows,

true that

our

own

we can

lost

inno^

PRINCIPLES

I

ERRATA TEXT p.

78

for Galeazzo Alessi read Pellegrino Tibaldi

da Sangallo

p. 104 for Giuliano p. 126 for Joseph

read

Anton Feichtmayr

Antonio da Sangallo reuf/

Mochi Antonio da Sangallo

Joseph

,

Anton Feuchtmayer

pp. 105, 317 for Mocchi read p.

297

17) read

(fig.

p. 325 for

Ardmont

read

the younger (1483-1546). Palazzo Farnese,

Rome

Admont

CAPTIONS XXIII pi.

39

pi.

58

pi.

73

Dutch

for porcelain read read

Louis

XIV

for 1888 read

faience

and other

figures in the carrousel of

read Pellegrino

Tibaldi (1527-96). Santa Maria presso San Celso, Milan,

pi.

303 for

pi.

372 for

Lorenzo Lomellini. Decor Desk read Chest of drawers Desk read Bureau de dame Mocchi read Mochi

pi.

392 for

Ardmont

pi.

78

pi.

301 for

1662

begun 1893

read

read

Admont

of nave, Santissima Annunziata, Genoa,

after

1583

begun 1591

INTRODUCTION of classical antiquity

which

is really

the same mirage of the South that so often haunts northern

peoples.

For one,

'classical'

and 'baroque'

more fantasy

are not opposites.

still

we do

enter the

cence.

reason enters into the composition of the

world of make^

into the composition of the other; but both are facets of a lost

believe. If we smile at the speaacle of grown

perhaps

More

so for fear of

weeping

men amusing themselves with

at the state of

enchanted kingdom, but only by

first

Then, and only then, the baroque heavens

our

own

real

finding the

will

open

world.

way back

for us.

fiddles It is

to

and furbelows,

true that

our

own

we can

lost

inno'

I

PRINCIPLES

1

Definitions

The period of art which is the subject of this book extends from to the rise of neoclassicism

—a period of about two centuries, from 1580

Baroque in this context embraces the whole range of

Western

The

two

civilization in the course of these

dates that

open and

mannerism had come

to

Rome

Italy) until the

rehgious significance until 1850 and even

de Paula

Ouro

at

architecture.

still

by the 1590s, 1630s and

same

To make

things

more

century, mannerist interior decor

The

title

The

later,

in forms

American

later, rather as

it

Although

for every country.

which thus come within

countries the baroque retained

the Gothic did long after

being built and decorated

difficult,

to 1780.

which evolved within

survived almost everywhere else

it

Preto, Brazil) long after the neoclassical style

(for

its

period

example Sao Francisco

had been adopted

for secular

sometimes happens that within one country

development. In

different arts are at different stages of

Roman mannerism

centuries.

the chronological scope of this book. In certain Latin

of vitaHty. Baroque churches were

expression

artistic

close the period are not the

an end in

(and even in certain parts of

its

the decHne of

Roman

churches in the early seventeenth

was combined with purely baroque

architecture until the

two

were harmonized by the genius of Bernini. The PauUne and Sistine Chapels in Ssnta Maria

Maggiore in

Rome

are

still

building churches in the baroque of St Paul in Santa Maria del their effect.

style;

Popolo

unequivocally mannerist except through the



are set in a second-rate mannerist interior

and expressed

r4

its

for his part,

did not 'absorb' the baroque at

book European all

useless to try to

as far afield as

reduce the

art

and

all;

manifested

Goa

he created

itself

came more for himself.

not only in Europe,

where colonies had been in India. These

Each nation made

common

it

its

own

two

estab^

centuries

contribution,

heritage.

of the baroque age to a non-existent unity, or to a formal

the baroque; this

antithesis

between the

of

In 1955 John Rupert Martin took the

styles.

art.

particular genius, within a

classical

art

the overseas territories

Americas, but also

own

most profound express

of a 'manner' which, being within their tradition,

the period covered by this

chiefly in the

its

which cramps

both architecture and interior decoration remained

were the most productive in the history of European

It is

when Carlo Maderno was

having proved incapable of absorbing the new ideas

including some of Russia, but also in lished

time

while Caravaggio's Crucifixion of St Peter and Conversion

when

—architects

medium

them. Rubens,

During

at a

In Flanders, the painting of Rubens gave Europe perhaps

sion of baroque feeling at a time

easily to

mannerist in feehng,

entirely

was an age which produced an abundance

critical step

of recognizing this fact; but the

DEFINITIONS period least

is

richer

and more complex even than he thought.

seven distinct

residual styles, Gothic

one

style

three

new

is

The

an elaboration of a renaissance concept,

romanticism

the strange

and

five eternal

which

is

of

regression or

imagination:

involution, a tendency to return to the forms of

most marked in popular

which

leads

and in European

art

at all,

and the

persistent

is

made no

they frequently interbred or appeared side by side in close proximity. their curves of development mirrored each other.

impulse can be called a

motif of deception, trompeA'oeil.

task of distinguishing between these various tendencies

the history of

Europe;

art outside

Art Nouveau;

finally academicism, if a systematic sterilization of the creative

mode of the imagination The

human

exoticism;

phenomenon

art,

classicism;

the rococo;

'modes' of the

the fascination with natural forms

and

and

neoclassicism.

age also contains

medieval

and mannerism;

styles, realism, the baroque

one anticipation,

in fact possible to distinguish at

tendencies within the art of the baroque age:

stylistic

two

which

It is

The baroque

age

easier

by the

fact that

It

sometimes happens that

is

the great crossroads of

art.

The clarification of the principles

that govern the art of these

two centuries was achieved

in the

course of almost three-quarters of a century of exegesis, always starting from a single term

word

To

'baroque'.

understand the significance of this term

of the various stages of

its

we must give

at least a brief

—the

account

interpretation.

In 1855 the Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt, in his Cicerone, defined the principal distin^ guishing feature of Renaissance

these principles, the value of a

represents the conquest of

by the

an ideal beauty, derived from the study of nature and the

and inspired by the

imitation of antique models,

it

art as

work

an

of art

is

principles of Neo/Platonism.

intrinsic

and has no

according to Burckhardt, a 'wild' and 'barbarous'

art

to

relation to spectator or creator;

eternal truth contained in the essence of things,

illusion of appearances. After the perfection achieved

According

and concealed

by the Renaissance there followed,

known

as 'baroque', the degenerate

bastard of the Renaissance.

The word

baroque

appeared in current speech in France

designate something unusual, bizarre, even badly made. Essais. It is still

was It

and other fabulous

the origin of

Montaigne

its

uses

known

in Spanish as berrueco

in Portugese as harroco; in the mannerist in

creatures.

Germany)

Perhaps

name

to

in this sense in his

it

in precious settings to

this technical use of the

and baroque

form

figures of

word 'baroque'

use as a term of art criticism.

has also been suggested (by the philosopher Benedetto Croce) that the

baroco, the

this

and

odd shapes were used (mainly

sirens, centaurs

end of the sixteenth century,

used by jewellers to describe those irregular pearls

or barrueco, in ItaUan as scaramazza,

periods these

at the

given by scholastic philosophers to a type of syllogism.

word comes from

The

objection

does not convey the idea of irregularity, which seems in fact to be the basic one.

To

is

this

that

day

15

PRINCIPLES who buy up empty

the dealers normale

(litre bottles

and

from Paris

bottles

and

claret bottles)

burgundy, champagne and the numerous

for

henueco

itself is

wine.'cellars divide

baroque (bottles of

derived from the latin verruca,

two

into

a shght flaw.

The word

used in Portuguese to describe an excavation or a hilly or uneven piece of ground;

be derived from the Arabic similarity to the

The

a

is

common

and asked

end of the seventeenth century; but

the time, but several years later, in 1688,

early eighteenth century the

work

imperfect or bizarre. Saint/ Simon uses it

as

an

peinture, sculpture et gravure

alternative

barocco

said to

came

it

was

Its

little

word

across the

meant. Magliabecchi could not answer

and asked

his friend

in Paris, Magliabecchi

Michel Germain

to tell

meant a fraudulent operation, a crooked

was

baroque

in use in

French

to denote

deal.

anything irregular,

in this sense in his memoirs; the Dictionnaire de I'Aca''

it

word

{}7si) applies

it

for 'irregular'; Pernetty in his Dictionnaire portatif de

to Tintoretto; in

1769 a French

Lalande,

traveller,

St Cosmos and St Damian and to the hunting/lodge of

to Salvator Rosa's Martyrdom of

it

it

when Mabillon was back

certain Mazzi,

Mabillon the meaning: in Mazzi's book

applies

what

the Florentine scholar Magliabecchi

demie (1718) gives

it is

place/name in Portugal and Brazil.

preacher Mabillon, studying manuscripts in Florence,

found the answer in a book by a

By the

harroco is

'baroque' seems however to be purely coincidental.

adjective barocco existed in Italian at the

The French

used.

at

word

and

bar^a,

categories,

Perhaps the Spanish word

varieties of aperitif).

which means

them

unusual shapes such as those used

Stupinigi in Piedmont.

In the second half of the century the term takes on an aesthetic significance. Quatremere de

Quincy, in

his Encyclopedie methodique (1788), defines

of bizarre'. Millizia, in his Dizionario

and

applies

it

to the architects

delle Belle

Thus from

its

as 'bizarre to a degree', 'the superlative

Disegno (1797), repeats the definition

e del

Borromini, Guarini and Pozzo. Jean^Jacques Rousseau, in his

Dictionnaire de la Musique (1778), uses the

very beginnings the

aesthetics as 'Gothic'.

Arti

it

word

word

harmony'.

to denote a 'confused

'baroque' had as bad a reputation in the sphere of art

had been condemned

libri

delV architettura (1570),

In fact post/Renaissance and post^mannerist

long before the word 'baroque'

itself



appeared; Palladio, in I quattro

pours scorn on what he foresees to be the architectural tendencies of the coming century, and Bellori,

an admirer of Poussin, attacks the complications of the

Pittori Scultori e Architetti moderni

The it still

root;

pejorative sense of the

Croce, have continued to regard

It

'baroque',

was

meaning a

style

left

it

as 'the art of

which appeared

to the historians

and

art critics

bad

taste', as

art critic

16

the

who

in his

to refer to the baroque as

as

Croce

Berenson and Benedetto

describes

it

in a

work on

of the German/speaking countries, where the baroque

works on baroque,

Heinrich Wolfflin,

first critic

the baroque never really took

such

in 1929.

had flourished in its full glory during the eighteenth century, Gurlitt, author of several

of decadence, died hard. Indeed,

and England, where

Italian or ItaUanate enthusiasts for the Renaissance,

the baroque period in Italy

de'

(1672).

word

survives in countries, such as France

and

of his time in his Vite

art

classical

work

to rehabilitate

and rococo

art,

baroque

art.

was followed by

Cornelius the Swiss

Renaissance und Barock (1888, revised 1907),

was

an independent category, a positive concept contrasted

DEFINITIONS with the Renaissance which had preceded

Later, going

it.

beyond the concept of the Renais/

and in

sance, he defined the classical position in general (Die klassische Kunst, 1898), geschichtliche Grundhegrijje

(191 5) he carried his ideas one stage further by treating the notion of

and formulated

the baroque, like that of the classical, as above history, the evolution of form in art

which

common

in

his Kunst^

a theory according to

governed by two opposing principles which have

is

much

with the Apollonian and Dionysiac principles postulated by Nietzsche in his Die

Cehurt der Tragodie (1870). In aesthetic terms, Wolfflin defines the classical^baroque dualism in terms of five pairs of opposites: linear

form; form which weighs

and

pictorial;

down and form which

pis

1-8

plane and depth; closed form and open

and

takes flight; unity

multiplicity.

In essays written between the two world wars, Eugenio d'Ors discussed the philosophy and aesthetics of the baroque, seeing

it

an

as

a term used in Gnostic philosophy to denote the

aeon,

emanations or aspects through which the Supreme Being acts upon the world. Not without

humour, he

outlines the

taxonomy of

the baroque; in the genus Barocchus he distinguishes

twenty species, the newest of which are/w

de siecle

baroque

(B.finesecularis)

and post/war baroque

(B.posteahellicus).

This rehabilitation of the baroque was not enough; in the end there was a

and

was

it

the classical, not the baroque, that

was thought of

reversal of values

as the 'degenerate bastard*.

The

Viennese scholar Strzygowsky (1898) develops the theory that the development of European has been governed by a tension between two great centres of culture: one centre

art

and

south,

its art is

other centre, lies

in the

the art of empires, the servant of authority, the breeder of academicism; the

which

to the north,

lies

the Austrian writer considers the

where the

to recognize in these

two

creative

more favourable

for artistic expression,

impulse can take wing in complete freedom.

centres, in a

new

guise, the concepts of Nietzsche's

not hard

It is

Apollonian and

Dionysiac, Wolfflin's classical and baroque, and even the two contrasted forms of eloquence

which Quintilian had Meanwhile

called Atticist

art historians

and

Asianist.

were applying themselves to the problem of defining the origins

and tracing the development of the baroque

mond,

in his

De MicheUAnge a

as a specific historical

makes a

Tiepolo (1912),

phenomenon. Marcel Ray/

distinction between the austere 'Counter/-

Reformation baroque' and the triumphal baroque of the seventeenth century.

This idea that the baroque was the product of a movement of religious ideas originating in the Counter/Reformation reformation

the basis of

W.

Weisbach's book Der Barock ah Kunst

(1921), and of Emile Male's iconographical study L'Art

de Trente (1932).

name

is

In a more recent work, the Spanish

the early baroque the 'Tridentine

style'

critic

Jose

der

Camon Aznar

goes so far as to

(El Estilo Trentino, 1952). This approach to the

question of the origins of the baroque inevitably carried the enquiry beyond the purely field into that

art

artistic

of cultural history.

From the purely artistic viewpoint, its

Gegen^

religieux au temps du concile

antithesis, the

baroque,

lies

the key to the process by

which

in the concept of mannerism. This

is

the Renaissance engendered

the

name

given to the Italian

produced between the death of Raphael (1520) and the foundation of the academy of the

Carracci (1585), the period sometimes wrongly described as the 'proto/baroque'.

The term

17

PRINCIPLES word mmiera (from

'mannerist' comes from the Italian

when

the mechanical arts included the plastic arts;

by Cennino Cennini,

(Trattato della Pittura

which Vasari in his Le Vite into

piu eccelknti

is

1390) to

c.

embodied in one of the

The

is

synonymous with meaning seems

pejorative

number of

.

style,

an idea

(1550) develops each of

different 'manners'

As Georg Weise

to

'refined', 'artful', 'precious',

has pointed out, in the

in this sense.

The

though not in a pejorative

have developed about the year 1600, there

was a

at

and with no

mannerism

rehabilitation of

sense.

the time when, under

revival of naturalism

nation of the maniera in the sense of 'painting without a model it

.

.

great creators of the Renaissance. Clearly, this attitude implies

and Caravaggio,

the influence of the Carracci

Bellori uses

personal

artist's

of the sixteenth century (Ariosto, Bandello, Bernardo, Torquato Tasso)

literature

'mannered'

mean an

Middle Ages

since the

architetti, pittori, et scultori italiani

the notion of conformity, and hence of academicism. Italian

had been used

aesthetic concept, offering artists a choice of a

an

which

de'

it

mano, hand), inherited from the days

and a condemn

reference to nature';

element

as a positive cultural

is

the work of a Viennese historian of Czech origin, Dvorak, whose work on the history of culture enriched the history of art by demonstrating

phenomena

of

read a paper

on El Greco and mannerism which

as a whole. In

age {Kunstgeschichfe

its

its

close relationship with all the intellectual

als Ceistesgeschichte,

1924).

At

Dvorak's view the subjectivism of the mannerists,

of the Renaissance, far from being a

phenomenon

as

opposed

since been the subject of extensive studies by

{Hochrenaissance,

Mannerism of

all

the

Manierismus,

in Italian Painting,

Friihharock,

European examples

all

The

Hans Hoffmann,

Gustav Rene Hocke,

{Die Welt

of this style

to the objectivism

mannerist move/

a pupil of Wolfflin

Walter Friedlander (Mannerism and Antu

1939),

1957) and above

mannerism

of exhaustion, indicated a reawakening of the

imagination, and of the spiritual impulses of the pre/Renaissance period.

ment has

Dvorak

a congress in 19-24,

led to a revaluation of the concept of

als Labyrinth:

who

has

made

Manier und Manie

a study

in der euro^

pHischen Kunst, 1957).

In the hght of these studies, mannerism stands revealed conflict

between the

artist's

conscious desire to conform and

as the inevitable

consequence of a

his instinctive rejection of classicism.

In psychoanalytical terms, this conflict led to a complex, a sense of frustration, even of revolt, in the face of barriers

which

the

artist

was unable

to cross

and which he sought to by/pass by departing

from the principle of imitation; replacing mimesis by

phantasia (to use the Platonic categories).

This vain rebelUon against constraint resulted in a tendency to consider instinct)

and tended

forms thus created

is

to

make

artists

art as

a

temperamentally gloomy and melancholic.

an artificial system which

a 'substitute universe',

game

(the play

The world

of

replaces not only the external

world but also the legacy of classical formalism. Mannerism, which from Italy spread throughout Europe, was uneven in shall see, there

its

achievements, but

developed in

Italy

and

in

it

served as the 'culture^medium' in which, as

Germany

the evolutionary elements of baroque

wc

and

rococo.

Baroque pis 18

4,

7

differs

from mannerism in

release of the imaginative forces hitherto

aptly calls a 'labyrinth'.

From

its

renewal of contact with the external world,

its

joyous

imprisoned in the closed cycle which Gustav Rene Hocke

the point of view of form,

what

clearly distinguishes a mannerist

DEFINITIONS work, whether of architecture or painting, from a baroque work of formal unity, the lack of co/ordination between

is its

component

its

fragmentation,

violation

its

The baroque

parts.

towards the re/estabUshment of unity. Throughout the two centuries of its development to integrate every sort of artistic expression into a see,

was not achieved

sculpture

and

werh, the 'total

of

art'.

combined

These distinctions make starting/point after

form what

to

it

known

in

to the

mannerism. Mannerism cannot be considered after/effects,

pursued with such passion by the mannerist

and

'symphonic

called the

book devoted

justifiable that a

baroque incorporates certain of its

It is

is

The rococo might indeed be

benefits

were originally derogatory. This

all

was

decoration,

from the

perdition everything

is

as a

changing not

itself.

since

tastes

and

'Gothic',

true of 'rococo'. In mid/eigh^

hence by transference the word

shells;

art

The

by the

first

supporters of the neoclassical reaction, uses

advocates of neoclassicism.

aux Orfevres of 1754, to ridicule

artists

for 'rock'

style

engraver Cochin, one of the

and

it

artisans

and

came

pis 12-16

derives

and

to refer to the

of the eighteenth century.

term of contempt to the ornately worked

siastic

rocher, 'rock'

in gardens since the sixteenth century,

shelWike forms repeated ad nauseam in the decorative

was applied

West

which has been with us

which is

of the

a term used in artisan's language to describe the rocaille style of

which had been popular

which were encrusted with

'rococo'

artistic styles

which was deep/cut and sinuous. The world comes from

artificial grottoes

although

from the morphological experiments

terms of disparagement; the same

'baroque', 'mannerist' were

teenth/century France this

its

artists.

particularly in France, in defiance of

fashions, has persistently consigned to

shall

style'.

as a proto/baroque,

the fault of a classicist prejudice

is

and which,

we

baroque age should have

noteworthy that most of the words used to designate the great

the sixteenth century

sought

it

synthesis, as

when painting, architecture, German as the GesamtkmsU

until the eighteenth century, the age of rococo,

the applied arts

work

harmonious whole. This

tends

The word

of the eighteenth century

and most enthu/

earliest

in his writings, notably in his Supplication

who worked

in the rocaille style.

The term

'rococo' remained a pejorative one until the twentieth century, in spite of a shortlived revival of

the style in furniture design after 1850.

Some Rose,

historians

who

Hke

to see the

in 1921 devoted a

rococo

work

as a

decadent form of baroque.

to the 'late baroque' (Spatbarock);

An

example

is

Hans

he regards the rococo as the

'baroque of the baroque', thus neatly juxtaposing the pejorative and non/pejorative senses of the

word. But

this is

no more

mannerism'. Rococo the natural

is

correct than

Paul Hofer's attempt in 1956,

not the decadence of the baroque

consummation of its

evolution,

its

to identify

—nor indeed does

it

rococo as

transcend

'a

new

it; it is

fulfilment as a style.

19

2

From

Europe to French Europe

Italian

Throughout Italy

the

and Spain;

half of the seventeenth century

first

their languages

European

civilization

men

were spoken wherever there were

was dominated by

of culture.

Since the wars of the sixteenth century, Hapsburg Spain had been the great power of Europe.

Unremitting pressure from France, and internal

supremacy

an end in the

to

half of the seventeenth century, at the very time

first

influence in the field of manners

and

literature

inspired by the play by Guillen de Castro, ,

year the Spaniards took Corbie

few

the course of the next

which did not

years.

brought the period of Spanish

conflicts,

had

and advanced

The

was

at its strongest.

In 1636, Corneille's Le Cid,

performance in Paris; and in the same

its first

as far as

Compiegne, only to be

seventeenth/century

mind regarded wars

when

the Treaties of Westphalia,

which

set

on

the seal

power, were about to be signed, a book appeared in Spain which was savoiuvivre for all Europe,

and which expressed

behaviour of baroque man: the Oraculo manual y Gracian. This work, which

wide and immediate

L'Homme

sale.

de cour,

commended

better

In the

many

which drew upon no

real

it

before

on

art,

of the Spanish Jesuit Baltasar

of quality the code of 'excellence',

an even wider public; style,

became the

had a

this version, its

Racinian

basis for subsequent trans/

—was almost

nil.

Spain and Portugal each developed an indigenous

art,

—in Europe

however, Spanish influence

their peninsula,

Italian sources in the seventeenth century

Apart from

the

communication with the

Kingdom rest

often strange flowers.

art,

its field

grafted

on

at least

and came under French influence

of Naples, to which

of Europe;

Latin America, where imported baroque

and

become a manual of

languages including Hungarian, Polish and Russian.

isolated

in the eighteenth.

the eclipse of Spanish

to

An excellent French translation by Amelot de la Houssaye (under the

1684) brought

of visual

field

Somewhat

as political contests

than any other the ideals and code of

arte de prudencia

man

to the

purity of language contrasting with Gracian's florid lations into

finally repulsed in

necessarily involve feelings of national hatred.

In 1648, just

title

political

when Spanish

it

gave Ribera, Iberian

of expansion

was

to native stock,

overseas,

art

had

mainly in

produced magnificent

But while Bernini and Rubens were famous men received in the courts

of Europe as ambassadors, Velazquez was a 'local' painter; in 1688 Felibien, the neoclassical theorist

and admirer of Poussin, described him

found in those In the visual 20

when French

as

an

unknown

painter 'showing the qualities

who are not of the first rank*. arts it

was

Italy that set the tone in

influence began to

make

Europe

itself felt.

Rome,

until the

end of the reign of Louis XIV,

the heir to the treasures of ancient

and

FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE Renaissance

was the

art,

Artists flocked there

pupils;

nowhere

Francis

I

such by Vasari,

City:

Le

the

to

seems, could one learn to paint.

had been an

The

their

which under

court of France,

influential although secondary artistic centre (recognized as

Fontainebleau 'the

Wars

admire the masters and become

Rome of the north'),

of Religion. France lost

some of her

declined

when the monarchy

greatest painters to the Eternal

The Dutch, Flemish, German and Lorrainese artists who clearly/defined, close/knit community; their way of life is described by

Valentin, Poussin, Claude.

Rome

lived in

III

who called

was enfeebled by

of Europe at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

from everywhere north of the Alps

else, it

and Henry

artistic capital

formed a

German painter/historian Sandrart in his Academia todesca. In this cosmopolitan Roman milieu even a minor painter such as the German Elsheimer was able to play a very active role for a short the

time.

The

came

Francavilla, his colleague Nicolas Cordier,

hospitable ItaUans adopted

and

re/christened the emigres: Pierre de Francheville be/

from Lorraine, became

Gerard Honthorst of Utrecht earned the name Gherardo

who had come

painters

Rome

to

Caravaggio, the Carracci

art,

Franciosino,

and

delle Notti for his night scenes. Foreign

—ancient and Renaissance

found many sources of inspiration

—and foreign

II

architects learned a

new

style

which

the Jesuits were

helping to spread throughout the world. Seventeenth/century Italy enjoyed a peace which favoured

only marginally from the nahstic conflict in

Thirty Years

effects of the

Bohemia,

this

artistic activity;

War. Originating

in a religious

soon became a European conflict involving

France, Austria, Spain, England, the

German

princes

—and

the country suffered

all

and

nation

the great powers,

Sweden, which

at

one point,

carried forward by the military genius of Gustavus Adolphus, seemed about to dominate Ger/

many. The use of mercenary armies, without commissariat or tion

and ruin

and in

for the countries

spite of a virtual civil

through which they passed. France was affected only peripherally, war, the Fronde, recovered easily thanks to

and expanding population. Germany, on the other hand, enfeebled for a long time. Prague,

on

a par with

In the

which Rudolph

Rome and Florence, was totally

not to see another period of

artistic

II

lost half its

had estabUshed

eclipsed,

their finest artistic flowering since the fifteenth century.

recognized

On the fringe

artistic

poles of Europe.

de facto at the truce

of a theocratic

zation, essentially realistic

was

as a centre of

less

mannerist

art

and the German/speaking countries were

first

flourishing. Still

half of the seventeenth century

Antwerp, where Rubens had

The United

under

his studio,

Provinces, to the north, had their auto/

of 1609 and dejure by the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648.

absolutist

and 'democratic'

with the execution of a king

more or

and

economic strength

population and remained

Low Countries, however, the wars did not prevent the arts from

became one of the

its

prosperity until the eighteenth century.

the Spanish yoke, the southern Netherlands enjoyed in the

nomy

lines of supply, resulted in devasta/

Europe, they created a highly original

artistic civili/

in character. England, torn by civil wars that

—an event unprecedented in European history— remained

a tributary of Holland, except in architecture, in

which

the

ended

artistically

dominant influence

Italian.

The

real victor

of the Thirty Years

War was

France.

By means of

the Treaties of Westphalia

(1648) and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) she completely overthrew the power of Spain, and

21

PRINCIPLES by guaranteeing the 'German

Roman

'Holy

Empire of

liberties'

went some way towards destroying the

German

the

Nation' which was soon a power in

by

side, created a very

favourable environment for the

development of absolute monarchy on baroque genius. The model king of France, Louis

a small scale

for all these princes

XIV, who



rival

^their

—and

power increased

only. Para-'



arts

free cities

by making possible the

one of the conditions which stimulated the

was no longer

the

Holy

Roman Emperor

but the

in his palace of Versailles personified the absolutist ideal.

But although the Hapsburgs of Austria had strument of their power

name

Germany, where some 350 principahdes and

doxically, the political fragmentation of existed side

significance of the

of

lost the effective tutelage

Prussia in the eighteenth century

was

to

Germany

become

as

an

in^

a formidable

Spanish Hapsburgs declined. By the Treaty of Utrecht

as that of the

(171 3-14) they recovered from Spain the Spanish Netherlands and Milan, thus estabUshing themselves strongly in Northern Europe and in

Germany by

which became

strengthening their hold on

They compensated

Italy.

Bohemia and by conquering

their hereditary possession at the

princes of

group of

Hapsburg empire

years lent the

Germany

France. This situation gave the religious force,

Court

which was

art in the

a glory

rallied to the defence of the

different nationalities,

the

Diet of Pressburg in 1687.

(1683-6) by which the Austrian armies recovered

hundred

for their loss of influence

territories

whole of Hungary,

The

which resounded throughout Europe;

West.

As

a

new

'royal'

two forms:

pis

344-6

Two

types of

the princely palace inspired by Versailles,

ultimately from Charles

and

The

dechne of the

power

monument symboHze

and

and a

'European' character.

'royal' art, as represented

the king of France and his absolutist imitators throughout Europe, and the 'imperial'

by the Austrian Hapsburgs.

power of

significance both as a political

to find artistic expression in creations of a truly

eighteenth century consequently took

the

an 'imperial' power, founded on a

Austria contrasted with the strongly centrahzed

Hapsburg empire

decisive victories

occupied by the Turks for two

these

two forms

the palace/monastery derived

by

art diffused

of monarchy:

from Klosserneuburg

V's Escurial. of Spain

was completed by

the

Wars

of the Spanish Succession.

The Treaty of Utrecht placed the grandson of Louis XPV on the throne under the title of Philip V. The Spanish crown thus eluded the Hapsburgs of Austria, but the Emperor Charles VI, the last

Hapsburg king

of Spain, retained from his brief stay in the capital of Philip II a profound

impression which reinforced his absolutist tendencies and also had far/reaching consequences in the field of the

In

arts.

spite of successful

endeavours to re/establish Spanish power in

Phihp V's ambitious queen, the the

last

of the Farnesi,

brought Parma and the

Two Sicilies under Spanish rule, Spain in the eighteenth

the

rest

for the

Bourbon court— Spain found

wonderful flowering of the baroque which

was

century

was

of Europe. Notwithstanding French influences— which were

working

to appear in

new varieties

French influence was 22

who

to recover

its

is

a

work

of

Kingdom

of

Italy, largely the

culturally isolated

from

largely restricted to artists

means of expressing her deeper nature

in that

erroneously termed 'Churrigueresque'— a style that

in the overseas colonies.

sUronger in Portugal,

independence in 1640. John

which had taken advantage of the

decline of Spain

V (1707-50), whose recently discovered gold and dia/

FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE mond

mines in Santa Cruz

dency

to magnificence, in

colony of Santa Cruz

made him

Brazil)

(i.e.

the richest king in Europe, initiated a ten/

both secular and religious decorative

which extended

art,

to the rich

itself.

Eighteenth/century Europe was French, as seventeenth^century Europe had been Italian.

made

spread of French thought or diplomatic exchanges.

It

the French language an indispensable

would not then have been

century, to translate Descartes' Discours de

public. This fashion for French

was nowhere

children were taught French before

who

the Great,

'Academic

had no love

royale de Prusse',

German

French actors continued

to act in

part in the spread of

its

had been it

in the previous

wide

accessible to a

Germany, where

up a bad

accent. Frederick

in case they should pick

in the proceedings of the

academy organized an

in 1782 this

for all intellectual

stronger than in the courts of

subject of the universality of the French language.

played

it

make

made French compulsory

for France,

and

necessary, as

Mithode into Latin to

la

medium

The

When

French in the leading

on the

essay competition

Napoleon invaded Russia

theatre of St Petersburg.

in 1812,

French fashion

French influence, and every elegant princess in Europe sent to

Paris for her dresses.

A systematic reform of military organization, initiated by Gustavus Adolphus, was completed XIV. The

during the lifetime of Louis

ruffianly, lawless

War

gave place to disciphned bodies of men,

own

native countries

and provided with commissariat,

As

proper strategic lines of communication. shorter

and

countries

peace,

less

which favoured

new European power.

the

Middle Ages

whereby the were sent artists

Italy

called

all

and

style,

upon

destructive for the

all less

relative

over Europe. This period also saw the

artists

up

to bring her

to share the limelight

artistic life.

from Western European

to date

with the

with France, she had

France herself contributed to

Academic de France founded

rise

in

and

this

art

lost

of the day.

none of her

by organizing

sculpture, selected by

Rome

countries,

a

prestige

system

open competition,

in 1666. Italy retained

its

attraction for

over Europe. English architects and decorators in particular were under the spell

Rome

but also of the Veneto, where stand the works of Palladio, 'god* of English arts, especially

whose stadholder William

The 'European' moment of English or Palladian principles originated in

end of the eighteenth century

new

and

Inspired by the genius of Peter the Great, Russia emerged straight from

now had

architeas. In the other

Provinces,

their

liaison system

whole the eighteenth century was a period of

the

best students of architecture, painting

all

not only of

On

adopt the baroque

European

to the

from

to

and France, were

Although

an internal

stores,

from

a result, the wars of the eighteenth century were

the development of the arts

of a

as a centre of

professional officers

bloody than those of the seventeenth, and above

where they took place.

chiefly Italy

mercenary armies of the Thirty Years

commanded by

painting, III

was

also

England

Rome became

to Flanders

and

came with

United

the triumph of the neoclassical

as a reaction against the rise of the

once more the It

to the

king of England from 1689 to 1702.

artistic history

splendour as the shrine of neoclassicism.

the Oath of the Horatii,

England looked

was

which enjoyed an enormous

in

artistic capital

Rome

at the

of Europe, enjoying a

in 1784 that

David exhibited

success. In painting, this

considered as marking the conclusion of the baroque period.

baroque;

work must be 23

PRINCIPLES The

prevalence of absolute, centralized monarchy

unity of thought

from

—the

ancien regime-ga.\t rise to considerable

and opinion throughout Europe. The French Revolution, by

freeing peoples

unleashed the forces of nationalism and bequeathed to the nineteenth

this absolutist system,

century a situation in which absolute monarchies had to coexist with republics and parliament

The

tary monarchies.

Great Britain,

ancien regime.

Europe under wholly

his

was

result

own

now became

made

way

his

Such a

passport.

and applied

In the eighteenth century

whether he was

aristocrat,

to Switzerland to pay to

was

it

'total'

man

XV's

in 1746)

made

Rome and Germany

a business of selling

city hfe

which took him

them views

their vedute

man

every gentleman, every to France, Italy,

Travel had been no

less all.

in 1688.

French

first

We

whom

in

tourists

who had

was expected

set

to

making

settled in those

Much

him: 'Our

the

hotels are always full all

same con^

o& Russians'.

the philosophers of Europe;

Paris. artists

to study in

were among the most

Prague with Sadeler and in Utrecht

he followed to England; he then travelled to in

Augsburg,

finally

Italy,

making

his

and thence

home

in

to

Italian architect

Guarino Guarini, who

Wren came

to Paris,

Paris,

visited Paris in the 1660s, at

own

order, the

where he met Bernini. The Frenchman

Liberal Bruant was consulted on the building of the Palace of Whitehall in

were called in everywhere in the seventeenth century, and the arts; they travelled to Austria,

Ho^

Nuremberg

can scarcely keep track of Rubens' journeys to Mantua, Rome, Genoa,

Theatines, in Bohemia. In 1665

all

towns. In

Kavaliertour,

an example, the German painter Sandrart, author of VAca^

Amsterdam and then

Madrid and London. The

in

tourists

the journey to

have done the

almost the same time as Bernini, designed one church there and one for his

lists

Venice

to

the example. Diderot, writing from

and Madame GeofFrin in

born in Frankfurt in 1606, went

with Honthorst, land, lived

hunt with the princes,

to

Rome and

In

popular in the seventeenth century; and

As

Englishman of standing,

Germany

end of the eighteenth century, two salons received

assiduous travellers of

he simply

Canaletto until his departure for England

from compatriots

tells

Britain,

de Choiseul, for a

Grand Tour. He would go

Holland, and occasionally even Spain.

those of Catherine II in St Petersburg

demia todesca,

to

art treasures.

(vedute).

of breeding,

Paris in 1773 to Falconet at St Petersburg,

the

Due

—the tour included the provinces—and

vention existed in Russia, where Peter the Great had

Towards

war with Great

of science, to do the

specialist painters (including

Naples bought

as

matters of policy

wars look like a reversion to barbarism.

admire the landscape, the antiquities and the

were so numerous that

at

minister, the

Rousseau and Voltaire,

to

France to learn the refinements of court and

Italy to

Continent

to regard the

which were

part of the education of every

philosopher or

homage

Louis

to

makes our modern

case

spite of her wars,

which was then

to visit France,

to Versailles

under the

had been one of the great unifying factors in Europe. When in 1762

rather than patriotism, Britain

Laurence Sterne decided

and tended

'isolationist'

But in the eighteenth century, in

alien.

existed

her energies against Napoleon's attempt to unite

after directing all

rule,

had not

a conflict of patriotic interests that

still

more in the

London.

Italians

eighteenth, as specia/

Germany, France, Spain and Portugal,

as well as

Latin America and Russia, and in the eighteenth century they worked alongside French architects, 24

painters

and

sculptors. In Central

Europe, the fusion of Italian and French influences gave

rise

FROM ITALIAN EUROPE TO FRENCH EUROPE unique and original growth of German rococo. Artists from the Netherlands, following

to the

an emigration route dating from the Middle Ages, were attracted towards France. In the eighteenth century

many of the goldsmiths and workers in

bronze, and most of the cabinet-makers,

working in France were of Netherlandish origin, notably the

mark

the initials

BVRB,

Dutch craftsmen who used

as their

Bernard van Risen/

recently identified as representing the family of

pis

burgh. concept of nationality was vague, and the true homeland of any

The

artist

302-3

was wherever

conditions were most favourable for the development of his talent. Pohtical upheavals drove

many

artists to settle

persecution in 1627,

The Czech

abroad.

engraver Wenceslaus Hollar, driven from

was brought from Germany

and in 1642 was drawing/master

much

specialized talent

XrV's

minister Colbert

to the htde

Duke

was economically

the Edict of Nantes in 1685

and

London by

to

of

York

the Earl of

(later

James

disastrous for France, for

II).

Bohemia by

Arundel

The

in 1636,

revocation of

resulted in the loss of

it

Louis

the dissemination abroad of the industrial techniques that

had been

such pains to establish. Huguenot refugees took the French

at

clockmaking industry to Switzerland; and

Geneva became

the

home

of

numerous French

embroiderers, painters, goldsmiths, masons, carpenters and engravers. Daniel IMarot, born in

Dutch

France, became an important

Lamerie was the son of

a

painter;

and the celebrated London goldsmith Paul de

Huguenot who had taken

the seventeenth century 120 French goldsmiths were

Art more

in the eighteenth century

was

international;

for foreign customers than for the

home

finest

many

market.

Sevres porcelain

's

Hertogenbosch. By the end of

working in London

Catherine the Great and Prince Orlov in Russia, and

manuel in Portugal. The

refuge at

centres of the applied arts

The

for

alone.

finest

French

silver

produced

was made

for

John V and his successor Joseph Em^

was made

and Great

for the courts of Austria

The ceramic craftsmen of Holland were called upon to produce tiles for use in interiors size unknown in their own country, where none but modest bourgeois houses were being

Britain.

of a

built.

The

finest

examples of

their

work

are to be

found outside Holland: in the Pagodenburg

and AmaUenburg pavilions in the park of Nymphenburg near Munich, in the Elector Palatine's palace of Falkenlust near

Bonn, in the Chateau de Rambouillet in France, and

in the

pl. xxiii

church of Nazare in Portugal. In the

arts,

an important factor in the maintenance of stable traditions and active cultural

exchange was the existence of a number of proUfic

'dynasties' of artists,

many

of

which span

whole history of the age of baroque, and which scattered their individual members European world. France was art

rich in families of portrait/painters, portraiture being the

par excellence; from the sixteenth century to the eighteenth

Dumonstier, Quesnel,

Elle,

dynasty, of Flemish origin, foreign

demand

all

we can

Van

Beaubrun, Drouais, de Troy and

was

so prolific that there

was always

cite the families

a

Loo. The

member

French

of Clouet,

Van Loo

available to meet

—there were a 'Prussian' Van Loo (Charles^Amedee), a 'Spanish' Van

(Louis/Michel), an 'English'

Van Loo

(Jean^Baptiste)

and an

'Itahan'

France the famiUes of Mansart, Hardouin, de Cotte and Gabriel,

all

the

over the

Van Loo

Loo

(Carle). In

hnked by marriage, had

been masons and architects since the sixteenth century, the Hardouins since the

fifteenth

century

25

PRINCIPLES when

and master craftsmen of

artisans

this

end of the seventeenth century, a French a line of architects

which came

and which has continued

into

name had worked on Beauvais

architect, Beausire, settled in

prominence in the Papal

produce talented

to

artists

down

At

cathedral.

Rome, and

there

the

founded

in the neoclassical period,

states

to the present day.

Certain poor regions, where htde building was done, produced great schools of craftsmen. In the German^speaking world,

what

is

known

as the

Vorarlberg School consisted of a number

of families of architects, stucco-'workers and decorators

province of Vorarlberg

The

unified style.

itself

into Switzerland

principal families were the

and

who

Thumbs

Middle Ages had

sent out the

famous

Danube, maintaining a

(ii members), the Moosbruggers (56

members) and the Beers (29 members). The region of Lake since the

spread beyond the Austrian

the countries of the

Como

and

the Ticino,

maestri comasc'mi to all the countries of

which

Europe,

continued to be a cradle of architects and builders. These included Domenico Fontana, his

nephew Carlo Maderno, Carlo Fontana and Francesco Bonomini Rome), Cosimo Fanzago and Scaria,

who

than

fifty 'three

Mention should art

who

tv.'o

whom

worked

in

The Moosbruggers were

rivalled in

branches of the Carlone family, which produced between them no

architeas, sculptors also be

of

worked in Naples, and the Carlone family of

introduced baroque decoration to Austria.

fecundity only by the less

Picchiati

(all

made

and

painters.

of the influence of Italian theatre designers

of stage design being an Itahan speciality.

Bibiena family, of Bologna, sent

its

sons

all

Throughout

and

nearly a century

decorators, the

and a half the

over Europe and built theatres in Bologna, Parma,

Piacenza, Milan, Livorno, Mantua, Padua, Rome, Naples, Vienna, Dresden and Bayreuth.

The

greatest international

achievement of the an of the age of absolutism was the creation

during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries of the baroque and neoclassical Petersburg, to

which

Rastrelli, Rinaldi,

Vallin de

la

virtually all

It

was

the

work

Quarenghi, Tombara, Gonzaga), Frenchmen (Nicolas Pineau, Leblond,

Mothe, Thomas de Thoron, Richard de Montferrand), Germans (Andreas

Schliiter, Gottfried

Schadel), Scots (Cameron), and Russians (Bazhenov, Starov, Volkov,

Voronikhin, Zakharov).

26

Europe contributed.

city of St

of Italians (Tressini,

3

European unity was maintained by a

and

outside Great Britain

from which

political doctrine

with the prevailing system.

The

theoreticians of absolutism, in

says in his Tractatus theologicoy

poUtkus that 'the will of the sovereign must be obeyed, whatever absurdity he

supported by the belief that royal power, like the

derived from divine right. Bossuet, bishop of Meaux

its

'As

there

is

no public authority without the

origin, just or unjust, peaceable or violent,

and

revolt against

and

him

is

tutor of

will of

legitimate;

is

compromised

England (Hobbes), in France,

and even in the republican Netherlands, were numerous. Spinoza This theory was

dissentients

United Provinces: the doctrine of absolutism. Even England,

the

the idea of liberty to the point of killing an absolutist king, soon

which pursued

declared:

few

there were

The Milieu

may command'.

power of the Pope, was

Louis XIV's son the Dauphin,

God, any government, whatever

any person in authority

is

sacred,

sacrilege.'

In France the doctrine of absolute monarchy had to contend with serious challenges from the parlements (judicial rather than legislative bodies)

in the

itself

first

part of the seventeenth century.

and

the nobility; but

The critic

it

Doubrovsky has

gradually consolidated traced

through the plays of Corneille: in Le Cid (1636) the maintenance of the

whom

nobles

the king of

the king

Rome,

in his final

to the

monarchic condition, in which heroes

who

nature of a supreme hero

thought

reflects

by divine

exist

only by virtue of their participation in the

right stands aloof

the political debate

aristocratic

which was

from

historical forces.

Thus Cor^

minds of

countrymen

exercising the

his

time of the Fronde, and which was concluded by the triumph of absolute royal power

at the

in the person of Louis

The

XIV.

disputes between

Pope and monarch which had loomed

so large in the

the Renaissance were largely resolved by the doctrine of divine right,

monarch

a divinely ordained temporal

Defender of the Faith, not royal

hands of

judgment, holds the balance in accordance with a code imposed

Cinna (1640) marks the transition from kingz-judge to king/'hero, from the

State.

and

state is in

powerless to prevent from destroying one another; in Horace (1640)

is

by the

neille's

development

its

power by

absolutist

its

power over

the bishops.

allotted the

But the king remained the

prime mover. Only in England, despite

the parliamentary system, did the king have one

Middle Ages

which

title

all

the checks placed

which was denied

on

to the

monarchs of the Continent: head of the national church.

The concept

of imperial, as distinct from royal absolutism, developed by the Austrian

Hapsburgs and embodied in Leopold

I,

Charles

VI and Maria

Theresa, was rather different.

27

PRINCIPLES roots lay

Its

German

deep in

The

tradition.

Holy Roman Emperor, held by

of

title

Hapsburg sovereigns (although not by Maria Theresa whose husband Francis was now no more than a shadow; but

behalf) its

was an

it

and

ultimately derived

of the governed. his subjects.

was in

from divine

The monarch,

Divine right became

fact

of

elective dignity

and refusing

all

When Joseph

bed

his

was

chieftains of old,

'raised

on

gave

domin/

the consent

the shield' by

by inheritance but by virtue of his coronation; although In

emperors-'elect.

1

764,

when Joseph II went to Frankfurt on him the right to succeed

conferred

Landgrave of Hesse/Cassel, a

throw himself weeping

to

on

nevertheless theoretically based

King of the Romans, which

his father Francis I as emperor, the

by gout, rose from

was

German

his not

acknowledged even in

am Main to receive the title

right,

like the

on her

it

holders a certain moral authority. Their power, although absolute in their hereditary

ions

it

the mere fact that

successive

held

I

man

of seventy^'five, racked

him

at his sovereign's feet, calling

master

injunctions to be seated in his presence.

came

II eventually

power, he endeavoured

to

to

be an enlightened despot.

He

considered that by secularizing his imperial power he ruled not by virtue of divine right but by virtue of the duties of state laid

upon him by

Great of Prussia he was one of the state, as later

Along with

Frederick the

rulers to give effect to the abstract idea of the sovereign

first

German

elaborated by

the will of his peoples.

thinkers,

by contrast

to the

more

vital

and

less

disciplined

concept of the Nation, which was taking shape in France, and which could be realized only

through the overthrow of monarchy.

In

the buildings created for the Viennese

all

of the Hofburg, with

Charles VI, or the pi. .25

domed

which

dome where

for

example the enormous Ubrary

allegories of the arts gravitate

around the

allegory of the Glory of the House of Austria,

truly imperial.

is



portrait of

ceiling of the oval salon in the imperial apartments of Klosterneuburg,

Gran with an

decorated by Daniel universality

its

Hapsburgs

The dome, more than any

we can

sense a

other form, symtolizes the

radiance of imperial power. Versailles, a royal palace, contains

architecture in Italy

attention

pi

10

virtues

the

on

no domes;

and Germany had

the person of the semi/divine

which

litde

Louvre did not

find favour with Louis

wasted; the meeting between the prince of

pi 25

of genius. Bernini's bust of Louis

from a whirlwind of draperies pi.

18

the

same

transition

artist's earlier

instructive

it is

XIV, artists

the

artist's

monument on

resulted in a

shows both beauty and

XIV

is

a god.

work

his face radiant as the sun, aureoled with glory, emerging

from the clouds of Olympus, makes a revealing contrast with

two works

together symbolize the

to the seventeenth/century idea of the king.

the comparison between Bernini's bust of Louis

the

superhuman

journey to Paris in 1665 was not

and the master of Europe

bust of Francesco d'Este (1651); the

is

a celebration of the

Bernini's design for the palace of

XIV

posthumous head of Louis XIII which Simon Guillain had carved eighteen 1647, for a

28

himself;

So although

from the Renaissance idea of the prince

Even more pi. ly

XIV,

as if

form which inspired so much superb

appeal in France. Versailles concentrates the

monarch

are symbolized in the royal effigy.

this

Pont du Change in

Paris. Guillain's

intelligence; but although a

monarch, he

and the

fine

years earlier, in

Louis XIII has a face which

is still

a

man. Bernini's Louis

THE MILIEU Curiously, the Hapsburgs trappings of royalty.

The

felt

artists

no need

who

to be turned into heroic figures, except

by the external

and Charles VI, both of whom were

portrayed Leopold I

pi.

22

pi.

2^

with the grotesque Hapsburg jaw, made no attempt to attenuate the ugliness of their

afflicted sitters.

The

contrast between the

kingship,

Apollo

two

further revealed in the allegorical

is

reigns supreme; like the king, he

on

rays fall

all his subjects,

who

minister Colbert, Felibien put

Kings alone

to

While not on

the

whole

know

is

emblems chosen

to represent

and

the fount of glory

them.

At

'It is

God

for

alone to

Versailles

the source of light; his divine

work

shine only by his reflected Hght. Dedicating a

thus:

know the worth

of Kings,

to the

and

for

the worth of other men.'

symbolic significance of Apollo, the Hapsburgs held

entirely neglecting the

to the idea of Hercules, the

symbol in France up of mankind,

it

and France, empire and

great monarchical systems of Austria

fast

royal

Louis XIII. Hercules, the glorious labourer, the benefactor

to the time of

had been chosen

chosen emblem

and a

of the Renaissance princes

symbol of empire by Charles V. Hercules

as a

god; he roves the world in search of a service to render to man.

The symbol

is

a hero, not a

of the Pillars of

Hercules (which once adorned the temples of Melkarth, the Phoenician Hercules) and the

proud motto ancient

Rome,

The France the heart of

dock* {pre

had been

'yet further'

all

that

its

of Louis things.

carri),

was

destiny

XIV

like that of

to rule the earth.

symbol of Apollo, the

Ever since the medieval Capetians with

vital principle

which

their notion of the 'square

frontiers, the

and almost

famous 'hexagon'. France has embraced an

came

to include magnificence

forms; great buildings and art collections, rich materials, opulent clothes and adorns

ments, and ceremonies some of which had their origin in biblical antiquity. Nature

itself

transformed into a setting for a royal residence. This magnificence was the monarch's

and even perhaps his way of governing; through

reigning,

and enchant the imaginations of

his subjects.

master of

all

the enchantments by

and

royal ideal

which in

first

of the so/called 'apes of Louis

1733), king of Poland

extreme. 'Augustus

dazzled

all

his life

as

II,'

Augustus

II,

John George

XIV,

and

of

at

known

to

artist/king,

his people. all

times as

the absolute

if

some mon^

the vastness of their royal

Elector of

Saxony 1656-80, was one

grandson, Augustus the Strong (1694-

seems to have carried the cult of the superhuman to

writes Louis Reau,

'who had twice been

by the splendour of the "sun king",

display of Asiatic magnificence.'

image on

even seemed

way

domains by

II,

his

he was an

the eighteenth century

small, sought to imitate. It

their courts.

his

was

spell to enslave the hearts

XIV in some ways,

archs sought to compensate for the minuteness of their

works and the splendour of

he wove a

which a king may impress

XIV set an example of this

sovereigns of Europe, great

it

This way of wielding power had been

Nero, that true successor of the pharaohs; Uke Louis

of the

pad/

reluctantly.

the influence of this concept of royalty, the duties of state

all its

Louis

lies at

the central object of French policy has been the consolidation of national

power within the country's natural

in

emblems of an empire which claimed,

preferred the

imperial destiny only sporadically

Under

the

whom

The Margravine Wilhelmina

received at Versailles,

its

pi. 21

was

he strove to emulate with a

of Bayreuth, a

sister

of Frederick

29

PRINCIPLES who was much

the Great,

own

by the limited resources of her

frustrated

margravate, was

envious of the Saxon capital of Dresden where 'magnificence was carried to excess'. In his

Augustus the Strong not only imitated but

for venery,

women. 'When he

of his country's most beautiful

had had

that he

3

54 children by

far

'Everyone,

down

many

was estimated

'it

his mistresses'.

pomp and

German

eighteenth^century

to the youngest

his

money, summed up

principalities in his sarcastic

son of an apanaged

line, sees

your actions be those of a king, or

all

Every

estate.'

man was

recognized no limits beyond

itself.

to her confidante's question:

Que

One

the heroine of

de Nemours,

whom

Mme de

worthy of

a

—'What donci

is left

la Fayette's

novel La Princesse

il

became an

moment to

entity

of disaster, replies

you now?'

de Cleves refuses to is

which

—with a cry enough.'

marry the

Due

similarly retreating into the

self.

nefaut point servir

//

the courtier:

moi, vous dis^je, et c'est assez. 'Myself, I say; that is

she loves, even after her husband's death, she

inviolable stronghold of the

the baroque

king in due proportion to your

ego, or the superego,

of Corneille's heroines, in a

vous rested' il

from the depths of her being: Mot,

When

at least

The

inwardly a king.

comment:

himself in the likeness of Louis

XIV. He builds his Versailles, he embraces his Maintenon.' The idea of absolutism dominated individual as well as collective psychology in age, each man governing his life hke an absolute monarch. Baltasar Gracian advises 'Let

taste

he kept a seraglio

died,' says the Margravine,

Frederick the Great, sparing for poUtical reasons with his the situation in

XIV;

outdid Louis

d'amour qui

nous possede,

nefaut point servir d' amour qui ne nous cede.

'There must be no serving a love that possesses,

There must be no serving a love that says a character in Corneille's youthful

the self

is

'I

suis maitre de

am

Emperor Augustus in

The baroque

artist

The

possession of the self by

not

solitaries,

I

I'univers,

am

of the world,'

Corneille's Cinna. This

is

the ideal of absolute sovereignty, a

limits.

exercised this sovereignty 'in due proportion to his estate' as Baltasar

Gracian would have any if

moi comme de

master of myself as

power without outer or inner

who,

Place Royale.

the ultimate good.

Je

says the

comedy La

yields not,'

man

were

do; that

at least

is,

in his

art.

The

seventeenth century produced

independent men; such were Nicolas Poussin, Claude

Lorrain, Jan Vermeer, Rembrandt, Hercules Seghers, Caravaggio, Jacob

considered their

art,

limits to be placed

even

on

if it

depended upon commissions,

their creative

power.

Ruisdael,

as a personal activity,

The same independence

inspired

30

Ages and

who

allowing no

artists

sociable temper such as Rubens and Bernini. Methods of painting bore the stamp of

vidualism; whereas in the Middle

artists

of a more this indi/

the Renaissance virtuosity consisted in concealing

one's methods in the anonymity of craftsmanship, the baroque

artist

sought to

assert his virtuosity

Pierre

Dumesnil (seventeenth

century).

Queen

Christina of

Sweden with

Descartes and other scholars

H ^1^H j^H 1^1

^^1

^

^

g^^l

H

^ 3

fefcifeaKii^-il^ IK'3

1'

?r^^^

in Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Pilgrims

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (c

1

562-1 609). Death of the Virgin

at

Emmaus

THE MILIEU by establishing a manner which was peculiarly

own. In

his

work of

the conception of a

art

he

acted as a demiurge, transforming fact into fiction, unreal into real, organic into inorganic,

inorganic into natural. TrompeA'oeil was one of the ways in

Andrea Pozzo

in Sant' Ignazio,

lords of space, breaking

The

its

which

in his career as an

and

of the Virgin,

artist

is

in a state of

self

open

bought

they were only with the the

Roman

sum,

for a large

it

revolt against a bourgeois society is

Church,

being sent away

Roman it

artists

Men who

possessed

aristocratic society the

according to one's palaces were

it

concerned

should be put on show

estate.

hungry

it,

aristocratic society,

The

Popolo refused

his

at the loss

Death

his court

of such a masterpiece

for eight days.

All

Rome came

to

this is

man

resided in the excellence

lords spiritual

is

for society's values.

foreign to this

one

at

which

was proper

it

odds with

form of the

cult of the

man

to manifest

Many

and

the appearance of

earlier

churches,

on the

now

many new

contrary,

to separate

self.

final reverberations

shook Central

the schismatics to their fate,

left

It

Gospel outside Europe. There was a huge new demand parts of the world,

society;

Romantic individuaUsm, which tends

a triumph not to have foundered in the storm.

of commissions.

a

of invention, his ingenium.

Europe in the Thirty Years War, the Catholic Church it

sets

and temporal who commissioned churches and

After the terrible upheavals of the Reformation, whose

considered

society already

—that which

on the other hand, genius held an honoured

cultivate excellence within oneself did not set

rather than to unite,

Dutch

because

for sensations; as enthusiastic spectators they expected the artist to bring into

all his talents, his gifts

many

there were conflicts

such as Rubens and Bernini, were treated Uke princes, for in

worth of a

was a sign of respea

the

if

'romantic' examples of ill/starred or misunderstood painters such as

offer

—constitutes a scandal. In

To

which

for he enjoyed the admiration of both

provided exactly the bourgeois, 'democratic' milieu in which genius

play

pl. iv

often mistakenly quoted as an

parish of Santa Maria del

Rembrandt, Vermeer, Ruisdael, and Frans Hals, but

place.

ph p6,^62,

it.

Holland can

apart

were

should not be confused with romantic

and the Duke of Mantua, following the advice of Rubens who was then

insisted that before

admire

power was expressed.

he was more of an eccentric than a rebel, and

life

When

artists.

this

staircase, act as if they

barriers at will.

the artist

example: but even in his

painter,

which

Wiirzburg

acknowledge the concept of genius. Caravaggio

refuses to

collectors

in his

power bestowed upon the

transcendental

individualism, in

Rome, Tiepolo

recouped

its

for churches

losses

and

by spreading

and monasteries

religious orders increased the

in

number

thought old/fashioned, were demolished and

replaced by structures in the style of the day. Others were adapted, improved, 'baroquized'.

God

reigns over men's souls as the king reigns over his subjects.

firmly established within reformed Catholicism, the until the

advent of atheism.

The few

heresies that

Church was

did

arise,

to pass

order,

<

IV

which did not involve

through no

real crises

such as Jansenism and Quietism,

did not present a serious challenge; nor did even the problem of questionings of the age of Louis

Orthodoxy having become

'free

thought'.

The anxious

XIV on the problem of Grace were speculations of an intellectual

the great mass of believers.

Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709). Apotheosis of St

Ignatius (detail), in Sant'Ignazio,

35

Rome

a

PRINCIPLES In order to impress

sovereignty

its

on

own members

its

Church responded

the

to the

same

need for architectural magnificence as did the king in his palace, making lavish use of precious materials,

and employing

elaborate liturgical ornaments

French Catholics today, accustomed

God' profane and

'palaces of

our medieval cathedrals

This

taste for austerity

is

due

to the bareness of

They

unfitted for prayer. to the fact that

community

Hamon

hesitation in

should close

who had

Whosoever

further. 'I love all that

gives to the senses takes

is

recommending

their eyes

when

the images

all

chapel of the Port/Royal sisterhood in Paris, and still

forget that the present-day austerity of

most of them have been stripped of their decoration.

had no

that they

a church. Mere AngeHque Arnauld,

convent, went

medieval churches, find these baroque

can be traced back to the influence of the seventeenth/century Jansenist

movement. The Jansenist M. of the Port/Royal

and ceremonies on solemn occasions.

who

devout laymen

to the

they prayed in too beautiful

and ornaments removed from

the

forbade the growing of flowers in her

ugly,' she said; 'art

is

nothing but Ues and vanity.

away from God.'

I can only suppose that these views are shared by those present/day priests who, with the

connivance of

engaged in laying waste

their superiors, are

their

own

By doing away

churches.

with anything that has historical associations, and turning temples into abstractions, they think they are bringing

CathoUcism up

deployed to do honour to

to date.

God and

But the

to appeal to the senses of the faithful.

is

one of luxury,

Whether Byzantine,

or Gothic, Christian art has always been a practical application of 'sensualism',

Romanesque

employing audio^visual and even olfactory Alberti

true tradition of Christian art

who was imbued

of an idea, the

stimuli.

The

Renaissance, inspired by Leone Battista

with Platonism,had attempted to conceive a church with the purity

homage paid by

human

the

sing the Creator's praise in the beauty of

intellect to the

Holy

Spirit, a

church which should

numbers and the harmony of proportions. From

Alberti to Bramante, the church became an ideal place, attaining the Divine through j Platonic sense of essentiality, providing intellectual delectation for a few refined spirits, but in faithful

could no longer

Peter's before

When

it

feel

any

was extended and

spiritual

which

the

warmth. Such a building was Michelangelo's St

adorned in the seventeenth century.

the Counter/Reformation produced sober churches,

it

was

which had been

neoclassical impulse, to the Renaissance canons

returning, by a sort of

violated by

mannerism



school which designed churches like pieces of jewellery (San Benedetto P6, near Mantua, by pi.

73

GiuUo Romano, Santa Maria presso San Celso, Reformation produced an immense ideological symbolism, the heresy;

and

articles

this effort

in Milan, by Galeazzo Alessi). effort to

reaffirm,

The Counter^

by means of allegory and

of faith and the victory of the saints over sin and of orthodoxy over

was immensely productive of works of

art.

Faith to the Catholic can never be placed in question, even by sin. In the seventeenth century at least, artists

who worked

for the

Church, such

Dolci, were deeply religious men. In their pi.

j6

jy

own

great palace a church, larger

artistic skill.

At

Scaria d'Intelvi, near

Munich

as

Rubens, Bernini, Guido Reni and Carlo

in 1733-5 the

than the palace

Como,

itself,

own

brothers built opposite

on which they

the brothers Carlo

the parish church of their native village at their

Asam

lavished

all their

and Diego Carlone decorated

expense. In the eighteenth century, mainly

THE MILIEU in France, the spirit of the Enlightenment fostered agnosticism elite,

and even atheism among

the

but the inroads of scepticism did not shake the profound faith of the people, which found

fulfilment in ornate churches

which provided

the humblest worshipper with a vision of fabulous

splendour, an image of the supernatural world. It is

many

in the

pilgrimage churches of the German-speaking world above

the intense popular appeal of the ostentation of baroque

Renaissance

art.

all

that

by

art,

we

realize

contrast, is

the art of a cultivated minority. Simple people could hardly be expected to understand the

complicated allegories of the baroque world of images; but were the abstractions of Byzantine art or the theological

to the

in

mass of worshippers > Because these things passed

them the

meaning of

true

and

speculations of Gothic porches

faith.

In a

state

stained glass any

their understanding,

accessible

worshippers found

of exaltation they allowed themselves to be over^

whelmed by

the continuous dramatic representation of the divine

offered them.

The

aristocrat too felt at

more

world which the Church

home, among ceremonies and

rituals similar to those in

use at court: exactly as the Byzantine dignitary recognized in church mosaics the same liturgical ritual

which surrounded

his earthly

monarch

the basikm. If our

were based on more than the few remnants that have come concerned, there

with baroque in

art.

Both

artistic traditions are essentially religious,

which temporal power

of the hasileus

was known

For the great crations

which

knowledge of Byzantine

festivals

regarded with a sort

is

and both belong

to civilizations

as the 'sacred palace'.

which marked

the people were invited;

The

the

little

rhythm of the

seasons,

and

for pilgrimages, conse^

festivities

into towns, processions, cavalcades, triumphs,

own: masquerades

to

remains of them today beyond our poor Corpus Christi

people had a part in the

brations of their

is

of religious awe. Significantly, the residence

and canonizations, the Church provided a wealth of indoor and outdoor ceremonies

processions.

art

to us (as far as secular art

more than written evidence) we should be more conscious of its analogies

Uttle

is

down

which

(of

associated with tourneys, ceremonial entries

and firework

had

cele/

our carnivals are a feeble survival), grotesque

processions not unlike those of present-day Flanders, athletic

more picturesque than in Venice), games of

displays, but they also

skill,

and acrobatic

contests

(nowhere

water-jousting, regattas, boxing matches,

pis 26,

j6g

archery and crossbow contests, acrobatic shows, bullfights (in which great nobles appeared before the public as toreros), not counting the civic festivals.

whole book

to the contribution

Augustus

and

II

III in

systems, in

be present

when

carry a

the

culture to the princely festivals

mounted by

which governments nominally based on the consent of the

fact to protect themselves

that the palace of Versailles

and display

Friedrich Sieber has devoted a

Dresden.

Under our democratic governed have in

made by popular

Dr

was

the king dined;

actually all

from constant

open

threats of violence,

to the public.

Any

it is

hard to conceive

subject could,

if

he wished,

that was required was that he should be decendy dressed

outward appearance of a gentleman, which meant he must wear a sword and

plumed hat under

his

arm. These accessories could be hired from the palace

when Louis

XIV

walk in them, a way had

a small sum.

The

to be cleared

through the crowd for a certain distance in front of him.

gardens were public;

wished

to

concierge for

The monarch

thus put

37

PRINCIPLES on show; and

his royal dignity

this ostentation

—existed

—even the

humblest

subject

was

in

an instrument of power, since every

itself

The

parks of great

and peasant weddings were

also celebrated

only in relation to his royal person.

country houses served as a place for public

festivities,

were mostly added in the nineteenth century, when the domain of a lord became

there; walls

the property of a bourgeois.

Nowhere was

the

Germany, where monarch and people were

eighteenth/century his palace,

monplaisir

Mon

of the prince lived closer that of his subjects than in the small states of

life

Plaisir,

soit le plaisir de

often

It is

familiar terms. For

William Henry of Nassau/Saarbriicken chose the motto Je veux mes

sujets, '1

wish

my

pleasure to be

my subjects'

of the church were amiable rulers; and a proverb, 'Under the crozier to prove

on

pleasure.'

The

que

princes

good', has survived

life is

it.

dark impulses occasionally rose to the surface in Germany, a country that had

true that

been so often ravaged by war. In the age of the Enlightenment, the principality of Ansbach was ruled by an extremely cruel Margrave, brother/in4aw of Frederick the Great,

was shooting;

Mad

own

his habit of taking pot^-shots at his

Margrave'.

He

died of apoplexy at the age of

subjects earned

forty/five,

and

people broke through the guard of honour and danced round his

had been brought up displayed

An

all

man

in the French tradition, a

of culture

him

at his

coffin.

whose only passion

the

nickname of 'the

common successor who

funeral the

But

his

and an ardent music4over,

the quaUties of a most worthy prince.

attempt has been

economy was

made

to

view the baroque

basically agricultural.

knowledge of the

This

is

it is

an

product of a stilWeudal society whose

the conclusion

On

situation in Central Europe.

a rural character, whereas in fact

as the

art

this

drawn by Victor^L. Tapie from

view, the baroque

would tend

his

have

to

of the court, essentially urban. Furthermore, the

baroque age was a period of great commercial and even industrial development, particularly in the eighteenth century.

Other

historians

facts are against

have claimed to

see a link

between classicism and the bourgeoisie; but the

such a narrow interpretation, for the upsurge of the bourgeoisie in the eighteenth

century should have favoured the development of classicism, whereas on the contrary this was It

would,

product of a Catholic and monarchic

society,

the age of rococo, a 'super/baroque'.

spiritually

It

was

in the strongholds of Calvinist power, in

Holland were,

origin,

think, be truer to say that baroque art

it

was confined

an exception to the system

is

true,

to the

Germany and

especially in the

United Prov

we have just described. Democratic institutions

combined with a

principate which, although parliamentary in

House of Orange

—except

—throughout

for a brief eclipse

to the bourgeois ethos

members of

by living in rich houses rather than palaces.

has been preserved, these have almost

all

disappeared.

The

the

the nobility,

It is

they built a few great country houses; but, strangely enough in a country where so 38

the

prince.

seventeenth century. However, the princes of this house, like other

conformed

is

whose highly complex elements were united

round God, and in the temporal sphere round the

inces, that there existed

in

I

true that

much

else

sole exception to this rule of austerity

THE MILIEU that

still

today

exists

central rotunda, the

the

is

Huis

honour of her dead husband the Stadholder Frederick Henry. This

in

The Hague, with

ten Bosch, the 'house in the forest', near

Orange Room, adorned by Amalia von Solms with

its

pi.

24

pis

11^-6

allegorical paintings

somewhat

a modest,

is

maladroit example of the princely ostentation which characterized the baroque age elsewhere.

But

it is

noteworthy that the CathoHc southern Netherlands, under the rule of Spain and

of Austria, were in a similar situation; the only building anywhere in the Netherlands is

comparable with a palace in

Rome

Germany

or

is

the old

a fine expression of the humanist spirit, designed by the

Henry.

to Frederick

addresses

It

nature, earth, air

the greatness of

ideal of

—or rather

and

sea

Amsterdam

Amsterdam. This

hall in

famous Constandjn Huygens,

power but by

and democratic

in peace

is

All the elements of

that of justice.

mythological equivalents

their

is

secretary

learned imagery not to the courtier but to the citizen, and

its

dominated not by the monarchic

town

later

which

—are employed to celebrate

order.

In spite of the opposition of the Arminians, which was quickly suppressed, Calvinist church buildings are deliberately abstract,

making no attempt

to channel the ideas of the faithful, their

complete bareness leaving complete freedom to individual devotion. This

Cathohc baroque. 'Nothing

to attract the eye or

the reverse of the

is

hold the attention*, writes the Calvinist E.^G.

Leonard. 'Everything predisposes to an

interior emptiness, to a vacuity of the spirit,

being nothing, has nothing to give, and

is

his eyes,

and the poor

artist,

The

believer has only to close

walls, the simple ceiling, the plain furnishings, disappear; he

between these walls, beneath

The Dutch

in a state of waiting.

this ceiUng,

he

is

in the

which,

immense void

is

no longer

with God.'

filled

deprived of palaces and churches to decorate, was compelled to

ph 335-6

work on

a

smaller scale. Painters painted easel pictures that could find a place in bourgeois homes; sculp-tors

worked on

busts

and memorials. Businessmen with

little

imagination demanded that

should provide them with representations of the world in which they lived. In

this

atmoS'

phere of bourgeois peace and security scholars found a favourable chmate for their work.

'What

artists

other country one's sleep treasons,

is

there,'

is

and calumnies

of our forefathers sovereignty

which were this day.

manuals,

wrote Descartes, 'where one can enjoy such complete

?'

At

are so

a time

and Divine Right,

seldom

the presses of

and where

when politicians of Hugo Grotius laid

to earn his country the

While

seen,

there remains so

The one

much

where

the

first

Law

principles of the

pre/eminence in international law which

Antwerp

of the innocence

other countries were dogmatizing

concentrated

Amsterdam and Leyden were achieving

on

it

the high standard in

on

royal

of Nations,

has retained to

the production of missals

learned books that they have kept until the present day; set in all

liberty,

so untroubled, where armies always stand ready to guard one, where poisonings,

and

religious

the pubhshing of

nowhere but in Leyden could type be

the languages of the globe.

peacefulness that informs

recalls that

in a bitter struggle for existence,

by the same

Dutch painting should

really

be seen as a release of tension,

while these calm pictures were being painted the heroic

was

religious controversies

Catholic countries,

on

httle

politically disunited (like all democracies),

the subjea of grace

if

country was engaged

and predestination

and was

torn

that racked certain 39

4 Ethic and Aesthetic

In the transition from Renaissance to baroque, the centre of gravity of European

from

art shifted

the object to the subject; logic gave place to rhetoric.

Whether

a Renaissance

appearance, the

immediate

The

The work is no longer an end by the

artists

its

Van Eyck,

an

aim was

truth.

objective

reality, as

The work, once completed,

value, offered for admiration.

borrowed from the technique of

classical artists

and

theorists; the classical

pursue his

and he must

Baroque

thus an

art is

and

his admirer Bellori,

the spectator;

also

art

here the

but a means. Recent studies have shown that the methods employed

said Cicero, are to instruct, to delight,

The artist must

it;

with the creator of the work.

classical rhetoric, as

works of Cicero, Quintilian and Aristode. Curiously, the

by Poussin, by

did Raphael, or

but to demonstrate

to attain a truth,

to this sort of critical analysis than the impulsive

third.

his

higher

essential element in a dialogue

of this period were the

were propounded by

are used

heauty, the

and took on an

creator

of the baroque age sought, not

spectator enters the process as

known from

did

reality, as

became in a sense detached from artist

chose to pursue

artist

art in

to

and

also

move him whole.

better suited

The same

terms

by Boileau, who, however, neglerted the

(movere), that is

was

essentials of a great orator,

{docere dekctare et movere).

order to instrua (docere) while giving pleasure

of persuasion; this

to the artistic ethic of the period as a

temperament was

baroque mind. The

move

it

theories themselves

is stir

him

to action.

obviously true of religious

The methods

t^delectare) to

art,

but also applies

of persuasion employed by

artists

are

expression and metaphor.

Expression

is

the externalization of the passions of the soul (to use Descartes' term);

the subject of the second action,

which

is

book of

Aristotle's Rhetoric.

The

et

de Sculpture, which was

forms

passions are externalized through

an imitation by the body of the movements of the

Academie de Peinture

it

soul.

The

lectures of the

founded in France in 1648, continued

throughout the second half of the seventeenth century to deal mainly with theories of expression. In 1678

Le Brun gave

a lecture

on

the subject

which was printed

in 1698;

and another

of his, of which unfortunately only the oudine has survived, deals with the art of

by

their

physiognomy. Le Brun uses Descartes' theory of the passions

of expression in general,

which

is

lecture

knowing men

as a basis for his

account

followed by a discussion of the modes of expression, admi/'

ration, esteem, veneration, delight, scorn, horror, dread, simple love, desire, hope, fear, jealousy,

hatred, madness, physical pain, joy, laughter, weeping, anger, extreme despair,

40

the ways of rendering them.

and

rage,

and

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC The Cabinet des Dessins in the Louvre possesses a large collection of sketches which were made to illustrate Le Brun's second, lost lecture, and which, by virtue of his position as 'first painter to the king', entered the royal collection on the artist's death. In these sketches Le Brun

human

juxtaposes

facial

of 'morphopsychology'. Lavater, in his Me'moire sur

I'art d'etudier la

Fragments physiognomiques (1774), echoes the theories of

still

its

and

physiognomie (1772)

Le Brun; he

54-5

his

studies the face, 'the mirror

of the soul', not as the physiognomists or morphopsychologists of today

but in

pis

types with heads of animals, thus anticipating the latter-day students

would do,

in

its

structure,

Le Brun's drawings, which artists eighteenth century. Le Brun himself was

play of expressions; he had a great admiration for

came

to study in the

work

inspired by the

Louvre throughout the

of the founder of physiognomy, the Neapolitan natural philosopher

Giambattista della Porta (1541-1615), author of a

French in 1655.

translated into

treatise,

De

humana physiognomia, which was

A direct reflection of Della Porta's theories

is

be found in the

to

Entretiens of Felibien (1685).

The command

Expression occurs by means of bodily movements governed by the passions of the soul.

impulse of the passions produces within the person of himself artists

—an

who

is

determined to remain in

throughout the baroque age

essential principle

—a

profound conflict which

expressed by contrary movements, either of the head and the body, or of the eye and the

head. There itself first

is

a

found

whole system of artistic

gestural rhetoric,

expression, that

which appeared

in the fourth century

is

BC

when

the time

at

passion

in the tormented art of

Scopas. Artists of the seventeenth century employed the rhetoric of gesture constandy, either

having observed it is still

an

his pupils. 'This this

the only

is

it

in antique art or

essential element. is

more probably borrowed

'Watch

the

way

to give

forms their

tectural

saints.

is

it

from

Lafond used

the actor Pierre

body

is

here,

my

head

is

pi.

which

to say to

the other

way;

This technique of contrary movements

so essential a part of all

inspires the technique of ornamentation,

baroque

and even governs

the

art that in the

whole

archi'

and decorative design of a building.

In Italy feeling,

it

this,'

full value.'

balancing one another round one or several axes

rococo phase

do

When my

essential in the theatre.

way

I

the art of acting, of

at the

time of the Counter^Reformation, poets turned to the expression of religious

and in order

to

touch the emotions of the faithful paraphrased the lamentations of the

This lachrymatory verse was so successful that

One

it

was put

together in collections (Nuova

of the favourite themes of such pious poetry

raccolta di lagrime dei piit ilkstri poeti,

1593).

was the 'Tears of St

the Italian writer Tansillo devoted 336 verses.

Peter', to

poet Malherbe imitated

him

which

in one of his early

poems, which he

later

The French

pi.

^8

disowned, but which was

an enormous success. 'The Tears of the Magdalen' was another popular subject. Painters

found a rich source of inspiration in these two themes, particularly the second; the theme of the 'Penitent Magdalen' offers

some of the

best material for study for

anyone wishing

to under^

stand the conflict between asceticism and sensuality within seventeenth^century religious feeling.

Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth classical or

baroque

—developed

their

passions. Fragonard, for example,

centuries, artists

—whether we

classify

them

as

technique by means of exercises in the expression of the

drew a group of heads expressing

the terror caused by a lion

41

PRINCIPLES (Cahinet des Dessins, Louvre). pis

56-7

Bernini, as a prelude to his Soul.

These two

busts, in

two extremes of

portrays artificial,

Such

exercises

whole

artistic

which the

could also

thus the twenty/year/old

achievement, carved the Blessed Soul and the Damned

and with no

artist, freely

and

expression, joy

attract sculptors;

suffering,

any particular theme,

reference to

may seem

and somewhat

to us naive

but they are nonetheless essential to an understanding of his

and of baroque

art

art as

a whole. other technique of eloquence defined by Aristotle

The

is

metaphor. This

is

the indirect

approach, and consists in using the quaUties of one thing to express those of another, thus avoiding the dryness of mere definition the plastic

arts,

metaphor takes the form of

symbolic repertoire of the artists,

PL.

X

2g,

11^-6

art

of the baroque age;

the former often proving

and

allegory, it

this

was employed by both

more obscure than the

latter.

modern mind, unfamihar with humanism, than

astery of

and

Melk

or the

classical learning,

Amsterdam town found Poussin's

which, for Poussin, was the object of

From

this

to follow

comprehend

biblical

but a source of the deUght

painting: they produced a reverie of the imagination.

The complexity it

for

the systematized symbolism of the mon--

easy for the popular

less

than that of baroque, which offered a miseyen^scene calculated to produce an

agination enters the realm of plastic art

of baroque, charged as

it is

effect

on

with mystery, by no

When

captivated them.

it

mind

the popular im/

shows a spontaneous tendency towards the baroque;'

well illustrated in the famous Palais Ideal of Hauterives, built between 1879 and 19 12 by

postman Cheval. This creation

is,

in fact, the last echo of the

expressed in Uterature by Ariosto, Tasso, and so

difficult to

allegories not only accessible

means alienated ordinary people; on the contrary,

the

and baroque

Despite recent attempts to decipher

point of view, the language of classicism was certainly

the simplest understanding.

this is

classical

But seventeenth^century man, steeped in

hall.

all

the imagination. In

underUes the whole immense

them, the mythological allusions of Poussin's paintings are more the

ph

and reinforcing the expression by arousing

many baroque

La

myth of the ench^ted

Fontaine (in his novel Psyche), and in

castle, art

by

buildings.

Influenced by the persuasive pen of Emile Male, the imagination of French readers has been captured by the rehgious symbolism of the Middle Ages; and the iconologists, led by Erwin

Panofsky and Rudolf Wittkower, have studied the pagan symbolism of the Renaissance and of modern times. But the religious and secular symboHsm of the baroque age has somehow been regarded as of

less interest.

Baroque symbolism

certainly does not reject completely, as has

study, which, however,

demands

cannot pi.

2^

fail

to be

moved by

abound

the medieval tradition (which

sometimes been claimed);

great classical

to try to 'read' the allegories that

falls heir to

and

offers a rich field of

theological learning. If

we

take the trouble

in the architecture of the baroque monasteries,

their poetic quaUty.

What

subtlety there

is

in the

we

symboHc design

of the monastery of Melk, a sacred triangle formed by the marble hall (Marmorsaal), the Ubrary

and

the church. In the marble hall, Hercules herokus, once chosen as an

Nero and Commodus, symbolizes

the prince, or excellence in the

Hbrary Hercules Christianus, adopted in the Renaissance as a speaking 42

it

it

that this excellence

emblem by

human

emblem

the emperors

sphere; in the

of Christ, signifies

can only reside in Christian perfection, which the prince must possess. The

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC 'mental

fight*

of divine

—the psychomachy—which

wisdom which

Church

of the

Militant

who

of the faith

the

is

theme of the

the

is

theme of the Marmorsaal, and the celebration

library, are united in the sanctuary

where the triumph

symbolized by the martyr apostles Peter and Paul, the two

is

athletes

constitute the Christian Pillars of Hercules.

Confronted by a multiplicity of symbols, the mind leaps from form to form, from subject

an intoxication of

to subject, in

much

in so

A

complexity.

to find the beauty of

an overriding order

whole system of interchanges between pagan and Christian my/

thology reminds us that baroque

One

end

ideas, glad in the

humanism

reconciles revelation with the

of the most remarkable examples of this reconciliation

is

wisdom

the sanctuary of

Monte, near Braga in Portugal, a 'holy mountain' on the slopes of which

of antiquity.

Bom

Jesus

do

ph 55, 204

are set the Stations

of the Cross. Adjoining some of the Stations there are fountains, each dedicated to one of the

gods of Olympus, some of is

whom

also represent planets. In the chapel of the Resurrection there

a fountain showing Hercules the Christ^Bearer,

Half'way up the slope the

Way

of the Cross

on which a magnificent

dos cinco sentidos,

five successive levels, the five senses

and

quisition).

wounds sins

At

of Christ.

It is

Man,

represented

figures (these

were

statues illustrates,

nature in

desires of the five senses, is

more complex than

The

its totality.

and the various sensory

Redemption.

removed by the

purists of the In^

this; the

Bom Jesus

do Monte was

priest

touches

at

fountain of the

human

At

as polarized

which

it

about a single end which

and 1774,

the Stairway of the

immense

whom we

need

embodies.

serve as a pretext for religious eloquence,

the funerals of princes,

from

five senses,

Old and New Testaments with mythology, nature make the holy mountain a kind of

created between 1723

not hesitate to attribute the symbolic conceptions

Anything might

Extreme Unc/

Christ, also teaches us that he possessed our

association of the aspects of

which the

Five Senses being built as a result of a donation from the Jesuits of Braga, to

death.

on

by characters from the Old Testament later

symbol of the universe, considered, in the medieval view, is

and

thus clearly conveyed that the Saviour's sufferings have atoned for the

think the symbolism

the stars

interrupted by a superb stairway, the Escadorio

orchestration of fountains

which flows water symbolizing the blood of

human

has truly found his right setting here.

the foot of the staircase, water gushes in a magnificent fountain from the five

committed through the

tion. I

of

by mythological

originally also

is

who

above

all

the circumstances of

catafalques called castra doloris were set

up

in the

church, on which allegorical figures and gesticulating skeletons affirmed the vanity of the world,

while the preacher delivered the funeral oration (a form of eloquence of which the French preachers Bossuet

and Massillon were

the greatest exponents).

chapels remain as evidence of these ceremonies. Emile

reappeared in Italian

art as a reaction against the funeral

celebrated the virtues of the deceased

man

to achieve immortality

as

an opportunity

later historians

of St

John

slabs,

each one the

in Valetta, Malta.

It

tomb

of a knight,

has perhaps been

image of death

which

which form

wrong

for the exceptional

have drawn attention to

extraordinary baroque rhetoric of death, an astonishing example of

319 marble funeral

the

imagery of the Renaissance, which had

and regarded death

through fame. Several

Baroque tombs and funerary

Male has shown how

this

survives today in the

the floor of the cathedral

to regard this

new approach

to the

43

PRINCIPLES ceremonial of death only as an austere meditation on mortality, inspired by a Pascalian view of human destiny. This

is, it is

Rembrandt and

and of the category

of

all

others,

many works by Georges de La Tour, Zurbaran, of still^life known as the Vanitas, a favourite subject

true, the spirit of

the schools of the seventeenth century; but in considering baroque funerals altogether too

much emphasis has been put on death, and too little on the pomp and circumstance which surrounded it. One has only to read Bossuet's Oraisons funehres; the orator would not dwell so lovingly on the glory of the illustrious dead

icance in face of the greatness of

Conde, he cannot

if his sole

God. In

aim were

to demonstrate

extolling the immortality of his genius. In a

resist

man's

insignif/

the presence of the mortal remains of the Great

number

of tombs, chiefly

those of military heroes, death appears not as a bogy, reminding the Christian of the uncertainty

of his destiny, but as the bringer of glory. Glory can be

won

only by death, but only death

(strange paradox!) confers immortality; the ephemeral Uving being

home

enter the ideal world, the pis 30-1

and

of gods

heroes.

On the

tomb

must perish before

man

can

of Marshal Maurice de Saxe

by Pigalle in Saint^Thomas, Strasbourg, and on that of Louis William, Margrave of Baden^

Baden and comrades-in-arms of Prince Eugene, known of Turks (d. 1707), death that explode

is

as Tiirkenlouis for his

prowess as a

shown only as crushed underfoot by the hero, amid

around him in a burst of

slayer

a host of allegories

glory.

In an age in which every object embodied a message, none did so more than the instrument

which

of rehgious eloquence, the pulpit, truth'. pi.

52

In Bohemia, Austria and Silesia

form of a net

ship; others in the

in

Dutch was

we

find

called de stoel der waarheid, 'the chair of

some

pulpits in the

form of a fuUy/^rigged

for those 'fishers of men', the priests; others in the

form of a

whale from which Jonah, the preacher, emerges victorious over death. In the cathedral

Cordoba the pi.

2j6

pulpit

it

effigies

of the four Beasts of the Apocalypse. In Flanders

standing

if the, priest

had

with his words.

Architecture 16^

supported by huge

the pulpit often constitutes a veritable encyclopaedia of religious truth, as

shaped

pi.

is

at

itself carries

pillars, inspired

the church built by the

a message of truth for those

who

can read

it.

The two

strange free/

by Trajan's Column, which stand before the Karlskirche in Vienna,

Emperor Charles VI

plague, are multiple symbols.

They

in thanksgiving for the

represent Constantia

and

end of an outbreak of

Fortitudo, virtues

church's patron St Charles Borromeo, and an allusion to Charles VI's are also Pillars of Hercules, the imperial

emblem

of Charles

own

proper to the

motto; and they

V and also possibly a reference to

Charles VI's ambitions for the Spanish crown. Perhaps, too, they can be seen as Jachin and Boas, the twin columns of the

In the strange

dome

Temple

of Solomon, erected here by a latter/day Solomon.

of Guarini's Capella della Santissima Sindone in Turin, the contrasts of

hght and shade above the shrine which contains the shroud of Christ have the symbohc

signify

icance of Life and Death.

There

is

no

architectural

form more expressive than the dome, symbol of the centre of the

world since the time of Nero,

which revolved 44

on

to

show

the

who

in his 'Golden House' built one in the form of a planetarium

movements of the

stars.

Thus

the order of the cosmos, an ancient magical idea

the order of the

which

is

also

Empire was patterned

found in ancient Chinese

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC cosmology. Eugenio d'Ors connects the

dome with

the notion of sovereignty finds expression, there

symbol of Orthodoxy radiating

emblem

of Catholicity. In

and angels

saints

upon

light

the concept of monarchy. Indeed, wherever



these celestial visions

the

dome

and St

Peter's,

dome is

tomb (such

as the

tomb

the

Eghse de

la

dei Miracoli, Saronno, near Milan,

now

on a

dome

has a

Sorbonne, Paris, built over the tomb of Richelieu) the

the origin of which

lieroon,

round hut. This form the so-called

Tomb

gave us the burial

of the Christian

no doubt

mounds

of San Sebastiano in Milan tian hero

back

to the very

The

is

moved

dawn

founded on ancient

the age of industrial civilization. Spring stems

riddles has

it is

who

a rotunda, a

by man, the

Emperor Augustus,

enters the

mankind

baroque church

for St Sebastian, Christ

which

reaches

beliefs

One

in the light of the science of comparative

show

which have

that even the

most sophisticated mythical

persisted in the popular imagination into

author has argued that the subject matter of

from a twelfth^century Byzantine poem; others have seen

its

successor

tombs of the Medressa,

the

tomb

^21

of humanity.

religion and Jung's theory of archetypes tends to

Andre Varagnac

to classical sources.

was the

are the repositories of a cultural heritage

study of the ancient traditions of

constructs are

tomb of

Algeria, the

receptive visitor

to find that

and martyr. Baroque churches

turn

lay in the oldest dwelling erected

of Celtic chieftains, the

Woman in

and the mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. The

its

pi.

the Institut,

of Mazarin), or even in a church with a nave, but centring

funerary significance derived from the early Christian martyrium. This in of the antique

the

perhaps the exquisite one

1534). But over a rotunda (such as the College des Quatre Nations, Paris,

which once housed

Rome,

depicts the heavens, peopled with

beneath a

Madonna

painted by Gaudenzio Ferrari in the church of

Sophia, Constantinople,

as in St

Justinian's empire;

many baroque churches

(the earliest of

dome

a

is

source in the ancient

it

Botticelli's

as a direct reference

has demonstrated that this learned assemblage of allegorical

May festival,

derived from primitive nature religion,

which

annually celebrated the return of spring.

The from

and

aristocrats

their roots in

popular culture;

and werewolves from as a stimulus to the

who

intellectuals of the sixteenth

imagination which

awakens the mind'.

The

of them had heard fairy

their nurses or their

declared that his religion

grew up; we have

all

We

was

if

earliest

legends and stories of ogres

childhood; and these

that of his

king and his nurse, said that

'the

charm of

felt

an

are to appreciate

instinctive

mous human

beings,

have no history of than pass

came

life

forth

sympathy.

own; but

on and with

much

The

who crowded

their

fables

it.

and learned

how

the

culture in the baroque

common

world must be

people could be drawn into the poetic

world of baroque churches and palaces, a world which they did not comprehend but they

tales acted

can have no conception of the poetic world in which children of old

rejected

we

mothers in

tales,

centuries were not cut off

they were to exercise in intellectual speculation. Descartes,

contact between popular culture

borne in mind

and seventeenth

it

Neapolitan cribs serve to

the churches

and

filled

remind us of

this.

the public places to

they must not be ignored.

By

for

which

These anony

watch

festivals,

living, they did hardly

more

their store of fables, beliefs and natural lore; but out of their poverty

of the imaginative wealth

which made

possible the creation of so

many

45

PRINCIPLES masterpieces of houses,

art.

Visiting the 'open-air

some dating from

the seventeenth century, in

domestic animals and his crops, one that

was passed on from age staircase of the

Farnesi held court; pi. 4^

door leads

on

was

The

monarch, in

left

own universe, where his own kingdom.

and

are the ducal apartments,

World War). Like

was inaugurated by a

series

at

the far

Every royal or princely palace had

now

its

theatre;

rebuilt after

the court theatres of the period,

all

helmina,

who

at

Vignola and

Piacenza on a similar pattern.

some even contained

adjoining her palace, pi.

j^p

employed Carlo GaUi Bibiena

in 1748

later built

of rocks. Some works of

the nearby

several,

to build the exquisite

and sometimes

rococo theatre

architecture, like the

Zwinger

in Dresden, are conceived as vast

of the period;

life

it

was

certainly

the most characteristic art form of the time, especially in the guise of opera, a spectacle

use of

all

painter, librettist,

himself, for

The

the arts, calling

had

it

was

4^

gestures required

a considerable influence

paintings

on

which take

40

(himself a

librettist

Cornaro family at Osterhofen,

on

the formal language of the other arts: figures in

pi.

42

scenes for

monumental

movement, in

particular, the

ample

and

who

some

can be seen in galleries

Innocents). In the Cornaro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, Bernini

theatrical designer) stages the Ecstasy of

chatting in boxes

where they have

on minature

stage

the form of plays performed before spectators

who sit

flanking the high

finally the spectator

the baroque stage (Bernini's St Longims in St Peter's). There are

(Guide's Massacre of the pi.

—and

essentially a social occasion.

motion were frequently based on the conventions of pi.

which

the talents of architect, perspectivist, costume/designer,

composer, engineer, musician, singer, stage designer

whom

theatre

on

Wil'

Felsengarten Sanspareil, a rustic theatre constructed

open/air theatres. Theatre was one of the essential features of the

made

it

of masques which included the inevitable

a garden theatre like that of the Palazzo Boboli in Florence. In Bayreuth the Margravine

47

the

end a gigantic

theatre thus stood at the very heart of courtly Ufe. Paciotti,

Testa had designed the cortik of the Palazzo Farnese

pi.

his

by the poetry,

its

by Giambattista Aleotti in 1617-19 (and

to the court theatre built

sea battle.

same roof with

the simplicity, but also

the centre of

sovereign, like the

and

being destroyed during the Second

mock

The farm was

the

seeing the farm/

Palazzo Ducale in Parma leads to the great atrium where the

the right

also served as a ballroom. It

which man shared

overwhelmed by

is

to age.

farmer, as the master of nature,

The grand

museums' of Northern Europe and

altar.

either side.

installed lifelike

The Asam

brothers follow his

example

painted figures of the founders in stage boxes

In the Oratory of San Lorenzo, Palermo, Serpotta carves religious

stages,

staircases,

palaces seem gradually to

on

St Teresa for the members of the

From

complete with curtains.

and

the theatre,

no doubt, came the

taste

for palaces built with the effect of a series of perspectives; real

have come

to resemble the

sham ones

the relationship between the notion of space in the theatre,

created

and

on

the stage.

in painting

and

would undoubtedly throw Hght on the bonds of understanding between these painting that anticipated the theatre, as

is

shown by

A study of

architecture,

arts, for it

was

the conception of Raphael's Dispute in the

Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican.

An 46

ballet

important form of theatrical activity was the allegorical masque, often in the form of a put on for some ceremonial or political occasion.

The

sovereign himself did not disdain

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC dramas, acting his role of monarch in costumed guise. In a carrousel (a

to take part in these

tournament in costume) in 1662, Louis

which was Les

Plaisirs de I'Isle enchantie,

costumed

himself,

Dresden in 1719

as

XIV,

Roman

dressed as a

In the entertainments he gave

of knights, or 'quadrille'.

Emperor, led

own group

pi. jtj

1664, the theme of

at Versailles in

'The Pleasures of the Enchanted

his

Island',

XFV

Louis

Ruggero, stormed the palace of Alcina. The celebrations organized in

Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Maria Josepha of

for the marriage of

pi-

349

Austria included a masque of the planets in which Augustus appeared as Mars; the myth of

symboUc

Jason, a

Order of the Golden Fleece conferred on Augustus by

reference to the

the

Emperor, was performed on the Elbe. In Vienna in 1669, on the occasion of another wedding celebration attended

by the ambassadors of

Austria' had been the theme of a the roof of the

masque

all

in

the states of Europe, the 'Glory of the

which

and Glory opened on

a temple of Eternity

Emperor

himself.

These entertainments, whether they took place in the

the castle of Bisc in

Hungary

for the

nine months,

making merry, hunting,

air,

the 'Bloody Countess'; they stayed at the

feasting

and gaming while they waited

entertainments to begin again to celebrate the birth of the these festivities,

open

wedding of Judith Thurzo, second daughter of Gyorgy,

and kinsman of Erzsebet Bathory,

Palatine

theatre, the palace or in the

sometimes even months. In 1607, several hundred guests came to

lasted several days or weeks,

Grand

of

Hof burg to reveal a statue of the Emperor, and which culminated in the appearance,

dens ex machina, of the

castle for

House

and a model

for all the others,

first

The most

child.

for the

extravagant of

were those given in 1579 for the marriage of

Francesco de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, and the enchanting Bianca Capello. In prep/ aration for

them

the Neo/Platonic

and Allori with symbolic

Accademia

Fiorentina

material. Decorators, poets

Even

cities

for a year to provide

and musicians could have wished

more splendid theme than the marriage of two famous

them of the leading

worked

of the Renaissance, Florence

lovers

{Amor

accompany

et

had a passion

the solemn transfer of the

chapel of the Rosario to the newly/built parish church of Pilar. representing the Planets, the

Gods

Olympus,

of

mountains of Ouro Preto, the town

for

on the

stage martyrs

and

acted by the pupils of their schools both in actor, that despised figure

Christian burial, his

life

may

it,

World, the two

tragka: costumed like actors.

They

created a

whole

own)

to be

overseas.

in the seventeenth century did not even have the right to

thus be seen as typical of the whole baroque age,

rather than live

when man seemed to act Works

continually projecting himself into a fictitious, ideal existence.

of art themselves, like stage the spectator to

who

in the

Turks and Christians,

saints (taking care not to forget their

Europe and

a

procession included figures

Jesuits did not neglect the educational possibihties of the theatre.

sacred drama, putting

The

all 'vestidos a

festivities;

Triumph' held

the Seasons, the Parts of the

heroes from Roman history and characters from Scripture,

The

The

such

Holy Sacrament from

the parish church of Pilar,

itself,

no

and Venice.

in the remotest overseas colonies, cultivated people

Preto, Brazil, in 1733 to

for

Arma), and through

description published in 1734 has preserved a record of the 'Eucharistic

Ouro

Vasari

become an

sets

made

of canvas, marble or stone, seemed constantly to beckon

actor in the play.

47

;

.

PRINCIPLES It

was in seeming,

Gracian

justifies his

?'

he asks. 'The

much hidden

reality

and appearances. 'Of what use would

greatest art .

.

.

(and thus gUtter)

Outward show

first

of

.

.

duel.

A

life',

'regard

But

a

if

Perron,

mask

who

stances to

it.

critic

what one does

popular themes

peacock from blame; he has

is

to be effective

among

it

According

extols the

himself

is

by creating

Gracian a

to

the struggle against his fellow arbiter of

is

we

'a

man

man:

a

manners and

good

actor in

acting a part'.

must constantly be changed. Inconstancy find

it

is

celebrated by the

one of the most

Frenchman

Du

and by Etienne Durant, who dedicated some

devotes an elegy to Variety:

why

heavens rejoyce in motion,

my is

so

much

none,

'New Chameleon',

//

if

should

I

lov'd variety

not diversified

.

.

Novel Cameleonte; while Etienne Durant wonders

possible to be anything but inconstant, since

Le passe nest plus Et

rien,

ce qu'il tient present,

'The past

is

the Portuguese poet Agostinho da

Tudo

se

lefutur un nm^e, *.

sentfu^itif,

il le

nothing, the future a cloud,

and what he holds

As

on

to carry

raised a 'temple to Inconstancy';

John Donne

God

sanctified ostentation

dissimulation.

seventeenth/century poets;

Pleasure

it is

is

and imagine one

as a play,

Abjure

how

to all things'.

of Voiture, goes so far as to say that one should be

The

Marino

life

French moralist, the Chevaher de Mere (1610-84),

and

worth more than

all.

must make himself impenetrable in order

masked

be without appear/

reality

httle ostentation is

gives a second

.

But a necessary concomitant of ostentation

taste, letter/writer

A

the art of seeming ...

is

called as a witness to absolve the light

his true substance. Baltasar

choice of the peacock as a model by debating the much/discussed problem

of the relation between reality

ances

found

rather than in being, that the individual

Cruz

present he

knows

puts

things change at

it; all

muda em fin, muda

is fleeting'.

se tudo.

These quotations, collected by Jean Rousset, the historian of the

matched by many more.

One

hero of the age

shepherd of d'Urfe's long novel L'Astrie, of the early seventeenth century.

From

Marivaux and Beaumarchais, masks,

is

Proteus,

who became

Shakespeare,

human

literary

and another

is

baroque, could be

Hylas, the inconstant

a favourite figure in the pastoral Literature

Lope de Vega and Corneille

pretence, disguise, doubles,

misapprehensions were the very stuff of comedy and

Beaumarchais, especially, the

last:

lies,

also of opera. In the

to

Goldoni,

shams, decoys and

work

of

Marivaux and

being seems almost to dissolve in the myriad

facets of

The most moving of all expressions of this flight from the self is perhaps Mozart and Da Ponte's Le Nozze di Figaro, a lovers' roundabout in which no one knows where to bestow

seeming.

48

his love, each lover believes that he loves

someone

who

is

not what he loves, pretends to love

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC one in order

be loved by another, and, thinking to meet one, meets another or sometimes even

to

a false semblance of himself; only the innocent

women', has any

'lover of all

At

solidity.

and vicious Cherubino,

who

like

end of the course each individual

the

Hylas

The music

beings are fragmented as they are in the mirrors of baroque chateaux.

from the

self in

human

was now

dominant themes of baroque opera; the

the

world where

borrowed from Ovid or from

Italian

all

was ephemeral, the

characters themselves, whether

romance, were similarly lacking in consistency. The true

quality of the characters seems to reside in the 'enchantment' that carries

'ordeal

into beast or god, fairy or

by metamorphosis' were a kind of

In baroque

demon,

poet's true goal

is

function

Its

finally to

initiation into

art the object offered for the spectator's

nature than the spectator himself.

its

favourite

the transformation scene, an instant change from sunlight to storm, sea

to land, forest to palace; in a

and changes them

of Mozart cap/

a masterpiece touched with deep emotion.

Impermanence and change were scenic device

the

finds himself to

be what he always was, and what he believed he did not wish to be; in an intricate dance

tures this flight

is

is

them out of themselves

become men

again, as

if this

humanity.

admiration

is

no more straightforward

to astonish, excite, enchant, transport.

wonder, writes Marino; he must

know how

to stupefy, or

'

in

The

he deserves a

drubbing:

E del poeta Chi non

Even today,

in several

Spanish and Portuguese.

In eighteenth/century gardens there is

sa far stupir veda alia striglia.

Romance languages, the strongest word of praise for beauty is 'stupendous';

stupendo in Italian, estupendo in

the ha/ha. This

la fin la maraviglia:

the ditch or

is

one feature the name of which

sudden drop which,

of the park so as not to interrupt the vista

amusement,

said:

their admiration,

'The nature of men

and which they cannot

a gasp of astonishment,

end of an avenue, conceals the wall

at the

—causing people taking a walk, coming

of the drop, to exclaim in surprise. Descartes, the master of reason, for

is

is

who

to the

edge

himself read romances

such that they value only those things which arouse

entirely grasp.'

as we are, since romanticism and existentialism, to the probing of the self to its we might perhaps be tempted to see this perpetual dissimulation as an escape from

Accustomed very depths, reality.

Present-day French Catholics,

still

of praying in a baroque church, since for 'effusion'. It

come

was not

or less Jansenists at heart,

them prayer

so in the seventeenth century,

Are we

justified, in the

name

was the accepted form of self-expression as the negation of reaUty, or a

essence,

its

shining forth

come down is,

into the



as the

garment

Book

each believer could in his

whose

of truth, in

gestures

most. But

of Proverbs says,

world of semblance

possibility

its

is

We

own

were displayed in

condemning

in the baroque period? at the

deny the

consists only in contemplation, not in

when

close to the mystery of the 'effusion' of the saints

of the church.

who

more

heart

all parts

that ostentation

which

tend to think of semblance

not appearance the revelation of

splendour? Pure Being consented to

—our own—taking on

our nature through the Son

says St Paul, 'the effulgence of his glory'. All the Christian mystics have celebrated

49

PRINCIPLES Henry Suso, and even

the 'beauty of appearances'; St Augustine, St Francis, the Blessed

of the Cross, most profound of the profound, were stones

and stucco of the baroque churches

vibrate,

amid

sound of organs, the

the

St

John

with the joy with which the very

all filled

of gold

glitter

and the smoke of incense.

Why

should

we

was not weakness,

see as

surely, that

king, thus imposing

man

to be 'a

must

good

mere vanity the bearing ordained by baroque ideas of decorum?

made each man

on himself 'an order of

actor in

life',



Consequently, are not of the real courtiers;

majesty'.

The Chevalier de Mere

'to

mask

fitting the

appear

ideal? The men who so much among them were shrewd ministers,

and the

so,

advises the gentle/

one must in

to the face,

masks and disguises

these

all

take as his guiding principle the nature of the

but he also says:

but act out one's character

act,

It

be

fact

appearance to

One

matching

really attempts to achieve a

enjoyed acting a part were not

so'.

reality.

mere frivolous

all

astute politicians, great military leaders, skilful

financiers, economists, engineers, artists, pious

—and

churchmen

even

saints.

St Ignatius of

Loyola, in his Exercises, recommends a kind of spiritual training which uses audio/visual

methods; in other words, 'appearances'. For St PhiUp Neri, music was the vehicle of elevation; he passed

room next

The It

to the

on

spiritual

Oratorian Order, and Borromini built a music

this tradition to the

church of the Order in Rome.

and seeming produced baroque humanism.

search for a true equilibrium between being

must, however, be admitted that

escape, to be 'transported', suggest

and psychological

origins. It

is

this perpetual

by

their excess

anguish.

self to

the 'other', this need to

an anxiety which must have had both

spiritual

true that in the seventeenth century the Christian faith ran deep;

but the Catholic of that time was too

him some hidden

swing from the

The

much

a Catholic by self/persuasion not to have within

serenity of the

Church had been profoundly shaken by

Renaissance and the Reformation. If Christians indulged their sense of the

fictitious^ they

the

were

seeking consolation in pagan myth for the anguish caused by the uncertainties of Divine Grace.

This desire

for escape, this passionate

an ideal existence the void

left

centuries,

need to project one's

—whether expressed in the

by the contemplation of a future

measuring

In the secular

this life

field,

classical or the life

in

by means of make-believe into

baroque mode

and awaiting death

and eighteenth/century man must

sensed the hoUowness of a civilization based

—surely arose to

also

as a

fill

so

many

day of

birth.

which Christian man had passed

in terms of the hereafter,

seventeenth/

life

have instinctively

on assumptions which were being contradicted,

slowly but surely, by the progress of philosophy and natural science and by the imperatives of life

in a

new

society.

The condemnation men;

him

it

caused Descartes to

Office in 1633 deeply disturbed

from some of the consequences of

was

many

his doctrines

stationary, although, as

thinking

and obliged

he confessed in a

letter

he was convinced of the contrary. In 1701, as a counterblast to the learned journals

that were spreading

50

retreat

Holy

to declare in his Principes that the earth

to Mersenne,

in

of Galileo by the

which one Pere

new

Castel,

ideas throughout Europe, the Jesuits

whom Voltaire called the

a long refutation of the theories of

Newton and

founded the Journal

'Don Quixote

Leibnitz.

As

de

Trevoux

of mathematics', undertook

late as

1766, the torture and

ETHIC AND AESTHETIC execution of the young Chevalier de

La

Barre for the crime of defacing a crucifix caused a

scandal which Voltaire publicized vigorously throughout the Europe of the Enlightenment.

European

Facts such as these are evidence of deep contradictions within

which drove

tions

artificial

The

tormented by uncertainty to take refuge in a hedonistic mirage, an

spirits

world.

Jean Starobinski, in an attempt to dispel the 'myth' of the eighteenth century, has

critic

described

as traversed

it

which were in the

by drama, anguish and uncertainty, moved by powerful undercurrents

of the

And

to unleash the revolutionary apocalypse.

Wallace collection in London, looking

such an interpretation hard to accept.

finds

civilization, contradic/

modern world Never ?

at the

Louvre or

at Versailles or

art of the period,

one inevitably

yet, in

French

the

Was this the age which

was

to suffer the birth

in the history of the arts has there been a century in

which

pangs

there

was

such a gap between the serene image which society had of itself and the dark reaUty of the hidden

mask

depths. Beneath this

becoming charged with inflicted

XIV;

by Louis

XV; the oppressed

The

violence.

aristocracy

was nursing

rise

and

as

No longer

XVI, was

all

to

become the scapegoat

in the tragic nineteenth century to the

something of a surprise

myth of a golden

This

a style

man who was one

was

it

and

which

age, the century of the sweet

epitome of seventeenth^century rationalism;

to discover that his career

a thoroughly unstable character.

for

aggressive impulses from crossing the threshhold

instead of the expression of reality here were the myths of reason

Posterity has regarded Descartes as the

comes

power by Louis

To this mask of civility we owe the most amiable artistic style in history,

sensibility.

gave

revenge for the humiliations

masses were losing confidence in their natural protector, the king.

Meanwhile a 'censor' prevented

of consciousness,

its

the bourgeoisie for being excluded from the centre of

the father of his people, the king, in the person of Louis all their ills.

was slowly

of optimism, the collective psyche of the French nation

life.

therefore

PL.

i

that of a ne'er-do-well, a drifter,

day to abandon a book

for fear of

finding himself in conflict with Catholic orthodoxy began his career by enlisting in the Calvinist

which took

armies of Maurice of Nassau; he was then twenty^two (i6i8). After journeyings

him

Poland and Hungary we

as far afield as

milian of Bavaria,

Who

still

He

Holland, he

from town

to

may once have

town.

Egmond

What demon ?

in the

army of the Catholic Duke Maxi^-

possessed

Amsterdam

Descartes'

life is

the tension between contrary impulses

him

an

act of free will.

possessed the author of the Discours de

and resumed

found an atmosphere congenial

then in Daventer, then Endegeest,

of chivalry

eventually 'demobilized himself' at last

him

refusing his pay so that his enlistment should remain

knows what dreams

Methodei

find

to his

to settle

his travels;

and even when,

work, he continued

first

to

in Franeker, then in

again, then Utrecht, Leyden, Santpoort in contradiction with his

which was the source of

work;

it

.

la

in

move about Amsterdam, .

.

,

Leyden,

demonstrates, in fact,

the wealth of early seventeenth^

century culture.

At

a time

although

XIV

it

when Europe was

was soon

to be

the State.

The

by

brought into

was the prime example of

embodied

rent

first

conflicts, the spirit of

line

a society in

individualism was emerging,

by the power of monarchy. The France of Louis

which

half of the century also

all

saw

things revolved round the

man who

the emergence of powerful personalities

51

PRINCIPLES in art

art,

men

who

of genius,

created a

world of their own. From the reign of Louis XIV, however,

truly 'collective' in character, tending

became

towards the

total

work

of

which many

in

art,

elements are integrated in a harmonious whole; this was also a period of great achievements in

music, which again

harmony it

—the

The

an expression of the

is

of individuahsm, an individuaHsm that

spirit

seventeenth/century

myth of

From

collective, unifying impulse.

was

there re^emerged, in the eighteenth century, the force that

Don Juan was

was

itself

within

this perfect

oppose and destroy

to

profoundly self^destructive.

succeeded by the eighteenth^century reahty of

the Marquis de Sade.

The figures,

two

centuries of Ught,

Caravaggio created darkness

was metaphysical. Henceforward, darkness was

ph

55

48-^

monk

enveloping the hermit in his

who

eats his

pi. 51 pi.

52

meagre repast of bread and water without

$4

man

Rembrandt

apparatus:

him, more

sees

human

meditating in the soft light that

way

falls

book, for

his

life is

broken by the short-lived

burning with passionate enquiry. The

spirit

from the window. In Velazquez

with himself,

this darkness, a

symbol

ashen half'hght which overwhelms and threatens to destroy

to a baleful

the figures, reduced to trembling black shapes. In one painter alone, Terborch, the feeling for

Holland mingles with the metaphysical

how

the seventeenth century found expression

controversy

on

if

One man

carries

in love with make^beUeve, fantasy face, finds

ostentation

it

at

now

the rejection of fifteen

feel it

Old and New bearing

—quivering shapes

little

portraits

No

that arouse in the spectator

universe.

the conflicts of the age

and outward show.

on

are at

he reduces

painter of his century.

to the

all

The

—Rembrandt.

No

one

is

one, constantly scrutinizing his

more

own

once so agreeable and so wretched. Being and seeming, appearance and reahty,

and withdrawal,

its effect is lost,

in different ways.

man amid an unresponsive

within himself

condition^ (which in

shrinking from the prying gaze of the painter, are

shrouded in a half light borrowed from Velazquez a painful sense of the solitude of

silence of Catholic

Catholics and Calvinists alike in the great

worked on men's minds

the nature of Grace)

human

the anguish of the

among

of Terborch, withdrawn into themselves as

52

is

from

clearly, as stripped of everything, alone

Spain. This strange conjunction shows

Ill

lifting his eyes

numbered. Sometimes the darkness

are

silence characteristic of Calvinist

PL.

den (Rembrandt) and the

philosopher, in the paintings of Ferdinand Bol, appears as a specialist surrounded by scientific

of absence, gives pi.

—a darkness whose nature

mantle of nothingness, a habit of mourning,

in his cell (Zurbaran), the philosopher in his

flame of a candle, like the hght of the

50

like a

(Caravaggio), and bending the back of Crespi's St Charles Borromeo,

retreat

short: the days of

pi.

his

reduced to mere bodies, indicate a sense of abandonment by God, of the emptiness of

the world. After

pi.

Argan shows how

master of angst was Caravaggio; in a penetrating study,

first

The

it

war within him; now he to

stripping

hundred

its

barest essentials.

on emotion

Rembrandt was

so heavily that

the greatest religious

of religious ornament ordained by the Reformation,

away

years of Christian symbolism, forced

Testaments, which enabled

him

to

come



to refer himself direcdy

enough

becomes

to the divine to

warm

as

a hght so brief that the pilgrims cannot

which

it is still

before their eyes or already within their hearts.

the gentle radiance of love

him

close

his heart. In his Pilgrims of Emntaus, the darkness

the hght

is

piles

it

tell

envelops

whether

PRINCIPLES Wolfflin's antithesis In the same subject handled by two artists

of the

same school, with

less

than twenty years between them, the classical-'baroque dualism

Heinrich

by

fined

de--

Wolfflin

is

apparent. Titian's painting, like an

antique bas

relief, is a static,

closed

composition in which each element, while contributing to the action, retains

that

an autonomy analogous

to

with which

it

of a

shares

statue,

qualities of

its

distinctness.

on

sition,

weight and

Tintoretto's

compo^

the other hand,

is

dy^

namic. Space does not unfold in breadth but in depth; the surface crossed by a violent spiral

ment;

its

vector, so to speak,

gesture of the

woman

is

move/ is

the

in the fore^

ground. The action begins in front of the picture plane and continues

behind

it.

The

forms, indissolubly

linked in an organic

unity,

animated by a Icvitational

1

are

force.

Titian(i489-i576). Presentation of tlie

Virgin in the Temple

2 Tintoretto (1518-94). Presentation of the Virgin in the

Temple

3

Titian (1489-1576).

Assumption

of the Virgin

The

life

of forms

4 Girolamo Bedoli Mazzola (1500-69).

5

Immaculate Conception

Assumption of the Virgin

The

Peter Paul

three successive evolutionary stages, classicism,

each of these two groups of paintings.

The

Rubens (1577-

1640).

mannerism and baroque,

are reflected in

mannerist stage introduces confusion mto the

rigorous composition of classicism; the baroque recaptures the lost unity. In Titian's Assump" tioH

the Virgin

is

enclosed in a

circle,

her feet resting

on clouds

as if

on the ground. In Rubens'

6 Fra Bartolommeo (1472-1517).

7 Jacopo da Pontormo (149 3-155 7).

8

Virgin and Child with

Virgin and Child with

Mystic marriage of St Catherine

saints

saints

Peter Paul

Rubens (1577-1640).

1 handling of the subject, with composition,

diagonal

she

wing and seems about

The

of the picture.

to soar out

Virgin and Child

Bartolommeo

with Saints of Fra

divided into equal masses as a

movement

static

subject.

Child

a

into his basically

Pontormo's

with

Virgiii

with

Saints,

its

haggard, uncoordinated figures, filled

is

by

if

Rubens introduces

balance;

spiral

and

its

takes

is

with an undirected agitation.

Obliquity The

sacristy of the Escurial, in the

Renaissance a

spirit,

perspective

arranged

is

composition.

the seventeenth

century,

Coello,

upon

called

In

9

Alonso Sanchez Coello (1515-90). Sacred Form,

in sacristy of the Escurial,

Madrid

Sanchez paint

to

hang above the

picture to

as

a

altar,

broke the symmetrical perspective,

which

retained,

by

letting the lines of his

composition

The The is

would have

a classical artist

battle

slip

away

at

an angle.

of the colonnade

great classical'baroque debate

nowhere

in the

better

numerous

M 'o Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Third project for east front of the Louvre, Paris

exemphfied than II

made

projects

Fast front of the Louvre, Paris, 1667-70

for

the colonnade of the east front of the Louvre. Bernini's later projects,

although

much

toned

comparison with baroque in

spirit;

a rusticated base, are varied to

his

down

first,

are

produce

a

on

intervals

1

1

i.

1 ji 1 1 1 1 1

iij. I ijjj

1

niii

I ijt;

1

'ii

I I t I I

I

1 I I

syncopated

rhythm. The colonnade was built to a regular

M

still

the fa5ade rests

and the

fmrnmrmj^

by

finally

French design.

_9A_in

14

J.

Satteling. Silver

candelabrum,

Amsterdam 1770

15 J. Caffieri. Silver three^branched

girandole,

Paris, eighteenth

16 Bernhard Heinrich Silver baptismal

century

Weye.

ewer and

tray,

Augsburg, 1745-47

12 Detail of rocaille ornament,

La Madalenha,

Falperra, Portugal

13

56

Nicolaus Schmidt. Silver ewer, Nuremberg 1586

Rocaille and rococo

The word

'rococo' stems from the

designate the shell^like forms sixteenth century

onwards

grottoes in gardens. is

reproduced;

it

word

'rocaille',

which were used from

the

in the construction of artificial

Sometimes the form of the

seashell itself

sometimes happened that jewellers

shells in precious

used to

mounts. More

often,

set real

however, rocaille

produces an ornate outHne, with complex curves, which reveals

little

saw very style,

of its naturalistic origin.

well, in his

As the engraver Cochin

1754 manifesto of

protest against this

the ductile materials used by goldsmiths

and

silver^

smiths were particularly well adapted to the complex con^ volutions

and

the

rhythmic

counterpoint

which

are

characteristic of rococo.

57

Ceremonial portraiture

Magistrate, bishop, prince or king, the

man

of quality

is

represented as a hero,

in all the intensity of

an imaginary action,

marked by a movement of the head which reveals

nobility

the

above the

common

of a

temperament

run of mortals.

It

was

Bernini, in his bust of Francesco d'Este,

and

later in

created

which 17

this

that of

Louis

type of heroic

inspired

artists

all

XIV, who portraiture

over Europe.

Simon Guillain (1581-1658). Louis XIII

(detail)

18

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680).

Francesco

d'Este

I

19 Antoine Coysevox(i640-i72o).

The Great

Conde 20 Antoine Coysevox ( 1 640- 1 720). Louis XIV 21 Paul Heermann(i673-i752). Augustus the

Strong

22 Anon.

(f.

23 Giovanni

Louis 58

XIV

1695).

Emperor Leopold

I

Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680).

f

I^r

S:^^'

f

1

. ..

^y

..,:.

jj

.

mk

;

V,,

•;,;>?

24 Jacob Jordaens (1593- 167S).

Tiiiuiipli ul

I'linci.'

The royal

myth

hicdciick

Henry

(detail),

Huis

ten Bosch, Netherlands

In the great sculptured or painted compositions

which is

celebrate the glory of the

monarch, he

represented in a mythical universe, living

and demigods,

familiar terms with gods

rounded

by a world alive with

Mythological figures foregather to virtues, his victories, his

on

sur^

allegories.

illustrate his

power and

his mag--

nanimity.

25 Daniel

Gran

(1694-1757). Emperor Charles by

VI

surrounded

allegories,

Hofburg

(Nationalbibliothek),

60

Vienna,

after

1722

26 Joseph Vernet (1714-89). Sporting contest on the Tiber

The

life

of the people

The common people and

the

ruHng

classes,

who

The

culture of the masses remained faithful to

tions; elite culture invented

which and

the

common

the populace

new forms. These two

became

the actors

founded on the hard labour of the

Ceriiti

Woman

spinning, with beggar

28 Los Hoes, farm'

house

at

Twente,

Netherlands, seventeenth century

in a

(detail)

commonweal

immutable

ancestral tradi^

universes met in the great aristocratic festivals to

people were invited as spectators. Sometimes, too, the roles were reversed,

and

the aristocracy looked on.

that the wealth of artistic creation produced, at

(/. 1750).

Middle Ages hved

Rome

based on religious faith and the solidarity inherent in the feudal system, grew apart in the course of the baroque age.

27 Giacomo

in the

at

common

It

must not be forgotten

enormous expense, by the baroque age was

people, for

many

centuries the only source of wealth.

29 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Ceiling of the Marmorsaal,

Melk, Austria, 1731

30 JeaiP-Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85).

Memonal to Marshal Maurice

de Saxe, in Saint'Tboinas, Strasbourg, 177J

3 1

Memorial

to

Margrave Louis William of Baden,

kenlouis', in Stiftskirche,

Baden-Baden, eighteenth

'Tiir'

centurj'

The

transcendental world

Sacred or secular, the world of imagery which celebrates the glory of great

men

or the mysteries of faith never proceeds by

objective reference but by the indirect language of allegory

symbol. This

where

all

change

is

a world peopled with

objects

attributes

and and

all

signs, figures

and

and emblems,

beings (including rational beings) ex/

properties in a perpetual semantic shift.

Educated men and humanists took pleasure

in inventing

and

construing this secret language, which seemed to them to be

charged with superhuman or supernatural power.

magic overwhelmed the simple souls

for

whom

Its

unearthly

were built the

pilgrimage churches laden with figures and symbols which

seem

to translate into visual terms the

metaphors of the preachers. 32 Pulpit, Traunkirchen, Austria, eighteenth century

33

Stairway of the Five Senses,

Bom Jesus

do Monte, Braga,

Portugal, 1730-37

63

1

34-5 Charles Le Brun (1619-90). Studies of expression: of a

ram and

a

'

profile

and

full face

man

36-7 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Blessed soul and

64

^«*

Damned

soul

3S Georges

tic la

Tour

(i

595-1652).

St Peter repentant (detail)

Expression The main

goal of the figurative

in the seventeenth century

arts

was expression,

the externaliza^

tion of the passions of the soul by

means of mime and posture. At the beginning of his career, Bernini

had sculpted,

exercise,

the

two

as a technical

busts expressing

two extremes of expression,

felicity

work

and

fury. Inspired

by the

of the Neapolitan savant

Delia Porta, Le Brun outlined a theory of expressive

technique

based on comparisons of human

and animal physiognomy.

The remorse

of St Peter

and

Mary Magdalen, expressed tears,

was

a favourite

theme

seventeenth-century poets,

St in

for

and

often served to inspire painters.

65

39

Sylvestrc (1621-91).

Isi.R-l

Louis

XIV

in a carrousel, watercolour

40 Anon, (seventeenth century). Bernini's Ecstasy of St Teresa

On Stage

The man and

PL. xin) in

its

setting

of the seventeenth century hved in a continual performance. Celebrations,

operas, concerts, lar

(see

impromptus,

carrousels, ballets, comedies, tragedies, funerals, secu^

religious ceremonies: everything

language of

all

the arts

is

dominated by

of the actor continually reappear in the

was

a pretext for festive display.

that of the theatre.

work

The

gestures

The

and

visual

attitudes

of artists such as Bernini. In the Cor^'

naro Chapel in Santa Maria della Vittoria, he shows the members of the Cornaro family watching the Ecstasy of St Teresa from two stage boxes. Serpotta treats his religious

41

themes

Giacomo

entirely in terms of stage

performance.

Torelli (1604-78). Set for Les Noces de Pelee

et de

Thetis

!.

-1

42 S

Giacomo

Serpotta (1656-1723). Temptation

of St Francis (detail), in

43

Giovanni

St

Longinus,

Lorenzo

San Lorenzo, Palermo

Bernini

in St Peter's,

Rome

(1598-1680).

44 Giambattista Aleotti (1546-1636). Teatro farnese, Parma 46 Jean--Louis Desprez (1743-1804). Stage

set,

Drottningholm, Sweden

45 Gaspare Vigarani (c 1586^1663). Theatre des Tuileries, I\uis, ]f,r,2

(model b\ Durignaud)

sssatHesftE?

The

theatre

'^^^

modern

theatre

is

perhaps the most characteristic of the architectural forms

created by baroque culture. In previous ages there

monasteries, hospitals, classes of

universities,

building necessary for the

market life

existed palaces, churches,

exchanges, town

all

the

of society; but theatrical performances

had

halls,

taken place in a variety of temporary premises or in to be built in stone, the Teatro

had

Olimpico

in

wooden

theatres.

halls,

The

Vicenza, designed in 1580,

first

is

theatre

an imita^

tion of an antique odeon. Subsequently, architects created architectural forms organic cally related to the staging of

contemporary dramatic and musical works. In the

course of this evolution, the Teatro Farnese in

between ancient and modern forms of

Parma (1617-18) marks

the transition

theatre.

47 Giuseppe Galli Bibiena (1696-1757) and Carlo Galli Bibiena (1725-87). Auditorium of Markgrafliches Opernhaus, Bayreuth, 1748

Inner

The

life

of the

ethic

baroque age

is

founded on

ostentation: the individual projects his

life

beyond

himself in a perpetual self'dramatization, and his acts

seem

to be dictated

by the need to establish

his identity in relation to others.

individuals

them

felt

an

all

inner

However, some

disquiet

which

led

to seek in solitude the secret of the mystery

of being, whether by philosophical meditation or

by

prayer.

In

pamters depicted to

the

seventeenth

its

most sublime ex/

The shadow which was taken by

mystics as the symbol of the inner of introspection, in an age ficial

light

directional.

70

many

this state of solitary meditation,

which Rembrandt gave

pression.

century

when

were feeble and

life

was the

ally

sources of arti/

invg^-iably

strictly

;i

48 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio

{c.

15 62- 1609). St

Jerome

49 Daniele Crespi (i598'I6oo-t63o). St Charles Borromeo

50 Ferdinand Bol

(c.

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Philosopher

at table

1610-80). Philosopher in meditation

71

SZ Diego Velazquez

(1599-1660). Philip

53 Francisco de

IV

Zurbaran

(1598-1666). Fray Francisco

Zumel

54 Gerrit Terborch (1617-81). Portrait of a

man

Metaphysical silence While

the Italian or French portrait exalts the vntues of the individual

brates his glory, in profoundly Catholic

Holland, the

human

beings

who

an ashen half^ight which seems outside world.

draw upon baroque

The

itself

to

sit

Spain, and sometimes

exclude

m

kings— seem

for portraits— even

all possibility

and

cele.

Calvimst isolated in

of a dialogue witli the

unresponsiveness of the environment leads the soul to with^

in silence. Ostentation

ethic; the essence of the

and meditation

baroque

is

the

are the

harmony

twin poles of the

of extremes.

II

STYLES

1

Gothic

The Gothic sionism,

it

style

was

created ex nihilo

logical

and natural

principles; together with impress

will undoubtedly remain France's principal contribution to

known

Western architecture since the seventh century bc has

history of

and

vocabularies; the antique

Middle Ages, flowered again of the

styles

on

christened

modern

it

tedeico

era.

As

The

the Gothic.

Gothic,

it

was despised by

art.

The whole

only two morphological

which survived

antique,

in Italy well into the

and was the source of

in Florence in the fifteenth century,

for the

Western

the Italian Renaissance,

('German'), a term of disparagement which the French translated as

and eighteenth

Critics of the seventeenth

centuries were

no kinder towards

the

which

gothique.

Jean/Francois

it;

FeUbien (the son of the biographer Andre Felibien) in 1699, BofFrand in 1741, and Jacques/ Frangois Blondel in 1752 anarchic form, the

forest.

being a great lover of

condemned

name

in the

it,

John Evelyn, author of

trees

he counted

it

among

Sylva,

of rationaUsm, as an imitation of an

had had the same idea

the cathedral's virtues that

in 1664; but

was

it

'the sylvan

City of God'.

Contempt

for

Gothic architecture was by no means universal. In 1669-70, the

measured the arc of meridian between Amiens and

Abbe

buildings in the whole of Europe as lasting and as beautiful as

Dame

of

Amiens,

to use as his terminal points.

The

imbued with academicism, speaks with sympathy

Picard

some time

Paris. In describing this feat

the geometrician Maupertuis (1698-1759) stated that the

Abbe

later,

could hardly have chosen two

Notre/Dame of

elder Felibien,

of the Gothic

who was

Paris

and Notre/

himself so deeply

manner of building, 'which

gave the buildings an appearance of Lightness and delicacy, and a boldness of execution, calcu/ lated to astonish the spectator';

he distinguishes between

'the

most ancient churches which

lack neither solidity nor beauty' and the more recent, degenerate examples, 'formless masses of

ornament'. But Gothic was hard to

kill; it

has lived on, in spite of disapproval, into our

own

times. Earlier ages style

had

left

of the day, but occasionally

this practice I shall cite

pis

it

was decided

it

had continued

century.

The

to continue

them

Most were

finished in the

in their original style,

and of

a few examples.

The most famous is that of Milan cathedral,

^6-8

on

74

a legacy of unfinished medieval buildings.

steadily

during the Renaissance,

facade, in particular,

front in the Mannerist style,

the masterpiece of Itahan Gothic.

still

remained

it

was

still

Although work

incomplete by the sixteenth

to be built. Pellegrino Tibaldi

and Francesco Richino,

at the

proposed a

end of the sixteenth century, a

dis/

GOTHIC baroque design inspired by Carlo Maderno's facades

tinctly

for

Santa Susanna and St

Peter's.

In 1656, however, Francesco Castelli designed a facade in a kind of Neo/Gothic mixed with

some

classical elements.

purer in form.

It

was

The

fajade designed by Carlo Buzzi in 1653

this version,

international competition of 1886

When

'A

remark:

in the

same

spirit,

but

won

the

adopted and refined by Giuseppe Brentano, that

and was then executed.

In the course of the eighteenth century slow progress was endless task.

is

still

the President Charles de Brosses visited the

school of Gothic taste

is

even being run here for

made on

being site

this

seemingly

was able

in 1739 he

to

the workers engaged on the

building'.

What

uninformed observer would believe that the splendid nave of Orleans cathedral, one

of the most lyrical expressions of the vertical impulse of flamboyant Gothic, of

two

body of the cathedral had

the

had

work

sixteenth'century transepts, the

still

to be designed.

the Invalides

and

finally

architects

after its collapse in

order'.

style

of the

and towers

its

to a

to the

its final

by Jacques Gabriel. Inspired by the west front of the cathedral of Toul, the design in

of

in Gothic style were slowly

by Hanault, revised by Robert de Cotte and fixed in

built according to a design

dome

and ordered new plans 'conforming

a facade

When

Rome. But in 1707 the king himself

a fagade in imitation of St Peter's,

During the eighteenth century

J

1568, west front and towers

proposed a tower in the

intervened, cancelled the contracts already signed

Gothic

with the exception

of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

been rebuilt

Louis XIV's

is,

.

is

pi 55

form

successful

overall effect, but the detail betrays the classical sculptors' inability to adapt successfully

Gothic

style.

In 1725 the Cistercians of Alcobaga, in Portugal, gave their fine early Gothic church a strange fa§ade of bastardized baroque/Gothic.

more

successful; but

through

Middle Ages. They were the

The Wars

of Religion had

The

efforts

of the French Benedictines were

their antiquarian tradition they first

left

had never

lost their link

with the

to take a real interest in historical authenticity in architecture.

the church of the Benedictine monastery of

Caen

in such a state

was

of ruin that in 1662 a contract

was agreed

opposed by the energetic

Dom J. de Baillehache, who subsequently carried out a complete

restoration

Prior,

for the demolition of the choir; but this

strongly

with such exceptional archaeological accuracy that modern experts can barely

distinguish the restored parts

from the

original.

In France the roots of Gothic ran very deep, and classical prejudice never succeeded in ousting

Wars

it

from the popular imagination. In the seventeenth century, churches ruined by the

of Religion were usually restored in the original

(the church of

Andlau, Alsace), while in

style,

sometimes even in Romanesque

the country the tradition of erecting purely

buildings ran on uninterrupted throughout the seventeenth century century, chiefly in Brittany

Haute/ Normandie

—but

flamboyant Gothic

style

and the northern provinces

also in



and even

Gothic

the eighteenth

Flanders, Artois, Boulonnais, and

Franche/Comte, Alsace, and Savoy. Manors in the pure

were built in Boulonnais, Artois and Flanders even

as late as 1660.

We find a similar situation in the Netherlands; Belgian baroque is the creation of town^dwelUng artists

working for the

State, the municipalities, the monasteries or the nobles,

whereas throughout

75

STYLES the seventeenth century village churches continued to be built in the flamboyant Gothic

The same was

true in the

Rhineland and Westphalia. In Belgium the

the Jesuits in the early seventeenth century were Gothic,

the medieval plan of nave plus

Even 6g

pi.

pi.

J54

Amsterdam. The

rinakerk,

expect a rigorous classicism; cated network of carved

pi. 6.1

wrought iron

it

comes

wooden

as a surprise,

on entering

and

produced by Germany

is less

easy to distinguish, for

Kamenz

wood/carvings such as those of the

Thus

museums,

who demohshed and

as at the

in Silesia, recalls the violent

altars

German

the St

at

rococo,

Anne (1722-4)

Thomas Weiss-

movement of late Gothic

Breisach (1523-6) and Niederotweiler (1527).

replaced old churches collected their Gothic works of art in

monastery of Sankt Florian in Austria.

preservation of the major part of the

work

It is to this

practice that

we owe

of Altdorfer. Often a fine Gothic statue

was

66

asteries

of

Salem in Swabia and Zwettl in Austria. In the

German Gothic

lyricism with the verticality of the cessfully

by Munggenast that

for reasons of

we

economy but from

'hall

latter,

'set

in

with the famous Gothic tomb

church' has been carried out so suc-

might almost believe that the old church was preserved not choice.

The baroque

decor of the church of Santa Chiara in

who

to

harmonize

of Robert of Anjou. In the province of Moravia there was an

actual renaissance of Gothic architecture early in the eighteenth century;

(an architect

mon/

the integration of baroque

Naples (destroyed in the Second World War) was designed by Antonio Vaccaro

pi. 61

the

glory' in a baroque framework, Uke the Madonna by Pacher in the Franziskanerkirche, Salz/

burg. In some cases old churches were not replaced but 'baroquized'; examples are the pi.

it is

until the advent of neoclassicism. It permeates

survived into the seventeenth century; while

1722) in the monastery of

abbots

leads one to

false vaults.

by Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger in the church of Metten, or the St Hubert by

The

the St Catha^

The Hague

in

the church, to discover a compli-

particularly in sculpture, reverts to the vegetal forms of Spatgothik.

feld (d.

pi 65

screens of the St Nicolaaskerk

of the famous Nieuwekerk

exterior

German mannerism, which 65

there also tended to retain

side^aisles.

place of Gothic in the German/speaking countries

latent in everything

pi.

churches built by

first

the Protestant Dutch, although committed to classicism, occasionally resorted to Gothic

for decorative motifs, as in the

The

and churches

style.

also practised the

Johann Santin Aichel

baroque) created churches which are pure pastiches of

Gothic, such as that of the Benedictine monastery of Kladrau (1712-26). In the church of Saar

he adapts the reticulated vaults of the 'hall church' to a central plan. pi.

6J

Italy offers a

of Lecce,

few examples of the use of Gothic elements in

which

revives the flamboyant

Gothic

a

baroque decor,

accolade design.

as in the Prefettura

The baroque

architects

who

introduced the use of concave-convex curves, Borromini and Guarini, both seem to have made pi.

68

a close study of the Gothic; both di

pi.

551

76

241

inspiration from Gothic rib vaults (Borromini's

Propaganda Fide, Rome, c.1660). Guarini,

who had

by Saracen domes in designing the dome, mounted on Turin, from which

pi.

draw

There were

is

may have been

intersecting arches, of his

inspired

San Lorenzo,

derived yet another Turin dome, that of Santissima Sindone.

painters, too, of a fantastical turn of

side of Gothic.

visited Sicily,

CoUegio

Monsu

Desiderio used

it

mind ,who

exploited the exotic

and fabulous

as he used the antique, to evoke lost civihzations;

GOTHIC Magnasco painted gatherings of mad monks used the Gothic

style, especially for

In England Gothic

retained

and

the seventeenth century

its

Oxford

No St

as a style for

into the eighteenth.

churches and universities throughout

who

Archbishop Laud,

a preference for

Gothic

Cambridge by Matthew Wren (uncle of

in

and

architect

four of his

Stage designers, too, sometimes

cloisters.

architecture;

University from 1630-41 he erected several buildings in this

was followed Peterhouse,

Gothic

scenes set in castles.

importance

dominated the AngUcan Church, had of

in

churches were Gothic (St Alban,

Mary Aldermary, and

His example

style.

of

Wren,

Wood

creator of St Paul's, yet

Michael, Cornhill,

Street, St

Above all, his Gothic Tom Tower at Christ Nicholas Hawksmoor an example which the latter

St Dunstannn/the^East).

Church, Oxford (1681-2), bequeathed

to

Oxford (1734), hybrid of Perpendicular, Tudor and Jacobean, with

in his grandiose rebuilding of All Souls College,

Hawksmoor's Gothic classical elements.

reviving Gothic

when Chancellor

Sir Christopher) in the chapel

ever a truer classicist than Sir Christopher

London

improved upon

I

by John Cosin.

also

was

under Charles

is

something of a

pi.

60

pi.

59

pi.

72

In the second quarter of the eighteenth century, however, the idea arose of

on

the basis of a study of medieval architecture; the result

Gothick, or modern Gothic, to distinguish

it

is

sometimes called

from the survival of medieval Gothic. In 1742,

Batty Langley (i 696-1 741), author of several architectural treatises, wrote his Gothic Architecture,

Improved hy Rules and Proportions, In Pieces, Arcades,

Many Grand

Designs of Columns, Doors, Windows, Chimney^

Colonnades, Porticos, Umbrellos, Temples and Pavilions,

In 175 1

etc.

Waburton

recognized in Gothic, regarded by the French as mere anarchy, the rational architecture par

—a remarkable opinion

excellence

Gothic

style,

for the time.

building a wing of

William Kent was the

Hampton Court

first

to attempt

an 'authentic'

Palace in the Perpendicular manner (1732)

on the advice of Horace Walpole.

The

was made fashionable among the

style

Miller (1717-80)

nobility

by two amateur

1753 and 1755 for John Ivory Talbot. his

own

Sanderson

and Horace Walpole (1717-97). Sanderson Miller was responsible

building of several Gothick castles, the most remarkable of which is

is

architects,

house, Sttawberry Hill, at

John Chute. During

the

Arbury Hall, by giving

same period

The outstanding architectural work Twickenham (c 1750-70) with its Sir

Robert Newdigate transformed

a Gothic interior

it

Newdigate employed

several architects,

Westminster Abbey,

who

which

is

a remarkable

among them Robert Keene,

also created other

for the

Lacock Abbey, built between of Horace

Walpole

library designed his

by

Tudor mansion,

example of rococo

taste,

pi. ji

Surveyor of the Fabric at

Gothic buildings (including Hartwell Church,

1753).

There was another form of Gothic which flourished in the gardens of the eighteenth century, first

in England, then in

Germany and France

churches or mansions, rustic cabins. This

Moorish

art,

windows

fantastic:

a Gothic one step

each borrowing features from the other.

Bagatelle, near Paris, built

roof the

is

—the

Thus

sham

the Pavilion

by Bellanger in 1782, contained beneath

of Louis IX's Sainte/Chapelle.

castles,

sham

ruins of

removed from Chinese and

its

du Philosophe,

at

incurved, pagoda/like

pi.

70

77

2 Mannerism

The baroque was born

Rome

in

and a

of an effort of reason (Vignola, the Carracci)

impulse (Caravaggio), both directed

at

putting an end to mannerism. In the

rest

passionate

of Italy, however,

and particularly in the north, the baroque seems to have been an ordering of the overcharged •

P^^ 73~S

Lombard

exuberance of mannerism rather than an aggressive reform. Three second half of the sixteenth century

mannerism by

illustrate the

way

These

a gradual process of refinement.

in

which

are Santa

fagades built in the

the baroque emerged from

Maria presso San Celso, Milan,

by Galeazzo Alessi (1565), Madonna dei Miracoli, Saronno, by Seregno (1596), and Sant' Angelo, Milan (c. 1600). The same relationship can be detected between the fagade of San

and

Fedele, Milan, by Pellegrino Tibaldi (1569)

that of

San Paolo Converso,

in the

same

city,

by Giovanni Baptista Crespi (161 1).

The The

stucco church interiors of

decor of the nave of

Lombardy

Madonna

reveal the

same slow biological process of evolution.

dei Miracoli, Saronno,

is still

mannerist in feeling, and the

immense work of decorating Santa Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, on which craftsmen from Ticino spent

fifty

vitality pi.

j6

years,

and

from 1610 and 1660, preserved

freshness of invention

lend a subde charm to the

Como, in the

a

Romanesque

aisles,

1664-7.

little

mannerist

mannerist

style

church of San Lorenzo in Laino,

and the

spirit

from

are so characteristic of

suructure adapted in a

date from 161 6,

The

which

its

latest,

baroque

first

The

ebullient

mannerism in northern

in the Intelvi valley near

style. Its earliest

those in the nave by

to last.

Gian

stuccos, those

Italy

Lake

by Frisone

Battista Barberini,

from

appears in the juxtaposition of different elements and

in the

by the

Italian

spontaneous, picturesque invention of the decor, which was

initially inspired

grotesque ornamentation of the sixteenth century. In the same delightful green valley, the pi. J J

exquisite parish church of Santa Maria, Scaria, decorated with frescoes by Carlo Carlone,

with stuccos by his brother Diego, in the mid^eighteenth century, shows that rative art

did not achieve until

late

Lombard

and

deco^

in the day the characteristically baroque integration of

all

elements into an organic whole. pi.

j8

The same

spirit inspires the

famous church of Santissima Annunziata in Genoa, which

retains the pillared basilical elevation of the

(the

work

of several

artists

Renaissance and whose decor of stuccos and pictures,

including Assereto and Giovanni and Gian Battista Carlone)

compartmented in the same way; another example by the Carlone family

is

San

is

Siro.

In Florence, the decor of marble, bronze and precious stones by Mattei Negriti for the princes' 78

chapel in San Lorenzo (1604-10)

is

in the

jeweUike mannerist idiom. Naples very quickly

MANNERISM assimilated the

Roman

as in the cloisters,

Cosimo was

still

Renaissance in conception, of the Certosa di San Martino (1623-31) by

Fanzago, sculptor

built

A few traces of mannerism can be found in architecture, however,

style.

and

architect

from Bergamo, and

by the Florentine, Giovanni Antonio Dosio, in a

Crocifisso,

and San Giorgio

Giorgio at Modica; cathedral

and San

and CoUegio

The dominating

at

basilical

at

which

form which was widely

and Santa Annunziata

imitated in Sicily in the eighteenth century (cathedral Pietro

also in the Gerolamini,

at

Comiso; San

Ragusa; cathedral, San

Noto).

influence of Bernini stifled any tendency towards

What

sculpture, but his authority did not apply to painting.

mannerism in

Italian

might be called the romanticism

of Italian provincial painting in the seventeenth century derives largely from mannerism, in particular

Magnasco in Genoa, MafFei

With

of Saint^Charles/Borromee,

basilical

its

mannerist throughout the

essentially

plan and

its

compartmented fa§ade, the

Antwerp (1615-21), by Francois Aguilon and

longs to the mannerist rather than the baroque school; the same

Fleche (1612) in France by Pere Martellange. France

and baroque,

as

shown by

is

who had

earlier

was due

to the

(Deruet, Varin,

IV and

France under Henry

soUd

classical

Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon.

Court

Fleche, in

Vignon)

to the baroque.

until

and It

realist

was a

is

which

was

his style

82

pi.

7^

the

work

pis

^^,g6

pi.

gj

pi.

80

pi.

8^

Roman

baroque

of the same Martel/

Louis XIII shows almost no trace of mannerism,

foundations that had been laid a century

Simon Vouet,

earlier

by

which remained mannerist

Rome

returning from

in

1627, converted the

Certain provincial studios stayed faithful to mannerism, and so did Jean

had Uved

in

Rome

close affinities, continued in the mannerist tradition

century under the influence of 3,

pi.

La

had perhaps been cramped by

for a time.

Until the classical reform of 1630, Dutch architecture, like that of

161

church

true of the Jesuit College de

different story in painting,

Tassel (1608-67) of Langres, although he

had

Jesuit

plan by Metezeau.

If sculpture in

this

La

half of

Peter Huyssens, be/

other Jesuit churches of the period built after the

built the mannerist

first

was then divided between mannerism

type such as the chapel of the College d' Avignon (161 7); this

an

pi ^5 pis 238, 244

in Vicenza).

In Northern Europe, architecture remained

lange

and

from the mannerist formula of elongated forms (Bernardino Cavallino in Naples,

the seventeenth century.

pi 364

Vredeman de

Vries (the

which

town

Boleward, 1616, and Lieven de Key's meat market and

Germany with which

had adopted

it

halls of

it

in the sixteenth

Leyden, 1597. Hoorn,

market of Haarlem, 1602-3).

fish

Traces of mannerism were also evident in Dutch painting (Pieter Lastman,

Abraham

Bloe/

mart).

Mannerism had Juan de Herrera

firmly taken root all over Europe. In

(the Escurial

and

Spain

it

survived the purist reforms of

The baroque movement in of La Caridad, Seville, 1647,

the cathedral at Villadolid).

Spain emerged slowly out of mannerism (fajade of the hospital fagade of Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54).

The

fine classical structure of the altarpiece of die

Escurial (1579), although imitated in the Portuguese cathedral of Portalegre at

Coimbra (end

of the sixteenth century),

in the evolution of the Spanish altarpiece

was was

little

and in the Carmo

appreciated in Spain, and the next phase

the result of

an attempt on the part of Esteban

79

STYLES Jordan to bring unity to the fragmentary composition of the mannerist de Medina

During

Rioseco, which had been

at

the

first

altarpiece of Santa

Maria

unfinished by Becarra.

left

half of the seventeenth century Portugal remained faithful to the severe art

of the Counter/Reformation, which she slowly transformed into baroque, creating in the process, about 1650, a short-lived pi.

1^2

In the

first

years of the century,

form of mannerism.

Montanes in

brought an end to the mannerism of the

Seville

sculptors of the Bajo Renacimiento; in painting the change pi.

^4

and Ribalta (1551-1628) who abandoned (d. 1625),

was made by Herrera the Elder (d. 1656)

mannerism

the

still

practised by

Juan de

las

and, in his early work, by Pacheco (1564-1654), the master of Velazquez.

be seen from these examples

how complex was when

half of the seventeenth century,

In England, the Elizabethan

the evolution of Portugal

widely differing

style

by

styles existed side

might have been expected

and Spain in

Roelas It

can

the

first

side.

to find a natural contin^

uation in Jacobean. This part of Europe seemed ideally suited to a prolongation of mannerism;

but England often reacts in surprising ways. tionary process: pi.

20J

pl. 81

staying/power;

it

mannerism gave way

The

influence of Inigo Jones reversed the evolu^

Mannerism

to classicism.

had considerable

nevertheless

seems absurd that a work as Palladian as Queen's House, Greenwich (1616-

35) by Inigo Jones should be contemporary with the Schools,

bury Quadrangle of St John's College, also

Oxford (1600-36) or

Oxford (1632-6). Mannerism was

at

the gate of the Citadel in Plymouth, built as late as 1670,

is

The

essential role

played by mannerism in the genesis of the baroque

century, unlike that of other

European

of the decisive

art

is

countries, cannot usefully be

bookbinding, printing and engraving,

books published by Renaissance engravers such

all

as

most

spirit alive.

clearly illustrated

years of the seventeenth

first

standpoint of architecture. Ever since the 1530s the pace had been jewellery,

tenacious;

mannerist in inspiration, while the

hybrid English Gothic of the seventeenth century also helped to keep the mannerist

by the example of Germany; but the German

the Canter^

set

approached from the

by the ornamental

arts,

of which drew inspiration from pattern

Hans Sebald Beham and Daniel Hopfer.

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the goldsmith's art, which had already risen to such heights in the

work

Hrad&ny

of the Jamnitzer family of Nuremberg, in Prague for

Rudolph

(1612) and a sceptre (1612-17).

II (1602), to

On a tiny scale,

is

the

crown made

which Matthias,

upon

After 1550, French and

workshops of the

added an orb

they represent an unparalleled feat of virtuosity

in the handling of detail, the intricate parcelling^up of space constantly curling back

in the

his successor,

and the use of

Kolltverk,

ornament

itself.

German

translations of the architectural textbooks of the

Roman

Vitruvius and the Italian Serlio introduced the classical orders of architecture into Northern

Europe.

on

A thesis by Erik Forssman of the university of Stockholm describes the wild variations

classical

themes in which German, Netherlandish and Scandinavian architects indulged.

Their 'subjective' use of the orders

is

authorized by Serlio in the fourth part of L' Architettura

(1537-51). While Vignola, in his Regole

delle cinque or(f/K/(i562),

regards theorders as abstractions

based purely on relationships of proportion (the Vitruvian modulus), Serlio elaborates a whole 80

ethos

of the

column describing how each order has

its

own

particular object: the

Tuscan

all

MANNERISM that

military, the

is

Doric

all

that

is

manly, the Ionic the gods, Diana, Apollo and Bacchus, the

Corinthian honour and virginity (the Virgin Mary), the Composite the idea of empire.

These ideas struck a spark somewhere in the northern imagination.

German baroque

the Italian baroque (like French classicism) springs from Vignola,

by

Serlio.

Some

and Dionysiac

principles.

The

first

Dutchman Hans Vredeman and ornamental pattern books; he led the way by

and develop them was

architectural

northerner to take

anthropomorphism

carries

of man's thian,

life

way which

in a

from sixteen

to the point of

making

manipulates them, loads them with

vitae

Composite, from birth

from thirty/two

and

with

especially for terms, figures

flat^sided

form one of the most popular elements of mannerist It

may seem

to sixteen;

all art

Pintura Sahia,

He

Corin/

prime of

stretches

life;

them,

has a predilection for

or column-'shaped bodies,

which

architecture.

surprising to us that symbolic meanings should be attached to architectural

elements; but this

whom

humanae (1577)

to forty/eight; Doric, the

symbolic ornaments.

realistic or

these

the orders correspond to the different ages

rather surprises us today;

to thirtytwo; Ionic,

up

virtually treating the orders as

Tuscan, old age; and the ruin, death. Vredeman de Vries takes columns and

caryatids

inspired

de Vries, author of numerous

the

poetic themes, proposing five versions of each one of them. In his Theatrum

he

is

authors have even gone so far as to regard Vignola and Serlio as representatives

of Nietzsche's Apollonian theories

might be said that while

It

came

quite naturally to the

men

of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, to

was eloquence. In Spain, Juan Ricci developed

composed c 1659-61,

which

in

similar ideas in his Tratado de

the orders (including

la

some not mentioned by

Vignola) are identified with Christ, the Virgin and the Saints.

The

northern imagination was also stimulated'by the inexhaustible repertory of 'grotesques',

a decorative element revived from the antique, in

which

the

artist

encloses within ornamental

gods and demigods or decorative beasts and plants. This theme, which

scrolls, like 'quotations',

appeared in engravings from the end of the

fifteenth

century onwards, was the subject of endless

ornamental variations in the second half of the sixteenth century.

The fact

renewal of the Gothic

one of the

1530;

at that

£othik).

Then

features of

the Renaissance

time/lag between

came

Dvorak and Georg Weise have pointed

It

still

to

affected Italian

mannerism very

survived in Germany, at

Germany; but

artistic

developments in

Italy

early,

out,

was in

about the year

least in architecture {Spat^

three/quarters of a century later there

German/speaking countries which thus

The ornamental work all

mannerism.

time medieval Gothic

a Gothic revival in the

occasions

spirit, as

fits

in exacdy with the

was

normal

and those in Northern Europe.

required for the numerous temporary buildings erected

on

festive

over Europe from the mid/sixteenth century onwards offered further scope for

mannerist fantasy



especially as the materials used,

wood,

leather

and cardboard, were well

suited to pattern^cutting.

Mannerist fantasy reached

its

height in the Architectura of

Wendel

Dietterlin

(Nuremberg

pi.

8j

1598), an encyclopaedia of ornament in 209 engraved plates, classified according to the five orders

and containing a whole

botanical

motifs.

A

arsenal of Christian, mythological, 'grotesque', zoological

comparison with Vredeman de Vries

reveals

a

and

marked growth of

81

STYLES Gothic ornamentation and

interest in

variations

on the theine of the

fury born of the

architecture

We 88

series

of

the spiral forms seem to express an inward^turning

are of great importance, not only

and decorative

occasionally find in

art,

them

on account of their immediate

but because they contain in themselves

a tendency

influence

the seeds of rococo.

all

—though a confused one—towards the contrapuntal

the asymmetrical ornament that were to be characteristic of the rococo.

organization and pi.

which

RoUwerk, an endless

powerlessness to resolve complexity into unity.

artist's

These pattern books

on

scroll in

a feverish absorption in

An

engraving done by Johann Smiescheck before 1620 seems almost to have come out of a CuviUies

woodcarving.

This frenzy came to an end around 1650 with what the Germans have termed the Ohrtmmhel^ pi.

86

by Lukas Kilian and Friedrich Unteutsch.

stil

(from Ohrmuschel,

Its

shapes depart from the slender forms of mannerism and swell under the influence of the

'shell of the ear'), as practised

baroque into monstrous excrescences. This

style still

appears in the drawings of

mermeier

as late as 1670, just before the introduction of

Italy into

Germany.

The Years

true source of the evolution of

War lies

German

in sixteenth/century

Germany

baroque foHated ornamentation from

architectural

in the creativity of the woodcarvers

who

Simon Cam^

and decorative

art

up

to the Thirty

turned the interiors of bourgeois houses

into elaborate carven caskets.

The two wings

of the castle of

Heidelberg, the Otto/Heinrichsbau (1556-63) and the Friedrichsbau (1601-7), are both directly inspired pi.

8g

room

by the engravings of Vredeman de Vries. The jewelled decoration of the gold

of the casde of Biickeburg (1605)

The same

delirious profusion of

is

Hke a literal

transcription of the engravings of Dietterlin.

ornament reappears in the

pediments of the Lutheran Marienkirche

at

Wolfenbuttel (1608); and

important part in the early seventeenth^century monuments which are pi.

go

many German Miinster

at

churches,

^2

Denmark, Sweden and Poland. Denmark

monumental piece of jewellery made of bronze, There was in Germany

love of Italy; an example at

among

the. treasures of

Augsburg

its

possesses

one of the

finest

extraordinary chapel

stucco, marble, alabaster, silver

examples

which

and

rare

is

like

woods.

at the same period another form of mannerism, not indigenous but

imported from Rome. This

room

and

plays a particularly

in certain altars, such as the high altar by Jorg Ziirn (161 3) in the

of this style in the casde of Frederiksborg (1602-20), with

a

it

tracery

UberHngen, which would not be out of place in a rococo church. From Germany

the style spread to pi.

and

window

capitals,

first

is

appeared in

Munich

as a result of

Duke

Albert V's nostalgic

The famous gold World War, was a by Hans Krumper (1616)

the fagade of the Michaelskirche (1583-97)-

(1620), unfortunately destroyed by

fire

during the second

The fine bronze Virgin (Patrom Bavariae), is similar in feehng to the bronze statues made by Hubert Gerhard in the time of Albert (St Michael in the Michaelskirche, 1588), but this is court art. The statues on the high altar later

form of the same

style.

Uberlingen by Jorg Ziirn (161 3), and Eckbert Wolff's

Buckeburg (1608), on of Dietterlin; they 82

altar in the

the other hand, are truly native products, derived

would not look out

rococo sculptor Joseph

Anton

V of

church of the casde of

from the pattern books

of place alongside the carvings of the great Bavarian

Feichtmayr.

MANNERISM German rococo might perhaps have appeared much earlier; but when the war ended at last and Germany began to recover strength, the spell was broken. Before a true national style could be found again, Germany had first to assimilate

Had

it

not been for the Thirty Years

War,

the

imported baroque.

For a time, German

architects turned for

guidance

to the

days of baroque; a fajade Uke that of the Martinskirche,

resemblance to that of the Michaelskirche, Munich,

Roman mannerism

Bamberg (1690), shows a

built a

hundred

years before.

kirche makes a revealing contrast with the Neumiinster in Wiirzburg (171 1)

on

the

same

assimilated

structural principles.

Roman

A

generation has passed,

baroque and rediscovered

its

of the very early strong family

The

which

and German

is

pi. 8:i

Martins^

conceived

pi.

8^

architecture has

true genius.

83

3 Realism

In

art,

the baroque age witnessed a leap into a world of fantasy;

the Neumixnster in Wiirzburg or

both of which might

easily

Johann Michael

be fantastic stage

Fischer's

sets,

it is

hard to believe on entering

abbey of Ottobeuren (1744-67),

same epoch saw unprecedented

that the

achievements in science and in rationaUst philosophy.

There

however, one part of Europe where

is,

art

does seem to be related to the inductive

experimental methods which from the seventeenth century onwards supplanted the speculations of the Schoolmen. In the seventeenth century learned societies

over Europe whose aim was to explore this

all

by Ferdinand

II of

Cimento. The

Tuscany, was even called

aristocracy took

physique, physics laboratories in

new

up

new mode

to repeat

There are many pi.

g8

with an Air

Pump

was

as the subject of

one of

the fashion to have cahinets de

and sometimes

for engravers,

painter,

Dutch

for painters too.

anatomy

Joseph Wright of Derby, took ia Experiment

Many

his pictures.

amateurs had physics laboratories

and natural

those that have survived are the mineralogical collection of the monastery of

pi. 101

history.

pi 5^0

Seitenstetten in Austria

La

to create

doctors giving

in their homes, as well as collections of apparatus for the study of mathematics

Among

del

became almost a parlour game. Science

seventeenth/century portraits of celebrated

and an English eighteenth/century

lessons;

it

well-known experiments and seek

ones. In the eighteenth century the 'experiment'

became an important source of subject-matter

of knowledge; one of them, instituted

academy of experiment': L'Accademia

'the

scientific research;

which

and academies were founded

and the conchological

collection of

Rochelle), both dating from the eighteenth century.

Clement

Amateurs

Lafaille (in the

Musee de

often placed their mathe/

maticals and physical instruments or botanical or zoological specimens in an elaborate and pi.

2J3

fanciful setting; the

in Paris,

which has

most astonishing of

which

was

that of Joseph

Bonnier de

painters

seem

to

have constructed

spectator's imagination into the far distance



their pictures

either literally,

The

(d.

1744)

disciples of

Caravaggio, following

their

subject of the picture

is

with the object of

an escape from the

master's example, had brought the scene

nearer to the spectator, even inventing the close-up; but this direct assault

on the eye by the

calculated to cause surprise rather than to engage the attention.

Holland did painting remain a purely visual 84

Mosson

by devices of perspective

carry the eye towards the horizon, or by the use of fantasy to offer

present.

la

fortunately been recorded in a series of drawings.

Most seventeenth/century drawing the

all

art

based on

Only

in

careful observation and a sound

optical education.

v Samuel van Hoogstraten (1627-78). Peepshow with views

of the interior of a

Dutch house

nM..^



-^^fe

.ifesaesiK^f

An

)

f

ii

11

_

\\

is

M

,'i

Jacob van Ruisdael (c 1628-82). Extensive landscape with ruins

VII

Meindert

Hobbema

(1638-1709).

Woody

landscape with a road by a cottage

REALISM Painting had

lost its 'optical' quality

from the moment when the

classicists

of the Renaissance

had been induced by a Neo^Platonic ideal to look beyond the image to the idea. In the

when

century,

the

human

intellect

first

embarked on

universe in theological terms to perceiving

the crucial transition

in empirical terms,

it

and

in Flanders

artists

fifteenth

from conceiving the Italy

were passionately absorbed in the study of the world which had suddenly been revealed to

The

them.

Italians,

more

for exploring space, to aid

and

them

in their conquest of infinity. This 'machine'

The work

of

Leonardo da Vinci sums up

machine

perspective,

results of direct

the achievement of his predecessors;

only remained for Raphael to sweep their learned intricacies aside with a stroke of the

it

brush, while absorbing Leonardo's classical conclusion, expressed in the

form in

single

eye, a

was

(Jan van Eyck, for his part, submitted more docilely to the

costruzione legktima.

experience.)

approach, invented a guide for the

intellectual in their

and

reality

itself

can contain

all

the diversity of the world.

up

unreality alike were caught

Mona

Lisa, that a

Then came mannerism,

in

which

whirlwind of inconclusive syllogisms and

in a

self-'destructive analyses.

The

value of any optical instrument, whether natural or

magnification

it

allows but in

merged into one by an optical mystery of

Van Eyck do

phenomenal

illusion or

by the

not seem to bear in

becomes

visual equipment. This

effect

mind all

which were

aids other than spectacles,

artificial

power

the

its definition,

enabled

him to apprehend

the

lies

not merely in the

of distance.

Art

more obvious

the material substance of things,

are

by the

must have been aided by a if

very inefficient

at the service

which

historians puzzled

we

reflect that

he had no

and awkward in

his day.

which

of an analytical genius

from the limpidity of the atmosphere

hard density of stone, and to grasp the complexities of a technique capable of recreating

to the

for the spectator the visual

This miraculous

look

at nature.

magic

felt

clarity of vision

blind again, and found to

artificial,

confers of separating points

that his genius

still

His exceptional optical powers of definition were

it

And

it

by the painter

he contemplates the world.

seems to have died with

simpler to look

although

as

Van

Vinci, Diirer and Bruegel the Elder,

at

Van

Van Eyck.

It is as if

painters

became

Eyck, and convert him into formulas, than

Eyck's capacity for observation reappears in Leonardo da

it is

never served by the same optical power. His conception

of art as the mirror of truth disappeared with him, to reappear only in seventeenth/century

Dutch

painting,

which

like

Van

Eyck's

is

based on a pure visual

act.

Seventeenth'century painters had at their disposal improved optical instruments that increased their

keenness of vision.

were used to

From

the

mid

see distant objects; Galileo,

no more than improve

it

by increasing

astronomical discoveries possible.

sixteenth century, combinations of lenses or mirrors

who its

is

credited with the invention of the telescope, did

magnification to a power (30 x) which

The magnifying

glass

and the microscope made

made

his

their appear/

ance almost simultaneously, and for a long time the magnifying glass was the more satisfactory of the

two instruments. Antoni van Leeuwenhoeck (1632-1723) a bourgeois of

secret process for the least

<

419

of them.

Delft,

had a

manufacture of magnifying glasses of exceptional quality; he made

They enabled him

to be the

first

to explore the

(bacteria, protozoa, spermatozoa,

blood corpuscles) and to study

vni Jan Vermeer (1632-75). The

in his studio

artist

world of the insects.

infinitely

at

small

The microscope was

89

STYLES more than a pi

1

00

scientific

some were made

Did

were

that

make

artists

instrument; in the eighteenth century

came

it

endows

dead beside

purpose of the

art

The

reality.

it

was

One

of these instruments inspired

Which

on

great scientific

With

so wholeheartedly as the

this in

Jesuits of the

aimed

it

to

make

to a

number

artists

had

to their country

van Baburen

108

1656). Frans Hals too captures the baroque

whose

College de

No

La

Fleche.

discoveries, but

shift in

emphasis

other school of art has adopted the

specialist genres, just as scientists

what

pursuing

from mannerism, then from

first

by die Italianized

spirit;

he gives

next generadon abandoned the vein of Hals and turned

Dutch

exploited by those of

merchants.

on

principles he

first

school. Confining their investigation to

artists

of Utrecht, Theodor

to the placid

life

and Ravesteijn by infusing them with some of the ardour of

its

a treatise

1623), Hendrick Ter Brugghen (1588-1629) and Gerard Honthorst (1590-

log

VI, VII

Mkhode with

la

knowledge, and the

to free themselves

pl.

lake, lends to

view of the

of specialist workers.

Dutch

movement brought

every detail of

to exclaim: 'All

as to his

a methodical inventory of the immediate \^orld about

pi.

Mierevelt

results.

Dutch

view they divided painting into

achieve objectivity,

(d.

Huygens

no doubt

advance of the seventeenth century consisted not only in

mental constructs to experimental

method

the baroque

PLS

leaves

the basis of a chain of truths,

from the education he had received from the

an inquiry assign

The

called 'the noblest part of mathe/

—thus breaking free of scholastic formalism, the faults of which he knew

before their eyes, they

To

certain that

it is

to escape from the empiricism that had until then reigned in the

to organize experience

a priori

them.

peak. But

its

produced only inverted images) through the magical

this, for this is life itself!'

His purpose was

and

inductive

that these

use in improved form only in the second

also in the methodical organization of the instruments of

from

wrong

of painting.

found within himself so well

common

must be noted

It

in this atmosphere that Descartes followed his Discours de

dioptrics.

sciences

the world through the

can more readily agree with Erik Larsen when he emphasizes the probable influence

is

was

into

which Constantijn Huygens

great interest in optics,

aura with which

It

upon

painters looked

Dutch painting had reached

of the camera ohscura (although as yet

painting

Should we subscribe to the theory of Erik Larsen who, in

some

half of the seventeenth century, after

was

?

Galileo's telescope used in reverse.

instruments were perfected and

matics'. I

and

In the composition of certain landscapes he detects the visual aberrations

>.

which would be produced by

there

as a parlour toy,

real masterpieces of decorative craftsmanship.

use of these devices

his study of Frans Post, holds that

end of a telescope

was used

it

life.

The

studios of

is

on

city of painters,

ardsuc products a poedc intensity which realism

own

crisp; that of

is

Haarlem

compare Jacob Ruisdael and Hobbema to appreciate the

of

temperament.

attendon to an exploration of

Haarlem elaborated methods of paindng

Amsterdam. Haarlem,

Amsterdam

its

his

portraits

the shores of

its

that were

nowvanished

lacking in Amsterdam, the city of is

more

difference

sensidve.

One

need only

between the two. Rembrandt

belongs to neither; although he lived in Amsterdam, he came from Leyden, the city of thinkers.

The Dutch 90

painters'

profound love

for a

preoccupadon with the observadon of

land wrested from the

sea.

Holland

is

their

own

country

is

rooted in a

more a work of man than a product

REALISM of nature;

it is

not surprising that the nation which

the contemplation of itself

Seventeenth'century schools, but

and

artists

its

own

made

it

should have taken such delight in

handiwork.

new

developed a

genre which was practised by

nowhere with more intensity than in Holland. Only

the anti/naturalistic prejudices of our time can savour the

by Willem Claesz. Heda and the flowers, so soon Their illusory permanence holds within

itself

the observer

the national

all

who has overcome

charm of the everyday

objects painted

by Jan Davidsz. de Heem.

to fade, painted

pis 104, 106

impermanence which emerges

the message of

from too deep an analysis of the phenomenon of consciousness, an analysis in which both consciousness and reality are dissolved.

Certain Northern European

artists

were inspired by a true

tendency to enumerate the multiplicity of things, as

when Jan

'Velvet* Bruegel, with a true I

Flemish sensuousness, assembles bouquets which include flowers of other painters concentrate

on

of scientific enquiry, a

spirit

all

the seasons of the year;

and small animals, or displays of

inserts

tulips representing all

known to the age of 'tuUpomania'. Others, like Baltasar van der Ast, and the German Abraham Mignon, seem to have been obsessed by the

the painter

pi.

103

idea of the

pi.

102

pis

io$-6

the varieties

of shells,

microcosm,

tirelessly

examining a few square inches of ground

fauna of a miniature jungle, as single creature

man

if

they

that

felt

by penetrating the essence of a

Dutch

artists

were not dull brutes,

Many

the most intellertual of our senses, the one

Dutch

of these

which

It

would be

surprising

show how

the evolution of the

from mannerism (Roelant Savery)

to

art

of

in their

which

is

essentially

baroque

article

on

my

'the notion of "the interior" in

Dutch

art', is

to

rococo

style,

(J.

as

pi. lo-j

which was

We

frequently

M.

Molenaer,

have attempted to

Judith Leyster at the virginals), but their essential preoccupation, as I

an

mind.

Gallery of

much concerned

own

effectively in the painting of interiors.

find in these painters the angled composition

in

they were;

baroque (Jan Davidsz. de Heem), then

the Italians with problems of the organization of space, but

This concern was displayed most

if

lay

composing a bouquet can be

(Jacob Walscapelle) and neoclassicism (Jan van Huysum). They were as

realist.

what

leads by the shortest route to the

painters were highly skilled in the art of composition; in

Flowers (i960) I tried to traced

and

single object or a

interested only in painting

before their eyes, as anti/naturalists have tended to believe. is

the flora

all

could capture the whole mystery of the world.

Seventeenth/century

sight

which support

to suggest the space in

show

pi.

110

its totality,

including the wall turned towards the painter. For this they employed several methods: a curtain,

an open window or door, a succession of rooms that can suggest a whole apanment

(Emanuel de Witte). Finally they achieved a the

representation of the

whole house, by means of perspective devices or

whole room, and even of

'optical boxes'

which made use of

mirage of the camera obscura; two examples of these boxes are in existence today. a minute scale, that the Italians, those

walls of the a

is

the trompeA' ceil

room

in

which he

lives.

To

was

thus,

PL. v

on

that was such a favourite device of the

grand manipulators of space. But the Dutch

map hanging on

world

Dutch conceived

It

the

pi. 111

artist sees

a person of seafarers this

is

space in terms of the four

the centre of the world; often

a wall evokes the presence of the universe. This tiny, well-defined domestic

Vermeer's chosen symbol for the

human

condition.

9i

,

STYLES

We

should perhaps remember,

portraits of

when tempted

to lose patience

with the endless tedious

Vermeer's predecessors, that without a long and patient process of elaboration Dutch

realism might never have produced the quintessence of Vermeer.

We first

can trace the development of the Dutch

Dutch

show

lackadaisically picking at

108

When

smoked

Hals or one of

caps,

rather

herrings to raise a thirst; Ravesteijn (15775-1657) brings a

Hals gives them

his pupils paints a

suggests that he has just stepped out of

And yet these same

Guards with professoriaHooking

us rows of Civic

certain relaxation to these stiff groups. Frans full.

At

choose to appear collectively. Dirck Jacobsz. (1495;-! 567) and Dirck

sitters

Barentsz. (1534-94)

pi.

portrait over three generations of painters.

come

man on

his

a

life

own,

which they savour

the

sitter's

jovial

to the

mien

often

convivial gathering.

people became rigid burghers again in their everyday

life; it

was

precisely

because Rembrandt attempted to shake them out of their complacent censoriousness that they turned against him.

Vermeer's

settings, as well as his people, are the

study of detail.

A

whole generation of

Vermeer could come and express interiors, so that

PL. VIII

92.

apportion

its

painters

their inner

life;

outcome of many

had

years of refinement

and

to analyse the structure of objects before

others discovered all there

was

to

know

about

he might compose with such accuracy the space enclosed within four walls,

light

and shade, and make

it

the repository of the elusive essence of being.

a

4 CI assicism

Our Western

civilization

seems unable ever wholeheartedly to

movement was gaining impetus

In the seventeenth century, while the baroque classical aesthetic

which had been

reject the classical spirit in art.

the glory of the

Rome

of Julius II

and Leo

in Italy, the

X took root in

Northern Europe and brought about what might well be called a second Renaissance.

Even

in baroque Italy, classicism retained

some adherents;

Albani and Domenichino

Sacchi, Sassoferrato,

—and

these included the painters

Andrea

ph

ijo-i

Lanfranco, too, in some of his works.

In architeaure, even that superb dramatist and orator in stone, Bernini, occasionally comes very near to classicism. In admitting this

make

to

we

should

a building baroque; otherwise time alone

of classicism, for

it

was once

sailles is called classical;

first

would have made and

brightly coloured inside

but Sant* Andrea

al

realize that bright colour

out.

The

is

not enough

model

the Parthenon the

Galerie des Glaces at Ver--

Quirinale would be no

less classical if

Bernini had

not embellished the magnificent architectural rhythm of his great portico, designed to encompass the

whole space of the church, with the baroque

figures

on the

cornice. In his rotunda of L'Ariccia, a

mark offa

finite

space in a

way which

more purely baroque

Regia (a sham

form with

all

the intellectual purity of

rhythm of the angel/borne garlands round the base of the dome

the Renaissance, the

Bernini's

rhetoric of the large, gesticulating stucco

is

gestures,

staircase) in the

the very essence of classicism.

All

this

can be

serves to

set

against

such as the fountain in the Piazza Navona, the Sea)

Vatican, the colonnade before St Peter's, or the fajade of ihe

pis 138-g

Palazzo Barberini. Pietro di Cortona, too, the most baroque of all

dome All

of

San Carlo

Roman

these

antiquity, for

al

baroque

were, in

artists

which they had

ancient works of art found in rise

Inigo Jones, Italy, in the

the

fact,

Rome

art

of

as the artists of the previous century. (It

is

convinced that they were recreating the

same reverence

most admired was the LaocoSn?) The faa that most of the dated from

late antiquity led to

a misunderstanding which

of the baroque.

who had visited Rome in

company

1603,

made

a

Grand Tour

of the Continent, including

of the Earl of Arundel in 161 3-14, and brought back a heavily annotated

copy of Palladio's I Quattro

Lihri

and

a desire to bring classicism to England.

his inspiration gave English classicism a classical art.

painters, designed the elegant classical

Corso.

true that the antique sculpture they

favoured the

Roman

form which deserves

The

source of

special study as a 'mode' of

93

STYLES The province

of Holland, the obvious leader of the United Provinces, was the

brand of mannerism by stripping 112

them

adopt classicism. Early in the century, Hendrick de Keyser refined Vredeman de Vries's

to

pi.

of

first

down

the ornamentation while retaining the structure, partic/

completed 1624, and Westerkerk,

ularly the vertical thrust of the tiered frontages (Zuiderkerk,

1620, in Amsterdam).

The

classical

reform was a result of the meeting between two men,

Constantijn Huygens, humanist, friend of Descartes, and secretary to Stadholder Frederick

Henry, and Jacob van Campen, an

The hallmarks

architect.

Dutch

of

pi.

208

Huygens

the house of Constantijn

The major

celebrate the benefits of peace

with

classical in style,

Campen tecture in

fruit

style later

its

and

civic order. It

is

on

superimposed orders and the

the scale of the

grew in majesty; Amsterdam, which

Europe, provides

many examples such

is

'Louis

Roman

dominating

tempietto

one of the

finest

as the Admiraliteitshof

Van Campen idiom is enriched by a light decoration which in France as

Van Campen and

of the collaboration between

the Raadhuis (town hall) of Amsterdam, created after the Treaties of Westphalia to

Huygens was

11^

The Hague:

dominant

(1633), the Sebastiansdoelen (1636), and the Mauritshuis, the palace of John Maurice of

Nassau, completed in 1643.

pi.

in

first

its

and a coping emphasized

horizontal lines, brick fa9ades adorned with colossal stone pilasters,

by a triangular pediment, appeared

classicism,

its

palazzi,

the classical style spread after 1650 to the other

to the provinces of the

who

la Vallee,

who had

The Van

roof.

museums

of archie

(1666) in which the

might almost be described

United Provinces and even

beyond. Prince John Maurice of Nassau, friend of the Rhenish princes, helped

de

is

XVr.

From Holland it

and

lower Rhine.

in 1634

It

even reached the Baltic; in 1637 a Frenchman, Jacques

had been summoned by the stadholder

introduced the French

to introduce

to be his chief architea

chateau to the Netherlands, carried the style to

and

Sweden,

In 1653, another Dutchman, Joost Vingboons, built (though admittedly in a»somewhat pi.

114

more baroque idiom) the Riddarhuset (House of the Nobles) in Stockholm.

The

style

of Versailles

was brought

to

Holland by a Huguenot, Daniel Marot,

who was

driven into exile by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685; and this too helped to turn

Dutch

architects

designs in the

PL. IX

house of Het sailles.

towards the baroque. This

Lang Veerhout,

Loo

it

very evident in the Royal Library built to Marot's

Hague, 1734-64. The same

architect embellished the great

with a staircase copied from the famous Escalier des Ambassadeurs

The United

confined

the

is

Provinces eventually adopted the rococo

style

at

Ver/

of exterior decoration, but

to a central motif of exquisite elegance, standing out in finely/chiselled relief against

a field of rose-coloured brick.

^

Baroque was never



-

which

entirely

unknown

consists almost entirely of

in Holland; seventeenth^century

memorials to the dead,

is full

of the baroque

country produced few sculptors, Huygens and Van Campen, when creating of the Raadhuis, Amsterdam, had to call on an Antwerp sculptor, Artus

own

country, the Spanish southern Netherlands, Quellinus

combined influence of 94

sicism.

Though

the architect

and

the humanist

Dutch

was

a baroque

his flexible talent

spirit.

sculpture,

Since the

the vast enterprise

Quellinus. In his

artist;

but under the

swung towards

clas^

the pediments have a vigour that retains a flavour of the baroque, certain bas

CLASSICISM reliefs

such as the

ofFahius Maximus or again the

Room representing the

mantelpiece of the Burgomasters'

friezes of the

or the friezes of frolicking children above the fireplace of the

Triumph

pis

i

pi.

i}2

pi.

133

pi.

117

is-6

Council Room,

manna (comparable in movement to a bacchanale) in the Court

Israelites gathering

and the

of the Magistrates, recall Poussin

finest of the

Renaissance creations inspired by the

antique, such as the Sala degli Stucchi or the Sala di Cesare in the Palazzo del Te, Mantua.

Spain in the seventeenth and eighteenth

centuries, a country in decline, sought in the

a heaven/dominated country in which men's minds turn

a solace for her fever. Castille

is

towards fantasy; in the

century Castille had produced

fifteenth

seventeenth century Gregorio Fernandez. Andalusia

favourable setting for classicism; the only

is

Alonso Berruguete and

in the

a milder region, closer to reality,

and a

two major seventeenth/century Spanish

artists

remained untouched by the baroque were Andalusians. Francisco de Zurbaran was while Martinez Montaiies created some of the most profound of

realist;

and sainthood. Several times

in the history of art, classicism,

shown

medium

The

itself to

be a favoured

altarpiece, a

until the

form which

of a baroque

restore,

central to the history of

and

form

to the Idea, has

art,

remained firmly

classical

yet carves his religious

images with

was a

vast building^site.

baroque (Hotel de Ville,

Lauzun,

the expressive fervour

civil

many

wars with

La

made one

expect that France was going to go over

Rochelle, Hotel de Vogiie, Dijon). This tendency persisted

and was

visible

even to

later

in interior decors in

produce an

effect

which gilded

of superabundance (Hotel

Chateau de Vaux/le^Vicomte). Early in the reign of Louis

Le Vau and Le

entirely to suppress a natural

ruins to

For the sake of speed, most building was done in brick, but the

and stucco work combine

Paris, 1650-8,

architeas,

all

artist.

panelling, paintings

XFV

two

pi. 118,

PL. xii

Mercier, in spite of their efforts towards classicism, were unable

tendency to the baroque. In

abundance of ornament (Cour de Marbre,

Versailles),

Le Vau

and above

this

all

found expression in an

in a tension in the propor/

pi.

119

which betrays an inner conflict (Chateau de Vaux/le^Vicomte, Hotel Lambert de Thorigny,

Chateau de Saint^Fargeau (1657). Le Mercier, la

Spanish

France of Henry IV, emerging from a long period of

into the reign of Louis XIII,

tions

gives

images of divinity

for the expression of divine reality.

stone structures that were built might have to the

which

all

who

a mystical

second half of the seventeenth century. Gregorio Fernandez of VilladoUd designs his

altarpieces in a classical spirit,

The

is

baroque

Sorbonne (1629); but he

also

for his part, purifies his style in the

gave the ornamentalist Michel Anguier

Chapelle de

free rein to

embellish

the vaults of the church of Val/de^Grace.

The triumph largely the sart

work

of classicism over the baroque in seventeenth/century French architecture

was

of three great architeas, Francois Mansart (1598-1666), Jules Hardouin-'Man'

(1646-1708), his great/nephew, and Jacques/Ange Gabriel (1698-1782). According to

we should add who worked under Le Vau and

Albert Laprade, genius,

The

crisis

resolved

on

to these Frangois

M.

d'Orbay (1634-97). a draughtsman of

Jules Hardouin/Mansart.

through which French architecture was passing was both revealed and basically

the occasion of the international competition held by Louis

completion of the palace of the Louvre.

Not

XIV

in 1663 for the

surprisingly, the Italian competitors Rainaldi,

95

STYLES 10

pi.

da Cortona, Candiani and Bernini submined baroque designs; the French too (Cottart,

Pietro

Le Vau, Le

Marot,

inspired by foretaste of

what was

how

indicates

Le Brun, and even

Mercier,

a certain

Mansan) were

Frangois

still

more

or less

baroque emotionaHsm; only the plan of Leonor Houdin contained a actually canied out.

The faa

king had asked

that the

high was the prestige of Italian baroque in France

for plans

at this time. It

from

Rome

even seemed to

Louis that only Bernini could be worthy of him, and he received him in 1665 with the highest honours.

However

helped to

make up

his

own

the

own

good

1667 the task of drawing up a

Thanks

generations to come.

Then came an

and

bombastic design for the Louvre,

all to

seek a solution in the resources of

final

plan was entrusted to a committee.

XIV incUned the committee towards a

determining the whole development of French architecture for

Louis

to

XIV,

France found

classical

which

the might)' enterprise of Versailles, in

architect, Jules

his

sense of his minister Colbert, Louis

classical solution, thus vinually

pi ^^6

self-importance,

the king's mind; he decided after

countT)'. In

Guided by pis 11, 122

Bernini's

destiny.

its

men, a decorator, Le Brun,

three

Hardouin/Mansart, and a landscape gardener, Le Nostre, created the

first

major architeaural complex in Europe to be truly royaL Versailles proves that the royal idea

can be expressed without grandiloquence;

fixed

modular system of proportions, gives the

ideal of self-mastery,

and

as

it

imitation

was not based on

took Versailles as

The

real

model

its

with

its

controlled forms

and

aptest expression to the great seventeenth^century

German

itself.

principaHties imitated Versailles.

But the

understanding or sympathy; eighteenth^century baroque Europe

had taken the antique.

just as Bernini

interior decoration at Versailles

royalty;

state, classicism,

were epitomizes the idea of kingship

Europe was awestruck; even the smallest

harmony. While the

greatest strength Hes in

its

baroque expresses an aspiration towards a higher

made much

use of colour to convey the splendour of

but here too the rh)thm and order of classicism are evident. Partitioned, raftsacked by

dismembered by the Revolution and stripped of

later kings,

XIV

century, the Versailles of Louis

is

its

furnishings in the nineteenth

recognizable only in the Galerie des Glaces, the

Grand

Trianon and the design of the gardens. pi.

120

And

so France turned her

achieves a pi.

1

21

pis 12^-4

harmony

back on Rome. In the Grand Trianon, Jules Hardouin^Mansan

of proportion comparable with that of

Gabriel created a true counterpan in the

Petit

Trianon.

the Val'dc'Grace by Francois Mansart with the

gauge the measure of the Petit Trianon

All

that

down to

was

achievement.

was a

(hotel

The colormade

need only compare the

for the eighteenth century

and

life,

of the LouvTe

is

the French Parthenon;

certain revival of

was

to refine these principles

down

on

the themes of

in the seventeenth centur)'.

In

baroque architecture, of which Boffrand,

and in Germany, was the

and bring them

town mansion and

this period,

who

later

however,

had

great

chief exponent. In the field of interior

decoration, France contributed to the development of the rococo style, restraint

of

of the Invalides by his great^nephew to

creating infinite variations

chateau) laid

success in eastern France

96

dome

the French Erechtheion.

the scale of private

country house there

is

left

this

dome

Greek architeaure; Jacques'Ange

We

employed with more

than in the German'speaking countries.

rx Louis

Le Vau (1612-70) and Charles Le Brun (1619-90).

Escalier des

Ambassadeun,

Versailles,

model

^9=-^' ^^^^^^,1 vtr

,^/

I

ii

Vi

>.

/>

N, L»>

r*if^;i

;'^.^--^-

•i-

-^-Sif^-iSS.^

X Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665^. Neptune and Amphitrite

XI

Claude Lorrain (1600-82). Landscape: Cephalus and Procns icunited by Diana

i

-

CLASSICISM Sculpture did not follow the same pattern of development.

The

classical tendencies

which

were to culminate in the work of Frangois Girardon (1628-1714) were already apparent in the reign of Louis XIII. Lapses into the baroque idiom are apparent in the

work

of Michel Anguier

(Holy Family in Saint/Roch), in funerary sculpture in general (always a pretext for eloquence)

and

in the portrait bust,

which conforms with

individual through action. the exception

is

The one

which proves

In Girardon's ^;jo//o

Eighteenth/century French sculpture

from the

was more of a Genoese than

nymphs in the Grotte d'ApoUon

pi.

12^

P^-

^49

pi.

126

of the

Frenchman.

a

at Versailles, the

problem of

manner reminiscent of Pheidias.

classical idealism is solved in a

portraiture

life

whole/heartedly baroque sculptor, Pierre Puget (1620-94),

the rule; by training he

attended hy

(Jean/Baptiste Pigalle,

the spirit of the age in expressing the

divided between a disciplined form of baroque

is

1714-85) and an acuteness of psychological observation which Uberated

pomp

Houdon,

of the seventeenth century (Jean^Antoine

Voltaire). Caffieri

pi. 15

indulges his baroque imagination; while Pajou devotes himself to the service of feminine elegance in a delicate ^alant style Falconet.

Such

is

which

is

fined

down

femininity often recall the style of Fontainebleau

we might have

as

While painters

were pursuing

it

Champaigne innermost

Italy in 1627.

The

which were in favour

classical

in

its

excesses.

Louis

arrival of

religious

against the ecstatic express

expresses the inner struggles

pb ^8, 1 2y-8

but by darkness and poignant silence. Phihppe de

effects

disguising nothing

sitters,

maintaining the balance between

secrets,

XIV. The same

reality

restraint

and

yet respecting their

and appearances which

is lost

in the

appears in the genre paintings of the

Le Nain. and Claude Lorrain,

hard to understand contrasts

revered in

Rome

how

which

Northern European

to leave

they can have been at

are obvious to us

as the artists

a painter of landscapes,

who

home

settle

Rome. Today we

in

and

word,

for

succeeded in coming nearest to the antique; and Claude, as a genre

which was recognized

Poussin and Claude lived not so

historical painters.

them

Rome was

truly

They apprehended

Rome

only in

dimension of imagination, which in baroque

Louis Lc

pls x, xi

in an artistic milieu that appears so alien.

much

its

art led to

art.

as a speciality of

Rome

in the

an imaginary Rome, finding in the many reUcs of antiquity which

sense of the

find

were not so apparent then. Poussin and Claude were

was an exponent of

artists.

France and

Eternal City a congenial setting for the development of their

xa

influence did not,

conscious decision led the two painters whose names have become the very symbols of

But the

•4

sense of

tendency was reinforced by the influence of the

Rome. Georges de La Tour

penetrates the very soul of his

classicism, Poussin

past,

and

BeruUe and the doctrines of Jansenism, which turned French

portraiture of the age of

in

Clodion and

produced by the

deliberately, notwithstanding the effect

of the soul not by heavy emotional

it

(Houdon, Diana). Feminine

(Le Sueur, Philippe de Champaigne, Georges de La Tour)

sions of piety

A

his successors,

expected, favour the rococo, but served rather to restrain

religious teachings of

brothers

more by

seventeenth/century French architects hesitantly followed the path of classicism,

Simon Vouet from painters

still

the strength of tradition in French sculpture that this elegance

still

They were

evocation of the ancient

Vau (161^-70) and Andr^ Le Nosue (1613-1700). Chateau

the

both, in the true

the present through the

pure fantasy, led these

of their day as

abounded in

medium

of the

Romans. The

classical artists to

de Vaux^lc'Vicomte, 1660

loi

STYLES explore the world of the past: like their contemporaries, they had their dreams, and they nour/

them on

ished

books

Ovid and

the Metamorphoses of

the romances of Tasso.

Claude turned

to these

enchantment, Poussin for philosophical symbols. Both accepted imposed themes

for

They

only with great reluctance; and neither ever willingly conformed to a decorative scheme.

an object in

thought of a picture as their

own

by the

itself,

the fruit of personal speculation.

By

escaping from

age they sought and achieved a timeless quality which in Poussin's case was enhanced

fact that

he drew the laws of his

the antique. This

is

art

from Raphael and Titian, and thus

in keeping with the Platonic theory that there

which

forms, regarded as crude instruments the essential reahty contained in

all

is

from

indirectly

a certain constancy in

express for mankind's benefit the 'ideas'

which

are

things.

Under Louis XIV, while architecture became classical, painting moved towards the baroque. The teaching of Le Brun imposed on religious and secular art a style that had the gestures but not PL. XIV

the conviction of the baroque. that

it

was imitated

classicism (to

all

Rigaud

image of

created an

royalty

and of the

courtier so perfect

over Europe. In the eighteenth century French painters entirely abandoned

which a

large proportion of

French

architects

remained loyal) and returned

only with neoclassicism. Thereafter the classical tradition was not

priests.

Even today

vandalism of many parish

Yet history shows that although France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

produced the

finest

manifestations of the classical spirit the

baroque was a constant temptation. enriched French

art

and endowed

it

It

with

personality

and a

style,

but

case in point: in the style altogether too easily

many

modern world has known,

was the tension between its

classical

and baroque

which

finds expression too easily

rich possibilities are lost. Eighteenth^century

which we know

and too quickly.

the that

profound and individual humanity. The existence

of alternatives deepens the understanding; a talent

102

it

finally rejected until the

victory of impressionism; Delacroix, for example, regarded himself as a classicist.

in France a strong anti-'baroque prejudice survives, notably in the

to

as rococo,

German

artists

found

may

find a

Germany their true

is

a

path

5

Baroque

The baroque style originated in Rome between the pontificates of Sixtus V (i 585-90) and Paul V (1605-21). The Church had survived the crisis she had undergone in the sixteenth century; she

had renounced the dream, cherished by the Renaissance Popes, of unifying the

Italian

peninsula under the hegemony of the Holy See; but she had also checked the spread of heresy,

and the Popes celebrated

triumph by giving the Eternal City an appearance worthy of the

this

capital of the Catholic world.

A few works dating from

about the year 1600 show the easy transition from mannerism to

baroque. In the Pauline Chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore, built between 1605 and 161 contain the tombs of Paul lines of the Sixtine

V

Chapel on

the other side of the nave, built for Sixtus

Fontana; but the slight alterations in the design tending towards

to

pi 134

V

by Domenico

stricter architectural discipline,

richer sculptural decoration, reveal the tendency of the

combined with

1

and his predecessor Clement VIII, Flaminio Ponzio follows the

work towards

the

baroque.

A comparison between the fajade of Santa Susanna (1597-1603), that of

Giacomo

della Porta's

from Counter/Reformation with

its

meagre

severity to

pilasters, suffers

wall, broken by a

Chiesa del Gesu on which

baroque magnificence.

from a kind of constraint;

few bays which

it is

are out of scale

mannerist feature). Maderno's facade, with

its

composition of volumes in light and space;

it is

by Carlo Maderno, and

pi 136

based, illuminates the transition

pi 13s

Giacomo

it is still

della Porta's fagade,

no more than a large decorated

with the building

as a

whole (a characteristically

columns and jutting

interplay of

pilasters, is a

a lyrical work, expressing a feeling of freedom,

but always subject to a rhythm that imposes an overall discipline.

During

The

the

same period, a few

artists

were to deliver painting from the torments of mannerism.

Carracci brought an end to the scrappiness, the insubstantiaUty and the compositional

vagueness which typify the century learned from principle based

on

art

of their immediate predecessors;

them how

all

the painters of the seventeenth

to organize the figures in a picture

a single action.

The

according to one unifying

Carracci brought the painter back to a rational study

human body; they restored its common people. In his frescoes on

of the masters, but also to a study of nature and principally of the robustness,

and did not

hesitate to seek

models

among

the

the roof of the Gallery of Hercules in the Palazzo Farnese, sense of

monumental composition achieved by Michelangelo

same methods, drawing

his

Annibale Carracci recaptures

the

pi.

153

in the Sistine Chapel; he uses the

rhythm from the power of the human body, usually nude.

Illustrating

103

STYLES gods of Olympus, Annibale opened up a rich source of images

for a cardinal the loves of the

on which

artists all

Even more than pi.

1S4

draw

over the w^orld were to

come.

for years to

human

the Carracci, Caravaggio dedicates his art to the

body. In the

ContareUi Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi (Scenes from

the

Santa Maria del Popolo (Crucifixion of St Peter and

Conversion of St Paul, 1600-1), his

with

figures,

shown

their

of St Matthew,

c.

1600) and in

powerful physique inspired by the porters and stevedores of the Tiber, are

drama of

in the throes of a

strength; their

life

world

is

life

God

without

and death which has been reduced

to a simple trial of

abandoned even by Nature, plunged

or gods, seemingly

in the darkness of the Creation or the Apocalypse.

Before 1610, the illustrative

and decorative

fruit of the solitary

who

Rome showed

of

artists

painting, integrated into a social setting,

anguish of genius.

lived in Italy between 1600

The

pontificate of

was

and 1608,

the orders of Paul

V in

to synthesize these

Peter's, already

1605. In 1629

two paths

and

that of dramatic painting,

two

tendencies.

era of magnificence for

Urban VIII

pi.

140

and church furnishings of bronze,

Peter (1656-65)

imitated

all

The Pope's major

genius.

entrusted Bernini with the decoration

He

It

animated

it

with

tombs of two Popes, the Throne of St

the

and the Baldachin, the 85/foot high canopy over the high

over the world.

Rome, an

provided with a nave by Carlo Maderno

of the interior, which he conceived as a veneer of marble, stucco and gold. gigantic statues

to follow: that of

the unique achievement of Peter Paul Rubens,

the inexhaustible riches of his

achievement was the remodelling of St

on

It

Urban VIII (1623-44) inaugurated an

on which Bernini lavished

era

the world of painting

altar,

subsequendy

incorporates 'Salomonic' or 'barley/sugar' columns, modelled

those from Constantine's old St Peter's

which had been preserved and

recused in the

on

new church.

Their spiral form expresses an ascending impulse better than straight shafts could ever do.

In the course of his long influenced the entire of the

Kingdom

artistic

life

development of the

of Italy. For

him

rigid supports,

Roman

and enriching

city until the

was

the task of architecture

cence; but he remained loyal to the principle of

Michelangelo and the

stamp on

(i 598-1 680) Bernini set his

monumental

day

Rome

when

to express stability

it

in a

became the

which was

number

of elements, as in the

is itself

inherited

perspective treatment of the upper arcades. 1

41, fig.

1

42, fig.

8

capable of creating a noble intimacy in a

g

Via XX. Settembre contrast to Bernini,

acts as a foil to

who

is

a

man

little

how Bernini enriches and complicates

from the antique (the Colosseum), notably by the

Though he church

loves to handle colossal dimensions, he

like Sant'

Andrea

Francesco Borromini's San Carlo

of the theatre, Borromini

is

al

Quirinale,

alle

laid

down by Vignola,

opment

to

which Bernini remains

to the fajade, deepens the perspective

loyal.

which

new modes

of

modify the orders

as

a poet, fascinated by

While Bernini gives a harmonious

and composes

is

in the

Quattro Fontane. In

expression in preference to established traditions; thus he does not hesitate to

104

A comparison

between Bernini's fagade of the Palazzo Barberini and the court of the Palazzo Farnese, as designed

a traditional theme which

pi.

the legacy of

Empire, expressing weight by the use of solid entablatures and

the style only by an increase in the

by Giuliano da Sangallo with three rows of arcades, shows

pi.

capital

grandeur and magnifi/

square before St Peter's, surrounded by colonnades with four rows of columns. pis 137-8

wly which

devel/

the building in terms of masses,

BAROQUE Borromini seeks

for contrasts of angles, diagonal

movements, the

sliding,

rebounding

effects

of curves and counter^curves, spiral movements, the spatial contrasts created by complex planes; in a word, he treats space in torsion, as a symbolic form. Borromini, a mystic, with a

melancholic temperament (he eventually commited suicide), worked almost exclusively for the

Angels

religious orders.

architectonic, Borromini's

The

white stucco.

among

are

is lyrical;



he has a

San Carlo

exquisite

into one pier of St Peter's

the leitmotive of his ornamental

an ardent

is

cell,

Bernini's art

—which

would

a celebration of the impulse

is

pure tones of

distaste for colours, preferring the

Quattro Fontane

alle

While

style.

fit

which

comfortably

leads the soul

out of the earthly shadows into the hght. In Sant' Ivo alia Sapienza he suspends over the church a

dome

in the

form of an open

rose,

For Bernini, Borromini and the

crowned by a pagoda.

and Carlo Rainaldi, and Martino Longhi, scope the decor, but in the plan,

became a subject

The All

stability

his statues

much

love,

which ceased

for invention lay not

show

only in the elevation and

be subordinated to functional considerations and

to

pure formal speculation.

Bernini imposed on his architectural works

away by passion a

for

such as Pietro da Cortona, Girolamo

architects of their circle,

absent from his sculptured figures.

is

characters caught in the instability of an impetuous

Two

or ecstasy.

groups

movement, carried

fully illustrate this quality: the Ecstasy of

St Teresa,

pl. xiii,

pi.

40

misunderstood work which has been seen by some as containing overtones of profane

and the Apollo and Daphne,

morphosis that attracted so of her humanity.

Other sculptors of Bernini's

the

artist

artists.

has caught in marble that instant of meta^

Frozen in the cry that

eyes already blank, passes

is

;'/.

1

pl.

572

4j

the last expression

from one kingdom into another.

such as Alessandro Algardi and the Fleming Frangois

circle,

Duquesnoy, showed themselves

statues in

which

many baroque

Daphne, her

Piacenza, Francesco

in

to be

more

attracted

Mocchi devoted seventeen

by the noble gestures of classicism. In

years of his

to creating the

life

bronze of Alessandro and Ranuccio Farnese, in which he expresses

two the

all

equestrian fire

of the

heroic temperament in the nervous step of a pacing horse.

The the

painters of seventeenth/century

Carracci

— Guido

—concentrated

Reni,

their energies

Rome, most

Albani,

on

of

them products of the Bolognese school of

Carlo Dolci,

Church

who realized the classical ideal; while certain Rome genre painting and the love of ruins.

exteriors (except for die facade)

painting, sculpture

were usually sober;

and ornamental modelling were devoted

all

Northern painters,

the resources of the arts of

to transforming the interiors into

The compart^

worlds peopled with statues which seem engaged in a contest of sacred eloquence.

mcnted decor of ceilings such

pis 1^0-1

decorative painting, leaving easel painting to the foreigners

Poussin and Claude Lorrain, the bamhoccmti, brought to

Domenichino

Guercino,

Lanfranco,

as that of St Peter's

was replaced by trompeA'ml paintings of structures

which, continuing that of the church, open out to the sky, revealing a paradise inhabited by cloudborne

saints.

The most

skilful of these trompeA'ceil painters

his masterpiece is the ceiling of Sant' Ignazio,

the guise of saints Jesus.

and

Rome, where

the

was

a Jesuit,

whole universe

allegorical figures to celebrate the glory of the

Andrea Pozzo; is

assembled in

pl. iv,pl.ji6

founder of the Society of

The powerful, rounded arches, the majestic entablatures and Corinthian pilasters symbolize

105

STYLES by

their horizontal

him

revealed to

The

emphasis the earthly

But

ceiling.

influence of Caravaggio

Kingdom

Manfredi) but in the

and

open

in the

life

which

the Christian aspires to leave for the paradise

this terrestrial life is

was profound, not only

not a vale of

Rome

in

of Naples, where he stayed for

some

tears, it is

a palace.

(Gentileschi, Borgiani,

time. Battistello in Naples

Pietro Novelli in Sicily were the best assimilators of the severe quality of his art; while

was transformed by the Spaniard Pedro Ribera divisions of Italy favoured the

martyrdom and

into a rhetoric of

Florence lingered in her dreams of formal perfection.

As

it

asceticism.

in the preceding age, the political

development of other provincial schools of painting,

all

tending

towards a certain romanticism. They will be considered in another chapter.

In architecture the provinces,

on

the principles elaborated in

a certain delay, produced their

after

Rome. Venice

(as in Baldassare

faithful to her traditions of decorative opulence; Naples, Sicily

an exuberance which brought reached them as

their art close to

a product of Spanish

consists not of veneers of stucco or

the building the richness of a

rule.

own

Longhena's La Salute) was

and Apulia (Lecce) displayed

Andalusian baroque, an influence which

In Naples, and even more in

Sicily, interior decoration

marble panels, but of marquetries of

work

distinctive variations

of jewellery (as in the decor of the

In the eighteenth century, Naples, once again the capital of a

rare

marbles which lend

Lady Chapel, Monreale).

kingdom, was decked out with

churches, monasteries and palaces. Ferdinando Sanfelice invented the most ingenious variations

on

the

theme of the

staircase;

Ferdinando Fuga and Luigi Vanvitelli served the megalomaniac

Bourbon King Charles VII. Following the city produced

The most architecture

great

inspired

decorative

the impetus given by

painters: Solimene,

and

intersections

which was

in the previous century,

Mura, Giaquinto.

and far/reaching contribution of provincial

was made by Guarino Guarini, who

interplay of curves

Rome

Italy to the

development of

in seventeenth/century Turin pioneered the

to be characteristic of the rococo architecture of

the following century. Guarini treats interior space like a musical theme, instinct with vibrations,

echoes and resonances. In Turin, in the eighteenth century, Filippo Juvarra returned to a more pi.

220

static

Berninesque baroque; sometimes, as in the church of

La Superga (1715-27), he

anticipates

the coldness of neoclassicism.

Just as Bernini dominated Italian artistic life

PL. XVI

of Flanders.

art,

Rubens

The phenomenal

after his return

vitality

of this giant

expression in compositions {Kape of the daughters

oblique and spiral movements. In his vast studio in

Europe, supplying the princes recognized themselves. His a

pi 1^8

new

pi 160 106

prelates of the

Italy

came

among baroque

of Leucippus)

which

to

painters finds

are

Antwerp Rubens worked

dominate the

sequences

for the

its

of

whole of

baroque age with paintings in which they

second marriage to a

girl

of sixteen, Helene Fourment, brought

note of personal feeling into his work; his portraits of his wife evoke (sometimes almost

indiscreetly) the sensuality

seem

late

and

from

to breathe in

Meanwhile,

his

and tenderness of his

love.

His landscapes, open

to infinite horizons,

unison with the soul of the universe.

Flemish contemporaries became more and more specialized, each painter

methodically exploiting one aspect of

reality:

Snyders and Fyt animals, David Teniers and

BAROQUE Adriaen Brouwer country flowers.

Van Dyck was

life,

Jan (Velvet) Bruegel landscape, Daniel Seghers and Bruegel

the only Flemish

reap the benefit of the teachings of Rubens,

artist to

coloured with a marked Venetian influence (Amarilli and Mirtillo); the elegance of the court

England was congenial

of Charles I of

which was maintained

painting a tradition

and he brought

to his sensitive nature,

for the

baroque

of the seventeenth century

of Rubens. In 1657

style

which

in Louvain, in

latter part

work was begun on

synthesis

achieved in the

is

still

charming and

^66

theme

lively

with the architecture.

The same

houses of the Grand' Place, Brussels, dating from the 1690s.

earliest

pi.

remained

the Jesuit church of Saint-'Michel

truly integrated

is

to English

do we find an architeaural equivalent

the sculptured decor, using as a leitmotiv the

oiputti disporting themselves in the 'sacred vine',

i^g

end of the eighteenth century.

until the

Sculpture in Flanders followed the example of Bernini, though architecture mannerist; not until the

pi.

After Holland, France was the country which most firmly resisted the baroque. If the original decor of Versailles were intact,

now

that

would undoubtedly appear

it

has been reduced to a simplicity that

it

adopted a decor in the Italian

is

repeated by

an

its

essentially

magical

effects.

down

yet the

down

should

which Louis

in 1689 to raise

than twenty tons of

the effect of ostentation; this

and the dark inside wall

reflection in the mirrors,

What

consider classical. Mansart

is

does

it

and Le Brun all

the

a true charac/-

whole concept of the Galerie des Glaces, in which the decor

baroque principle which the

silver furniture

melt

And

of classicism.

more baroque than

but tempered by a rhythm which, by blending

style,

elements into a harmonious whole, tones teristic

we

to us

we

say

XIV

money

if

Italians

we could

is filled

with

and Germans were

light, incorporates

later to use to

obtain

see sparkling in those mirrors the splendid

ordered from the Gobelins in 1660, and which he had to for the

War

Augsburg?

of the League of

It

yielded

no

less

silver.

After the school of Fontainebleau, France had no more real decorative painters; Marie de Medicis,

Henry IV's widow, had

to call in a

Flemish

artist

(Rubens), and

Anne

of Austria,

Louis XIII's widow, an

Italian (Romanelli), to obtain paintings of truly

Le Brun's

teachings

the merit of producing painters capable of decorating ceilings

large scale.

He

no more than

had

put his

own

creditable;

monumental

effect.

on a

precepts into practice in the Galerie des Glaces, but the results are

no French

painter, heir to a

monumental

tradition in sculpture, has

ever been completely successful as a decorator, being unable to conceive a picture otherwise

than as surface. Even

achievement (a

Mignard was painting

less is the

relatively

French

capable of trompeA'oeil on curved surfaces. For his

undistinguished one) in decorating the

hailed as a prodigy

Le Brun

artist

alternates

and was even

between the

the subject of a

classical

mode {Holy

dome

of the Val'de/' Grace,

poem by

Moliere. In his easel

Family, Louvre), a moderate

'

baroque {Adoration oj the Shepherds, Louvre) and an exaggerated baroque in which he puts into practice his personal theories of expression {Magdalen, Louvre).

from the teachings of Le Brun was Rigaud, the courtier. sories,

By

his figures' attitude as

much

who as

The

artist

gave to baroque Europe

by the movement of

he makes each individual a model of the station in

life

who its

benefited most

perfect

draperies, wig,

which he

image of

and

PL. xiv

access

'excels': military leader,

107

STYLES minister, dignitary of the

Church, monarch or

on

the contrary,

conform

to the ideal beauty she

XV the

Louis

it is

Le Brun was

of

Away from the

Catalan.

making

eclipsed

formality of the court, there

more akin

of his court ladies

XIV

and

their children as

Cupids.

by the baroque vigour of Rigaud, the hot/blooded

and Antoine Rivalz, and the Provencal

Parrocel, were

character's individual

the courtier into a demi/god;

was

movement

a spontaneous baroque

the South of France; in Toulouse, for example, the draughtsman Pierre

to use profession

thought herself to possess. In the reigns of Louis

Muses, Vestals, Dianas, Hebes or Minervas, with

The formalism

seem

make each

out to

sets

fashion spread for portraits in costume,

ladies appear as

his subjects

a baroque tenet that Unes of experience in a face are a proof of

Mignard, on the other hand,

strength of character.

All

Rigaud in no way tones down each

or status as a kind of mask. Nevertheless features;

courtier.

La

in

Fage, the painters Jean^

painters of battle scenes Joseph

and Charles

French contem/

to the seventeenth/century Italians than to their

poraries. pi.

14^

Pierre Puget, too,

works of

to his

and above

architecture

strength; but a

more

owes

work

like his

often prefer to interpret

Provencal origins the baroque instinct that he reveals in certain in his sculpture,

all

Milo of Crotona

power

is

and

a cult of physical

exceptional in French sculpture; French

in terms of the

the line of demarcation between baroque

which seems possessed by dominance of

artists

reason. Generally speaking,

French sculpture

classical in seventeenth/century

corresponds to the division between sacred and profane themes. Court sculpture tends towards classicism; funerary or religious sculpture answers pis ig-20

more the need

for 'expression'.

The

portrait

busts of Coysevox, however, like the paintings of Rigaud, depict character in the heat of action,

whether the subject be painter or minister {The Great Condi, Louvre).

The

teaching of

painters

and

to galant

and rococo

Le Brun brought which was

sculptors,

art

Michel^Ange Slodtz,

to persist

La

(Charles de

Pierre

into being a

Le Gros

throughout the eighteenth century, existing parallel

Fosse,

Lemoine

An

all

the baroque

over-simplified view

faithful

and rococo

art

would tend

at

Inigo Jones.

The

situation

England

to regard

is

once recognized

About

all

things considered,

in fact far

portance in his

wing

visit to

of the Louvre

had not yet been

exercises

XIII

on a

scale

at a

settled

enabled

worthy of a capital

its

ideal,

and

and

Versailles

neoclassical principles laid

on a constant to this style

Rome.

time

when

Sir Christopher

Wren

with the

than France. to achieve

Wren

an im/

did in fact meet

the question of the building of the east

by the victory of classicism. The

city.

flirtation

by force of circumstances was

Bernini's in

France in 1665,

London on 2-5 September 1666 108

man who

own country equal to

Bernini during a

Adam,

more complex. Temperamentally inclined

England gave more expression

the year 1660 emerged a

Sigisbert

as entirely hostile to the baroque,

classical

towards neoclassicism, English artists nevertheless carried baroque;

Lambert

of the eighteenth century.

throughout the two baroque centuries to the

down by

in painting;

in sculpture).

Versailles was the baroque Olympus. Europe

influenced

decorators, both

whole school of baroque

to carry out

a large

fire

which destroyed

number of

architectural

In the fifty^one parish churches he rebuilt,

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Ecstasy of St Teresa, in Santa Maria

Wren

della Vittoria,

Rome

V Hyacinthe Rigaud (1659-1743). Cardinal de Bouillon

XV Diego Velazquez (1599-1660). Maids

of

honour

XVI Paer Panl Rubeos ^1377-164^^. S^pe

oi ibc iio^g^isrs a:

Laicppus

BAROQUE showed

the catholicity of his taste; the desire for variety

and

Other of

voids.

itself

his buildings,

such as Chelsea Hospital (1682-92) and the rebuilt

Greenwich

portions of Hampton Court, are in the classical idiom; but the majestic colonnades of

Hospital (1694 Bernini. first

etc.)

Although

show some

much

design as too

trace of inspiration

from the square of St

inspired by

St Peter's,

it is

Rome, by

Peter's,

Royal Commission on the rebuilding of St Paul's had

the

in fact true that the vast

analogies with the latter are undoubtedly due to the wishes of

which extended from 1675

Commission

to bring

for a central plan

wanted a

it

own

to his

continued to

to 1709,

conceptions. His

formal

Its

Wren, who throughout

alter

its

the plan approved by the

idea,

first

Wren's

rejected

which was

rejected,

was

with incurved walls, surmounted by a Bramantesque dome; the Commission

basilica in the

in obtaining his

back

pis ijp, ^83

London church

holds the same position in the Anglican world as does St Peter's for Catholicism.

construction,

and by

a baroque instinct,

dynamism, a tension between

his designs possess a certain

comparison with those of Inigo Jones solids

is

form of a Latin

dome, even keeping

piers set in a circle, after hesitating

cross,

its

its

centre

surmounted by a tower.

Wren succeeded

primitive character of a rotunda by standing

whether

to base

it

on

eight

its

13

pi.

17$

ph

ij^-So.jig. 18

pi.

182

design on Michelangelo's rhythms or

its

As for the decoration of St Paul's, with its somewhat pon/ Roman models, it is much more akin to the baroque than to

those of the peristyle of Bramante.

derous magnificence, recalling

Jig.

the classical ideal.

At

the

end of the seventeenth century the course of English

baroque under the influence of two

Wren, and size,

John Vanbrugh. The

Sir

derived from Versailles, inspired

in England, Castle

begun in 1705

Howard, begun

for the

Duke

a reward for his victory at

end the

turned decisively toward the

who worked

Nicholas Hawksmoor,

under

concept of a palace with several courtyards of colossal

Vanbrugh

two most baroque

to build the

in 1699 for the Earl of Carlisle,

of Marlborough, to

whom

Blenheim. Vanbrugh had

it

was

structures

and Blenheim Palace,

presented by a grateful nation as

political differences

with the Duchess,

work on Blenheim Palace, which was continued by Hawksmoor; two architects joined forces. The size of Vanbrugh's buildings, and the theme

and was forced the

architects,

art

to stop

in of

glory which plays so important a part in the conception of Blenheim, give evidence of a desire for ostentation.

Vanbrugh

achieves his effects by the disposition of masses, by contrasts of

proportion and by a general display of grandeur;

all this

occasionally reminiscent of the

is

grandiose eclectic architecture of the second half of the nineteenth century.

In

1

71 5 began the Palladian reaction

of neoclassicism.

It

which brought English

should not be thought, however, that

everyone. James Gibbs, a Scots Catholic

and a Tory,

Carlo Fontana (a disciple of Bernini), remained outside of Architecture in 1728 are evidence of his eclecticism

and of

back

to the

path

path was followed bUndly by

this

who had it;

architecture

been schooled in the studio of

the examples he gives in his Book his

Uking

for

'modern' French and

Italian architecture.

His RadcUfFe Camera, Oxford, though

baroque;

St Mary^le^Strand (1714-17) in London. The famous London church

so, too, is

of St Martin/'in^the^Fields (1721-6), baroque in

its

built in

1737-49,

interior, displays in the

is

design of

distincdy

its

exterior

a noble classical harmony inspired more by French and Italian rhythms than by the antique.

113

STYLES James Gibbs conceives ham),

his interiors in

as does the Venetian/'born

fact the rule

an

entirely

the end of his is

Park, Surrey, 1733). This was in

throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; though architecture alternated

between baroque and classicism, the decorative

ijj

Orleans House, Twicken/

style (as at

Giacomo Leoni (Clandon

himself took his inspiration for theatrical pi.

baroque

sets

he designed the Double

life

arts

from

remained resolutely baroque. Inigo Jones

Italian

Cube Room

at

baroque scenography; and towards

Wilton House (about 1649), which

inspired by the baroque decors then fashionable in France.

has close

It

Palladian movement, also conceived his interiors in the baroque of Palladianism scarcely affected the decorative

arts; it :s

style.

on

a shock,

In

fact,

entering

associate in the

the purist reforms

some sober

dian mansion, to discover a baroque, Gothic or rococo decor, or even an array of

The pi. 266, fig.

5

Palladian era witnessed the flowering of an indigenous English furniture

by rococo, Gothic and

pi.

ijS

in

and made famous by Thomas Chippendale in

The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754). Until then the

collection arts

chinoiserie,

England had been derived from France and

Gibbons,

who

created the choir/stalls of St Paul's to

The

Italy.

Charles II

architecture,

style,

At

Heaven

allegorical figures soaring in front of a

his celebrated

of the decorative

Restoration

the

Room of Burghley

background of sham

A Frenchman, Louis Laguerre, was called in for the decorative painting Queen Anne,

worth. In the time of

taste

inspired

woodcarver Grinling

Europe.

a Neapolitan painter, Antonio Verrio; in the

House (1694-7) Verrio painted

style

Palla--

chinoiserie.

an overripe baroque design by Wren, used

the motif of coiled acanthus leaves then current throughout

summoned

great

with the

affinities

Chateau de Cheverny. William Kent, Lord BurHngton's

interiors of the

veered between the French (Charles de

at

Chats/

La

Fosse,

Jacques Rousseau, Baptiste Monnoyer) and the Venetians (Gian Antonio Pellegrini and the

two

Ricci, Sebastiano

English houses

and

Bugatti).

painter, Sir

PL.

XXIV

and

at this

his

nephew Marco). Stucco^workers from

time (Octagon

The Queen Anne

Room

at

Italy also

came

to decorate

Orleans House, Twickenham, 1720^ by Artori

period did, however, produce the only great English decorative

James Thornhill, a master of

trompeA'oeil

who

fills

and

the walls

Painted Hall of Greenwich Hospital with an multitude of figures

who seem

ceiling of the

about to invade

the space of the room.

In easel painting, England long remained faithful to the Flemish school. Sir Peter Lely, a

Fleming, painted the court of Charles

II, just as

Van Dyck had

painted that of Charles

I.

These and other Netherlandish baroque influences had a decisive influence on the development of English painting. Hogarth owes

Though Joshua pi.

i^y

the

much

to

Rubens and

to the

Dutch baroque

mannered elegance of Gainsborough approaches the

artist

galant art of the French, Sir

Reynolds' deep involvement with his great predecessors, particularly

Rembrandt, links him

closely with seventeenth^century

baroque (Lord

artists

Rubens and

Heathfield,

Gallery); in his large compositions he submits to the prevaiUng classical

Thus English

Frans Hals.

National

style.

were not entirely strangers to the baroque. Nevertheless their view of the

baroque was a somewhat formaUstic one, retaining the magnificence and the triumphal character, but missing the poetry and the imaginative impulse which carried the 114

German baroque

into the realms of fantasy.

artists

of the Italian

and

BAROQUE Spain, declining and finally defeated, found an escape from

While

the sixteenth century

had

seen a flowering of royal

The

almost entirely religious in inspiration. for the decline of the

reality in a

baroque dream-world.

the art of baroque Spain

art,

revival of court art by the

Bourbons was the

was

signal

Spanish baroque.

In the seventeenth century in Seville, the sculptor Martinez Montanes and the painter Zurba/ran expressed the heights of religious feeling in a purely classical

style;

pis 132-^

meanwhile, however,

the Castilian Gregorio Fernandez, heir to a tradition established in the previous century by

Alonso Berruguete, had already begun His baroque himself,

to turn devotional art

statues are often set in classical altarpieces,

which

illustrate

how

towards mystical expressionism.

many

them designed by the

of

lagged behind the figurative

far architecture

arts.

The

artist

Seville

school of painting tended finally toward the baroque, of which Bartolome Esteban Murillo

pi.

1^6

(1618-82) was to be one of the principal exponents in Europe. The theme of the Immaculate

Conception, which he chooses frequently in response

by

is

its

very nature impossible to treat realistically;

to the

Marian fervour of the Andalusians,

essentially

it is

baroque. In

many

of his

compositions, however, Murillo tempers the mobiHty of baroque forms with a sense of stabihty derived from classical Andalusian tradition. His contemporary and rival Juan de Valdes Leal,

on

the other hand, gives rein to his romantic fervour,

which has been

expressive violence

excelled by

endowing

the

no other European

theme of death with an

painter.

Diego Velazquez

is

pi J55 PL.

xv

a product of the Seville school of reahsm, which he practised in his early period (as in the famous

Old woman

however, he was appointed

cooking e^gs). In 1623,

contact with the decadent court of to

Madrid he began

to paint

painter to the king,

first

phantom

figures,

and on

seldom linked

one another by any action; they express the despairing sense of man's isolation which

the Spanish soul.

The form

which the supreme

52

pi.

166

pi.

161

pi.

162

evaporates, to be replaced by a modulation of touches of colour, to

virtuosity of the

explored the resources of his

art

brush lends a mysterious evocative quality. Velazquez

more completely than any other

After Montanes and Fernandez, Spanish the

pi.

afflicts

Granadan Pedro de Mena;

to

art

painter

who

has ever lived.

soon became fixed in an academic mould with

Alonso Cano, who produced

little,

we owe

exquisite figures

heralding the grace of the eighteenth century.

The development is

of architecture

is

hnked

to that of the altarpiece,

the central feature of the church. This clifF/like structure with

and

statues has a role similar to that of the

above the high

altar of a

Spanish church

Peter's,

the

is

The

the one

first

distinctly

coloured or gilded shapes

its

a kind of triumphal arch, giving access to the

baroque

still

classical in design, stand

altarpiece, inspired

made by Pineda and Roldan

for

La

new

out

by Bernini's Baldachin in St

Caridad,

end of the century, under the influence of Jose de Churriguera,

with a

in the Iberian world

church portals of the Middle Ages; the altarpiece is

supernatural world. Early seventeenth/century altarpieces, against bare walls.

which

Seville,

altarpieces

in

1670.

element of monumental splendour, the Salomonic column. In Portugal, the

piece developed along similar lines; but something in the national

At

were endowed altar/

temperament endows Por/

tuguese altarpieces, such as that of Sao Bento, Oporto (1701), with an added element of structural discipline.

115

STYLES In the course of the eighteenth century, both in Spain and in Portugal, the structure of the

became overlaid with a luxuriant growth of forms which

altarpiece

by some biological

force.

church of San Salvador, pi.

i6j

The doorway and Seville,

of 'glory', so dear to Bernini

province of

New

Spain

have reverted to pi.

280

his

this decorative

forms,

which

altar

contemporaries, to

Holy Sacrament

in the

its

Mexico

apotheosis. In

—the

architects,

seems on reaching the

New World

to

Architectural discipline succumbed to the anarchic growth of

state.

all

the creations of Iberian Christianity

Tome,

of the cathedral of Toledo, by Narciso

I discuss in a later chapter

transparent structure, through

the

exuberance takes on the force of tropical vegetation;

Europe by the

baroque ornament. The strangest of

behind the high

Roman



wild

its

Chapel of

by the Portuguese sculptor Caetano da Costa, carry the theme

and

the baroque, held in check in

altar of the

proliferated as if impelled

which an

is

the Transparente

a mass of thrusting vegetal

under the heading 'Art Nouveau'.

altar or

The

idea of a

a reliquary can be glimpsed rather than seen,

has often fascinated Spanish architects, and the idea of the withdrawal of the sacred into a secret place finds expression in the

and behind the pis ip8-g pi.

altar.

invention of a speciahzed form, the camar'm, situated above

The same theme

rococo architecture, where

it

of transparence reappears in Bavarian

and Swabian

Die Wies).

dematerializes forms (as in the church of

In the eighteenth century the luxuriant forms of the Spanish altarpiece began to influence

16$

architecture.

Gradually the whole church became encrusted with a layer of stucco. Italian

had used

architects

this material

mainly on

in Spain the absence of marble led to

its

ceilings,

on

use

where marble would have been too heavy;

the walls, while in Portugal gilt

wood was

used instead. Here the pattern established in seventeenth/century Spanish sculpture was neady reversed.

Andalusians

—such

as the

—turned to the baroque while

Figueroa family

at

Salamanca

the CastiUan Churriguera family remained faithful to the architectural principles of the Renais/ sance.

Fernando de Casas y Novoa,

at

Compostela, and Pedro de Ribera,

into stone the wild exuberance of Spanish baroque stucco

The baroque permeated into the Tyrol,

Central Europe from

Italy,

Munich, Prague and Vienna. After the

and wood

at

Madrid^ transposed

carving.

by way of the Veneto, Ticino, Orisons,

close of the sixteenth century Italian artists

poured into Austria, Germany and Bohemia, and in

spite of the aaivity of native artists, the

migration continued until the eighteenth century. Vincenzo Scamozzi (1552-1616), received lessons

He

from Palladio, was summoned

to Salzburg

designed a gigantic cathedral on the model of St Peter's,

was

built

by Santino Solari and decorated by

Until about 1680 the

new

style

who had

by Bishop Wolf Dietrich in 1604.

Rome; somewhat

Italian painters

and

scaled

down,

stucco-'workers.

can be seen emerging very slowly from the native Gothic and

mannerist traditions, both in the building of mansions and palaces and of churches. After uncertainties, the influence of II its

1660, basilicas in the true

Munich, begun by 16

Gesu became

many

a rival force to local styles of religious architecture;

notable adherents included the Vorarlberg school.

About 1

this

Roman

style

made

their

appearance; the Theatinerkirche,

the Italian Barelli in 1662, the Jesuitenkirche zu

den Neun Choren der

Engel, Vienna, begun in 1662 by a Ticinese architect, Carlo Carlone, the Universitatskirche,

BAROQUE Vienna (1701-3) by Andrea Pozzo (1703). Weingarten in Swabia by Franz Beer

twenty--

pi.

175

Schlierbach, illustrates the progress of baroque influence,

pi.

174

(i 716) all

show

Roman

a faithful adherence to the solemn

Italian plans gradually

made

their appearance, disposed in a

style.

Stucco

employed borders of

interiors

made baroque by Wessobrunn

at

iji.^p

pattern adopted by the Vorarlberg school. This development also affected the palace

and the mansion, where massive French

pis

abbey of Melk by Jakob Prandtauer (1706), and the Benedictine abbey of

the Benedictine

basilical

the cathedral of Fulda by J. Dietzenhofer (1704-1 1),

their exaggerated size

Swabia soon

in

Europe. Church furnishing in the seventeenth century

spiralling acanthus leaves,

and pronounced

reHef.

rivalled that of Italy, sending

gilt

had shown

wood soon abandoned

with mannerist cartouches

A

its

school of stucco/workers

craftsmen

all

the mannerist style

signs of developing into a premature rococo,

over Central

which

early in

and adopted a

baroque manner characterized by the use of twisted Salomonic columns; a comparison between a pulpit designed about 1670, such as that of the Altmunster, Linz, five years later, that of the Stiftskirche,

and another dated

displayed in fuller reUef and luxuriant ornament.

The finest flowering of the baroque in Austria and Bohemia occurred about

1680;

it

coincided

with the enhanced national consciousness which followed the victories over the Turks, and constitutes indeed a

brought about Italy

kind of manifesto of the Imperial

Two

ethos.

development, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach,

this

between 1680 and 1685, and Lucas von Hildebrandt,

the offspring of an Imperial engineer officer

Rome

and

his

who was

Italian wife,

who had

and who had studied in

emperor, princes, bishops and abbots, in a truly imperial

uments, churches, casdes, palaces and monasteries. gained the favour of Joseph

I

by winning a competition

monarch's entry into Vienna in 1690, Fischer's official for the palace of

It is

lived in

born in Genoa in 1668,

and been honoured by Prince Eugene of Savoy. In Bohemia and Austria

artists built for

also in

architects of the Italian school

style,

these

two

triumphal mon/

symptomatic that Fischer von Erlach for

after his election as

triumphal arches to be built for the

Holy Roman Emperor.

Several of

commissions have an imperial significance; the colossal plan (not executed)

Schonbrunn (1691-2), the Karlskirche in Vienna (1716) and the Hofbibliothek,

Vienna (1723).

We

pis i6g-jo

might also include the Pestsaule, a votive column erected in the

Graben, Vienna, between 1682 and 1688, the pedestal of which was the work of Fischer von Erlach. Imperialist enthusiasm

communicated

itself to

the Premonsttants, the Benedictines, the Augustinians rebuilt

on

colossal plans inspired

the

and

Church. Ancient orders such

the Cistercians

had

as

their monasteries

by that of the Escurial; the Emperor Charles VI,

who

for a

few years had been king of Spain, acknowledges the debt in his magnificent palace^monastery

The monastery became

of Klosterneuburg. the sciences

and the

arts,

a kind of symbol of universality, a palace of theology,

including grouped around the church, imperial apartments {Kaiser"

zimmem), an entertainment hall (Marmorsaal), a gigantic library

which was

an

museum, a

art

miinster),

and

staircase (Treppenhaus), a decorated

a kind of temple of learning, princely apartments for the prelate (PrelaturhoJ),

natural science collection, sometimes even

finally pleasure

an observatory

(as at

gardens which might contain luxurious pavilions (as

at

Krems/ Melk).

117

STYLES In decoration, Fischer von Erlach applied to permanent buildings the same opulence which

had marked

his

57^

I

With

in 1690.

secular architecture the motif of the Atlantean, derived

Michelangelo supports

for the

—an

Turks by

tomb

of Julius

more

rather

same heavy magnificence. Sculptures crowded on

practised the pi.

triumphal arches for Joseph

restraint,

Hildebrandt

and

cornices; in

to pilasters

from the

figures of slaves created

by

used abundantly in lower rooms, staircases and balcony

II, is

image of defeated strength which

for the Austrians recalled the crushing of the

Western armies.

the

In the general conception of their buildings, particularly their churches, Fischer von Erlach

and Hildebrandt

more from Borromini and Guarini than from Bernini. The innovations

derive

which were almost without influence

of these architects,

baroque churches of Austria, with the

Here

plans.

vibrant pi.

i6j

Fischer

von Erlach

sets his

domes not on

time that soaring spatial quaUty that he was to repeat endlessly in

the KoUegienkirche in Salzburg (1694), the pi.

16^

on a

a circle but

tenser curve, the ellipse;

Ahnensaal (Hall of Ancestors) in Frain (Vranov) in Moravia (1690), he achieved

in the first

hnes of their elevations and

characteristic intersecting

forms lend vigour to the external mass, and quicken the internal space to

elastic

life.

in Italy, find their fulfilment in the

the Karlskirche in Vienna. This church

is

all his

for the

plans, notably in

Hofbibhothek (now the Nationalbibliothek) and

a kind of epitome of

Roman

architecture;

it

has the

dome of Berettini's San Carlo al Corso, and the towers designed Column appears not once but twice; there is a replica of it on either side of the west door. In Prague a member of a Bavarian family of architeas, Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, made use of projections, gliding diagonals and intersecting planes to peristyle of the

by Bernini

Pantheon, the

for St Peter's. Trajan's

which gave

create supple articulations, imperceptible transitions,

inspiration to the rococo of

Swabia and Bavaria.

The heavy

magnificence of Fischer's imperial baroque was purified by a provindal architect,

Jakob Prandtauer, pi. iji

Melk (church Danube. His

pi.

J2 1

who

built

used

it

to create

harmonious

effects; his

between 1706 and 1726), magnificently

son/in/'law, Josef

monastery of Altenburg) but

Munggenast,

masterpiece

sited

on

refines his style to the

its

is

the monastery of

promontory above the

point of elegance (as in the

of the preciosity of the rococo, a style almost

is free

unknown

in

Austria.

While Swabia and rococo

style.

Bavaria, mingling French

349

setting for royal festivities, the

1706

for the

prominence

of Sanssouci, near

on pi.

118

37y

the

Louis

itself,

model of an

XIV,

in Europe.

to

were developing the

to the solemnity of the baroque. In

built for the opulent

Augustus

the Strong an open/air

Zwinger, which perpetuated the memory of a carrousel given in

king of Denmark. In

further, giving

In Berlin

Italian influences,

North Germany and Saxony adhered more

Dresden in 1709, Daniel Poppelmann pi.

and

it

he

carries the

monstrous Atlanteans

exuberance of Fischer von Erlach a stage later

imitated by KnobelsdorfFin the palace

BerUn (1745-53). in the late seventeenth century, Italian palace,

and from 1693

Andreas

Schliiter

began the royal residence

to 1700, taking his inspiration

erected a bronze equestrian statue, of the Great Elector,

which

is

from Girardon's one of the

finest

BAROQUE In the German/speaking countries, mannerism in sculpture persisted until the seventeenth century,

At

most notable representatives being Martin and

its

end of the century, however, numerous ItaHans came

the

bringing with them the Berninesque

Carlone family.

Among

style.

Among

work

to

them were

IVlichael

half of the

Zurn

the elder.

Germany and

in

several

latter

members of

the

Austria,

immense

the earliest Berninesque sculptures are the extraordinary kneeling

marble angels by Michael Ziirn the younger which adorn the

lateral altars of the

monastery of

pi.

i$2

pi.

1^1

ph

18^-6

Kremsmiinster (1685). They are represented in the posture of the bronze angels surrounding the altar of the

Chapel of the Holy Sacrament in St

angels bearing the instruments of the Passion

on

Peter's,

Rome, but

the Ponte Sant'

movement

their

is

that of the

Angelo. The unearthly nature

of these celestial beings has perhaps never been so well suggested as in these figures, pitating with the

motion of

from beyond the

their flight

In eighteenth-century Austria the ample

Georg Rafael Donner tempered

sculptor

Donner's high

cathedral of Pressburg (Bratislava), Bernini's motif of adoring angels

and

far

from the expressive

the perfection of a court

Even pean

intensity of the angels of

the provincial Ziirn

artist;

before Peter the Great, Russia

art penetrated as far as

Vienna

the

the spirit of Italian baroque with something of the

nobility of Girardon's bronzes in the gardens of Versailles. In

cold,

pal^

skies.

of Bernini continued to flourish. In

style

still

was not

is

altar for the

elegant, but

is

somewhat

Michael Ziirn. Donner has

all

an inspired poet.

entirely isolated,

and

the great currents of Euro^

Moscow. The elements of the baroque were implanted

there about

1680, at about the same time as in Central Europe, and in spite of strenuous opposition from the conservative clergy.

Moscow was

gradually surrounded with large fortified monasteries.

At

Rostov, Yaroslav and Dubrovitsy, the characteristic pyramidal Russian church became baroque.

Here

as in Latin

fruits.

icons,

America, the transplantation of the baroque produced strange and exotic

In the iconostases of the

churches sculpture in

and the use of Salomonic columns enhanced

Portuguese altarpieces.

on

new baroque

As in

Spain, the

to the fabric of the building

The pace

style

took the place of

resemblance to the Spanish and

of the interior decoration was eventually transposed

itself.

burg an appearance resembling that of Amsterdam, he

Frenchman Leblond

Versailles.

Leblond

to give the city

living in Paris,

who

built the

palace of Tsarskoye Selo

wood,

this is

an

and

visited Paris

overall plan,

Versailles in

which

Bartolommeo

Winter Palace, the

Rastrelli,

by the

on the

sea'.

Peter

pi.

547

pi.

184

son of an Italian architect

great monastery of

(now Pushkin); ornamented with

1717 and

the latter did

also designed the palace of Peterhof, 'Versailles

the Great's daughter Elizabeth called in

gilded

wood

of Westernization quickened in the time of Peter the Great. After giving St Peters^

called in the

model of

their

gilt

Smolny, and the immense

a rich decoration of stucco and

one of the most remarkable examples of the baroque in Europe. Under

Catherine the Great, however, Russia turned towards classicism, largely under the influence of the St Petersburg

Academie

des Beaux^Arts, in

Poland adopted the baroque that

was

all

(as at the

which French

Franciscan monastery

the greater since in a Catholic country there

which was encountered in Russia.

It

was from Poland

ideas predominated. at

Krosno) with an enthusiasm

was none of the that the

pi i8j

ecclesiastical opposition

baroque reached Russia.

119

6

Rococo

Scarcely

had Louis

XIV

enjoyed the splendours of his grand apartment

with marble and adorned with subjects from mythology,

around the Cour de Marbre an

The pi.

1

1^

plan of

solemn than franfaiie,

this its

the necessity to have built

decoration, though

Its interior

outer facing of marble in the Italian style, being

lacquered and gilded. In the

felt

apartment' where he could Uve rather more privately.

'interior

was decided in 1684.

when he

at Versailles, faced

latter

still

sumptuous,

is less

composed of woodwork

Sun King

part of his reign the

a la

increasingly

felt

oppressed by the vastness of the palace he had created, and escaped to the more intimate atmos^

new

phere of Marly or the Trianon, setting the precedent for a

style,

in

which

the

mansion was

substituted for the palace.

Inside the great

town houses

{hotels) that

to be replaced

were built in Paris in the

first

two decades of

the

rhythm of orders and entablatures gradually disappeared,

eighteenth century, the architectonic

by a system of arches of equal height encompassing doors, windows and mirrors.

The tympanums above

the lintels of doors were often occupied by a decorative painting

by an elaborate carved frame; the panels inside the arches were ornamental sculpture in high

relief,

now

set

off

decorated only with

continued in stucco on a low ceiling which ^vas seldom

adorned with paintings. Cumbrous and unwanted, the great masterpieces of the previous century or of the Renaissance were put pi.

188

away

in a special gallery or even relegated to the lumber/

room. The salon of the Hotel du Petit^Luxembourg in Paris (1710) style.

The new mode

of ornamentation

was

the result of a

of the seventeenth century through the influence of tration of

it is

Versailles, in

is

a typical example of this

movement which developed

artists

such

Lepautre; a

as Pierre

at the

fine illus/

provided by the sculptured stone trophies decorating the piers of the chapel

which Robert de Cotte has sought elegance

A whole succession of Paris mansions,

many

of which are

still

in existence today, give us a

and

sinuosity of line;

examples are Vasse's panelling for the Hotel de Toulouse (171 8) and Boffrand's designs salon of the Hotel d'Assy (1719). Designers specializing in ornamentation, such as

Nicolas Pineau and

later

pis i8g, igi

Nancy (1710), Boffrand, imitating

The Salon

for the

Oppenord,

Meissonier, helped to influence taste in the direction of rocaille orna^

ment, and one of them, Franjois Cuvillies,

120

at

rather than grandeur.

picture of the progress of the rococo tendency towards profusion of forms

near

end

later

made

his fortune in

Germany. At La Malgrange,

the oval salon at Marly (1699), exemplifies the transition.

de la Princesse in the Hotel de Soubise, Paris, by Boffrand, (1738-40) and the

great Spiegelsaal (hall of mirrors) in the

AmaUenburg

pavilion of the

Nymphenburg

palace

ROCOCO near

Munich by

Cuvillies (1734-9) are similar in conception. Both are oval rooms, ornamented

with large mirrors, and where the walls meet the ceiling the surfaces are out of

from one plane

transition

into facets,

The

to another.

and the pronounced

reflections in the mirrors



ities

which explain why French

differences

reveals interesting differences, as well as similar/

have refused

art historians

can writer Fiske Kimball that the rococo originated in France

XIV. The

sculptured decoration of the Hotel de Soubise

abstract; at the

creations

which

Amahenburg

was a

the

of a people

German mind

is

itself,

European schools

rhythmical instina, and during the same period there

and Germany in the

its effect

dialectic of cause

use of rocaille,

Rome,

down

effea,

German thought by

and even more the asymmetrical

For

derives his

the dialectic latter,

even

We

might

distribution of ornament,

therefore describe the style of those

name sometimes

given by the Italians

Italy in this period, in architecture at least,

such

as that of the

remained

Palazzo del Grille or the

and even in Piedmont Juvarra conceived was

influence; here the taste

German

style.

abandoning the patterns,

and

the great central

for

woodwork

a

la fran^aise,

fashion (decoration of the Palazzo Reale).

yet the rocaille artist

The

crafts--

Tiepolo cuts his clouds into

rocaille^

with figures astride them, carried round in an endless spiralling space. Guardi

ig2

pi.

1%

is

pi.

326

pi. igj,

PL. xviil

forms explode in convulsive touches of the brush,

fragmented by zigzags.

are the riches of Italian art that

itself exploit.

his

;)/.

on mirror frames,

Brustolon overloads his chairs with figures in

perspectivist use of architecture,

his compositions are

Such

but heavily

The ceilings of Giovanni Battista Tiepolo express the rococo spirit in paints

undoubtedly the most rococo of painters;

not

a

complex synthesis.

the principles of the former, whereas the

rocaille decoration

is rare,

rocaille in the

furniture;

a heavy baroque

and

and

in a

of Venice could give graceful curves to asymmetrical ornaments in stucco,

on painted

hke

work is

of the hunting/lodge of Stupinigi in elegant baroque terms. In Turin, however, the minor

came under rococo

ing;

of music. Rameau's

and resolving them

that rejeaed the rococo as harocchetto, the

baroque; in

ornamented with

or

an extreme.

on the laws of harmony, whereas Bach

hesitating between opposites

church of Santa Maddalena

men

field

to carry to

We could perhaps see reflected in this pattern of answering voices

to their art of the eighteenth century.

arts

\

Most

fairy/tale.

roots in medieval scholasticism.

The immoderate

room

a society salon;

is

its

are the defining characteristics of true rococo.

essentially

in Paris

revealed in

antithesis; Descartes laid its

The room

belongs to the world of

Swabia and Franconia were

French thought proceeds by the

in Hegel, has

therefore

of

from counterpoint.

and

and

artists

similar divergence between France

of thesis

Renaissance.

Nymphenburg park

progression of chords, relying for finest effects

purely ornamental,

Amalienburg Cuvilhes experiments with an asymmetrical system of

metry, whereas in the

spirit

with the Ameri^

to agree

end of the reign of Louis

the decorator of the Hotel de Soubise has been faithful to the principle of sym/

all,

ornamentation which the stucco

The

is still

at the

the imagination of Cuvilhes breaks out into a host of fanciful

recall the grotesques of the

the pavilion in the heart of the

important of

break up a confined space

outline of the rocaille completes the disruption of the architectural

But a comparison between the two rooms

lines.

true, to soften the

it is

The pioneer of asymmetrical

many formal inventions which it did rhythms was a stucco artist from Palermo, Giacomo

responsible for

pi.

1^4 121

STYLES Serpotta,

who

created for his native

town

exquisite chapels in

tudes of the figures are balanced contrapuntally.

Lorenzo, in 1699, and continued to practise his tation remains baroque, his figures are the

found

its finest

He

art until his

show

to

first

which

death in 1732.

and

atti/-

that of

San

the gestures

all

began to decorate the

first,

Though

his

the active, fugal rococo style

ornamen/

which

later

Germany. The salon eloquence of Serpotta becomes a kind of

expression in

Sangro in the church of San Severo, Naples, the work

expressionist frenzy in the Cappella di

who

of Francesco Queirolo, Giuseppe Sammartino and Antonio Corradini,

can make even

marble transparent. Naples, where painters adorned ceilings with soaring visions worthy of Tiepolo, can

show examples

of rocaille,

of the church of Santa Chiara,

The French

was destroyed

eighteenth/century decorative

could very appropriately be termed pi.

igo

not of rococo; the

if

in the

style,

finest rocaille

decor in the

city, that

Second World War.

which almost never made

use of asymmetry,

France did, however, produce some genuinely

barocchetto.

rococo furniture; about the year 1730 four designers, Lajoue, Meissonnier, CuvilUes and Mon--

don, produced collections of ornaments in an asymmetrical

The working

particular derived inspiration.

curved

of precious metals

profiles, swellings, dislocated surfaces,

pamphlet ostensibly addressed that Nicolas

Cochin made

and

Lancret and Pater

is

his protest against the rococo. Faience

among

late to

Loos); and

which loved

fact in a

makers imitated the metal/ be influenced by the rococo.

refined into rococo grace; a tendency towards realism

Van

was in

various tendencies: a poetic strain derived from Watteau,

Boucher and Fragonard. The society, a society

especially suited to spiral forms,

to the goldsmiths of France (his Supplication auxOrjevres, 1754)

din); an official baroque current following the teachings of

Coypels and the

is

from which goldsmiths in

irregular projections. It

workers' forms; but porcelain manufacture reached France too

Painting was divided

style,

talent of

to

a

finally

style

French

contemplate

whose

artists itself;

in

and intimacy (Char/

Le Brun

(Francois Lemoine, the

were

definitely rococo, that of

qualities

made

which

painting a reflection of the

tastes

of

the art of the seventeenth century, deeply

concerned with problems of form, had been a mirror reflecting every visible object. More than ever,

mankind enjoyed

formal, sometimes

the contemplation of

more natural in

favourites, aristocrats or bourgeoises,

century

it

was even accepted

that

dominate style

women

in painting, sometimes

but always compelling.

style,

de la Tour's subjects tempers his severe

own image

its

the

Women,

stiff

and

whether queens or

whole epoch. The feminine grace of Quendn

with a touch of elegance; by the end of the eighteenth

might be painted by women.

In Spain, rococo decoration found expression almost nowhere but in the royal apartments of

—such

the Palacio Real in Madrid. Religious art

as that of the

Churrigueras in Salamanca or of

—elaborated upon the baroque. The one exception

the Figueroas in Seville

decoration of the sacristy rocaille style

were occasionally made to the ornamental

suited to use in

122

the rocaille stucco

woodwork

of altars, where

it

was well

combination with mirrors.

Portugal, as usual contrary to Spain, all

is

of the Cartuxa of Granada. Chiefly in Latin America, changes in

Europe. Rocaille

is

already

coming

(1720-3), where the decoration of the

was with Germany the most

strongly rococo country of

into flower in the library of the University of

woodwork,

gilded

and lacquered in

Coimbra

the Chinese style,

is

ROCOCO still

symmetrical in character; but in the dissolution of forms

The

from baroque

transition

to

was

it

painters

who

preceded

Nossa Senhora da Luz, Rio de Minhos, Borba, dated 17 14).

sculptors (as in the cartouche in

The second John V

style

Oporto fashioned

like goldsmiths, while in the north, at Braga and elsewhere, rocaille in

and stone

takes

of the reign of

it

made

use of all the possibilities of rocaille; the decorators of Lisbon

on a swollen, inflated,

Manuel

I

visceral quality,

(1495-1521). But

in

of

wood and

a half.'caste

stone

Swabian church

202

pi.

204

was

it

Brazil that

produced the

known

as

O

Aleijadinho (the

which have, though on a more

state

finest true

rococo

of Minas Gerais,

pi.

20^

and

wood

almost like a revival of the Manueline

asymmetrical rocaille) decoration, between 1770 and 1800. In the Francisco Lisboa,

pi.

rococo in church woodcarving occurred about the year 1740,

style (i.e.

Antonio

httle cripple), created decorations

restricted scale, all the soaring lyrical quality

interiors.

Austria in the eighteenth century, unlike Germany, remained faithful to the baroque. This eighteenth/century baroque tary,

while the ornament

of the church ast,

is

refined

is

and harmonious;

To

symmetrically disposed.

and hbrary of

the forms are never excessively fragmen/

take an example, the pohshed baroque

the Benedictine monastery of

Altenburg

painter Paul Troger, decorator Franz Josef Holzinger)

(architect Josef Munggen/

wellbeing, very different from the swooning ecstasy of the churches of Swabia. that of the interiors of the imperial palace of

rococo was a

style reserved for

Schonbrunn, proves the

The

court use.

pis ij2, igj,

524

communicates a sense of peace and

One

exception,

rule that here as in

Spain

other exception, the church at Wilhering, can be

explained by Bavarian influence.

England, the land of paradoxes, succumbed

and

to the

charms of the rococo in

furniture in the very heyday of Palladian architecture.

interior decoration

Rococo triumphed about

1750. Here more than in Portugal, Chinese influence was decisive in determining

ment, showing

itself

in the serpentine curves of the 'English' garden

who

Chippendale family. Thomas Chippendale, models

entitled

The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's

in the design of his mirrors.

Verney

The

conflict

to build a severe Palladian

wind

Director, uses

between

classical

markedly asymmetrical

and rococo inspired

mansion, Claydon House, whose

Nouveau It

functional. In the

work

fluidity characteristic of

adorn

much

genius of the ItaUan Renaissance. for every landed prince

Bavaria,

its

balustrade.

The

German

poUtical divisions of

wished to have

his

pi.

2ji

art

Art

and Catholic

of art. French art historians are inchned to attribute

originality of the

The

206

some of them sober

greatest splendour. Protestant

importance to Italian and French influences in Germany; in

weighed no more heavily upon the

pi.

a century before.

attained

Germany plunged joyfully into a magic world

j

staircase so delicate

its

styles,

pis 20^, 266, jig.

Edmund

of Charles Kandler (about 1730) rocaille returned to the

Dutch work

was in Germany that baroque fantasy

far too

Sir

features

interior reveals Palladian

and a wrought^iron

rustling in the ears of corn that

of the goldsmith was flourishing; goldsmiths employed a variety of

and almost

the furniture of the

published in 1754 ^ famous collection of

doors, a rocaille salon, an extravagant Chinese room, that one can almost hear the

and

the year

develop/

its

own

external influence

Germany favoured

Versailles. In the

Swabia and the Rhineland, the house of God

fact,

rococo than did antiquity upon the

Cathohc

this

movement,

areas,

Franconia,

rivalled that of the prince. In the

Lutheran

123

STVLliS areas.

Saxony, Prussia and Bayreuth,

artistic creativity

was focused on

valent nature of the regime of Saxony, a Protestant country

converted to Catholicism,

pi 333, fig-

1$

is

church of the court and

the Lutheran Frauenkirche alas,

in the

were united in the person of a single

ruler,

prince^bishop.

grand

ph igs~^

scale.

Perhaps the

which

felden.

^^

°^^ °f

^"^^

l^^"^?'

family

Towns were

most magnificent

None, however,

Palais at

war. In certain

of the finest sacred buildings districts

human and

faith

wielder of both temporal and spiritual power

is

Ludwigsburg,

that of

is

that of

built

by the dukes of Wiirttem^

(now

destroyed)

many

Pornmers'

at

residences of Frederick the Great of

and Charlottenburg,

the Stadtschloss

and Neues

the monasteries (Stifte)

and the pilgrimage churches

which enhanced

the richness of their architect

situated in rural surroundings

As in

and decoration.

Austria, the ancient orders (Benedictines, Premonstrants, Cistercians,

Augustinians) had their old Gothic buildings reconstructed, providing the

most poetic expression of an ancient

German

ideal, that of the 'City of

rococo achieved the fusion of all the

the time of the Renaissance, the sculptor

architect; they

the setting in conflicting

God' dreamt

arts that is the central

and

which they would appear. The lack of unity

demands

of sculptor, painter,

of by St Augustine.

principle of

painter filled in the 'spaces'

conceived their works as creations in themselves, and gave

and ornamentalist and

left

all

baroque

art.

for

them by

the

Uttle consideration to

mannerism

in

and perhaps

last

due

to the

the disappearance of the

domi/

is

partly

nant role of the architect. In Italian baroque the architect once more takes control; in*St

Rome, and

in Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, Bernini conceives architecture, decoration

ture as a whole,

and Borromini does

the

same in San Carlo

Giovanni in Laterano. The decoration of Louis XIV's Apartment', was the painter,

pi.

362

result of close collaboration

Le Brun. But

decorator, painter is

and

in

German

what makes the building. In

length of the grand staircase

is

1^^

two

igS

creators of those

The

124

Quattro Fontane and San

alle

between an

architect,

which they can deploy

'Grand

Mansart, and a decorative

their art; the decoration, in fact,

the Residenz at Wiirzburg, the visitor's slow ascent to the full

intended by the architect, Balthasar

by

Neumann,

Tiepolo glorifying Bishop

in Bavaria, or

Dominikus and Johann

to

make

Schonborn.

it

possible

On occasion,

Kosmas Damian

Zimmermann,

Baptist

the

twin jewels, the pilgrimage churches of Steinhausen and Die Wies.

unifying principle of the baroque was architectonic, that of

Although since

Asam

and sculp'

Versailles, theVersailles of the

brothers entered into partnership, uniting in themselves all the arts, as did

and Agid Quirin pi.

first

Peter's,

rococo the architect no longer does more than prepare for the

sculptor a space in

to take in gradually the ceiling painting /'/.

—the

Wiirzburg, built by the powerful Schonborn

splendour of the

rivals the

was concentrated around

( Walljahrtskirchen),

At

divine laws

Potsdam, and the palace of Sanssouci.

Cathohc

ture

last

—one

imposing residence of the prince/bishops of Bamberg

Prussia, the palaces of Berlin

were

Electors

covered with palaces and churches, for the princes built on a

largest residence

also built the

two of whose

by the two churches of Dresden, the Catholic

aptly expressed

of the Western world, destroyed,

monarch. The ambi/

the

the exteriors retain their

monumental

German

majesty, in the interiors

Greek and Roman times had served to emphasize the

to serve the decorator. Capitals are like precious necklaces

rococo was musical.

all

the elements

architectural structure

around

were

which

now made

piers that are shafts of glittering



6

ROCOCO columns

light, or

and

spill

heavens.

delicately painted in imitation of marbles that never existed; cornices undulate

outwards

At

to

mask

At Rohr (by

the

Asam

Ottobeuren

at

dome above

church on the trompeA'oeil of the

is

upward

to reveal the

to the Paradise painted

on which

is

Uke the prosceniiim of a

a painting of Pen^

pi.

J2^

from which

pi.

igg

pi.

ig8

pi.

^16

pi.

i^p

theatre

Assumption of the Virgin Mary. The Ught colours of the

the spectator contemplates the

whole

skilful tricks of perspective centre the

the crossing,

brothers) the nave

open

ceiling; ceilings

Steinhausen, a round dance of pillars leads the eye

by Dominikus Zimmermann, and

tecost.

and

the transition between walls

stuccos,

pale rose, sky-blue, pastel blue, violet, amaranth, straw-colour, orchid, pure white or milk-white, all

touched with gold and sometimes with

The

quality. light; in

silver,

help to give the building a completely ethereal

artful use of transparent screens (as in the choir of

German

rococo, Ught, the supreme Christian

At Die Wies

fullest extent.

the

whole church seems

be drawn towards the ceihng rather than to support

Thus the great age of Western thing

is

tuation, that cature



is

was

is

on dynamic

which emich

contrasts.

close in a

excess, because everything

is

their

necessary. is

art destroys

by Ghiberti and Alberti. The

is

still

is

on tempo and

in

style

broken,

which

structure than

on

by ornaments

are provided

it.

decorators,

accen-' acciac^

For the miraculous

is

in

should be wary of analysis, which could simply

answered elsewhere by another, all

its

antithesis

and

its

the old laws of geometrical perspective conceived

Italian decorators of the seventeenth century

horizon

is

still

observed perspec

at a

entirely

and handle space

Rome,

is

waves

dating from the most ancient times

necessarily built

becomes transcendent

spirit.

appearance in 1715 and its disappearance in 1770, rococo architecture contains

its first

—an evolution

whole evolution

difficult to define, so rich are the personalities

Benedictine church of Weltenburg in Bavaria, built by the still

rococo church

in vibrating

thousand points, produce a rich harmony, a dissolution of artists

transformed into pure

German

replaced by the heights of the Empyrean.

on the other hand, eliminate depth

has been reahzed; the soUd matter of which the church

and 1723,

hke

only to ethereaHze sohd substance; irregularities are

space into light and music. Here a dream of Christian

Between

is

convergence upon a harmonic centre. Nothing

We

once and for

which, intersecting one another

tal; it is

every^

this unity

thinks in terms of perspectival depth, but a depth converted from the horizontal to the

vertical; the distant

The

appear to

using insidious devices of acceleration, deceleration or distortion. In Sant' Ignazio,

Pozzo

a

pillars

a response to the call of another, every turn of ornament,

to fly off into the absurd, is

This

less

Chromatic quahties

added matter

reduce unity to chaos; every gesture

justification.

based

symphonic

relationship

the melodic Une, Hghtening rather than burdening

that the result of all this

which appears

is

used to the very

is

and the

it.

draw to its

whose rhythm

blended into a fundamental unity by

tive,

to

floods the church with

symbol of Divinity,

to float in the air,

Hnked in a musical unity. Since every architectural

that of melodic compositions

faa

art

Die Wies)

has some baroque features

Asam

—the ornamentation appUed

who

created

flat

to the wall, the stage

perspective leading the spectator's eye horizontally towards the scenography of the transparente

the high altar,

by the same

where St George

architects,

we

are

slays the

still

it.

brothers between 171

on

dragon. In the Augustinian church of Rohr (1717-23)

in the world of the theatre, but here the Assumption at the far

125

STYLES end of the church leads the eye upwards towards the heavens, where the angels welcome Mary. In one of their

last

works, the 'Asamkirche' adjoining their palace in Munich (173 3-5),the Asam

bonds of horizontal depth and suspended the image of the Trinity in the

brothers broke the loftiest part

at

The

of the church.

Steinhausen (1728-3

purest

harmony was achieved by

and Die Wies (1746-59)

1)

ring of arches. Here again the eye

drawn up towards

is

church of Birnau near Lake Constance, decorated by

mayr (between 1748 and 1758), the movement,

and we pis 200-1

and

from matter,

sense a recoil

achieve a state

decorated by

convulsed in a

figures are

an

suspended upon a

when

the rococo exceeds

the stucco artist Joseph

rising

sort of

like that of

of pure contemplation.

Zimmermann, who

the highest point.

In the period from 1745 to 1760 there are moments

frenzied; ornaments

the brothers

create a vision of Paradise

from

crescendo to

crescendo,

nervous spasm which

ascetic

who

In the

itself.

Anton

Feicht/

becomes

recalls Berruguete,

mortifies the flesh in order to

In the Benedictine abbey church of Zwiefalten,

Johann Michael Feichtmayr,

the asymmetrical irregular ornamentation dislocates

space, destroying the architectural rhythm. Perhaps the rococo might be said to have passed

through a mannerist phase of It

was in reHgious

found

Church

truest expression.

its

own.

its

rather than in the palaces of kings

art,

architecture,

rococo treatment than did the palace,

better to

paid special attention to the design of

and sought

was done

mirrors; this

The

in certain

power

dignity of royal

some

God is One;

and

which afforded space effect

feet

light, centres

Residenz in Munich, and the

Selo, are examples of this.

graceful rococo of Johann

he must be honoured in unity. spirit.

in length;

on

the

imagination to

Versailles.

At

state

apartments of

Charlottenburg and Potsdam, on

August Nahl belongs with

the elegance

A display of opulence

is

not enough

—matter

it

on which

youthful

like the very source of

its

Choir

stalls,

fills

when

being.

less

basilica

building, radiant with

upon

church in the symbol

the world.

A joy like that

spring approaches the majesty of ripeness without

church in the heart of the Swabian orchards, where wor/

to kneel before an old

its

The whole

the light of Truth spread out

this

no

stucco ornament and paintings are

glorification of the universality of the

of the year

ardour—

come in crowds

is

combines the cruciform symbol, the processional theme of the

Whitsun—the moment its

must

A complex of buildings Uke the monastery of Ottobeuren (1710-64)

dome, with

of Pentecost, the day

126

for their

of comparatively small rooms by using

executed with a perfection that makes every detail a jewel.

shippers

of

that decoration should be seen to be overdone to

demanded

the unitary concept of the central plan.

losing

much

number

undoubtedly the supreme expression of the baroque. The church, begun in 1746,

than 290

of

lent itself

inevitably divided into a

space provided by a church offered an ideal setting for plastic experimentation.

be subordinated to is

rococo

and the intimacy of chamber music.

The vast single ^40

also

and

the other hand, the light

of the salon

imposed unity of plan, is

German

rooms (now destroyed) in Louis XIV's second

extent; Cuvillies' Reichzimmern in the

Wiirzburg and Tsarskoye

pi.

staircases,

minimize the cramping

to

its

which

princes, that

When they did work for royal patrons, rococo designers understandably

sections of different sizes.

soar,

with

and

Roman crucifix radiant in the cenure of the church

7 Neoclassicism

Like the baroque, classicism

is

the Renaissance. Neoclassicism differs

This neoclassical, purist

and

a free interpretadon of principles developed by antiquity

from classicism by

aesthetic, elaborated in

virtue of

its strict

observance of

rules.

England, brought an end to the baroque age

throughout Europe.

Some

critics

and hence is

have found

surprising that Inigo Jones should have thought in Palladian,

it

when

neoclassical, terms at a time

easier to

explain

if

we

the baroque

Tudor

aissance. In architecture, at least, the

Gothic, while the decorative

styles

had been

had quickly succumbed

arts

Rome and

his principles of the purity of style not

from

Queen's House, Greenwich, with

six/pillared loggia,

and

graceful proportions,

was

its

anomaly

more than renewed forms of

little

to

mannerism. Inigo Jones derived

Vignola, but from Venice and Palladio. its flat

a Palladian villa transported

is

flourishing in Italy. This

Jones as England's discovery of the Ren^

see the architecture of Inigo

roof,

its

rusticated

from Vicenza

to the

ground

floor

pi.

2oj

banks of the

Thames.

Although during

appeared.

It

was even reinforced by Dutch

to classicism after 1630,

English architect

company

of

Buckingham, brought

mode

central motif, a

London

need to rebuild

in an

it

their distinctive, rather Puritan

to

England the

largely because of the

Great Fire of 1666.

and remained

baroque

Court styles);

it is

styles

of

It

became

the

so until stone returned to

London and

other English

May's imitation of the Dutch 's

style

was

towns often

Gravesande in The

mode of building survived Wren, Vanbrugh and Hawksmoor (which were (c.

1664). This

pi 208 pi.

210

evidence of the underlying strength of Puritanism in England,

kinship with that of Holland.

The Duke

of Marlborough, for

whom

Palladian movement, which began in 171

A XX

after the

of the day,

Hugh

The

practice of building in brick with a stone

lends the older quarters of

charm.

Pieter Post.

in Holland in the

II's exile

method which became widespread

economic manner

(1636) and May's Eltham Lodge, Kent

in a certain sense its

Campen and

can be seen by a comparison between the Sebastiansdoelen by Van

despite the popularity of the

and

Holland having gone over completely

spent the years of Charles

town houses

of building for

fashion in the Victorian era;

literal, as

influence,

under the leadership of Jacob van

Hugh May, who

ornament upon the

Hague

many

inclined

towards baroque forms of expression, the neoclassical tendency by no means dis^

architects

standard

Wren

the Restoration period the influence of Christopher

Robert

Blenheim Palace was 3,

was in

Adam (1728-92). Interior of Syon House,

built,

the nature of a

1760-9

was a Tory; and the

Whig

reaction. Its leaders

131

STYLES members of

were, in faa,

the

Whig

aristocracy,

Lord Burlington and

the Earl of

Pembroke,

humanists with an enthusiasm for architeaure. Palladianism was founded on

observance of the precepts of three great masters, Vitruvius,

strict

Palladio and Inigo Jones. They were declared in the Vitruvius

between

Britannicus (published

1715 and 1725 by the architect Colen Campbell), which brings together various models, proposes

new

classical

doarine.

condemns

ones,

book on Palladio

1715 there appeared a

In

Giacomo Leoni, who

and formulates a national

the licence of the baroque school,

in 1726

made

a translation of Alberti's

De

by

Venetian^born

the

while Lord

Architectura,

Burlington himself published several works during the same period. All these works unleashed

on

a flood of studies, theories, manuals and reviews

architecture;

England throughout the

eighteenth century remained something of a laboratory of the art of building.

In taking inspiration from Palladio, English architects were adopting as the greatest of

all classical

perhaps attributing too

works. Palladio was a interpretations of

architeas. Recent critics have attempted to see Palladio as a mannerist,

much importance to the man steeped in antique

Greek

architecture to achieve

proportion. Perhaps the atmosphere of Venice, better for the rediscovery of

simple idea of the

villa,

urban palaces pubUc or seeking

after effect

surfaces

and

the

and

guide one of

their

Greek

than the

art

Basilica in Vicenza,

private, helped

rhythm of the

him

is

an

intuitive recreation of the

still full

Roman

him from

Greek canons of

him

that inspired Vignola.

The

spirit,

the grandiose conceptions of

to achieve a purity of style

which renounces

classical orders.

Among these

his intuitive preference

Roman

Greeks;

classical

all

was

for the

architects preferred the

Corinthian and Composite, the orders which might be called imperial.



passion for Palladio in England went as far as direct plagiarism; the Earl of Pembroke,

who had

inherited

Wilton House,

built

by Inigo Jones, had a Palladian bridge

park by Roger Morris (1736). This was copied Selo in Russia.

pb2og,2ii

Roman

by a simple harmony of numbers, a marriage of calm

Doric and Ionic, the two orders used by the

The

early

prepared

of the Hellenistic

background

one of his

beyond

culture; in his villas he goes

the country residence, freeing

creates beauty

which

The

at

Prior Park,

at

Stowe and

Villa Rotonda, Vicenza, inspired an imitation by

built in the

later at

Tsarkoye

Colen Campbell

at

Mereworth in Kent (1723), followed immediately by another, Chiswick House by Lord BurUngton (1725); this 'type' was repeated in all the English-speaking countries, and on the continent of Europe,

an

architect

and

up

to the

first

Lord BurUngton was himself

half of the nineteenth century.

his followers included a

Colen Campbell, Giacomo Leoni, Henry

number

of professional architects,

and William

Flitcroft

William Kent,

Adam; Roger

Morris

later

broke away from the group to join that of the Earl of Pembroke.

William Kent was the responsible for persuading pi. 21']

work

is

architect

him

most closely associated with Lord Burlington,

to turn

from painting

Holkham Hall, Norfolk, which owes much

to architecture. Kent's

most

to Burlington's influence.

who was

representative

The

design of

the exterior, as well as the hall, conforms to the Palladian style, but in the interior Kent,

1727 132

(at the instigation of

Lord Burlington) had published The

Jones's noble, grandiose, weighty

style.

Kent was

the

first

who

in

Designs of Inigo Jones, returns to

to see the role of the architect as

NEOCLASSICISM extending to the entire decoration of the

and

interior,

including the design of the furniture. In his

he practises what has been called 'the English grand

interiors

by the

revitalized

The most complete Country

spirit

based on that of Versailles

of the Italian Renaissance.

was

application of Palladian doctrines

wateringz-place

style',

which developed

the rebuilding of Bath, the

West

rapidly after the year 1727 under the influence of

Wood I and his son John Wood II turned the town into a kind of English Vicenza; John Wood I created the Circus, a kind of circular forum which resembles the Colosseum turned inside-'out, and John Wood II invented the semi/elliptical street^plan known as the Nash. John

crescent,

which has been much used

The second

generation of Palladians (Robert Taylor and James Paine in

Carr in York) was associated with the

and eventually

to Ireland

to

House and Synagogue

who had

State Capitol at

to follow the

Southern France and

visit to

architect Clerisseau

and

inspired by the antique,

achieving

German for

it is

at last that

artists

at

it

United

Adam,

Italy in search of inspiration,

pi 22J

the rococo.

Roman

The

to neoclassicism

name, made a

during which he met the French

back with him a new

exterior design

Adam style is

pi 21^

and and

its

directly

contents

which

than the Palladian,

less classical

Empire, recreating under the cloudy

style,

interior decoration,

skies of

England

pl.

xx

the

from Pompeii and Herculaneum;it becomes more purely Grecian

inspired by the figures

on

vases unearthed from the reality

it

tombs of Tuscany and

Greek; an example

is

the Etruscan

Room

half of the eighteenth century witnessed a

a passion for chinoiserie

and Gothick;

it

was

time that Chippendale introduced his rococo furniture, which had considerable success

abroad, in

New

fine materials

England, in Portugal, and even in

and

exotic woods, notably

products from British colonies in the

due

models archie

style.

the outer shell of a building

upsurge of rococo, which brought with

The

remained true

the eldest of the four brothers of this

Heveningham Hall by James Wyatt. The Adam movement had its rivals. The second

at this

States

has taken on the role of a national

Latium, then thought to be Etruscan, but in

late

their

one of the purest of Palladian temples. Charles Bulfinch

harmony between

had achieved in

when

is

which he imposed both on

graces of a Hellenism derived

of

took as

Newport, Rhode Island. After Independence, Thomas

the Italian Piranesi; he brought

inspired by the late

in character

doctrines spread to Scotland,

architects

their buildings a particularly hght, graceful quality as in

Adam style. The

longer than England; there

Between 1754 and 1758 Robert long

and Palladian

London, John

been to France, made use of French models in addition to English; his

Richmond, Virginia,

was more inclined

much

Adam style,

North America. American

one of brick and wood, which gives

Jefferson,

^61

books from England, often converting the combination of brick and stone into

tectural pattern

the Royal

pi.

over England.

all

eclecticism of architecture

partly to the absence of a

and

Italy.

This furniture was enriched with

mahogany, made available by the

West

lifting of tariffs

on

Indies.

interior decoration in late eighteenth/century

Court capable of giving the lead in matters of

England

artistic style as

is

the

French court did. The English constitution evolved rapidly in the direction of parliamentary rule,

and

the

first

Hanoverian kings, although they gave

their

name

to the

Georgian

era,

could

13 J

STYLES never

command

any case

the status of sovereign of the arts that belonged to absolute monarchs; in

somewhat

their

colourless personalities did not

fit

them

for the role of

Maecenas.

In the second half of the eighteenth century the reaction against the rococo spread

all

over

Europe, except in the German^speaking countries. This reaction was encouraged by a revival of antique influence inspired by archaeological discoveries in Pompeii, Herculaneum and

and

Etruria,

Graecia and Sicily, just as in the Renaissance the discovery of

had enabled the Florentines

antiquity

baroque

Magna

later in

itself

to free themselves

claimed to be inspired by the antique? For Western civilization, the antique

appears as the equal of Nature, by turns

which can

from the Gothic. But had not the

its

adversary and

a fundamental principle from

its ally:

most contradiaory forms.

derive the

In the second half of the eighteenth century European architecture

pi 10

and thus one type of palace design appeared in widely separated

was

on two

It

the palace

floors,

columns

it

at

with rustication on the ground

floor

and on

or pilasters, a revival of the palace designs of

was introduced by Juvarra in

used 224

in the direction of

classical unity,

colossal order of

pi.

moved

his design for the Palacio

areas; this

the next floor a

Raphael and Bramante.

Real in Madrid in 173 8, and Vanvitelli

Caserta in 1769 for the king of Naples. Jacques^Ange Gabriel uses a similar formula

in the Place de la Bourse in

Bordeaux (173 1-55) and the Place de

from the colonnade of the Louvre (1753-65); he

also

proposed

it

la

Concorde

in Paris, derived

for the rebuilding of the palace

of Versailles, only a fraction of which was carried out (the Aile des Reservoirs).

It

was

also

used by Rinaldi in the Marble Palace in St Petersburg (1768-72).

Under

antique influence, the increasing use of the load^carrying

column and

the development

of the peristyle began to give European architecture a certain monotony. In 1733 Servandoni,

an

Italian stage designer

who had

of the fagade of Saint^Sulpice,

pi 218

setded in Paris, used these features as the basis for his design

and

Soufflot followed the

inspired by St Paul's, of the church of Sainte/Genevieve

Under Louis

XVI

several architects,

architecture of the south of Italy.

same

(now

notably Ledoux, took

About 1755

rocaille in

style for

the fagade

ind dome,

the Pantheon) designed in 1757. their inspiration

France tends

from the Greek

to disappear, panelling

follows an architectural pattern like that of the seventeenth century, and in furniture curves are

succeeded by straight

lines.

Eighteenth^century Italy was almost entirely unaffeaed by the rococo (the Cantoria of

Maddalena,

Rome

1736,

is

an exception). In Rome, works

Laterano, the fountain of Trevi by Nicolo Salvi,

Ferdinando Fuga, bear witness Sculpture, too,

was

still

b'ke the fajade of

San Giovanni

La in

and the fagade of Santa Maria Maggiore by

to the loyalty of the Eternal

City to the Berninesque baroque.

inspired by Bernini's principles; incidentally, the finest collection of

eighteenth/century Italian works in this style

is

that of the palace^monastery of

Mafra in Portugal.

In Italy the reaction against the baroque began in the provinces; in Catania, Vaccarini attempted to restrain the

134

anarchy of the Sicilian baroque, and in Naples Vanvitelli imposed a suict archi/

pi jji

teaural discipHne on the grandiose projects elaborated for Charles VII. EarHer, Juvarra had

pi 220

reduced the suuctural complications of Guarini to a simpler Berninesque architectural scheme,

which in

the Superga, Turin (designed in 1715)

is

distincdy neoclassical in character.

The

NEOCLASSICISM where the

regions

prepared for

and

its

of Palladio had flourished, Treviso, Venice and Vicenza, were naturally

art

humanists such as Count Algarotti, Count Pompei, the architect

rebirth; here

and the Venetian

theorist Millizia

Lodoli preached a return

architect

as the beginning of the eighteenth century

Andrea

to Palladio.

As

San

Tirali modelled the fagade of

early

Vitale,

Venice, on the facade of Sant' Andrea della Vigna; in the promos or recessed portico of the

Chiesa dei Tolentini

his style

was markedly more antique. The Venetian church of San Simeone

Piccolo, built in 1718-38 by Giovanni

Antonio

Scalfarotto,

was inspired by

the

/»/.

215

Pantheon in

Rome.

The

for the antique.

The Villa Albani,

second half of the eighteenth

until the

Then, under the influence of the German

century.

mania

movement did not reach Rome

neoclassical

historian

Winckelmann,

there arose a

between 1743 and 1763 by Carlo Marchionni

built

house Cardinal Albani's collections of antiques (of which Winckelmann was curator)

baroque in

and

its

though the Caffe^haus

feeling,

to

some

extent Palladian. In

Rome,

Rome now became once more what it had

century, a meeting^place for

and David,

Italians

such

artists

of all nations.

as Benfiale

the baroque

Gavin Hamilton and

style,

as

which had borne

the

is still

it

found

been in the early seventeenth

Vien, Subleyras, Clerisseau

and Pompeo Batoni, Germans such

Rafael Mengs, Angelika KaufFmann,

the Scotsman

Frenchman such

as

Anton von Maron,

Wilhelm Tischbein, 'Anglo-Saxons' such

American Benjamin West,

its last fruit

pi.

228

reacted violently against

pi.

22g

in the art of Tiepolo.

stiffly

pi. 22']

as

They

revived historical

from the antique,

painting, with a didactic or Neo^Platonist tendency, drawing inspiration

Raphael and the school of Bologna, and brought a

pi. 22c,

neoclassicism

attendant enthusiasm for the antique inspired the painting of Pannini before

expression in architecture.

Anton

is

to

dignified style to their portraits. In

terms of pictorial technique, the change was expressed particularly by a deliberately cold,

impersonal touch, contrasting with the virtuosity of baroque painting, which uses brushwork as a

medium

of expression.

Only David

century, tempered but not chilled

The

neoclassical school

derived from Pompeii art

drew

retained the sensitive technique of the eighteenth

by neoclassical its

inspiration

in

serenity.

from two sources; a

and Greece, which was the natural sequel

Rome

first

in 1784;

exponents.

influence

it

The two

showed

still

1

a

more

manifesto David's Oath of

style of the Napoleonic period,

genres were also practised in sculptqre,

(Pigalle's Mercury fastening his sandal,

and Monument

virile

'Roman'

the Horatii,

which under

pi.

2^0

painted its

Hellenistic

and sought a somewhat

Houdon's Diana). In

his early

works,

styles (Portrait

of Pope Clement XIII).

780s neoclassicism triumphed throughout Europe. In Spain

flourishing baroque through the efforts of the

style,

it

Academia de San Fernando;

prepared by the French influence which was present out the persistent native baroque

tendency

and effeminate

and Prud'hon was one of

belong to the eighteenth century, the Italian Canova practised both

of Paolina Borghese

In the

its

and

a great fondness for childhood themes (Clodion)

mannered elegance

which

became the

'Hellenistic'

to the galant

of the eighteenth century (typified by Vien's Vendor oj Loves, 1763)

tendency. This heroic manner was to have as

pi. 2^1

at the

a royal decree of 1777

Bourbon

superseded a the

court. In order to

made the approval

still

way had been

of the

stamp

Academia

135

STYLES de San Fernando obligatory for any r^ew secular building. Ventura Rodriguez, trained by court architects, set

an example in

his

own work and

paved the way

for the art of Juan

German rococo was even more tenacious than Spanish baroque; Pigage, Simon^Louis

du Ry and Ixnard tempered

here the

de Villanueva.

Frenchmen Nicolas

the exuberance of their predecessors. Prussian

rationalism provided a favourable environment for the growth of neoclassicism, as practised pi.

226

by KnobelsdorfF(Opernhaus, Berlin) and Carl Gotthard Langhans (Brandenburg Gate, Berlin 1789-94)-

The swing towards

who followed all of Rome that she to

neoclassicism in Russia occurred during the reign of Catherine the Great,

the latest trends

from Western Europe, and was such an enthusiast

ordered Clerisseau to

have Raphael's Vatican frescoes copied

Loggia were in

for her palace (only those of the

Frenchman Vallin de

reproduced). Neoclassicism was introduced by the .taught architecture at the

for the art

design her an antique palace and museum, and wished

academy founded

in 1758 by the

a German. Cameron, of Scots descent but born and

la

fact

Mothe (who

Empress Elizabeth) and by Velten,

trained in

Rome,

decorated the famous

Adam, Flaxman and Wedgwood. King Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski, who had lived for several years in Paris and had been deeply aiFected by French influence, introduced the neoclassical style into Poland. He had the interior of the royal palace at Warsaw redecorated in the new manner by Domenico Merlini, agate

pi.

21Q

rooms

at

Tsarskoye Selo in the

of

style

architect of several other royal residences, the

Palladian palace by the Vistula.

Rome,

The

reflects

The

painter

the art of Benedetto Luti

most elegant of which

Simon Czechowicz,

Prague, a grandiose Venetian villa built in the its

incurving

This pi. 2^1

is

a pupil of Carlo Maratta in

Europe

late eighteenth

is

and

the palace of

>

before The Oath of the Horatii, illustrates

A

the

at

Meledo.

modern world was being born,

the object of the rising sciences, should also

which was

inevitably puzzling. Surely nature, to the arts

moment when

Kacina near

early nineteenth centuries;

designed by Palladio for the Villa Trissino

essentially reactionary tendency, at a

have furnished inspiration

Lazienki, a graceful

and Pompeo Batoni.

purest creation of the Palladian revival in Central

peristyles recall those

is

masterpiece by David, painted in France four years

how, if the

return to antique models

had not taken

place,

a renewal of the art of historical painting might, without breaking with the baroque tradition,

have opened the way to realism and romanticism. painting St Rock

interceding with the Virgin

the Virgin reminds one of Ingres. But it

figures of the

plague victims, in the votive

Mary, foreshadows Gericault and Gros, while that of

David was

rarely to find his

way back

to this realist vein;

reappears in revolutionary works such as Marat murdered.

European

civilization

fidence attendant

on a

false

course

embraced neoclassicism

on the rise of technology and

an escape from a

as

science.

and long prevented from heeding

loss of artistic selfz-con^

The nineteenth century was thus embarked

its

own

profound impulse towards nature.

the

fetters

which

energy of a Gericault, a Constable, a Delacroix or a Courbet could break the

the

statues.

Only

Landscapes were painted in a manner which had been learned from copying

eighteenth century 136

The

continued to

had had wrought for the

hamper

the

work

nineteenth,

and which

of most painters and sculptors.

until the rise

of impressionism

GOTHIC The completion of the cathedrals Classical France, in spite of theoretical

contempt

for

continued to employ

of medieval buildings. seventeenth

Gothic,

this

style

completion

for the restoration or

the

its

During

century,

new

Gothic churches were actually being

it

in

built

provinces.

some French

Strangely

was Louis

XIV

enough,

himself, the

creator of Versailles,

who

ve^

toed the building of a 'modern'

fagade

and

for

insisted

Orleans

on

a

cathedral

design

in

keeping with the original Go^' thic of the rest of the fabric.

55 Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742).

Fagade, Orleans cathedra!

Milan From

cathedral: the unfinished giant

the sixteenth century

a fagade to

of projects, most of finally

onwards the need

Milan cathedral inspired

executed

them Gothic. The one

after

the

to

add

to a succession

that

was

competition of 1886

is

based on a project dating from 1653.

Survival and revival In Great Britain, Gothic has a permanent quality; it

has never ceased to be used, notably for religious

and educational establishments. Meanwhile

in

Be

hernia, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, architect of Italian origin,

drew upon Gothic

59 Nicholas

138

Hawksmoor

• •

• •



• •

e>



Johann Santin Aichel,

inspiration in a

baroque church buildings.

an

number

of his

56 Francesco Castelli cathedral, 1648

(1661-1736). All Souls College, Oxford, 1734

(_/?.

1648-

Project for facade of

Milan

"^mM

i^#># '}s^ ^

Zwettl or Salem; sometimes

a great Gothic statue

is set

\

i

'in glory' in a \

baroque

was Michael Pacher's

setting as

^

;

\

Virgin

Salzburg before a

and Child in

misplaced zeal for the removal

stylistic

\

unity led to

sumptuous

of the

1

I

setting \

(shown

here) in

I.

which pious hands had

enshrined the masterpiece. ^

1 62 Anon. Head of

God

the Father, in Miinster,

Breisach, sixteenth century

63 Michael Pacher

(c.

1435-98). Virgin and

child, in Franziskanerkirche, Salzburg

64 Thomas Weissfeld (1671-1722). St Hubert, in Zisterzienserkirche,

Kamenz,

Silesia

65 Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger 1775). St

Anne

(detail), in

(f.

1690-

church of Metten,

Austria

66 Josef Munggenast

^'.

(d. 1741).

Decor

in choir

of Stiftskirche, Zwettl, Austria, 1722-35

i

Windows in the Prefettura.Lecce,

67

sixteenth century

68 Francesco Borromini (15991667). Vault, in chapel of Collegio di

Gothic inspiration in Italy,

draw

The Gothick

Italy

which had

rejected the Gothic, did not always disdain to

inspiration

Borromini and Guarini took delight

from

in rib vaulting; at

boyant

style

it.

Lecce the accolade motif of the Gothic flam/

surmounts

Holland, too, in

classical doors

spite of

its

Lutma

{c.

1

In Great Britain in the eighteenth century, while the Palla^ dian movement

set

the seal

on

the

triumph of neoclassicism

over the baroque, a fashion for Gothic decoration swept the country houses. This eighteenth^century neo^Gothic

and windows.

leaning towards classicism in

design, retained certain Gothic echoes in decorative

69 Janus

Propaganda Fide, Rome, 1649-66

often

called

Gothic and

art.

'Gothick' to distinguish its

later

antiquarian revivals.

^

584-1669). Choir screen of St Catharinakerk, Amsterdam, 1650

m

f^>

--*-»*



..-T"'^

-"'**^l

feji

is

from medieval

it

a pi

^ H^Mii IvH^^Bf

t

Fl ITllI

u |y|

-^~.^==^ \'

//

70 Fran^ois'Joseph Bellanger

(

1

744-

1818). Design for pavilion, Bagatelle,

France

71

Stucco tracery of window,

Arhury Hall, Warwickshire, eighteenth century

72 John Chute (1701-76). Library of Strawberry Hill,

begun 1766

MANNERISM Northern

Italy

In the second half of the sixteenth century, active centre of mannerist architecture, lasted into the next century.

and

Milan was an the

movement

Three church facades

(ph'

73~5) progress from mannerist multiplicity to baroque unity.

In the

field

longer (pis

of stucco decoration, '/6-'/).

In

Lombardy

eighteenth century that

mannerism it

was not

lasted even

until

the

churches became wholeheartedly

baroque. Genoese architecture in the seventeenth century

was equally steeped

73 Galeazzo Alessi (1512-72). Santa Maria presso

San Celso,

Milan, c 1565-70

74 Vincenzo Seregno

(c.

15x0-94).

Madonna

dei

Miracoli,

Saronno, 1556-66

75 Sant'Angelo, Milan

76 Domenico Frisone Battista

Laino

Barberini (d. d'Intelvi,

(JJ.

1622) and Giovanni

1666).

Stucco decor in San Lorenzo,

Lombardy

77 Diego Carlone (1674-1750) and Carlo Carlone (1686-1775). Decor in Santa Maria, Scaria,

78

Giacomo

della Porta

Intelvi,

Lombardy

(1537-1602). Santissima Annunziata,

Genoa, 1587

in the mannerist spirit.

Mannerism

lingers

In European architecture as a whole, the baroque

was never birth,

fully assimilated until

years after

fifty

its

even longer in certain regions. In France,

England, the

Low

Countries, Spain and Germany,

the mannerist spirit lingered throughout the

first

half

of the seventeenth century. Mannerist structure

by a tendency to compartmentalize

characterized surfaces

in

is

syncopated rhythms, a persistence of

Renaissance decorative motifs, and a tendency to juxtapose themes which

son between two in

1

690 and the other in

basic schema,

is

from mannerism 79 Etienne Martellange (1569-1641). Chapel

ot

College de

differ in scale.

German church 1

71

1

,

A compari.one

built

share the

same

facades,

which

a perfect illustration of the transition to

baroque

(;'/y S-/-5).

La

FIcche, France, 1612

80 Lievende

UC

Key (i 560-1 627). VIeishal (meat

hall),

Haarlem, 1602

81

Canterbury Quadrangle, St John's College, Oxford, 1631-36

1

82 Francois Aguillon (1566-1617) and Peter Hiiyssens 1637). Saint^Cliarles'Borromee,

(1577-

83

Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54

Antwerp, 1615-21

84 Georg Dientzcnhofer (1643-89). Martinskirche, Bamberg, 1690

85 Valentino Pezani (d. 1716). Neumiinster, Wiirzburg, 171

147

86 Lukas Kilian (1579-1637)- Grotesques

87 Wendel Dietterlin (c 1550-99). Design

for

doorway

Mannerist fantasy In

Germany

in the

first

the mannerist style of decoration flowered

thirty years of the seventeenth century

under

the influence of a revival of Gothic formal elements.

Engravers indulged in

flights

were imitated by decorative

tween a doorway in the

of imagination

artists.

castle of

A

which

comparison be^

Biickeburg and an

engraving from a work by Dietterlin clearly reveals the true source of the complexities of

German

mannerist

ornamentation. 88 Johann Smieschek (f. 1618).

89

Doorway

Ornament

of gold room, Schloss Biickeburg,

c.

1620

,-»:j&.

A.*. '

^ ^Mkt

yi fi

f

i

i

lji

tSU^4MM.ir6AUliiii:.

':

k^j!JJ;;iii.^i;..i

'..^KC --(r^W'tWM

e-iH

^

%

m

m^

4-s '

i

-y

Mannerism in the north

The beginning

of the seventeenth

century was a remarkably

German

period in

tive

The

on Jorg Ziirn's

decoration

Uberlingen

produc

sculpture.

altar

anticipates

the

convolutions of the so-called 0/;(v mnsdiehtil.

At

the beginning of the century,

the chapel

of Frederiksborg

characteristic tially

product of the

anti'architectonic

mannerism;

laden

silver, alabaster is

and

a

nature of

with rare

is

essen--

marble,

woods,

it

jewellery rather than architecture.

90-1 Jorg Ziirn altar

and Column,

92.

and

{c.

1583-c. 1630).

of Miinster, Uberlingen, detail o( pi.

Hans Steenwinkel others.

Slotskirke,

near

c.

High 161

3,

go

{c.

1545-1C01)

Frederiksborg

Copenhagen, 1600-20

152

93

Claude Deruet

(i

588-1660). Hunting

scene (detail)

94 Juan de

Roelas

las

Crucifixion of St

95 Claude

(c.

1560-1625).

Andrew

Vignon (1593-1670). Croesus

displaying his treasure to Solon

96 Bernardo Cavallino (1622-54). St Peter

and the centurion

97 Jean Tassel (1608-67).

Virgin and Child

Mannerist painting All over Europe, certain schools of painting remained of the previous century.

Magnasco late

in

oriented,

mannerism

painting, too,

Spanish painting before Velazquez

Genoa and Cavallino

sixteenth century

faithful to the

(cf. pi. 22^).

in

Naples retained certain

In Lorraine,

flourished (Lallemand,

was mannerist

until

which was

mannerism

is

mannerist.

features of the still

German.-

Vignon, Deruet, Varin). French

Simon Vouet

returned from

Rome

in 1627.

153

98 Joseph

Wright

of

Derby

(1734-97). Experiment with an air

pump

99 Domenico Santini (f. 16721684). Armillary Sphere accord' ing

to

the

planetary

system

Heracleides of l^ontus

100

A. Magny. Microscope,

eighteenth century

of

REALISM.

exact

The' age of experiment

and eighteenth

^^^^ seventeenth sciences;

experimentation

theoretical speculation

centuries witnessed the rise of the at

which had

ledge in the preceding centuries.

last

took precedence over the

know

retarded the advance of

The

passion for scientific enquiry

spread beyond the narrow circle of specialists, and in the eighteenth century

it

even became a drawing-room entertainment.

scope, symbol of the

The

realm of visual observation, was treated

as

in the

an ornamental object; mean^

while amateurs were assembling collections of objects of interest.

micros-

enormous progress which had been made

scientific

(See also pis 275, J^o.)

loi

Cabinet of natural

history, Seitenstetten, Austria,

1760-69

.

K||^^^^H

-iiniM^r-T ^TT-

\*

c ^H

'

^

li^'

^

^

'^H k

1

wm^WP7 ;JK

5|

-^ j.t *-

-

.tj

igt-^; ,>^-

'm

ss;^,|uiiS'#i ^/HLift!

^^

;^^ ^itii^fcif

i^/i.w '-*?

.^i? -^^fSi

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irJ:i!^^

:\^

.)

-r^

r:

^'^

WF

vf 1?^

'r-

—'/:-'Vf «l.U.t4l'u' AM.l-U^'^ :j'o'«»i Cu

•-l.'j. j-'-^^u.-s.i

tiu-^^a-Sr

ti

1\«>

ti^%^ y^&^^f. Atfxt-*

yxMtf... U^^CJ.^H Jl'..».#iiut..t^ .^.^tfld.

I^A^c/t... ^uaI'i

>4w-f.^ •4u>^aA\^j j.t»»» ^

*'"=«'

A- *t-V-' _fj(\«m

A.tt';:A.-v

„>»^

J...vA,-«Tt«..^.-. .^•>CCe-•x•Jl^«.

'Parle

4

.t"/

r."

.V

C.lf>'i.Cwvum*j(< )

Otv)-*n*j l

'.'

V.

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/.

>M

\t

10 Guarino Guarini (1624-8 3). DivinaProvidencia, Lisbon

II

Dominikus Zimniermann(i685-i766),

12 Balthasar

Neumann (1687-1753

Vierzehnheiligen, Bavaria, 1743

Die Wies, Bavaria, 1746

was in the Central European rococo

It

found

its finest

expression.

The

that the art of spatial

harmony and counterpoint

simple basilical plan persisted in Austria, however; and in

Bohemia, Switzerland, Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia the Vorarlberg school maintained the basilical principle to the very

plans took

many

end (Zwiefalten). The idea of reconciling the

different forms.

The

central .tendency

middle of a long nave (Neresheim); sometimes there

by Fischer von Erlach

are based

on a Greek

cross.

von Erlach, Hildebrandt and Munggenast it

all

was given

its

tion

axial

marked by a dome in

a rotunda (Ettal),

the

and many churches

ellipse inspired several plans

in Austria

and Die Wies, with

and Agid Quirin

their ambulatories.

in Austria, the axial tendency of the elUpse

nave.

often

and

Asam

by Fischer

in Bavaria;

most poetic expression in the churches of Dominikus Zimmermann, above

those of Steinhausen

is

At Die

Wies, as

at

Altenburg

virtuoso of rococo architecture, might claim

achievement the pilgrimage church of Vierzehnheiligen, where, taking inspira^

from Guarini's Divina Providencia, he

ducing an array of

elliptical

domes.

Jig. 11

emphasized by a long choir added to the oval

Johann Balthasar Neumann, the protean

as his finest

is

The

is

central

sets

pi.

^^2, fig. 12

the simple basilical plan to music by intro^

The rococo

love of invention, comparable with the

289

THEMES on

musician's urge to improvise variations

a theme, led the architects

(Andrea Maini, Do/

who

minikus Zimmermann, Simpert Krammer, Josef EfFner, Johann Michael Fischer) called in as advisers

on

the possible combinations of axial

and

central plans.

duced a church in the form of a Latin by which

two

the spectator

is

invited, as

checked

rigidity of neoclassicism

church design firmly back to

first

Churches

At

he

as

which the nave enters, to the

is

pro--

no more than an approach

dome,

its

gyration supported by

when

the time

new

at its

most rigorous in Spain, under

Academia de San Fernando.

the

policies, their Protestant

new form corresponding

new

features of the

plans of the Middle

The

and

was

the Catholics of the Counter/Reformation were having to revise the plan

of the church in the light of

completely

magnificent proliferation of forms and brought

this

principles. Restraint

the influence of Ventura Rodriguez

Protestant

cross, in

soon

This architectural research laboratory

all

three/quarter rotundas.

The

The

were

the building of the Benedictine church of Ottobeuren, to try out

to the needs of

contemporaries had to invent a of the essential

The complex

worship, both Catholic and Protestant, was preaching.

Ages were abandoned

Protestants, although they too hesitated

in order to

group the

around the pulpit.

faithful

between the axial plan and the central plan, were

conceive buildings in terms of function, since they were

freer to

One

reformed religion.

less

bound by

tradition

and

tended, as iconoclasts, to reject decorative splendour and architectural rhetoric along with images.

The Church of the forms

bear the

of

mark of

many

design, based

which he

the Protestant dislike of graven images.

churches built by

St Paul's

field for study.

for

separately, since this Protestant sect retained

and ceremonies of Catholicism, although post^Reformation churches in England

The London fi- 13

England must be studied

on a finally

Wren and

a special case; although a Royal

is

central plan, because

it

Great Fire

his disciples after the

was too much

Commission

offer

rejected

lik« St Peter's in

an excellent

Wren's

Rome,

first

the design

succeeded in winning approval bore even more resemblance to the mother

church of Catholicism,

for

it

combined

the central plan with the axial plan reintroduced by the

Commission.

The and set

other City churches

elliptical

P^-33^

base, or St Benetfink

them

woodwork which

retain the basilical

side aisle; but the arches are

which Wren 290

The

are

compromises with circular

consists of a large circular

(now demolished) which was

treated as

its

dome

a decagon with a central

modest dimensions) and

so wide and the

nave with subordinate

an opportunity

aisles,

and

a perfect

aisles.

All

Most

although some have only one

pillars so slight that they give the

impression of a

these churches have tall steeples

to display his resourcefulness

eighteenth century continued along the lines established by

the axial plan

well/lit,

plays so important a part in Protestant church building.

convention of nave and side

single space rather than a large

14

Mary Abchurch which

a rectangular assembly hall, spacious (despite

of

Some

dome. Most of the churches, however, tend towards a genuinely functional design:

setting for the

pi. iS2,fig.

a great variety of plan.

formulae, such as St

on a square

elliptical

show

and

versatility,

Wren.

Hesitation between

the central plan persisted. For St Martin/in/the/Fields,

London, Gibbs

THE CHURCH

13

Christopher

Wren

1723). St Paul's,

(1632-

London,

1675

14 James Gibbs(i682-i754). St Martin-'in^the/Fields,

London, 1722

submitted designs of both types; the axial one was accepted, and for

churches in

all

this

church became a model

the English/speaking countries.

Protestant churches built in France in the sixteenth

and seventeenth

destroyed, were particularly spacious; that of Charenton, built

centuries,

now

all

by Salomon de Brosse in 1623-4,

P^-

337

pi.

555

could hold a congregation of more than four thousand, divided between the large nave and the three

tiers

basilica of

of galleries

Fanum

which ran

right

round the church

was perhaps borrowed from Holland and Germany. Some central plan; the churches of

accommodate

six

—a

design recalling that of the

by Vitruvius. This system of galleries, whose purpose was

Lyons and Rouen were

entirely functional,

Protestant architects favoured the

circular, that of

Dieppe, which could

thousand people, was oval, that of Montauban octagonal, and that of

Normandy dodecagonal. The Dutch Calvinists occupied many

Petit

Quevilly in

images and

their

ornaments, seem to have

Catholic churches which today, stripped of their

lost all their spiritual quality.

The

painter

Saenredam

has well expressed the melancholy of these great empty spaces, bodies without a soul. Protestant religious fervour

must be sought elsewhere, in smaller churches in the Dutch counuy towns,

simple assembly halls whose ornaments are the

woodwork,

In the more ambitious churches in the large towns, axial plan

and the

central plan.

the pews, the pulpit

and the organ.

Dutch

Calvinists hesitated between the

who

built the three great churches of

Hendrick de Keyser,

Amsterdam, adopted both formulae: a rectangular plan

pi. 556'

in the Zuyderkerk (1607-14), basilical

pi.

112 291

THEMES with two transepts in the Westerkerk (1620-30), and the Greek cross in the Noorderkerk (1620-5).

The

central plan

was

the

most

rational; this

can be seen in the old Gothic cathedral

(Johanniskerk) in Gouda, inside which at the end of the eighteenth century there was built a

kind of wooden pi.

554

-

tiered

amphitheatre centred on the pulpit.

Many

churches were built on an

fictagonal or

Greek

one

church built between 1649 and 1656 by Pieter Noorwits and Bartholomeus van

classical

cross plan; a composite plan

was used

for the

Nieuwekerk in The Hague, a

Bassen.

The at

churches of Lutheran

Wolfenbiittel (1604)

is

Germany show

a very great variety of plans.

a hall church in the mannerist

style,

and

is

The Marienkirche

indistinguishable from a

Catholic church. Certain churches have two arms in the form of a set/square, such as Freuden/ stadt (1601-88),

by wooden

and

galleries

Elsfleth;

many adopt

the functional type of the rectangular hall surrounded

Worms, 1709-25,

(Dreifaltigkeitskirche,

1719, and Pfarrkirche, Grossenhain, 1744). Lutherans also built a j?l-333,fig-iS

fi^^^^

^^^

^^^ Frauenkirche in Dresden, built between 1726

Uned with

corner turrets,

was surmounted by a pear-shaped dome supported by

with pure

light, this

rows of

prayer.

which were reached by four

church could hold a congregation of 3,600;

rising succession of pulpit, altar,

religious

galleries

and organ

With

the tiered benches

and

seats in its it

was

numerous

1604.

The

which

architect, is

there has been nothing

292

1$

left

its

focus

its

spiral staircases in

eight tall pillars.

was

Flooded

the magnificent

Georg Bahr (1666-1738). Frauenkirche, Dresden, 1726

church resembled a

the church of Wolfenbiittel in

greatest beauty possible in architecture,

harmony between form and

but ashes and rubble.

to the musical expression of

galleries, the

begun in

Georg Bahr, had achieved the

derived from a

The

the masterpiece of Lutheran church design,

the magnificent crowning of an evolution timidly

that

of rotundas.

—the organ being a key point of the church in a

community whose founder had given such importance

vast theatre, or rather a large concert hall;

number

and 1743. The rotunda, with

circular aisle,

six

Niederoderwitz,

Pfarrkirche,

function. Since the bonibing in 1945

THE CHURCH It

was only in Protestant and Slav countries

Jews were able openly

to build places

these resembled Protestant churches, the Protestants

having adapted

of worship. In

some points

some Hebrew

traditions. Just as

focal point of

Jewish

around which the

with

galleries,

may

faithful

which

is

gather.

A synagogue

is

is

a need for a pulpit or

generally a rectangular hall lined

the hechal or tabernacle, containing the Sepharim, the

from which the rabbi gives

faces a dais or teba

Books of the Law,

Books. Various annexes, a

his readings of the

bakery for unleavened bread and a mikvah or bath for the ritual purification of

grouped around the building or on a

gogue

consists in

lighting,

its

floor

The

below.

women,

are

principal decorative element in a syna/

numerous lamps being hung from the

ceiling.

Two fine eighteenth/

century synagogues have been preserved in France, at Cavaillon and Carpentras, the Popes

having paradoxically received in

their territory of

these are elegant buildings in the

Louis

Avignon

XIV style.

the

women

The thousands

pi-

339

pi.

223

Jews expelled from Languedoc;

In the synagogue

at

Newport, Rhode Island,

the architect Peter Harrison has taken advantage of the need for galleries (which are for the

The Synagogue

the central activity in Protestant worship, the

reading of sacred texts; thus there

ritual is the

dais

in

preaching

that the

set

aside

of the congregation) to create fine neoclassical colonnades.

of monasteries

which

existed in

Europe in the baroque age had

retained, almost

The Monastery

unchanged, the plan which can be seen in a ninth/century drawing preserved in the library of the Swiss abbey of Sankt Gall.

The monastery

buildings were grouped on one side of the

church, preferably the south, which received more sun. Other buildings, used for agriculture, industry, art or study, were usually disposed without any overall plan.

in

new monastic

around

several courtyards.

new form

The

for the monastery.

Philip II began in 1563 an

turning-point

In fulfilment of a

immense

came with Philip

vow made

construction,

II's Escurial,

at the battle of

which in

—a

Augustinian canons, a royal pantheon, a hospital, a museum, a library rich in rare books.

'City of

cloisters,

86

God' took on

a

which

created a

Saint/Quentin (1557),

several courtyards disposed

the central axis of the church incorporated various institutions

9 towers, 15

There was, however,

foundations, a tendency for the buildings to be arranged more rationally

about

royal palace, a house of college, outhouses,

and

a

This huge complex included 16 courts, 88 fountains, 13 chapels,

staircases,

1,200 doors and 2,673 windows.

new meaning;

the monastery

The

ancient

became a microcosm of

dream of the

civilization, the

symbol of the centralized monarchy of Divine Right.

The work soon became known of Pedro Perret, an

artist

were printed from each Peru alone); a only

after the

of culture

new

all

over Europe, thanks to the thirteen magnificent engravings

who had come plate,

edition

and

had

to

to

Spain from Antwerp in 1584. Four thousand copies

distributed all over the

world

was taken up outside Spain. The

A

new triumphal

felt

sets

that the idea of the palace^monastery as a

signal for this

went it

to

was

microcosm

development was the wave of triumph

which swept through Germany and Central Europe following

was

hundred

be printed in 1619. Despite this wide circulation,

end of the seventeenth century

in 1687. This

(three

the decisive defeat of the

Turks

to be a victory of civihzation over barbarism, of the faith over the infidels.

style

now

appeared which was to produce the

last great

achievements of

293

THEMES Christian

art.

In the

Germany began

two decades of the seventeenth century

last

to rebuild their monasteries

on

and

the abbots of Austria

a colossal scale; the Benedictine monastery

of Kremsmiinster, the Augustinian monastery of Altenburg, and the Premonstrant house of

Obermarchtal were among the century the

movement spread

first

to

undergo

into all the

this glorious

metamorphosis. In the eighteenth

German/speaking Cathohc

1 780s the various orders feverishly strove to outdo each other.

by what the Germans could be found

artists

call the 'building bug', the

The

pi.

pis

340

342-3

is

countries,

all

seemed

and

to

until the

be possessed

seems incredible that enough

It

meet such a demand; however, the native talent was supplemented by

to

a strong contingent of Italians,

Vorarlberg school.

Bauwmn.

They

finest

and by numerous

dynasties of architects

who made up

of the plans directly inspired by the Escurial, in

the axis of symmetry, are those of Ottobeuren, Swabia,

which

the

the church

and Einsiedeln, Switzerland, by Moos/

brugger (begun 1719), Gottweig, designed by Hildebrandt

(after

171 8, unfinished), Melk,

designed by Prandtauer (begun 1700), Weingarten, by Moosbrugger (begun in 17 14, unfinished),

and Altenburg, All

all

in Austria.

these grandiose plans

were attempts to symbolize the

totality of the civilization

created them. There were lodgings for the abbot, divided into winter apartments and

which

summer

apartments, a suite of rooms for the Emperor, decorated with fantastic luxury, a marble banq ueting/ pis ^44, 5^2

hall

{Mamomal or Kaisemal), a library designed as a temple of knowledge, a theatre, a museum of

art (often pi.

j8j

pi. 101

latter

was demolished), a

of science, is

containing pictures from the original Gothic church, carefully collected

and

Bildersaal

often even

with

its

an observatory,

both a meteorological observatory and a

as at

Kremsmiinster where the Mathematischer Turm

scientific

museum.

richly decorated, notably the refectory (often there

pilgrims

who came

to venerate the relics

A colossal

The

par excellence of a palace, led to the imperial apartments.

The

when the museum

walls covered by contemporary paintings, a

staircase, the

emblem

monastery buildings were also

were two, one for winter and on« for summer).

were not forgotten, and a Weinstuhe was provided

where they could sample the wines from the monastery vineyards. All around were farm outbuildings, kitchen gardens, pavilion for

summer

and ornamental gardens

receptions.

in

which

the abbot sometimes

had a

Innumerable stucco and painted images drew on an icono/

graphic repertoire infinitely richer than that of the Middle Ages, incorporating elements of

mythology, geography and history as well as the Bible.

The

general theme

The

religion

the princes, the true lords of the baroque age.

Berthold von Dietmayr, imperial counsellor,

were humble. The built grandstands

pis

294

344-S

attained only

and monarchy, priesthood and empire.

abbots of those monasteries which possessed great

his monastery in 1700,

the glorification

which could be

of faith and of learning, the splendour of Christian civilization

by the intimate union of

is

These

estates

were, perhaps even more than

prelates,

men

like the

who commissioned Jakob

were inspired by a true

aristocratic pride

even

abbot of Melk,

Prandtauer to rebuild

when

their

own

origins

abbots of Kremsmiinster were such enthusiasts for stag/hunting that they

from which they and

their guests

could watch the

kill.

There was one imperial enterprise in Austria that was direcdy inspired by the Escurial

—the

rebuilding of the monastery of Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, no doubt on the advice of Dietmayr

THE CHURCH of

Melk and of

brief

Count von Altham. Charles VI,

the imperial minister

Spanish reign (1705-11), wished to follow the example of Philip II by building

which would

gates of his capital a palace/monastery

Roman Empire. The

roof of each of the buildings

borne by the Hapsburgs.

by the Milanese

Work on

this project,

Donato

Felice Allio,

architect

anticlerical 'enlightened despot'

The

Joseph

was begun

it

German^born architea who was

styles. It

and

Holy

affirm the transcendent glory of the

was

to

be surmounted with one of the crowns

begun in 1730 on magnificent plans drawn up

was stopped in 1755 on

the orders of the

II.

was

the fulfilment of a

from

materials were sent

under the overall supervision of Lodovice,

in 1717

strongly influenced

vow made by John

ecclesiastical

by ItaUan (and

V for the cure of his

later

by Portuguese)

Works

sterility.

of art

over the world for the building of Mafra, as they had been for

all

St Sophia in Constantinople; Brazil contributed

and

at the

palace/monastery of Mafra in Portugal was more fortunate. Conceived as a baroque

version of the Escurial, a

nostalgic for his

still

ornaments came

wood, while

statues, devotional

from France, Spain, Holland, Liege,

objeas, bells

Rome, Venice and

Florence.

The

idea of the monastery as triumphal

Examples of it in Latin America

movement even spread

to

are

monument

San Francisco

Orthodox Russia, where

inflicted

at

the Gerolamini

Lima and Sao

Francisco

at

Bahia.

The

Empress Elizabeth commissioned from

on the monasteries by the movement inspired by the French

Revolution has obliterated almost still

at

the

over Europe, except to Spain,

all

Smolny, modelled on the Escurial. Outside Central

her architect Rastrelli the great monastery of

Europe, the destruction

spread

all traces

and Santa Chiara

of this great monastic revival. In Italy there are

in Naples, the colossal unfinished Benedictine monastery

Catania, and the enormous Certosa (Charterhouse) of Padula in Calabria, in which every

monk was

provided with a palazzina and the grand

Colosseum. Belgium the wonderful

still

cloister is large

enough

to contain the

has the abbey of Pare, near Louvain, and France, though she has lost

abbey of Saint' Armand4es/Eaux, can

still

boast the monastery of Saints Waast,

Arras, that of Premontre, cradle of the Premonstrant order, and the monastery and convent at

Caen; but

The

ancient

these are

refectory, decorated asteries is

mere

shells, stripped

of their decoration, their libraries, and their furniture.

and once noble monastery of Saint^Pierre in Lyons, with stuccos worthy of Serpotta.

was undoubtedly Les Genovefains

greatly disfigured.

The abbey

in Paris,

The

finest

von

wood

Pfaff,

a cabinet/maker

and

is

its

own

has

still

its

pi.

341

mon/

a high school

and

a fine example of an eighteenth^ is

—the work of an

decorated with magnificent

Austrian nobleman. Baron

sculptor to earn a living after being exiled from

Austria for his part in a duel. Such interchanges were civihzation; every people expressed

museum,

which has now become

of Les Valloires in Picardy

carvings, quite unique in France

who became

a

of these French baroque

century monastery comparable with those of Austria; the church

rococo

now

spirit

at the heart of eighteenth

with a freedom that was

all

century European the greater for

its

freedom from the pressures of nationalism.

295

2

The Court

The Royal Palace

Ideas beget forms.

The

quity, reappeared in

century the palace

with

finials the

on the imperial

royal palace,

scale

Europe only when absolute monarchy

was imprisoned within

modern

of creating another to replace

remained a

it still

V

the Palazzo Strozzi

outside world only hostile facades. All Italy followed this model.

Even

the Floren/

form and proved incapable

withdrawn

is

anti'

of France adorned

fortified castle.

architecture, inherited this medieval

it;

was conceived by

it

reappeared. Until the sixteenth

the fortress; though Charles

Louvre of Philip Augustus,

tines, the originators of

on which itself

into

offering to the

itself,

Only Venice, where

a wise

government maintained civic peace, could afford the luxury of building palaces with facades opening wide on try, it

to the

Grand Canal.

was only to immure himself in another fortress;

mansion

as

open

Rome

on the

carried

the first architect

of Poggio a Caiano.

villa

The Palazzo Veneto, and

tradition of Florence.

Palazzo Farnese - the masterpiece of

who conceived the country

was Giuhano da Sangallo, when

to nature, in the style of the antique villas,

he built for Lorenzo de' Medici the

took refuge in the coun/

If the fifteenth/century Florentine

this type

—keep

seventy years later the

to the introverted Florentine style.

Weary

of these dark abodes, Italian Renaissance potentates built themselves outside th» walls of their ancestral

palace

which, since

it

—sometimes

was not

was of great symbolic rested

from the

into a

world of even

Mantua and

its

adjoining

the seat of power,

it

—a

palazzo

was

a

strength

with the gods and heroes

and a consciousness of

his

own

garden palace

a

exterior.

delizia,

government, not by a return to a more natural

greater artifice; in contact

new

del giardino,

had no need of an imposing

significance in the life of the prince. It

fatigues of

garden, he gained

closely

This residence

a pleasance, where he life,

who

excellence.

but by plunging

peopled palace and

The ducal

pleasance, the Palazzo del Te, are perfect examples of this duplication.

Since the sixteenth century the royal palace has been a combination of palace and

were sometimes built conjointly, according to an overall plan; thus, sixteenth century for a

pentagonal

Vignola rocca

built for

The first

palace

on

on the

a royal scale

hill

was

years before

villa.

The two

Caprarola in the mid/ castle,

based on plans

by Baldassare Peruzzi and Anto/

he built a charming

casino in

a mythological

the product of the union of official residence

pleasance; Julius II ordered Bramante to join together by

and Innocent VIII's Belvedere, producing the 296

at

Cardinal Alessandro Farnese a feudal

which had been drawn up

nio da Sangallo the younger; and

garden.

palace of

two long

colossal

galleries Sixtus

IV's Vatican

complex which we known

Vatican. In due course this procedure was imitated by two other sovereigns.

and

The

as the

formidable

THE COURT mass of buildings which constitutes the Louvre

Henry

pursued by

II,

later

the fruit of a 'grand design' conceived by

is

kings and only completed under Napoleon

palace of the Louvre to the 'garden palace' of the Tuileries,

III, to join the ancestral

which Catherine de Medicis had

commissioned from Philibert de I'Orme. Later, in St Petersburg, Catherine the Great joined the Winter Palace built by Elizabeth to the Hermitage, the residence she herself pleasure

and relaxation on the banks of the Neva. These

were not designed as a whole, but were the

on a

royal scale in

imitations.

The

took a Louis

XIV

outbuildings, opening

The formula

for

Charles

XIV

had evolved. Under

on

a

wide

had created

sixteenth century, with an

A

tangle.

chateau

entrance.

The

earliest

palace

numerous

front

this

was ahead of

and one oval

internal courtyards

and

forecourt,

Whitehall Palace, was neither carried out nor imitated.

on

colossal

and

unified,

to a nature transformed into

with numerous

an abode of the gods.

Golden House. this ideal royal residence, the

the garden.

dual palace in the Italian

style

one side of the square had been removed so

The u^shaped

plan,

which had appeared

early in the

open court before or behind, thus takes the place of the closed

development, which took place in

Italy

and France

at the

that

is

a

rec^'

good

same period. The

took an open form, by means of a vast courtyard which served as a monumental

From

fortified casde,

complex

time,

its

comparison between the Palazzo Barberini and the Palazzo Farnese

illustration of this

French

I's

king of Naples; but

the influence of the villa,

windowed facade overlooked

a

three palaces, the largest in the world,

organic growth.

form of royal palace,

to revive this

originated at Nero's

Before Louis

for the

gigantic plan with

drawn up by Inigo Jones It

built for

Western Europe was the grandiose complex of buildings which Giuliano

da Sangallo (1445-1516) designed

had no

result of

had

the reign of

turning

it

Henry

III in the late sixteenth century, architects transformed the

outward towards nature instead of inward upon the

interior court.

In the seventeenth century a similar process, but accomplished more slowly, was to transform the as

town mansion

into a hotel entre cour

an inner court.

16 Carlo Maderno (1556-1629). floor of

Palazzo Barberini,

Ground

Rome, 1626

17 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini(r598-i68o).

Palazzo Farnese,

Rome

et jardin, its

rooms overlooking an outer garden

as well

ph

i^j-8,figs 16-ij

THEMES pi.

^46

This, then,

Marbre, a

was

was

Galerie des Glaces. Louis

as that of Federigo

palace a place

ment

set

finally

The

common

had

the garden side

run of men,

built the Palazzo del filled

had

be

to

made

princes

fell

with royal

accommodate

to

to be built for the ministries,

effect

it

terrace

on which

Te

its

in

to

make

the

seat of govern-'

and the organs of

created.

present mutilated it



was the

'grace', a true 'sacred

the court

and a town

had on a Europe which knew

century the absolute monarchs of Europe, great and

German

was a

intention in building Versailles

universal admiration that Versailles arouses even in

us to imagine the stunning

was the Cour de

the entrance side

breaking with rebellious Paris, he transferred the

to Versailles, enlargements

administration, annexes

XIV's

Gonzaga of Mantua when he

apart from the

But when, on

palace'.

on

of the hunting/lodge of Louis XIII;

relic

later built the

same

XIV's first Versailles; on

the form of Louis

its full

form may help

glory.

For a whole

small, strove to imitate the inimitable.

The

victim to the Bauwurm with a vengeance; at every court the Kavalierarchitekt

(gentleman architect), often a Frenchman, held a position of great honour. They themselves

dabbled in architecture; his ideas

on

paper. 'This

Max Emmanuel,

to be created in the future gives his mistress.

Members

pleasure

when

I see

my

drawings and papers,' he wrote

of the noble family of Schonborn, originally from the

both secular and

to

Lahn Valley, who

principalities,

and Austria,

on a huge correspondence on the subject of buildings. The technical expen

creator of the

^48

me

possessed numerous carried

among them was Lothar pi.

Elector of Bavaria, could not refrain from scribbling

may always be of use in times to come, and the very thought of buildings

Mainz from 1695 to 1729, who was the of Pommersfelden, and guided his nephew Johann Philipp

monumental

staircase

Probably the first monarch to seek

von Erlach drew

to

up

the plans for his residence.

emulate Versailles was the Emperor Leopold

the plans for a colossal palace to be built at

just outside Vienna. This Berninesque imitation of Versailles

but

still

very impressive, dimensions. In

Tiirkenlouis,

for

seems to have given the lead;

him an immense

Rhineland, Franconia

Franz, bishop and Elector of

Franz, prince/bishop of Wiirzburg, in drawing

in 1690 Fischer

ecclesiastical, in the

Germany at

'royal

town'

at

for

more

to

practical,

the Margrave Louis of Baden, the

Rastatt the Italian

whom

Schonbrunn, then

was reduced

famous

Domenico/Egidio Rossi

built

palace inspired by Versailles. His neighbour the duke of Wiirttemberg was

immense palace

not to be outdone; by 1704 he was planning to copy Versailles by erecting an

and

I,

Ludwigsburg. The

transition

from the closed palace in the

Italian style to

the open palace on the Versailles pattern is illustrated in the building of Schlessheim near Munich.

Towards 1690 Enrico

Zuccalli, director of buildings to

Max Emmanuel

of Bavaria,

had

prepared plans for a closed structure inspired by Bernini's plans for the Louvre; but in the course

who had

of construction the architect EfFner, Cotte, altered these designs to bring berg's palace at Stuttgart

and

them

spent a long period in France under Robert de

nearer to the Versailles model.

that of the Elector Palatine at

Second World War, were designed by Frenchmen, Froimont. palaces

298

The

prince

would send

and followed courses of

The duke of Wiirttem/

Mannheim, both

Pierre de la Guepiere

and Jean/Clement

his Kaualierarchitekt to study in France,

instruction at the

Academie

destroyed in the

where he

visited

d' Architecture or at the private

academy of Jacques'Fran5ois Blondel. Boffrand's advice was much sought

after

by these

artists;

THE COURT he interested them particularly because he was the truest rococo architect of them

1720 and 1725 French architeas almost everywhere supplanted the

Wilhelmina,

called in by rulers of the previous generation. Margravine

the Great of Prussia, wrote: 'Every

though his grandfather

may

had a passion

which

French

for status

Frenchman who has

their

German

abroad

this residence the finest in



Frenchmen

for these

The importance

The whole Schonborn

family united to

Germany. Balthasar Neumann was entrusted with designing

his

own

in 1720,

came

to

plans

is

sent

Neumann

still

not satisfied with the design;

to Paris to consult

illustration of

The Bauwurm from Muscovite better

way

how

a

German could

spread far to the East. traditions,

When

the

laid

Johann Philipp Franz

Robert de Cotte and BofFrand, and BofFrand

Neumann

Wiirzburg in person in 1724. The way in which an

it,

sent

Maximilian von Welsch. The foundation stone of the new palace was

but the Schonborns were

Schonborn

no

him

Lucas von Hildebrandt, and the bishop's uncle Lothar Franz, Elector of Mainz, architect

of

than

better

but the Austrian Schonborns, feeling that he was young and needed support, sent great

been

noble as a king,

and the 'Germanization' which they underwent, can nowhere be seen

ideas,

Between

of Frederick

sister

as

is

protectors took care to satisfy.

in the palace of the prince/bishops of Wiirzburg.

make

settled

have been a steward or a lackey in Paris'

all.

who had

Italians

transformed BofFrand's

infuse baroque feeling into a French design.

Peter the Great, breaking

founded the new capital

away from Moscow and

city of St Petersburg,

own

to Westernize his court than to have his

Versailles,

he could think of

which he

created at

Peterhof on the Gulf of Finland. His daughter Elizabeth surpassed her father's achievement by

pi.

j^/

building the immense Tsarskoye Selo, which was continued by Catherine the Great.

The

spirit

of Versailles reached Spain direa from

the grandson of Louis

Madrid, on a

XIV, Phihp V,

whose coolness contrasted with

site

by Juvarra, resembles the Escurial in that

begun in 1738,

also departs

its

Bourbon

source, the

summer

is

a chapel.

dynasty. In 1719

La Granja

residence at

the heat of the Escurial.

focal point

from the Bourbon

construction (his master Juvarra

its

decided to build a

The

tradition. Sacchetti,

La

Palacio Real in Madrid,

who was

in charge of

upon

itself.

In England the inertia of the constitutional monarchs of the eighteenth century aristocracy to create residences in emulation of Versailles. this scale

was Queen Anne; but

great general the

Duke

The movement

The

architecture, inspired

ception the royal sport for in the

move

for herself

who

built

but for her

fig.

18

of Marlborough.

spread to the courts of

all

was not

to the

left it

only English monarch

the resulting palace, Blenheim,

Italy.

The hunting/lodge

created in 1729 by Juvarra for the king of Sardinia, Victor

achievements in

its

had died in 1736), reduced Juvarra's grandiose plan and,

returning to the Spanish tradition of the alcazar, closed the palace in

on

near

Granja, designed

which

it

Stupinigi near Turin, II, is

one of the

by the idea of expressing in the harmony of

was designed. The most

megalomaniac brain of Charles VII of Naples and his court to Caserta,

at

Amadeus

he asked Mario Gioffredo

its

finest

con^

colossal project of all

was conceived

When

he decided to

III of Spain.

to design

what was

virtually a royal

bringing together in one building, divided by eighteen courtyards, and with a

town,

dome in the centre,

apartments for the royal family, a public library, a university, an observatory, a

museum, a

^99

**

18

J-i

JVl

Ji

1

O

John Vanbrugh (1664-1726). Blenh eim

Palace, Oxfordshire, 1705

19 Gernuin for

Boffrand

2o^James Paine

300

(1667-1754).

Chateau de Malgrange,

{c.

after

Project

171

17K5-89). Kedleston HaU.

j

THE COURT seminary, a cathedral, a bishop's palace, law courts, and ministries;

by a rampart

after the style

was

all this

to be

surrounded

of the Kremlin. Luigi Vanvitelli had reduced the project to manage^

able proportions by the time thefirst stone

was

laid in 1752.

He kept the idea of buildings organize

ed around a centre, and to accentuate this centralized plan he recessed the entrance, so that the

whole complex centred on the main Following the examples of Louis mate than that of

stairway.

XIV,

dotted with chateaux.

The abundant demand gave The

the conception of a country residence. at

more

sovereigns built country houses in a style

their official residences; the nobility imitated their lords,

and perfea

architects the opportunity to refine

on two

great oval hall

floors that

Le Vau had used

Vauxz-le^Vicomte, in France, had a great success in Germany; Fischer von Erlach,

a passion for the eUipse, planned palaces in this style

is

an

early

composed

entirely of oval

work, the Ahnensaal (Hall of the Ancestors)

at

Frain (Vranov) in

Donato

Felice Allio later imitated in the palace^monastery of Klosterneuburg.

by enormous oeiUde^oeuf windows

pi.

16

pi.

544

—a theme which

Bohemia

is lit

who had

rooms. His finest achievement

(1693), the ceihng of

which

inti/

and Europe was soon

Another

popular arrangement, four wings arranged in a St Andrew's cross around a central rotunda,

was

projected

Fischer

by the French

architect BofFrand

von Erlach, who had used

it

Leopold of Lorraine

for

before Boffrand,

made

inspired Juvarra's plan for the hunting/'lodge of Stupinigi; Paine for the

complex design of Kedleston Hall

(c.

employed

it,

—the gallery and the

thought to have evolved in medieval

castle.

Italy,

staircase.

it

1745).

The

but in fact

and

it

fg. 1^

with variations, Jig.

In the interior arrangement of these palaces, architects liked to concentrate their bravura pieces

Malgrange.

at

several designs in this style,

long room,

gallery, a spectacular

skill is

20

on two

sometimes

developed in France from the grand hall of the

The Chateau de Fontainebleau had no

less

than

six.

The

gallery

came back

to

favour in seventeenth^century France, enriched by the version created by the Carracci in the

Palazzo Farnese.

The

Galerie des Glaces designed by Mansart and

the fashion all over Europe,

Le Brun

though the Germans often preferred a

hall

spread

at Versailles

with greater width

(Marmorsaal or Kaisersaal). In England the long gallery also evolved from the hall of the Middle

Ages.

It

was

situated in the centre of the building

often including

an upper

gallery supported

and occupied

by a row of

the

whole height of the house,

pillars.

In the baroque age the stairway was a symbol of dominion. Since the first

floor (still often called in

nature of an initiation.

French

The Itahan

of perspective, even accentuating

Vatican.

The

guest who

I'etage noble)

architects of the seventeenth century

them

elite

artificially, as

made

It

was

—a vast

Maria Giovanna staircase

theatre arranged

Battista,

became a

wishing to rebuild the Palazzo

at Versailles

(1672-9), designed

real

XFV

by Warin.

triumphal symbol.

Madama

At

Caserta, as

PL. ix

wood,

frescoes, gilded

Queen

in Turin, began with the

—but the reconstruction was never completed and today Juvarra's monumental

of steps leads to a dark tortuous medieval building.

in the

great use of effects

around the white marble bust of Louis

in the eighteenth century that the staircase

was

Bernini does in the Scala Regia of the

mounted the Escalierdes Ambassadeurs

by Le Brun from drawings by Le Vau, was surrounded by marbles, painted stucco

always lived on the

the ascent of the stairs of a palace

we have

flight

seen, Vanvitelli

pi.

361 301

THEMES

21 Villa Malvagna, Bagheria, near Palermo, eighteenth century

made

notably Sanfelice, showed endless ingenuity in their staircases, both interior and

exterior,

combining

straight flights

laden with stuccos, their function

was

At

amazement.

he cUmbs the

pillars, caryatids

enable

him to

pi.

44

The

theatre

creating unexpected effects by the use of

statues,

Often supported by huge Atlantean

and decorated with a wealth of

an enchanted world,

to

figures,

paintings,

induce in him a kind of awed

skilfully directs the eye of the visitor, as

take in, from one turn to the next, the entirety of the illusory

At Wiirzburg

the staircase

is

a triumphal approach to the painted

the four corners of the earth

and the gods of Olympus

Carl Philipp von Greiffenclau; the

celebrate the glory of Prince/Bishop

The Theatre

and

Pommersfelden and Bruhl the architect

steps, to

to

and

to lead the guest into

on which Tiepolo summons

from which

spirals,

true heart of the palace.

space which surrounds him. ceiling,

and

were nowhere more sumptuous than in Central Europe and Germany,

where they constituted the

362

palace. In Naples the architects of the baroque

palaces,

trompeA'oeil. Staircases

pi.

theme of the

the stairway the central

to

staircase is a theatre

contemplate the ceiling.

was a

vital

any great occasion;

I

element in the

of the court. Plays were part of the

life

have already mentioned

how

the Teatro Farnese at

festivities

Parma,

marking

built in the

early seventeenth century, constituted the very heart of the palace.

The

rise

of the theatre

is

associated with the renaissance of antique drama. In the

Ages, plays were given in public squares, churches or palaces. The be built in stone was the Teatro of an antique odeon, with the

form of a wall with

tiers,

OUmpico

stage wall

three bays,

Scamozzi,

who

permanent

theatre to

in Vicenza, designed by Palladio in 1580 in imitation

which could

The

had a permanent

'set'

in

represent either the interior of a palace or

its

and upper

gallery.

fagade; behind the central opening there were three

302

first

Middle

exaggerated the perspective to give an

streets,

stage

created in

illusion of depth.

wood and This stage

stucco by is

designed

THE COURT primarily as a vehicle for words, that

to say for antique

is

drama; the

opened in 1585

theatre

with Sophocles' Oedipus Rex.

The visual

theatre of the seventeenth century

was designed

an entertainment that was both

for

and musical, and was expected to provide comfort, in a lavish

made

in the design of the theatre thus concerned both the

The

modifications that architects

stage

and the auditorium. The invention of movable

century brought with

the widening of the

it

which normally accommodated members of formance of court

Thus

ballets.

sets

stage; in the

in the

first

auditorium,

and boxes, leaving

replaced by several storeys of balconies

noble audience.

setting, for a

half of the seventeenth

tiers

disappeared and were

in the centre a pit, without seats,

the audience but could also be used for the per^

the auditorium

became a

spectacle in

a brightly/lit setting

itself,

—the audience.

for a glittering cast

These developments

are already

foreshadowed in the Teatro Olimpico, Sabbioneta, designed

by Scamozzi in 1588. The amphitheatre runs along the side walls

detach

itself

from the

hall for the prince

in 1617-18,

and

is

(in relief)

The Teatro

his suite.

opening out

to

Farnese

mixed form. The auditorium

a

two rows of arcades, blind

carries

reduced to

form boxes

back.

at the

is

at

The most important

The

rooms,

its

backcloth.

floor

still

From

stage

very narrow

is still

on the

the early seventeenth century

effect

tiers

of

built

sides,

straight

is

pi 44

seats,

but

that of

an ornate proscenium arch which it

now

of perspective.

onwards

to

back of the

at the

transformation, however,

and shallow, but

being raked to improve the

low enough

large enough to include twelve

attached to the walls)

(i. e.

is

Parma, designed by Aleotd and

the stage; the proscenium wall disappears, to be replaced by

frames the stage.

colonnade which

five tiers, so that the

and curve round in a semicircular empore

side walls

and

and

is

the proscenium wall (in trompeA' oeil)

has wings and machine

The

scenery consisted of a

theatres multiplied in Italy, their archie

endeavouring to keep up with developments in stage design while increasing the comfort

tects

of the public. Bologna had three Barberini, built at

pubHc and

Le Quattro Fontane

complicated machinery and movable

sixty private theatres.

The

prefect of

Rome, Taddeo

a hall for three thousand spectators, equipped with

sets;

Bernini worked

on

it,

and

was opened in

it

February 1632. The Venetians, passionately fond as they were of every kind of entertainment, especially at carnival time, played

the

an important part in the development of the

composer CavaUi developed opera in the grand manner. The patricians

were

later

organized on

admitted to the

pit

and

theatre.

built theatres,

a paying basis, private individuals hiring boxes and the the 'gods' (the old upper gallery).

It

In Venice

was in Venice

which

pubUc being

that boxes were

developed, extending to cover the sides of the auditorium, although from them the stage perspec/ tive

was

The

falsified

(examples are the Teatro Grimani, 1639, and the Teatro San Samuele, 1639).

Italian style of stage

was brought north of

successor as chief minister of France.

have an opera house.

He

Having sung

called in the Italian

the

Alps by Cardinal Mazarin,

in rehgious dramas in

Gaspare Vigarani, a

which was completed in 1662, was

machine room. The auditorium was

still

Rome, he wished

specialist

who had

to

built

The most remarkable

feature of

the deep stage, extended by an

enormous

several theatres in Italy, to design the Theatre des Tuileries. this theatre,

Richelieu's

reminiscent of the old tiered amphitheattes;

it

was

pi. 4$

3oj

THEMES composed of two superimposed

upper order formed a balcony, while the lower

orders; the

contained projecting boxes supported by consoles.

below the lower order, but reign by

up

to a

Le Mercier

this

was a

for Richelieu; this

great

was

advance on the

still

threcarched portico flanked by two

A few rows of

seats

were

still

theatre designed in the previous

an amphitheatre, with twenty^seven

tiers

found

to be

tiers rising

of balconies.

In the eighteenth century the Venetian type of theatre, with rows of boxes running up to the

proscenium arch, became established. This circular or oval form, however, became the object of heated controversy in which national pride played

its

everywhere both as stage designers and as builders of

theatres.

particularly,

worked

all

over Europe. In France, where

part, since Italians

many

were called in

The famous Bibiena

theatres

were

family,

built, the

debate

turned mainly on the question of whether to return to the antique semicircular amphitheatre plan.

The

of the royal palace of Naples has the exceptional form of a simple

teatrino di corte

French

rectangle, like that of the

real tennis courts, 'jeux de

paume, where plays had been per^

formed in the sixteenth century.

The main

contribution of the eighteenth century to theatre design was in the realm of decora^

wood and

tion; the interior, of

queting^hall,

and the

stucco, painted

still

have some very

gilded,

from the

royal box, standing out

Europe and Germany

and

fine

rest,

was

treated like a

became a

One

rococo theatres.

sumptuous ban^

stage facing a stage. Central

of the largest and richest

the Altes Residenztheater of

Munich, which by being dismantled was saved from the

which destroyed

itself

to designs

the Residenz

by the French^trained

almost completely in 1944.

^^

was

built

from 175 1

architect Frangois de Cuvillies. Its principal

to

is

fire

1755

ornaments are the

Atlanteans of the second row of boxes, and the trophies (ornaments representing arms and

armour) treated in fabrics pi. ^7

rocaille; the colours are

—exceptional

for this period

white and gold for the stucco and wood, red for the

when

decoration was usually blue and gold, (like that of

Margravine Wilhelmina's Markgrafliches Opernhaus

at

Bayreuth, the exterior of which

is

by

her Kaualierarchitekt Joseph de Saint^Pierre, and the interior by Carlo Galli Bibiena after drawings

by

his father Giuseppe).

royal box. This exquisite

The

smallness of the auditorium lends particular prominence to the

little

theatre,

which miraculously survived

World War, is undoubtedly a masterpiece of its kind. The neoclassical style brought coldness to theatre decoration; to the atmosphere of festivity

and

court theatre of the ancien regime

Gabriel, gold, this

is

which has

fairy tale

was

which

the air raids of the

its

far better suited

naturally belongs to the theatre.

the opera-house at Versailles,

just been restored to

was

the rococo

former splendour.

Second

The

last great

completed in 1769 by

Its interior,

in tones of blue

and

based on the rhythm of the monumental orders so dear to the heart of its creator. However,

monumental rhythm

defines the space too sharply; the elastic lines of rococo succeed better

in joining the world of the auditorium to the imaginary world of the stage.

Meanwhile, the organization of the stage changed the structure of the building. portico; in

304

some

They gave

it

cases the pillars continued

rangement lacked the advantages of the

little;

architects turned their attention to

a facade in the antique

earlier

round the building

to

mode with form a

a

monumental

peristyle.

This

ar^

fashion for a high portico (as at Bayreuth), which

5

THE COURT made

it

possible to have an outside balcony opening from a first-floor foyer

access to the lo£es d'homeur.

The number

of exits

was

and the

increased,

integrate the annexes into a unified plan. In the interior, in conformity it

was

the staircase that

was expected

to

produce the most striking

which

architects sought to

with the

effect;

in turn gave

style

the finest of

of the day, all

was

the

one designed by the architect Victor Louis for the Grand Theatre in Bordeaux (1772-80),

which occupies more than one

amid

grass

and

trees,

the layout of the stage, with

might also be

its

built of rocks, as

^60

pi.

j4g

third of the length of the building.

numerous open/air

There were from the seventeenth century onwards usually set

pi.

hke the one

at the villa

wings and podium, were those

at

is

of Marlia, near

theatres.

Lucca

{c.

They were

1652), where

marked by chpped yews. Rustic

theatres

Hellbrunn and Bayreuth.

Tournaments and other open-air entertainments took place in

a large court or square

on

which temporary buildings were ereaed. One of the most remarkable monuments of German baroque, the Zwinger

at

Dresden, built for Augustus the Strong, encloses a kind of oval open

space for the holding of tournaments, carrousels, contests, ladies' races,

and

for opera, another for

comedy, and

sleigh rides.

balls,

The Zwinger complex

galleries of art

the theatricality of the architecture of the Zwinger, visitors (particularly the

Many

banquets, triumphal processions, crossbow also

included an indoor theatre

and mathematics. These funaions explain

which

is

usually misunderstood by foreign

French).

villas in Sicily, instead

of opening on to a garden, were surrounded by a lobed precinct

Such

enclosing oval or circular courts, rather resembling the Zwinger.

is

the strange Villa

Palagonia near Palermo, where the monsters carved in stone along the top of the wall hold a non-'Stop burlesque performance,

an infernal

pl.24$,jig.22

charivari.

12 Villa Palagonia, Bagheria, near Palermo, begun 171

^

^

305

THEMES The Garden

In accordance with their

new

men

conception of the antique, the

the garden a sort of microcosm, furthering the illusion that the prince

Baroque

made

Italy

little

with a succession of fountains.

this

The

scheme.

among which were

terraces,

make

it

It

was the

centre of the world.

garden incorporated a steep slope

placed grottoes, shrines of nymphs, and

was

The

in.

only innovation

to increase the size of the garden,

give prominence to architectural features at the expense of nature.

introduced a

new

of this

Italian

was designed not simply to be seen, but to be walked

Italian gardeners of the seventeenth century

by the

PL. XII

change in

new ideal

the park of Vaux/le/Vicomte, created by

It

Le Nostre

finance minister, Fouquet, in 1656-61. Shortly afterwards the same

artist

made

and

was France

The

conception of the garden, adapted to the needs of royalty.

was

had made

of the Renaissance

that

reahzation

first

Louis XIV's

for

was

to

upon

called

to

lay out the gardens of Versailles (executed, with many changes, between 1662 and 1688). Le

was

Nostre's innovation

and

to

make

the garden into an ensemble of walks, ornamental parterres

fountains, arranged geometrically between formal groves of trees

—transversal

completed by a grand canal f£. 24

at

Vaux,

on

either side of a vista

longitudinal and continuing the view

at

Versailles. This garden, peopled with statues, was a kind of theatre, a continuous drama unfolding

beneath the monarch's

first-floor

windows;

in order to enjoy this view the palace,

entrance side has wings flanking the courtyard, extends along a wide front

on

which on

the

the side facing

the park.

The

central garden fa5ade of the palace to the raihng

by the

large

126

effects

its

every kind,

and

more than 3,600

reflecting the sky, a canal

style

end of the

miles away.

five

the

vista,

On either

had

hidden in groves ef trees. Water

French garden, lending

with a

some of which could be grouped

fleet

of boats

XIV

to

itself to

on which water and

there

there were as

many

many

carnivals could

gates,

domes, or

as 1,400 fountains at Versailles.

installed a profusion of statues, in a classical

very different from the naturaUstic style of those in Itahan gardens; they were

its

or, for the fountains,

subsidiary features

—a

kinds of

were fountains of

form gigantic arches, bowers,

under the direction of Le Brun, there was

marble or bronze

bronze or gilded lead.

The park

itself,

made

Uke the

which was

first

faced with faience and

then rebuilt in

of

palace,

menagerie on both banks of a transverse canal, and facing

smaller palace, used as a retreat,

it

a

pink and



the Trianon.

white marble

All the resources of mythology and allegory were called upon the monarch, a theatre

and

where

to

all

symboHze the

universe. Palace

and garden,

kinds of entertainments were put on

operas, ballets, masquerades, balls, cavalcades

306

yards; the

is

use added 'marine' entertainments to those of the land,

organ^pipes. In the time of Louis Finally,

creations of every kind were

increasingly important feature of the

—mirrors

beheld;

122

From

aspect.

side of the central vista, grottoes, rocaille, theatres, architectural compositions, enchanted islands,

became an

pi.

is

end of a grand avenue,

village of Villepreux, at the

pools, mythological ensembles

pl.3S2

truly royal

marking the end of the small park (surrounded

park containing hunting preserves),

marked by the pi.

them a

sheer size of the gardens at Versailles gives

magical world where an exceptional race of

all

and firework

human

to celebrate the excellence of

closely

Unked

together,

formed

the year round; solemn receptions, displays, all helped to

make

beings led an enchanted existence.

it

an

THE COURT In contrast to this type of royal garden, which the French term setting for a 'baroque' life (a

the irregular 'English' or 'landscape' garden

1750;

Stowe.

ham

was Alexander Pope who

(after

1719).

The myriad

first

garden that might be called rococo. This was

which

name

has become associated with the

It

popularized the genre,

at his

have invented

this irregular

as the patterns of rocaille

is

a characteristic paradox;

at

at

Twicken^-

are so capricious that

had had too much

pi 257

to drink;

ornament. That the English should

when

rococo type of garden at a time

turning towards Palladianism

country house

and streams

serpentine curves of the paths

much

England between 1720 and

flourished in

of William Kent, designer of the garden

they look, as someone said at the time, as though the gardener they resemble nothing so

but which was the

proof of the pointlessness of setting these two terms up in opposition

to each other), the eighteenth century created the

it

'classical'

in architecture they were

constitutes another proof that they

it

were more drawn towards the baroque than they care to admit.

Nowhere

is

the contrast between the house

and

its

surroundings more marked than

at

Chis"

pi 55^

wick, where Lord Burlington himself designed an irregular garden as the setting for a mansion built in imitation of Palladio's Villa

At

when

the time

Rotonda.

the 'English garden'

the significance of the garden.

came

into being, there

The park now became an

was

a profound change to

encyclopaedia, full of plants of the

most varied species (sometimes, indeed, with a temple dedicated to Botany), with every kind of landscape feature inspired by the paintings of Ruisdael, Salvator Rosa, Claude Lorrain and

Dughet. There were meadows, volcano

hills, ravines,

groves, rocks, alpine gardens, dark caves, even a

—with water in the form of springs, streams,

of waterfall 'classified as

host at Ermenonville

"foaming"

Bresse, at the country

Thebaid with huts

been allegorical,

now

a Swiss chalet, a

Chinese

Roman

the gardens of the

Ablon

Love

it

all

all varieties

there

was even

a

The

Styhtes.

earlier

where formerly the approach had

direct imitation.

One

might come upon

(real or

Comparative

religion

was not overlooked

—there

sham), Chinese pagodas, mosques and Druid temples,

full of allusions to great

pi 2^8

men

pi 255

(busts, epitaphs, cenotaphs, even real tombs);

Ablon, near Franconville, were a Pantheon, placing alongside the

Homer, Pindar, Solon, Seneca, Cato, Dutch physician Boerhave;

there

forebears of

the contem/

was even

a

'Temple

Christ'.

This was a one. In

and

and pyramids, tombs of the Pharaohs, medieval,

ruins, Palladian bridges.

family Montaigne, Rousseau,

Dying

Anthony, and Simon

was represented by

porary Swiss physiologist Haller and the of the

islands)

de Girardin, Rousseau's

paviHon, a Dutch windmill, or a Persian kiosk. History was well

were Gothic churches in ruins

The garden was

M.

sand where nothing grew but broom, heather

also been microcosms; but

the universe tea

Paul,

represented; there were Egyptian obelisks

Greek and

to

house of M. de Beaurepaire, this wilderness was a miniature

for the hermit saints

and French gardens had

Italian

ponds (with

and an authority on the English garden. Sometimes

'wilderness', as at Ermenonville, a vast stretch of

and juniper. At

rivers,

"smooth" ', according

or

pi 557

fuller

microcosm than the old

Italian garden,

and

its

significance

was a moral

were numerous edifying inscriptions, and the virtues of Innocence, Friendship and

had

their temples; the

temple of Philosophy, says

M.

de Girardin, should be

left

307

THEMES unfinished to symbolize the state of

human knowledge. There was

TiUmaque in the gardens of Sanspareil

as Fenelon's Aventures de

Nouvelle Heloise at Ermenonville.

The

of Confucius, hermitages temples

and

huts.



had become human.

tion of the glory of the

monarch

it

offering endless subjects for reflection.

found many spots

stroller

The garden was no

often a literary theme, such at

for quiet meditation; houses

longer conceived as an illustra/

was

It

Bayreuth, or Rousseau's

the philosopher's garden,

All these devices were hidden from view, only revealing

themselves by the twists and turns of the path; every path chosen led the visitor to one surprise,

but deprived is

the last

him

of another, returning

—the anxiety of a

new

significance

The anguish

itself.

him

that

baroque

society at the crossroad of

man had hidden

Melancholy, with a symbolic

Under

The

'English garden'

two

ages, a society in search of

Luzancy

in France there

here

is

on

was a Vale of

altar.

the influence of Jean^Jacques Rousseau, the picturesque garden gained great popular

in France just as

many

started.

beneath a cloak of make-believe

the very threshold of consciousness. In the gardens at

rity

where he

to the point

Western manifestation of the ancient myth of the Labyrinth, which here takes on a

creations

it

it

was declining

in England.

There remain only a few

inspired, the most complete being the Petit Trianon,

built a 'hamlet' for her pleasure

on

the eve of the Revolution.

gardens, that of Ermenonville (1766-74), contains the

scattered relics of the

where Marie/Antoinette

The most

'philosophic' of these

tomb of Rousseau, who died

there.

In eighteenth'century Europe, however, the form that gained favour was the mixed garden,

combining French, English and even were groves of

style

trees

in

Italian styles.

which were both

On either side of a grand vista in the French

the exotic creations of the English garden

and the

mythological conceits of the Italian. Petty kings and princelings, megalomaniac in inverse pro' portion to the size of their domains, emulated the splendour of the Allee Royale of Versailles. pi.

555

At

Caserta the gardens could be toured only by carriage.

the palace, passes through pi.

3S^

and ends

it,

in the Italian style

Landgrave of Hesse a gigantic

closed by a hill

vista,

on which stands a kind of

Gardens

are

more

fragile

have been preserved almost to designs

to

pi 3S4

1

619,

by the

is

a

known

is

surmounted by a

where flows

as the Octagon. This

it is

a water tower,

is

waterfalls of every size.

It is

crowned

colossal replica of the Farnese Hercules.

than any other work of man. Fortunately, in Central Europe many intact.

The park

of Schloss Hellbrunn, a pleasance built probably

Italian architect Solari for the

charming garden in the ItaUan

surprise fountains, there

itself is

from beyond

hill,

connected with the town by a long avenue;

fort

from which flow stepped cascades, grotto streams, and by a high pyramid which

starts

the rising slope of a

At Wilhelmshohe the Italian Guerniero designed

a chain of cascades, an old Renaissance motif. for the

The immense vista on

and hydraulic machines.

a 'rock theatre' dating from the

Graf Hohenems, bishop of Salzburg from 1612

style,

On

whose main

a hillock

features are

its

nymph

grottos,

surrounded by mythological

same period, where the

first

figures

Italian operas given in the

German/Speaking world were performed. In the eighteenth century the garden was provided with a hydraulic mechanical

La Granja 308

near

outside France

theatre,

which

is still

working today.

Madrid and Caserta near Naples

on the model of

Versailles.

On

—royal gardens—were the

finest to

be built

the edge of the French garden at Caserta there

THE COURT was is

laid out in

1782 an English garden,

a real paradise.

The

full

and

of Mediterranean

park of Veitshochheim near Wiirzburg

treatment of the French garden. In the early eighteenth century

is

it

exotic species of trees,

a curious

was

laid out as a regular

by Prince/Bishop Johann Friedrich von GreifFenclau; half a century Seinsheim brought drama

The

calm spot with a whole

to this

later

which

example of baroque

Adam

garden

Friedrich

von

frenzied world of extravagant statues.

sculptor Ferdinand Dietz, imitating the old 'fountain of Parnassus' at Versailles, turned the

pandaemonium, with

peaceful haunts of Apollo into a

the muses playing frenetic music

on the top of the fountain Pegasus seems

suited to a bacchanale;

to

pi 550

more

be stumbling into an abyss

rather than taking wing.

In the sentimental genre, Poland

possesses the gardens of Arkadia.

still

of Sanspareil, created by a caprice of the Margravine Wilhelmina, 'park with a theme'. Here the subject

Margravine's French architect, a ruined medieval castle,

made

is

is

At Bayreuth the garden an

early

example of a

Tek'maque. Joseph de Saint^Pierre, the

Les Aventures de

use of an existing natural landscape containing rocks

which only needed

a Httle retouching to create a setting evoking Fenelon's

famous novel, a work which had had considerable influence in Germany. Rocks and were peopled with

was

life/sized figures

the rock theatre

which

is still

when

Wilhelmina had her colonnade

in existence today.

The

Margravine could also enjoy

delicate

where

rustically furnished cells

the Margrave feh the desire to play the hermit. In front of this hermitage

pi

275)

pi.

555

pi.

255

an orangery, a semicircular colonnade resembling the

architect build

at Versailles,

grottoes

based on characters from the novel, and the central feature

a retreat to the curious Hermitage built by her fathernn/law,

received the court

and

but with each arch leading into a

nymph

grotto.

Germany offers an intact example of a synthesis of the French garden and the English garden— the park of Schwetzingen near Mannheim. It was laid out in two stages by the French designer Nicolas de Pigage for Elector Palatine Charles Theodore, and structures,

broken up

some of which came from at

the gardens of

King

still

retains all

Stanislas in Lorraine

its

statues

when

and

these were

the end of the eighteenth century. Beginning in 1758, Nicolas de Pigage laid out

in front of the old palace a regular garden in the French style, with arrangements of fountains,

lawns

(tapis verts), statues,

and a

transverse canal (as at

continued beyond the canal by an avenue leading Schell, after a study of parks in France

including ornaments which were pile of rocks,

and

the

all

forming the background

for

Vaux),

down

to the

its

work

—a

of Pigage

an open/air

work ending

trellis

spout

of water

jets

Luneville.

On

upon

which

is

Rhine. In 1775 the gardener

theatre

circular temple of

Apollo upon a

where pastoral plays were perform/ Mercury, a rock of Pan, a

on

to

in a

an owl

its

exquisitely designed interior, opens

Roman

—an

amusement brought from

he had sworn he would enjoy one

Schwetzingen again ?

on

to

an

dome, under which birds operated by hydraulic devices the park of Malgrange, near

the edge of the park Pigage created a graceful court theatre.

right to say that

a vista

ruined aqueduct, a temple of Botany, a Chinese bridge, a mosque, and a

bathing pavilion. This elegant place, with

arbour of

centred

England, created groves of trees in the English style,

ed, a very classical temple of Minerva, a ruined temple of

water/tower and

all

last

Was

not Voltaire

consolation before he died: to see ^09

3

The City

The diadem

of beautiful

cities

tion of the baroque age. If

which present-day Europe

we

set

apart the

is

new towns

in the process of ruining

and

(villeneuves

the crea/

is

villefranches) created,

notably in France, for political or military reasons, the towns of the Middle

Ages were almost

invariably spontaneous growths, developing anarchically within the circle of their ramparts;

wonderful buildings

any

effort

being

made

fitted as best

them

to set

they could within the existing urban fabric, usually without

off.

Town planning came into existence in Italy in

the fifteenth

century under the influence of Vitruvius; but the Renaissance contribution was above theoretical,

its

practical achievements being

Rome

In the

on

of JuHus II there began the great town/planning

to the cities of Europe. JuHus's sense of the greatness of the

Catholic world into one immense building built

no

less

churches

done

than

—and

fifty^three

new churches

sixty palaces, to

to encourage building.

site.

which must be added

Church was

the

until

Peter's

own

to turn the capital of the

which went back

Rome became

IV and

to Sixtus

the capital «of Italy, rich

who

were

wealthy or

houses which they rented to others. Assisted by an architect of genius,

Domenico

(1585-90) in giving our

face

less

Fontana, a Pope with grandiose ideas, Sixtus

streets

new

and the rebuilding of ancient

property/owners were granted the power to expropriate neighbours

who owned

that gave a

same number of villas. Everything was

to city regulations

Gregory XIII, and which remained in force

movement

In the course of the sixteenth century were

—not counting St

According

all

a modest scale.

times.

He

Rome

an overall plan,

provided the

city

V, succeeded during

certain parts of

his short pontificate

which were not

carried out until

with drinking-water, and improved the flow of

thronged with thousands of pilgrims by means of

viae rectae, vast straight

traffic

in

thoroughfares

linking the great churches, permitting redevelopment, and creating perspectives marked by an

antique or modern

monument: church,

obelisk, triumphal

column, or fountain. These

streets

were designed to radiate from some central point, in accordance with the radial principle so

men

of the Renaissance, for

whom

scheme has been

carried out only in part;

Rome

dear to the

as the three streets leading off the is

contains

was

many

the perfect form. Usually this

fragments of an ideal

great straight avenues of Sixtus

was

to gain great popularity all over

the seventeenth century,

such

Europe.

V satisfied the Renaissance taste for effects of perspective;

they also expressed the organizing spirit of the Counter^Reformation. 310

city,

Piazza del Popolo which form an angle of which the bisector

the Corso; the resulting bird^foot pattern

The

the circle

Roman

city

planning in

dominated by the powerful personality of Bernini, was very

different.

THE CITY was beauty

Bernini's object

an

to curves.

rather than utility; in his

He abandoned the

problem.

aesthetic

Far from seeking perspective

minimize the perspective, by making the basilica

and by making

view the building of a

rectilinear patterns

was primarily

city

used by Fontana and gave preference

effects,

he

straight

colonnades open out towards the fagade of the

the oval wider than

it is

out in his piazza before St Peter's to

sets

long.

He

colonnade

originally intended the

be closed by a great portico so that there would be no vista of St Peter's until the

Today

actually entered the piazza.

vista,

ConciHazione

della

thus ruining Bernini's intended

are the very essence of the baroque.

The

visitor to

effect

went from one

Brosses remarked in the eighteenth century,

as the

pi.

565

to

had

Peter's at the

of surprise. Spectacular surprise

baroque Rome,

15^

by Mussolini

built

Bramante and the Counter/Reformation) places St

(reviving a project dating from

end of a long

wide Via

the

visitor

pi.

effects

Frenchman Charles de

surprise to the next.

This

effect

was

V; Counter/Reformation town advance. The approaching visitor

the reverse of what had been intended by Fontana and Sixtus

planning was intended could analyse the attitude

to place the object in

monument

was expected

before

The baroque

houses and

Towns which have grown exciting to

visit,

on

one might say that

the other hand,

m

he proceeded along the it

was addressed not

and

of curves.

elasticity

He

had no

buildings; these should

desire to bring uniformity to the

charm

the spectator by their variety.

spontaneously, such as Salzburg or Compostela, are by far the most

the richest in discoveries. Seen from a distance, Salzburg appears gainst the

streets in

of this town, I

which

found

right angles

and

frontal views are rare; standing in

round

that the walls

its

perimeter

made up

in the sixteenth, seventeenth

and

eighteenth centuries.

is

a

maze of

one of the squares

a total of seventeen angles.

many

Spain, a country fundamentally baroque in temperament, contains

grew up

His

but to the

to reason

backcloth of the Kapuzinerberg as a tangle of palaces and churches. Compostela plazas

recta.

corresponds to the principles

endeavoured to turn the meanest spaces to advantage by the

architect

fragmentation of planes, by the facades of different

at his leisure as

to be a rationaUst one;

of classicism. Baroque planning, senses.

him

view well in

An

similar

towns which

actual desire for irregularity

new towns, such as Lerma near Burgos, a develop/ 1604 for the Duke of Lerma, or a century later (1709)

seems to have governed the building of some

m£nt planned by Francisco de Mora in

Nuevo Baztan

near Madrid, designed by Jose Benito Churriguera for the banker Goyeneche.

In Sicily, south of Syracuse, there earthquake of 1693

is

a

whole

series

of towns that were entirely rebuilt after the

Comiso, Ragusa, Modica and Noto. Here

:

the architects started with a

clean sheet; but instead of imposing the regular plan dirtated by economic considerations, they treated each

town

as a

at will as if inspired

town

work

of

art,

playing with palaces and churches, varying facades and plans

by sheer caprice. In Modica the architect used an imposing

into a stairway of churches.

At

the foot of the slope

and magnificent facade, conceaHng the steps leading to by a serpentine route which curves visitor

way and

Pietro

San Giorgio.

shows

its

pi. ^6.f

stepped forecourt

The summit

that past palaces

turn the

is

approached

and churches which

the

when he thinks he has seen the last one, he discovers San Giovanni. The city can be experienced only as a sequence of

always come upon by surprise; just

at the very

varied

this

San

site to

top the church of

and exciting

events.

3^'

THEMES The key

points of a

town

are

open

its

spaces: the approaches to bridges, the

open spaces

before buildings, the commercial squares, the formal plazas that the French call places royales.

The

square in the baroque city was a secret place,

which pi.

569

to

walk

or, in

the secluded Piazza

even today, the

visitor

a lake, and the

Roman

Navona

comes upon

as if

it

in

Rome, which

jjo

of

finest

all is

streets, in

It

also served as

an open/

in the form of an ancient circus; it

was transformed

which

up

to

led to the creation in Spanish

it,

plays, religious ceremonies, bullfights,

and

towns of

were held. The

autos dafe

Salamanca, designed by Alberto Churriguera in 1728, and completed by

that of

built the

town

hall.

Wheeled

was allowed only along

traffic

In Paris the two squares built by Henry IV, the Place Dauphine and the Place

sides.

Royale (now the Place des Vosges),were enclosed spaces until the intrusion of modern Jig.

27

into

nobility staged displays to the great delight of the public. This idea of

Andres Garci^ de Quinones, who two

is

of the busy

traffic

by accident. During carnivals

a square as a place apart, with no vista leading

/'/.

apart from the

southern towns, to seek the shade of colonnades.

air theatre, like

the plaza mayor, in

set

altered their character.

XIV even the

Under Louis

Place

Vendome and

streets

the Place des Victoires

were away from the main streams of traffic.

French classicism brought with

on a checkerboard continued

styles

towns were

after the interruption

25

Provence, clustered its

pi.

565

is

the picturesque

XIV. The

On

and

Grand'Place in Brussels. guilds, built

which began

provenfale

It

its

first

with

Cours Mirabeau, and

tortuous streets

its

originally the

more curious

is

is

its

When this

The

way

south and north

on

sides,

had been

the ville^ranfaise, with

the development of the

six livery

hall

the west side

show

to

make each

the greatest variety. There

the architect could start

from

companies behind a uniform fagade

scratch,

known

and

the so/

bombardment

guilds rebuilt their houses, often

but with a kind of asymmetrical rhythm.

total,

baroque palaces

square was destroyed by Marshal de Villeroi's

merely reconstructing the ruins, but going out of their the next; the houses

in Aix^en^

market square, bordered by the houses of the

it.

destruction

half of the seventeenth

around two asymmetricallyplaced medieval buildings, the town

Maison du Roi.

its

layout of certain towns shows the classical and

regular facades. Still

was

gardens and in

its

of the baroque age the vistas

in the

the north-west side of the

in 1695, the municipal authorities hastened to rebuild

grouped

spirit

around the university and the cathedral; on the south-east side

dead/Straight streets

called

ville

respects the evolution of Renaissance

of mannerism, returned both in

a grandiose scale. This tendency,

baroque conceptions juxtaposed.

many

But in harmony with the

to the concept of perspective.

now on

unvarying facades, straight avenues

regularity of design,

or radial plan. France, where in

century, increased under Louis Jig.

it

is

On

the

facade different from

same

diversity

on

the

the east side, where the

and here Guillaume de Bruyn

as the

Maison des Dues.

Sometimes baroque feeling lends a quality of flexibility to a regular French/style design, as pi.

j68

in the imposing eighteenth/century sequence of buildings built by Here for

Duke

Stanislas of

Lorraine (erstwhile king of Poland) in the capital city of Nancy, in order to link the old town

with the new. The Place Royale (now the Place Stanislas) gives access, on one of its long to a short

312

avenue ending in a triumphal arch. This arch

tilting/ground

known

as

La

Carriere; the visitor

who

conceals

sides,

an elongated square, an old

approaches

it

sees

only the Hotel du

THE CITY

23 Aix'Cn'Provence

Gouvernement

at the far

space widen out

on

end, but as he passes through the arch he has the surprise of seeing the

either side into

an

elliptical plaza.

Two

corners of the Place Stanislas are

occupied by fountains and gilded wrought iron gates, one of which opens out into a large park called

La

Pepiniere, laid out obliquely.

Thus Here,

a disciple of Boffrand, succeeded in creating

a regular and symmetrical arrangement in the classical French effects like

but Dutch.

canals,

sandy

soil,

had won

to

to

show

off a

a reputation as builders of bridges, dykes, pile foundations

and

Dutch

civil

of

work

property/owners, and to add

Europe has come down

Dutch urban

on

the help of

designers to reject perspective effects, to refrain

of architecture to advantage or impose a 'plan*

to their streets the

to us intact; this

is

charm

of canals.

Amsterdam,

One

cities despite

The marked

pl-3^5

indivi^

—canals whose Amsterdam among —would seem to curves the spectator

class

the early appearance of classical tendencies in

In the seventeenth century the kingdoms of

cities

laid out in the seventeenth century

duahty of the houses succeeding one another along the canals follows without once being able to see a formal vista

on individual

of the most beautiful

along concentric canals forming a demi^ellipse backing upon the harbour.

baroque

Italian nor French,

contend with the problems of land reclamation and

Baltic countries, faced with similar difficulties, called

It is characteristic

from trying

in

development in Northern Europe was neither

city

The Dutch, who had

and the

engineers.

while achieving surprise

those of a baroque architect.

The first wave of new shifting,

style

Dutch

Denmark and Sweden had

architecture.

a political importance

out of proportion to the size of their populations, and Scandinavia was the most active centre of city development in Europe. Christian

towns

for military or

Copenhagen,

illustrates

gave his

new

of

Denmark (1588-1648) founded numerous

economic purposes which bear the stamp of the Dutch a transition from the Dutch to the French manner,

Before Peter the Great at first

IV

left

city the

Amsterdam

name

for Paris in 171 7

of Pieterburg.

He

at

first

style; his capital,

as does St Petersburg.

he was infatuated with Holland, and

wished

to build a

town with

canals

313

THEMES on the

islands of the

site

new

chosen for the

Finland; he changed his mind, however,

capital, near the after his visit to

Frenchman Francois Le Blond, who drew up a gave St Petersburg

upon

its

decisive

mouth

of the

Neva

in the

Gulf of

France, and in 1717 sent for the

radial plan. Catherine the Great (1762-96)

French stamp, but here and there in Leningrad one can

still

come

corners of Holland.

Eighteenth^century France imposed

its taste

urban design on the whole of Europe,

in

as a

of the prestige enjoyed abroad by Versailles and by the transformation of ancient French

result cities.

A

new kind

—the palace/city.

of city appeared in Europe in the seventeenth century

—Cardinal

not a king, but a minister

when he

created in Poitou, near his

Richelieu

new

—who

chateau, a

It

was

laid the foundations of this concept

new town

bearing his name. In this case,

however, town and palace were simply associated, not linked together in an organic unity. This

fS-24

unity appears in the

addition of the pi.

346

The

palace

first

plan of Versailles as

Grand Canal) which

and park form a

is

it is

shown

in an engraving of 1665 (before the

essentially a repetition of the

central axis for

two groups of

24 Versailles,

plan of Vaux/le^Vicomte.

three avenues in the 'bird/foot*

c.

1665

25 Karlsruhe, 1715

lili pniillil

rm

fTTT^ FTiTTi

rrm f't^

I^Bi vr^r^

ESI

26 Aranjuez, 1748

pattern, one, in front, leading to the Place d' Armes of the rear, radiating

town

of Versailles, the other, in the

out into the country. This return to the radial theme was to become veiy popular.

Though the palace/city of Ludwigsburg, created in 1704, is still a mere annexe to the that of Mannheim, as rebuilt by the Elector Palatine in 1699 after the ravages of war, palace as

its

axis, but this

is

situated at

one end of an

elliptical

palace,

has the

checkerboard plan. In 1715 the

Margrave Charles William of Baden/Diirlach laid out Karlsruhe on a magnificent circular radial plan, comprising nine

other three. Elsewhere

it

streets

in one quartetz-circle

was the 'bird^foot'

pattern

and twenty^three park avenues

which was

formulated in the palace of Aranjuez in Spain, as laid out

imitated. This plan

sometimes used the same formula; Le Blond made use of

where three diverging three miles long

streets start

and ends

at

making twenty

streets

several great avenues share

Mexico

the cities of

—where

it

'bird'foot' pattern to

Washington

converge on the Capitol.

The

at the

in St Petersburg is

often taken over

North America, in

French Protestant refugees, such

certain as

more or

this less

end of the eighteenth

advantages of a plan whereby

a single point of perspective are obvious.

was

fii-26

designers of

—one of them, the Nevsky Prospekt,

checkerboard plan was preferred for economic reasons; colonial

it

The

the great baroque monastery of Alexander Nevsky. Another

Frenchman, L'Enfant, took the century,

from the Admiralty

very clearly

of 1748 by the Italian

after the fire

Bonavia; behind the palace, avenues radiate across the park as at Karlsruhe. great cities also

is

h-25

in the

was

Often, however, the

the case in

many towns

intaa from the Aztecs

Scandinavian towns, and in

—in most of

cities built

Erlangen near Bamberg. Pombal, when he

in

rapidly for

rebuilt

Lisbon

eanhquake of 1755, linked the Pra^a do Recio with the Praga do Comercio (which overlooks the Tagus) by a checkerboard pattern based on three longitudinal streets. Wren, in

after the

his plan for the rebuilding of

London

after the

Great Fire, adopted a checkerboard scheme, but

31j

— THEMES broke tion.

its

monotony by

The

crossroads.

It

Wren's design

is

and

streets

that he does not plan his

network of

streets

his squares are

format

star

around key

little

What was lacking in the rebuilding of London, which was overseen

more than

by a committee,

the force of royal authority to impose a 'prestige' scheme.

was French urban design

was

that

to define the all/important role of the square, destined to

become the major element in the beauty of a

The

creating the place royale.

—the

Two

by associating

it

with the splendour of

famous

best

way

to celebrate the hero

was

—which in

this

depia him on

to

fifteenth^century condottieri in bronze are each the point of departure for

a different interpretation of the equestrian statue.

thought which existed in fifteenth^century

They

Italy, that

represent the

two schools of

and

of the hracceschi

on

school of Braccio di Montone) relied for success

hracceschi (the

state

origins of this concept are closely connected with the development

respect followed classical antiquity

horseback.

city,

and of the equestrian statue in particular. In the Renaissance

of the royal statue,

The

converging around squares in

marked by open spaces around important monuments;

points,

was

defect of

great oblique axes

military

that of the sjorzeschi.

the impetus of a direct

frontal attack; the sjorzeschi (the school of Francesco Sforza) preferred the complexities of strategy.

The calm

Cattatnelata

by Donatello, in the costume of an ancient

in/chief (imperator), his face expressing intelligence,

warrior standing

up

in his stirrups,

is

a sforzesco; Verrocchio's CoUeone, a

is

a hraccesco.

When

should he represent the general in the heat of action, displaying

artist

clumsy

artifice

a horse at

of a branch of a

was faced with

a choice;

courage and daring, or was

all his

more fitting to symbolize the power of command? Leonardo opted

showed Francesco on

fiery

Lodovico Sforza commissioned

Leonardo da Vinci to create a statue of his father Francesco, the

it

Roman commander/

for the

first

alternative

and

the gallop; to solve the problem of equilibrium he devised the

tree,

and

finally

had the

belly of the horse supported

by a van/

quished warrior. Faced by the practical difficulties ofsuch a pose in the colossal propostions he had imagined, Leonardo

finally

came round

to the antique

theme of the

astride a slowly pacing horse, like the Marcus Aurelius of

Donatello.

He

imperator, master of himself,

Monte Cavallo

had inspired

that

returned to this theme in his project for the memorial to Marshal Trivulzio.

who had a high idea of their princely virtues, celebrated them by commissioning portrait statues. To glorify the founder of the dynasty, Cosimo I, Grand Duke The grand dukes

pl.jyi

Ferdinand in 1594

I

was

of Tuscany,

commissioned from Giovanni Bologna an equestrian set

up in

prestige of the antique

the Piazza della Signoria. This

was no longer

so high;

with spurs, on a calmly pacing horse.

Cosimo

is

in the mannerist period,

this statue derive

two

others, also

figure of

commissioned in 1604 and erected in 1614 on the Pont/Neuf in

Paris,

The

1

when

the

by Giovanni

Henry IV

and

of France,

that of Philip III of

616 in the Casa del Campo, Madrid.

attitude of the rearing horse

Velazquez made use of

members of

bronze which

represented as a contemporary general,

Bologna but executed with the aid of Pietro Tacca; the bronze

Spain, erected in

316

From

was

statue in

it

had a vogue

at the

court of Philip

IV

of Spain, where

several times in his equestrian portraits of the king, the princes or

the court; in painting, of course,

it

presented no. practical difficulties.

pose was forced on Pietro Tacca for his equestrian statue of Philip

IV

The

in Madrid, for

rearing

which

THE CITY he was sent paintings by Rubens heaves

The

mediocre composition in which the horse

as a guide; this is a

ponderously off the ground.

itself

aesthetic of

baroque

symbol of power. In the two

Mocchi showed

which expression was movement, made

Italy, in

figures of

Ranuccio and Alessandro Farnese

the horse into a

Parma, Francesco

in

pi ^j2

himself capable of expressing in the attitude of a walking horse a quivering

animal energy, restrained by Ranuccio, driven forward to the attack by Alessandro. Bernini, returning to the style of his equestrian Constantine in St Peter's, seated his Louis

bounding monster more

like a hippogriff than a horse,

This bombastic statue greatly displeased the sovereign, the park, after having Girardon transform

The Paris

statue of

(now

Louis

the Place

XFV executed in

Vendome) was

be more than an intrepid general idea of royalty; a king

it

relegated

XIV, bewigged and

on

image of royalty.

a rearing horse

and Desjardins'

It is

(Le Brun's

the attitude of the gallop

for

order for a statue of

triumphal

came

Aix-'en-'Provence)

XV for the

Louis

Paris, he hesitated for a time over

of the Great Elector, Frederick William Schliiter

Schliiter's

work

is

stay in Italy? This serenity,

different;

plaster

up

but impetuous energy.

model on

— became XIV

When

Bouchardon

the Place de la

received the

Concorde)

in

adopted the type

in other countries. In his bronze figure

William and

but of

mood, however,

Parma during

statutes of the Farnesi in

pL ^jj

Andreas

yet cast in bronze,

his visit to Paris in 1695. In

Hkely; both Frederick

A

imperator riding

destroyed

III, for the Kurfiirstenbriicke in Berlin,

had he seen Mocchi's

would appear

an

pacing

his

in the Louvre, Puget's for Marseilles,

took inspiration from Girardon's Louis XIV, which was not

which he must have seen a

alas,

attitude to give the horse, but finally

of the imperator in triumph. This formula was taken

On

of projects for figures of Louis

nothing.

to

57J

scarcely suited to the

style, is

—now,

Louis^XV (now

Place

which

number

monument

is

pi.

monarch should

and not impetuous.

majestic

dressed in the antique

significant that a

for a

A

better calculated to satisfy the king.

and

Louis^le^Grand in

for the Place

in his triumphal procession. This masterpiece of monarchic art the accepted

to the furthest corner of

it

into a Marcus Curtius.

on horseback should appear

horse, Girardon's Louis

on a

balanced by an awkward4ooking rock.

who

1689-99 by Girardon

officer,

XIV

his

pi.

J72

pi-

374

pi.

575

his steed express not

mediocre imitation of Girardon's Louis

XIV

is

the elder

Rastrelli's Peter the Great, erected in St Petersburg in 1743.

There were monarchs, however,

who found

the baroque image of the galloping horse more

in keeping with royal greatness. Charles II of the for a square in Messina, a statue in this attitude

destroyed in a

riot,

preserved in the

but which

Museo

is

is

which was

The

also in this style.

to St Petersburg the

tail is

The most famous

is

the only one to

which

1681

Giacomo

—a

fine

Serpotta,

work, since

a model which has been

homage

of

all

equestrian statues at a

to Peter the Great, for

who

executed

it

which she

between 1766 and

used as a device for balancing the bronze colossus

(with the aid of a serpent, symbol of rebellion). horses, this

cast in

know from

French sculptor Falconet,

1778. As in earlier equestrian statues, the

ordered from

Augustus II prancing in the market place of the

the one erected by Catherine the Great in

summoned

Sicilies

are fortunately able to

Pepoli, Trapani.

Neustadt, Dresden (1735) gallop

we

Two

Of

all

the royal effigies

mounted on

the sculptor has succeeded in giving a real elan.

rearing

317

THEMES Several of these royal statues, at the corners pi.

3j8

on

foot or

royal statue

its

significance

by Pietro Tacca between 1615 and 1624

Livorno

to

commemorate

may be

Victoires, the slaves

his victories over the

symbohze conquered

Around

Barbary

Grand Duke Ferdinand

pirates; or

it

may

XIV

the statue of Louis

show

I

be allegorical,

at the

Place des

nations.

Matthias Steinl's equestrian statuettes in ivory of the Emperors Joseph

3^6

marked

with the four Moorish slaves carved

literal, as

at the foot of the statue of

symbolising Heresy, Discord or Rebellion.

pi.

pedestals

by the figures of slaves in chains. This motif is derived from Renaissance symbolism.

At the foot of a erected at

on horseback, stand on rectangular

a symbolic figure trampled underfoot by a rearing horse; this

is

I

and Leopold

a return to a theme

I

first

used by Leonardo in his design for the statue of Francesco Sforza, and also envisaged by Antonio

whom

Pollaiuolo, to

Ludovico, impatient of Leonardo's

project. It is probable that the idea of

pi 3JP

its

vanquished might,

felt

delays, at

one time entrusted the

by the victorious Austrians in

all

epic grandeur, contributed to the spread of the Atlantean figures, supporting balconies,

which gained

staircases, ceilings or entablatures,

great popularity in

Vienna

after

Thus

1700.

the princes of the baroque period were constantly reminded of their power, both in architecture

and

in decorative

strength

when

art,

by

Before the reign of Louis statue

of

theme of the barbarian in chains

this

not governed by the

XIV,

was the Piazza Capitohna

Marcus Aurelius brought

of the municipality of

pontiffs.

—a testimony to the

resides in the divinely

Rome,

laid out in

1546 by Michelangelo to hold a

from Monte Cavallo in 1538. Situated in

this statue

Rome and

This idea bore no immediate

had a symbolic

the new, the fruit; all

Rome

significance;

the riverside.

face the Place

As

until the reign of

it

Royale (Place des Vosges),

Louis XIII, when

it

statue

bore witness to the

and the

of the emperors

was space

Dauphine, but on the Pont^Neuf he forms

for the Place

Rome

and

of the

early seven/

available.

In Paris,

part of the scenery of

was not provided with a

it

statue

received an equestrian statue of that king, seated

bronze horse made by Daniel de Volterra for a figure of Henry After the Peace of Nijmegen (1681) Marshal de

la

II that

Feuillade presented to Louis

built to set

a fine one that the Marshal ordered a replica of

it off.

it

in bronze,

XIV

eighteen degrees. Mansart surrounded style

that Blondel was to

Mansart repeated Ji£.

2j

finest

call 'the

this layout in the

expression of this theme

it

optimum

was

and

a

The

its

it

was

diameter was

angle of elevation, which was

with facades of uniform design on a colossal

court dress of French architecture'.

form of a

a

and a square was

This was to be the Place des Victoires. Laid out by Mansart in 1683,

circular in form, corresponding to the shape of the base of the statue,

calculated so that the king should be viewed at the

on

was never completed.

standing marble figure of the king that he had commissioned from the sculptor Desjardins.

work was such

of

this place, the seat

the statues of the late sixteenth

teenth century that I have mentioned were erected wherever there

Henry IV does

futility

appointed monarch.

the only square to be designed expressly as a setting for a

in

there

Rome,

continuity between the old

wisdom which

semicircle, this time for

A

an equestrian

the Place Louis/le/Grand (Place

scale, in a

year later in Dijon,

Vendome)

statue.

The

in Paris, a

rectangle cut off at the corners, originally intended as a setting for Girardon's masterly statue of 318

Louis

XIV. The

provinces imitated Paris; Tours, Lyons, Caen, Rennes, Mompellier, Aix/

27 Jules Hardouin^Mansart (1646-1708). Place Louis^cGrand (Place Vendome),

en'Provence, Marseilles and other

Royale

as

an expression of

cities

on horseback. In 1765 the en France a laglohe de Louts

(now bout. in

finest

Louis/XV

with a

monograph on

statue, either

this subject,

of these squares in the provinces

harmonious ensemble

laid out

was

on

foot or

Mommens

eriges

that of Bordeaux

by Gabriel overlooking the har'

building of these squares sometimes presented difficulties because occupiers were slow

coming forward; one

until the sites

Louis/XV

a 'Place

architect Patte wrote a

the Place de la Bourse), a

The

monarchy. In the eighteenth century Rennes, Nancy,

all built

XV. The

1698

endeavoured, not always successfully, to have their Place

loyalty to the

Bordeaux, Valenciennes and Paris

Paris,

solution

was

to build the fagades

first,

as at

Bordeaux, and then wait

behind them found takers before building the houses themselves. The Place

work

(Place de la Concorde) in Paris, also the

scheme; built on the western side of the

between Paris and

its

natural setdng.

city,

which was

Only one

of

of Gabriel, followed an entirely

as yet litde developed,

short sides

its

it

new

pi. 224, fig.

28

created a link

was occupied by buildings,

while the other gave on to the Seine, and the two long sides on to the gardens of the Tuileries and the Champs^Elysees; long

in France. Gabriel's Place

Place

Vendome, but

promenades were characterisdc of eighteenth/century town planning

Louis/XV

is

not a focal point, like the Place des Victoires or the

part of a design in perspecdve. It

was intended

of the Seine, so that the spectator could see the statue of Louis

to be seen

XV framed

from the bank

between the two

buildings by Gabriel (in imitadon of the colonnade of the Louvre) in the background, and

backed by the Rue Royale receding

was not

built until the next century.

to the site of the

Here the

statue

proposed church of

is

sacrificed to

La

Madeleine, which

the grand scope of the design.

319

THEMES

28 Jacques'Ange Gabriel (1698-1792). Place

Louis'XV

(Place de la Concorde), Paris, 1755

Other European

cities

wished to have xhdt place

royale,

Brussels as a setting for the statue of the

Austrian governor Charles of Lorraine, Copenhagen to honour Christian VI. After the

re^

building of Lisbon the minister Pombal, loyal to the monarch beneath whose shadow he wielded absolute power, decided to pay

him homage by

setting his effigy

on a bronze horse

of the Praga do Comercio. In accordance with his belief in encouraging local arts

in the centre

aqd

he commissioned the statue (ereaed in 1775) from Joaquim Machado de Castro,

industries,

who

seated a

helmeted and beplumed King Joseph on an unwieldy steed, trampling on thorns and serpents.

The

architeaural theme of the square received

Bath in England. This watering/place on the

Richard 'Beau' Nash with the backing of

site

its

of a

apotheosis in the building of the

Roman city was popularized

several speculators,

town of

by the elegant

among whom was

the architect

John Wood. During the eighteenth century it was the setting for a glittering life which attracted the whole of London society, fashionable, literary and artistic, and even the royal family. The first

plans were

drawn up by John

Wood

in 1724

tinned until the end of the century by his son

show

off"

John

the squares to the best advantage, the

and

the development of the

Wood

Woods

II,

town was con/

succeeded by Palmer. In order to

concentrated architectural ornament

within them, giving houses elsewhere a functional simplicity.

The

Circus, which

is

a hundred

yards in diameter, has three classical orders superimposed, and the others have frontages adorned

with giant columns or pi.

367

All the 1775,

?20

pilasters.

The

oldest, a rectangle cut off at the corners, is

crescents are of imposing proportions; the oldest,

hundred yards from end

built

between 1767 and

— Lansdowne Crescent,

to end.

It

was followed by

Crescent, Somerset Crescent. Bath

is

another Vicenza under a misty English sky.

is five

Camden

Royal Crescent,

Queen's Square.

others

THE CITY For a France of Gallicanism and the beginnings of square was

wonderful

a royal statue; for of

series

Rome it was

free

Roman fountains was completed

characteristically

baroque fashion, by a tiny square whose space

On the other hand the great fountain loses its effect if

it is

it

consequently shows to

its full

at

is

given

columns

free rein.

monumental

The

monuments

a twisted

is

effect;

provoke amazement. Naples, Vesuvius.

Paris, a single jet,

monument,

advantage only in an engrave

finest

like

column made up

of clouds. These

the Guglia del Gesu,

Jesuit for the glory of his

and eighteenth saints.

was

is

^81

was

set

celebrated by

—the ending of the plague of 1656

up on a wave of popular

Order (1748). Milan was another pious

centuries about a

But Milan

pi.

did not

Vienna, was ravaged by the plague, but also by the lava of

that the Neapolitans call gu^lie (needles)

all,

artists

the object erected in the square must be marvellous, must

cessation of these disasters, attributed to divine intervention,

of them

which baroque

allegories, in

Cuglia di San Domenico, that of the eruption of Vesuvius in 163 1 by the Guglia

The

needs a

it

Their sculptors were not deterred by any improbability; the column

Modling (near Vienna, 1714)

seek to create a

in

and eighteenth centuries produced

with statues and

(Pestsaulen) laden

rocks,

it is set off",

occupies almost completely.

by Bouchardon in the Rue de Crenelle,

ing. In Central Europe, outbreaks of plague in the seventeenth

fantasy

it

not seen from a distance. Conceived as a classical

'viewpoint' to be fully appreciated;

a quantity of votive

and created of

the product of the inventive genius of Salvi (1732);

is

for a

by the most monumental of all, the fountain

of Trevi. This colossal composition, linked with the fagade of a palace

water and sculptured stone,

monument

thought, the ideal

a fountain or an obelisk. In the eighteenth century the

hundred columns dedicated

di

San Gennaro.

piety initiated

city, erecting

by a

pi ^80

in the seventeenth

to Christ, the

Virgin and the

and only one of

the most ravaged baroque city in Italy,

by the

these

columns

exists today. It

would be wrong

to consider the building'achievements of the seventeenth/

century city only from the aspea of ostentation. This effort

of imagination

needed to

is

The

what

most apparent today, whereas an

is

understand the enormous labours which were required

to

them, teach them, and provide

for

phenomenon which affeaed

all

provide a city with public services, house roads and public health.

is

and eighteenth/

its

citizens, care for

increase in urban population, a

Europe, especially in the eighteenth century, led municipal authorities to

make

plans for expan/

new housing developments, thus putting money in the pockets of architects, who then as now were men of business. No city could consist entirely of palaces; the connecting fabric was made up of modest houses, often built sion necessitating the demolition of city walls

to a standard pattern.

some

disaster,

establish the

such as

and

the creation of

Many of these still stand today, London and Lisbon, where the

custom of

large/Scale

particularly in cities reconstructed after

need to rehouse the homeless helped to

development based on standard designs. Certain quarters of

Copenhagen, and of Clermont/l'Herault in France, can dating from this period. Venice, a

Middle Ages

town

that has

to the eighteenth century the full

still

show

been preserved

true working/class intact,

can show from the

range of types of habitation, from the patrician

palace to mass/produced speculative housing. But the systematic setting apart of inhabitants of a certain social standing

is

housing

districts for

a product of the bourgeois instincts of the nineteenth

B-zr

THEMES century. In Paris, a wealthy

man who

built himself a

house with a frontage on the

kept the kage noble for himself, and rented out the other floors position; the

Roman more

common people lodged on the lower floors,

palaces sheltered in their basements

no

often than not, paid

and the

rent; they lived there

by

between the

different classes of society,

constituted

its

political

The population for these there

was

the attachment of the

were added, in

hospitals

it

did not regard one another as enemies the baroque age in any country,

populauon in general

health, parliaments

later eras,

by

and foreign wars

had multiplied

and kings issued

this

religious

congestion and demanding distress.

sick;

endowments.

money from

To remedy

and an orphanage. The edia gave a of those built under the andett regime principle of the general hospital

was

confinement of the poor' ordering the intern^

at the

these measures there were

beginning of the reign of Louis

passers-by; the disturbances of the

XIV, adding

Fronde caused

to

still

these e\ils a royal declaration ordered the founding of a

was

at

once a hospital,^a poorhouse

great stimulus to the building of hospitals

many examples still

was more important than

by

element in the population. For the sake of public

'general hospital' in all large towms. This general hospital

of the soul

and the

flourished in the

that ravaged France in the sixteenth centur)',

'edicts for the

thousand beggars in the capital

more poverty and

one

which

To the incitement of piety civic considerations. It ill became the pomp of monarchy if a city sick people, prostitutes, beggars, robbers and pickpockets. Un^ for

ment of beggars in prisons and of vagabonds in poorhouses. Despite forty

to the regime

and poorhouses. The building of hospitals had

was provided

full of vagrants, cripples,

increasing pauperism,

nobles and

led to a certain

backbone.

fortunately the domestic

still

Rome,

of a city always includes the homeless, the poor, the infirm,

must be

Middle Ages, when there

much

who

To understand

were to do in the nineteenth century.

can never emphasize too

The huge

tradition, being considered, according to

which was a communal one. This

plebeians rubbed shoulders at the entrance,

as they

attic.

and atucs a whole heterogeneous population which,

the old Latin system, as 'clients' or dependents of the prince. In Paris as in

familiarity

formerly

varied according to

at rates that

the mezzanine

street

still

exist today,

that of the hospices of the

that of the body.

At

over France;

all

though much

Middle Ages;

altered.

The

the salvation

the heart of the hospital, where

we

should today have the main clinical block, there was a church. In order to segregate the elements of the fig.

2g

unhappy population, some of whom were

up of several naves de

radiating around the high altar. This

la Salpetriere, designed

by Le

Vau

in i66o

cell'Hke chapels are arranged in star formation

ravaged by the wars of the seventeenth

king of the

Two

forget the poor;

Sicilies,

he

set

and

is

infectious, this

322

made

which four naves and four

his court the

The megalomaniac Charles VII,

immense palace of

Caserta, but did not

out to institutionalize every beggar in his kingdom, a superhuman task

'Albergo dei poveri' which would provide 50

often

around an octagon. All the countries of Europe,

on which he embarked by commissioning Ferdinando Fuga

fig.

is

the plan of the chapel of the Hopital

built in 1670, in

centur)', built hospitals.

planned for

church

shelter for

to build for

Naples a colossal

8,000 people. This institution was to

measure 600 by 135 yards; the plan showed two wings (of which only one was belatedly com' pleted) flanking a

huge church with

six naves,

cenaed upon a rotunda with a high dome. The

THE CITY 29 Louis Le

Vau (1612-70).

Hopital de

la Salpetriere, Paris,

30 Ferdinando Fuga (1699-1782). Projea

for

r66o

Albergo dei Poveri, Naples,

c.

1760

;r{IIIIClIIIIIh:Tr;:77H7r::n \T:.:::M """-r\ q

arrangement of the buildings was designed by Fuga in a most rational

HotePDieu

the various departments. After the burning of the era began; the for

its

numerous

reconstruction

to

meet the needs of

in Paris in 1772, however, a

was held

projects submitted in the competition that

showed a new concern with

way

technical considerations,

new

to select a design

and

for architects

planning a hospital the church was no longer the main preoccupation.

Among were

had

built

by monarchs

As

served them.

purpose. Perhaps the first

1604 Henry

finest

work of

Hardouin/Mansart

is

it

this type

later

London

gave also

royal palace.

to create a

was

the Hotel des Invalides,

it

Almost more than Louis XIV's Hotel in place of the chapel.

Here

bratc the glory of the British

It

its

Sir

background of

is

one of the master^

it is

(now

Wren

many rooms were

pi.

^82

pi.

12^

pi.

5^5

Royal to

succeeded in joining

complex overlooking the Thames.

a true palace, containing a grand hall

Queen Anne

Navy, and between 1708 and 1727 created the only

rocaille panelling,

the

William and Mary decided

James Thornhill was commissioned by

of English baroque painting comparable to that of Inside these hospitals

that

his design

a magnificent

des Invalides,

XIV

which Louis

pensioners' hospitals; here the idea of the

was in 1694

new in

who

a plan similar to that of the

a second chapel which

had

Royal Naval Hospital. In

the old buildings harmoniously with the

a

pensioned or disabled soldiers

of France had founded an institution for this

perhaps even more touching, for Greenwich Hospital

Naval College) was once a

and enlarge

IV

and which was designed by Liberal Bruant on

pieces of classical architecture.

hospital as palace

that belonged to the luxury class; these

to ensure a tranquil old age for the

early as

projected in 1670,

Escurial. Jules

alter

some

the hospitals of the baroque age were

Germany and

great

to cele/

ensemble

pl. xxiv

Italy.

elaborately decorated, notably the dispensary.

Against

pl.

^86

earthenware jars containing herbs and unguents were

arranged like the collections of porcelain of the same period.

Baroque university building can Spain in

this field

now

be appreciated almost only in England and Spain,

continued the movement begun in the Renaissance period,

built like palaces, merely substituting

baroque decoration

when

colleges

were

for the 'plateresque' or silversmith's

32J

THEMES Catalonia's six universities

Style.

V

had been combined by Philip

La

into that of

Cervera,

an imposing ensemble of baroque buildings begun in 1718, on which work progressed slowly enough for the last of them, the chapel, to be in the neoclassical style. New college buildings at

Oxford and Cambridge took their place alongside the pi.

5^

All Souls College, Oxford, Hawksmoor made

The

modern

university of the

era included a

it

old, often adopting their style.

Rebuilding

a Gothic pastiche.

new

feature, the dissecting theatre.

When

the

study of anatomy from corpses, regarded as a sacrilege until the early sixteenth century, finally

came pi.

384

by the Church,

to be tolerated

A few European universities Sweden,

still

have

On

the demonstration.

is

the duty of the university to practise

Second World

tiers

is

the other hand, the anatomical theaue at

rotunda, but

its

a rotunda, with a diameter of forty

baroque walnut

its

form was

in

good view of

Bologna (1638-49), destroyed

it is

without

to be derived the amphitheatre

generously

feet. It is

seats for the professors,

and

which

is

its

Lit,

is

The

school of

interior furnishings.

its

That of Barcelona, founded in 1762 by the physician Pedro Virgih,

kept

Uppsala

War but now restored and incorporating a few pieces of its original fabric,

surgery of the university of Paris has kept

is

it.

purely functional, lighted

of seats to enable the students to have a

decorated with fine panelling and statues of the founders of the art of medicine.

theatre

and teach

their old theatres; that of the university of

1662-3 by the famous professor Olov Rudbeck,

built in

by a double lantern and with steep

in the

was

it

intact; here, too, the

with stone

four cabinets in the same

tiers,

style.

the classic pattern for the lecture

and has

From

this

rooms of mo^

dern universities. Certain of the ceremonial rooms of European universities are often sumptuously decorated; that of the university of Breslau

ornate stuccos is its

and

remarkable for

paintings.

new

That of the

university of

1732) resembles a church, with

Coimbra,

buildings were added to

Coimbra

of the kings of Portugal, and

in the eighteenth century;

gilt

woodwork

it

possesses

laboratory

With

was

built,

adorned with a harmonious

made

transverse desks

available still

designed

large

chem/

classical fajade.

the revival of learning the library underwent a major transformation.

of books

flowers.

one of the

(talha dourada), excellently

from the functional point of view. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century a istry

its

built in the seventeenth century,

tapete, its portraits

form of an upturned boat painted with a decoration of acanthus

of university libraries, a masterpiece of

finest

Silesia (c.

walls tiled with azulejos de

its

fine ceiling in the

Several

(Wroclaw) in

by printing eventually made

it

The

large

number

abandon the system of

necessary to

in use in the Renaissance (as in the Laurentian Library, Florence, built by

Michelangelo), and to arrange books along the walls on shelves or in presses, often ornamented

with perpendicular

by a

gallery.

by Herrera, time

is

finials,

into

two

second being reached

levels, the

The Ubrary of the Escurial, with its wonderful bookcases in precious wood designed is arranged in this way. The passion for knowledge that possessed the men of this

expressed in the rich decoration of the libraries of universities, colleges, monasteries and

palaces; the library

became the shrine of the

an imitation of that of the 324

and frequently divided

essentially of portraits of

arts

libraries of antiquity,

famous

scholars, writers

and

sciences. Its earliest

known from many and

form of decoration was

descriptions,

and consisting

philosophers, usually in the form of busts;

THE CITY this Style

was used

que Mazarine,

for

Paris)

chiefly for their effect

many

years (as witness the university library of

and was

on

their

by

the style adopted

the libraries of

Bologna and the Bibliothe^

English colleges, which

panelUng and woodcarving an example

is

;

College, Cambridge(i69i) with

its

the library of Trinity

Grinling Gibbons busts. There has recently been discovered in

two hundred

the Bodleian Library, Oxford, a painted frieze 230 yards long decorated with

Church, and theologians and

portraits of classical authors, Fathers of the

and the

This

years of the seventeenth centuries.

first

been

its

frieze served a 'functional'

is

it

found

at the date

seem

Chapter Library, Durham, where the

at the

painted in 1668, in the Biblioteca Corsini,

Rome, which

dates

jp;

pi.

^^2

pi.

ijo

purpose, constitute

content corresponds to the catalogue of 1620. This ingenious device

widespread;

fairly

pi.

scholars of the sixteenth

ing an illustrated guide to the most important works possessed by the library executed;

rely

from 1754,

was

it

to have

was

frieze

^'^^ ^^ the city library

of Valenciennes, built in 1742 at the expense of the rector of the Jesuit college. In addition to the portraits of

famous men

there

were often inscriptions taken from

Giovanni in Parma

The

similar inscriptions are

on

and

the ceiling of the Benqdictine library of

San

still

combined with

a graceful decoration of grotesques.

ceiling of the library of the Escurial (1587) develops

humanism and

Christian

works, another heritage of

bears the favourite sayings

antiquity; the ceiling of the library in Montaigne's house

quotations of the author of the Essais, and

their

the parallels between theology

an encyclopaedic theme inspired by

and philosophy,

law. This encyclopaedic theme appears, embellished by every decorative device

baroque genius, in many

libraries in

Austria and Germany. Sometimes



is

the finest in Austria, the bookcases are so minute that

guish them amid the sumptuous decoration.

Approached

built over a curious funerary crypt, decorated at the

requires

library,

reminding them that

are a snare set to lead

human knowledge

mankind from

the

way

is

—with

an

at

that of

effort to distin/

with

its

three

domes,

same period with a kind of rococo Dance

of Death. This chapel was used for the funeral services of the monks, library

to the

by a magnificent staircase ornamented

with the four elements and the four seasons (cosmic symbols), the is

it

known

pursued even

it is

which

the expense of the books; in the library of the monastery of Altenburg,

Ardmont

and natural

revelation

its

position under the

but vanity, and that the temptations of science

We are in the house of God.

of salvation.

In the house of Caesar, the Hofburg in Vienna, a library was built betwen 1723 and 1726

by Emmanuel Fischer von Erlach

enormous

hall

is

to

an original design by

bisected by one of those oval

with a painting glorifying Charles VI;

it is

Johann Bernhard.

his father

The

domes beloved by Johann Bernhard, decorated symbol of the

a cathedral of the written word, a

universahty of the Empire.

The museum, an

institution

whose development began

the baroque period. In 1727 a Latin treatise graphia

on the

subject

in the Renaissance, prospered during

was published under

by Caspar F. Neickel, a merchant of Hamburg. The

expressions of

baroque

human knowledge,

galleries in

the products of art

which were displayed

and of modern times, and the

the

and the

title

gathers together

creations of nature.

The

Museo^ all

the

splendid

works of the masters of antiquity, of the Renaissance

collections of curiosities,

were in process of being discovered, were

museum

the

wonders of

attributes of the

noble

a

Nature whose mysteries

life.

All

life,

human and

3-25

THEMES natural, all the past

and

its

marvels, must be

drawn

house a place of excellence, a dwelling for the

his

museums were

see this display, for these private

scholars

were

and

artists;

Museum, Oxford, collections of ancien regime

economy

of the universe. Others were invited to

open

to a

pubUc of aristocrats, amateurs,

its

Ashmole, who had

university by Elias

John Tradescant and undertook

tourist itineraries

Ashmolean

public museums, such as the

them

to preserve

for posterity.

inherited the

Museums

might take the form of collections of objects crammed together with the

of the

greatest

of space, or collections forming part of the furnishings of a grand reception

Rome

still

Hence

hand

(in

the

modern

room

museum

use of the term 'gallery' for a

of

from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the magnificent Colonna,

retains

Pamphili/Doria and Pallavicini the other

entirely

England had

presented to the

in a noble house, often a gallery. art:

spirit

from the seventeenth century onwards museum guides and

best/sellers just as they are today.

make

into the orbit of the prince, in order to

galleries,

with

German Wunderkammer),

all their

contents.

used more for

is

The French word

cahinet,

scientific collections; there

on

were

collections of exhibits concerning mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, conchology,

mineralogy, history, and numismatics. Other pi. ^Sjifig.

1

even paintings, the

latter

cahinets

crowded together frame

contained

ohjets d'art,

porcelain, glass or

to frame. In all these colleaions

overcrowding

was the rule, not only because of lack of space, but because the baroque aesthetic identifies wealth with profusion. Nearly

wood,

all

these collections

often decorated in rocaille.

Nouveau woodwork which housed pi.

jgo

lost all its its

The most

were housed in

fine

extravagant decor was undoubtedly the Art

the collection of Bonnier de la

Mosson

Wunderhammern, apart from that of Clement Lafaille, which

furnishings in the

Northern Europe.

Musee de La Rochelle. However,

No

cupboards in precious

there are

is

in Paris. France has

preserved intact with

still

many

in Central

all

and

expense was spared to display rare Chinese porcelains, which were

given magnificent settings of carved and gilded wood; the Dresden porcelain cqjlection was

Germany, notably

dispersed during the last war, but others survive intact in collections of

pi j8g

Potsdam. The palace of Rosenborg in Copenhagen

unique glass collection placed on show in 1714 by Frederick V, 1708 had become an enthusiast for Murano Before the eighteenth century,

museum

palace. Galleries were conceived as

still

has

who on

a

on

the exquisite

top floor a

its

visit to

Venice in

glass.

architecture

is

barely distinguishable

grand reception rooms

;

their architecture

from that of the

was designed

so

that the objects could be incorporated as features of the decoration (as in the 'Antiquarium'

in the Residenz,

Munich, about 1600).

be created specially to antiques,

set

It

was in

the eighteenth century that the decor

began

to

off the objects; this 'functional' tendency began with galleries of

and derived from the renewal of Graeco/Roman

eighteenth century galleries in various parts of

influence. In the second half of the

Europe were designed in the

neoclassical style,

considered to be the noblest and best setting for the masterpieces of antiquity. In the Uffizi,

Grand Duke

'

Peter

Leopold

the Villa Medici in pi.

326

^88

who had

built a gallery to display the

Rome. In Stockholm

famous Niohid brought in 1775 from

just been assassinated, a public gallery of antiques

A similar enterprise,

more

Gustav

in 1792, in accordance with the will of

in the character of a

museum

was

in the

III,

created in the royal palace.

modern

sense of the

word, was

THE CITY the

Museo Pio'CIementino

in the Vatican, built by

Clement XIV. The

architect, Simonetti,

did not hesitate to destroy part of the Belvedere, the heritage of the Renaissance; in the layout

and

architecture of the

decoration. This

The

rooms and

'Roman'

style

galleries

was

he took inspiration from the

to persist for a

is

Museo Pio^Clementino.

based on the

where they constitute

Utilitarian buildings interest us today only in the exceptional cases

works of art. This was by no means so

was

for

anyone

designed as

to conceive of

artistic

rare in the

baroque age as

and measures, meat markets and

fish

architects lavished the

today; indeed, the difficulty

it is

an object that was not a work of

monuments. Dutch

baths and their

long time to come in museums of antiques.

Andquarium by Klenze (1840-9)

St Petersburg

Roman

Stock exchanges were

art.

same care on

of weights

offices

markets as on their ornate and beautiful town

halls.

Even

the industries that developed in the eighteenth century contrived to produce masterpieces of architecture.

The Bourbons

stimulated the industrial growth of Spain by founding textile factor

owed much

ries

and

in

709-1 1 by a Fleming, Jose Prospero de Verboom.

1

glass

and porcelain works;

these

to a corps of military engineers

One

of these

designed the Real

officers

Fabrica de Tabacos which the Government had decided to rebuild in Seville.

was begun

in 1728,

large rectangle

and

after a certain

period of delay

made

self-'contained;

it

monumental

a chapel, a prison, and a residential mansion approached by a

rates

Work on

rapid progress after 1750.

200 yards by 159, surrounded by a moat and wholly

formed

this

It is

a

incorpo^ staircase.

In the tobacco factory proper everything has been designed functionally, including provisions for maintaining the necessary relative

ventilation shafts.

On

humidity by means of an underground water system and

the entrance side the building has an ornamented facade like that of a

baroque palace; the Spanish crown spared no expense to make a factory a finished work of architecture.

building

In the

found

But the

(now

State tobacco

the university)

latter part

monopoly was

so profitable that the cost of this magnificent

was no more than half

the net annual income.

of the eighteenth century the geometrical forms of antique architecture were

to be particularly suitable for industrial buildings. Furnaces lent themselves readily to the

shape of Egyptian pyramids, as in the Marie^ Antoinette glassworks

cannon foundry proposed by Ledoux. For the Salines de Chaux created a magnificent Grecian ensemble in severity of the

world

—that

which the

Doric order and the vigour of the

spirit

rustication.

salt

though finding expression in

Creusot, or the

mines (1775-9) Ledoux

of industry

is

symbolized by the

But Ledoux belonged

of neoclassicism; he comes within our field because he

fantasy which,

Le

at

classical forms, is

is

moved by

none the

less

to another

a

spirit

of

an offshoot of

baroque utopianism. In the eighteenth century progress in the

art

of tactics caused the art of

direction of mobility; in the seventeenth century military operations

in the siege parts,

and defence of

and new ones

fortresses.

Throughout Europe old

built to be used as fortresses.

Italy

who

From

to evolve in the

had consisted

essentially

were surrounded by ram^

Mihtary engineering had become a science

in the fifteenth century, in answer to the need to create resist artillery fire.

cities

war

new forms

the latter half of the fifteenth century there

of fortification,

was

scarcely

which could

an

architect in

did not concern himself actively with the subject; and the design of fortresses was an

327

THEMES opportunity to apply geometrical knowledge in conjunction with

The

principle of medieval fortification lay in the

on prominent resses to

features of the landscape.

The

be dug in, so that often the natural

command

introduction of

artillery

relief is perceptible

had been completely transformed by

tower {Maschikuliturm) which Balthasar

Neumann

new

the

the art of siege.

of towers and curtain walls standing

Traditional forms were so slow to die that the medieval idea of a in plans that

and

ballistics

built in

made

it

'commanding

art.

necessary for fort^

only in relation to the moats. position' persisted

A work like the

machicolated

1728 in front of the lower curtain/

wall of the citadel of Marienberg, Wiirzburg (based on plans by Maximilian von Welsch, a 'mediocre' architect), might have been dated

The

of

art

modern

fortification

and

of the innumerable treatises

XIV. Vauban was

Louis

He

economist.

essays

on

centuries earlier.

the subjea by Marshal

Vauban,

not only an engineer but a gunner, a sailor, a

France about a hundred

built in

of purely military struaures

The

two

was spread throughout eighteenth^century Europe by means

fortified

military engineer to

town planner and an

towns, in which the severity of outline

sometimes relieved by a certain showiness, notably in the

is

gates.

'porcupine' principle of defence required, as well as the oblique lines necessitated by flank-'

ing, the adoption of polygonal

and star^shaped plans which show profound and inescapable

analogies with the expanding forms beloved of baroque decorators, such as the sunburst. Every

period has

its

own

creating a secret affinity between the various forms

style,

unmoved by

lover of architeaure could remain pi.

3^5

Fort Carre in Antibes

and of those

all parts to

which

the whole.

Here

art is the

by the

spirit

of geometry

are ruled

and compact a form

What

as that of the

equal of nature in her most mysterious creations,



circle of the

courtyard and the threatening

extensive,

the

is

so perfea

engenders.

has the beauty that consists in the exact relation of each part to another,

It

'.

it

star

shells, crystals, starfish.

By

the union of the

of the bastions, this form, at once intensive and

symbol of the classicism of the baroque

age, the consciousness of great strength

mastered.

At

the

mouth of the Gironde, on

the reign of

Henry IV.

Its

the limestone

islet

of

Cordouan, a lighthouse was

upper portion was reconstructed in 1788, and

western outpost, just as the eighteenth century bequeathed pi.

5^4

which,

like

many

it

to us. It

is

it is still

a fine classical

utilitarian buildings of the ancien regime, contains a chapel,

the second floor. This

an elegant rotunda,

is

built in

in use, this

work

which occupies

and

richly decorated with a Corinthian order

fes'

toons and garlands of stone, surmounted by a coffered dome, and richly paved in black and

God

white marble. Thus

paintings of the ancient

triumph over tempests,

is at

the heart of this tower of light, the Pharos

Catacombs was if

God

the

symbol of

does not sustain

him >

of the creator of this marvel, the engineer Louis de Foix:

salvation.

which

What

avail

in the Christian

man's

efforts to

A long inscription celebrates the virtues by this, it reads, thou hast acquired

AN INFINITE HONOUR, WHICH WILL END ONLY WHEN THIS BEACON OF GLORY, BY THE ENDING OF THE WORLD, ITSELF MEETS ITS END. A richly significant play on words here at this 'land's end',

on

Beacon of glory 328

one

to

mark

its

.

the edge of infinite space. .

.

This phrase, which sums up the whole subject of our study,

completion.

is

a

fitting

331

Guarino Guarini (1624-83). Dome, San Lorenzo, Turin

THE CHURCH

3^9

33-2

Balthasar

Two cults

Neumann

(1687-1753J. Wallfahrtskirche, Vierzehnheiligen, Bavaria, 1743-72

Catholic churches are focussed on the the pulpit

and the organ. This

is

especially so in

choral music plays a central role. Protestant Frauenkirche in

altar; Protestant

With

its

churches on

Germany, where

tiered

balconies, the

Dresden (destroyed in 1945) was

laid

out like a concert hall.

333 Georg Bahr(i666-I738). Frauenkirche, Dresden, 1726-43

334 Pieter Noorwits

(d. 1669).

Nieuwekerk,

335 Pieter Jansz. Saenredam (1597-1665).

The Hague, 1649-56

336 Kerk, Alkmaar, seventeenth century

View

of St Janskerk, Utrecht, 1645

338 Christopher

337 Salomon de Brosse (1571-1626). Temple, Charenton

Wren

(1632-1723). St James's, Piccadilly,

London, 1700

Protestant church building 539 Synagogue, Carpentras, France, eighteenth century

Whether

or not

it

has been built specially for a Protestant

form of worship, the Protestant church tends of images

pose

is

and correspondingly

to gather

free

to be

of ornament.

devoid Its

pur^

worshippers round the preacher; hence

the widespread use of balconies.

The synagogue The

design of the synagogue

of the

Protestant church;

is

its

not very different from that

purpose

is

to

enable the

congregation to hear readings from sacred texts (see

pi. 22j).

9

Th e monastery

340 Johann Michael Fischer

(1691-1756) and

others.

Ottobeuren, Swabia, 171

341 Refectory, Couvent Saint-Pierrc

(Musee des Beaux^Arts),

Lyons

^B

In the eighteenth century,

all

over Europe, the ancient

monastic orders rebuilt their houses on a grand

The movement began century,

and spread

into Central Europe, the

Countries, France and even

Abbots and

scale.

Italy in the seventeenth

in

Low

Orthodox Russia.

their architects

abandoned

the asym^

metrical medieval plan for a layout consisting of a

number

of courts centred on the church, a plan

derived from the Escurial. In Central Europe the

monastery

ments

is

a palace,

for the abbot,

comprising luxurious apart'

magnificent guest rooms

known

as 'imperial apartments' ( Kdserzimmer) , for distin^

guished

visitors,

a

banqueting'hall

(Kaisersaal

or

Marmorsaal), a theatre, a library decorated like a

church,

an

art

gallery,

a

scientific

museum, and

sometmies ornamental 'French gardens'.

342 Jakob Prandtauer (1660-1726). Melk, begun 1700,

engraving

after F.

Rosenstingl

343 Lucas von Hildebrandt (166S-1745). Gottweig, Austria,

after

1718, engraving after F. B.

344-5 Donato Felice Allio

and

(c.

Werner

1690-c 1780). Marble

overall vicu, Klosterneuburg, Austria,

t730-50

hall

II3

346 Louis

Chateau de

LeVau

(1613-70) and Jules HaitlouiivALinsart(i646-i708).

Versailles

THE COURT

The

347 Bartolommeo Rastrelli (1700-71). Fagade, Peterhof (Pyetrodvorets), near Leningrad, 1715-57

royal palace

34S Balthasar

Neumann

(^1087-1753). Residenz,

engraving

Of

the

two

types of princely residence,

pattern rather than the

Italian

which

it

all

Wurzhurg,

Salomon Kleiner

the French

prevailed.

course of the eighteenth century palaces were, modelled on Louis

was

after

In the

over Europe

XIV's Chateau de

Versailles.

349 Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736). Zwinger, Dresden,

1709-19,

engraving showing a carrousel

>A^!>^^

337

,, ,.,

1^

I

>..„..

350 Ferdinand Dietz (d.

Wiirzburg, 1765

The French garden More

even

than

the

French

ornamental

Nostre

at

French

garden,

created

Vaux^C/'Vicomte

was imitated

at Versailles,

however,

was

in general

interpreted in

and

and

as far afield as Russia;

the noble classicism of Versailles

ary

Le

by

xx)

(PL.

developed by the same designer

the

clidteati,

in the

baroque terms, both

in the status

grandiloquence of the

351

vistas.

Giovanni Francesco

Guerniero

(i\

1665-1745).

Cascade, Wilhelmshohe, Cassel, with Hercules by Johann Jacob

Anthoni, 1701-17

c.

1780).

Lake

\\itli

Parnassus group, Veitshochheim, near

%' .jt-k \^li^[-w t.;AJA;»*£9

«1 ' ™M.. .aat.xr'::n:r

3;,::

Jc.in

B.ipiibie

Tuby

(1635-1700),

after

Charles \x Biiin (1619-90).

Lake of Apollo,

Versailles,

1668-70

353 Cascades, Giardino Reale, Caserta, near Naples, begun 1773

339

354 Santino Solari (1576-1646). Trick iouiuams in near Salzburg,

c.

1610

Roman

theatre, Schloss

Hellbrunn,

355 Nicolas de Pigage (1723-96).

Apollo, Schwetzingen, near

The garden

as

Temple

of

Mannheim

microcosm

In the course of the seventeenth

and

eighteenth

centuries

three forms of garden,

the

Italian,

French and English, came tc gether in grandiose garden signs

dc

which had something of

the quality of

all three.

35G Filippo Juvarra

(f.

Piedmont, begun 1729

1676-1736). Stupinigi,

Chinese influence

and the 'English' garden The

formal French garden was

fol/

lowed in the eighteenth century by an^ other type

garden,

known

perhaps better described as

'Anglo^Chinese'. the

'English'

the

as

1720s

was

It

under

the

created in

of

influence

William Kent. Sometimes

it

appears

in juxtaposition with a French garden, as at Versailles

Germany.

and

at

many

places in

In spite of the ostentatious

'return to nature' implied in

its

ser^

pentine forms, this form of garden

crowded

with

monuments

carry a moral significance.

is

which

Mythology

gives place to philosophy as a theme. 357 Hubert Robert (173 3-1808).

View

of park, Mereville

m

'^*%~ «-

Neumann

c.

1750

mm

^^^

**v.*

-J_

,-1'.'i'

363 Salzburg, Austria I

364 Modica, Sicily

THE CITY

•^^

r. ."..Jr^^. .y'

\]

ii

^^HiT-

8

365 Grand' Place, Brussels,

1700

c.

366 Amsterdam

Town The

planning

timid attempts

been

made

at

urban design which had

in the Renaissance

were succeeded

in the

baroque age by planning on the grand

scale.

Architects extended their imaginative

scope to comprehend an entire a single

work

varied;

some

of

art.

The designs are immensely

are based

on

patterns, while others take

the land.

It

eighteenth

Europe

was during

centuries

first

city, treated as

that

rigid geometrical

account of the

lie

the seventeenth the

great

of

and

cities

of

acquired the overall arrangement

have today.

that they

still

367 John

Wood

I

(1704-54). Royal Crescent, Bath, Somerset,

c.

1750

g '.

The

SCJUare

A It

vast open-air theatre, the central square

takes

Piazza

many

forms.

Navona

in

Some

368

the focus of interest in any city.

follow the configuration of an ancient

Rome, which has

drome). Others are the

is

result of a

inherited the form of a

site

(such as the

Roman

hippo'

long process of organic growth (the plazas

may ores of Spain). Others

are created in order to serve as forecourt to a palace,

like the Place Stanislas in

Nancy.

Emmanuel Here

(1705-63). Place Royalc (Place Stanislas), Nancy, Lorraine, eighteenth century

Wi ;^^|||}^>,«,_l:^f 369 Giovanni Paolo Pannini

(f.

i692-i'.

1768). Piazza

Navona

flooded,

Rome

370 Alberto Churriguera and Andres Garcia de Quiriones. Plaza Mayor, Salamanca, 1728-50

371

Giovanni Bologna (1524-1608J. Cosmic

de' Medici, Piazza della Signoria, Florence,

374

Ciacomo

Charles

II

Serpotta

of the

Two

(1656-1732).

Sicilies

Model

for

I

1594

statue of

372

Francesco

Mocchi (1580-1654J.

Model

tor

statue

of

Alessandro Farnese

375 Etienne Falconet (1716-91). Peter the Great, St Petersburg

(Leningrad), 1766-82

nmo

rWiH9

373 Francois Girardon (1625-1715). of Louis

Model

for statue

XIV

376 Matthias Steini (1644-1727). Ivory figurine of Emperor Leopold

I

377 Andreas Schliiter

(c

1660-1714).

French origin, the

place royale

The Great

Elector,

Berlin

Place royale

Of

centred

on

is

an urban focal point

symbol of monarchic

a

royal

statue:

centralization.

With

rare exceptions, the statue

trian one,

designed

traditions dating

on

a

a

is

back

an eques^

Renaissance; the prince

to the Italian

reflecting the serenity of a

and the warrior curbing

image of Louis

is

m accordance with one of two alternative

walking horse,

procession,

it

a

rearing, fiery steed.

XIV as a Roman general in

by Girardon, made

its

influence

felt

triumphal

all

The

triumph, created

over Europe.

Strength subdued

The theme

of strength

subdued frequently

served to embelHsh equestrian statues where

it

symbolized the victories of the prince con^ cerned.

The theme

of the strong

was invented by Michelangelo.

man in chains From the late

sixteenth century onwards, the victories of the

Imperial forces over the Turks established a fashion for fettered Moorish or Turkish slaves in art

(see

statues.

uous

effort

world

p^ls

2^y-8) which spread to royal

The Michelangelesque theme

in the

was much used

in the

form of the Atlantean

of stren^

baroque

figure.

378 Pietro Tacca (1577-1640). Moorish slaves on base of statue of Ferdinando

I

de'

Medici by Giovanni

Bandini, Livorno, 1620-23

379 Lucas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745).

Oberes

Belvedere, Vienna, 1714-21, with Atlantean figures

Commemorative monuments All over Europe monuments were

pubHc

squares.

Many

set

up

were votive columns,

are these, erected in thanksgiving for the

in as

end of

outbreaks of plague.

380 Guglia del Gesii, Naples, 1748

381 Dreifaltigkeitssaule, Modling, near

Vienna, 1714

382 Liberal Bruant (c.

1637-97). Hotel des

Invalides, Paris,

begun 1690

383 Christopher

Wren

(1632-1723). Royal Hospital (Royal Naval College), Greenwich, 1694

384 Olov Rudbeck (1630-1702). Anatomy theatre, Uppsala, 1662-63

385 Jan Cornelisz. van

't

Woudt

(c.

1570-1615).

Public buildings Baroque town planning incorporates functional

essays

in the design of such public buildings as universities hospitals.

But these

their place in the

and

utilitarian structures, as they take

urban panorama, always have the

external appearance of palaces.

386 Dispensary of hospital, Besangon, France, eighteenth century

2ES!

Anatomy

theatre,

Leyden, 1616

388 Gustav

387 Picture room, Herzogenburg, Austria, eighteenth century

Museums

The museum

is

II's

Antikmuseum, Stockholms

Slott,

1792

one of the most remarkable of the creations of the

baroque age. Monarchs, princes, rich

citizens

and monastic com^

munities had rooms crowded with scientific specimens (see also pi.

389 Glass collection, Rosenborg, Copenhagen, 1714

2-]f),

ohjets d'art,

antique sculptures and paintings.

390 Cabinet Lafaille,

La

Rochelle, eighteenth century

391 Frieze, Bodleian Library, Oxford, f.1630

Libraries

Whether

in a palace, a monastery or a university, the

particularly

sumptuous

portraits of great

institution.

The

oldest

baroque library

is

a

examples are decorated with

men. In eighteenth^century Central Europe they became

temples of learning, laden with allegory and symbol (see also

pi. 25).

392 Bartholomaus Altomonte (1702-79). Library, Ardtnont, Austria, 1776

393

Sebastien

Le

Prestre,

Marquis de Vauban (1633-1707). Fort Carre, Antibes

394 Louis de Foix (b. 1535).

Chapel of lighthouse, Cordouan, France, begun 1585

Utilitarian buildings Public works in the baroque age were treated as works of art.

Sometimes,

as

in

Vauban's

fortifications,

beauty

springs from the logic of form perfectly suited to function.

But even

in

purely utilitarian buildings such as light'

houses, the engineer could

himself an architect.

rise to

the occasion

and make

.

.

Bazin, Germain. 'La notion de

Tan hoUandais', Gazette 1952; L'Aleijadmho

des

dans

baroque au Bresil, Paris

et la sculpture

London

1963; Baroque and Rococo,

Blondel,

"I'interieur"

Beaux^Arts, Paris January

1963-

.

Jacques'Frangois. Architecture fran^aise, ou

recueil des plans,

coupes et profls des iglises,

ilivations,

maisons royales, palais

.

.

de France, Paris

.

BoFFRAND, Germain. De d' architecture

.),

.

.

(Livre

liber...

de. L'ltalie

..en ij^g

et

y a cent ans, ou Lettres

il

1740

.

.

.,

Paris 1836.

Paris 1898 etc.;

1929; La Letteratura

Ors Rovira,

italiana del settecento,

architetti napoletani,

Bari 1949.

Vite de' pittori, scultori ed

Naples 1742-3.

Rosa

.

.

.

The

Eugenio

(Zur

Evelyn, John. Sylva ., London 1664. Felibien, Andre. Entretiens sur les vies et les ouvrages des

determine par la mesure de

.

plus excellens Peintres anciens

et

modernes, Paris 1685-8.

Felibien, Jean^Frangois. Les Plans de

deux des plus

maisons de campagne de Pline

belles

consul; avec une dissertation touchant et

I' architecture

FoRSSMAN, iiber

gothique

et les descriptions

.

.

.

,

I'architecture

k

antique

Paris 1699.

den Gebrauch der Sdulenordnungen in der Architektur

Francois, R^ne

Stockholm 1961.

(i.

e.

ages, tions,

de.

ou des moyens d'embellir Paris

De

la nature

and Geneva 1777;

London 1783. GraclAn, Baltasar.

Rouen

la composition des

tr..

Ordculo manual y

arte de prudencia,

Paris 1740.

,

des lumieres

siecle

Rose, Hans. Rousset,

in

Spdtbarock,

Geschichte des

Munich

1922.

Jean. Atti del quinto congresso internazionale

lingue e letterature moderne, I' age

Studien zur

denjahren i66o-ij6o,

di

Florence 1951; La Littirature

baroque en France, Paris 1953;

Don Juan

et le

baroque, Paris 1956.

Bau",

BiW

todesca della Archie

Teutsche Akademie der edlen

mid Mahlerey-'KHnste, Nuremberg 1675-9.

Santos, Reynaldo

dos. L'Art portugais, Paris 1938. volkstUmliche Motivik im

Festwerk des Barocks, Berlin i960.

Tapie, VictorxL. Baroque et classicisme, Paris 1957'Triumpho eucharistico exemplar de christandade luzitana em pubUca exaltagao da Fe na solemne

Cornelius.

Geschichte

des

Barockstiles,

Creation of the Rococo,

and Portugal and

Soria.

their

Art and Architect

American dominions,

Franpis d'Orbay,

Grands

.

.

.

aos 24

occidental 1734)', in Rivista do

Archivo Publico Mineiro VI, Ouro Preto 1 90 1 , pp. 996 sq

Varagnac, Andre.

Harmondsworth 1959. Albert.

trasladacao de divinitissimo sacramento

Maio 1733 (Lisboa

Kubler, George, and Martin

XIV {Les

Amiens

Redescubrimento de America en el arte,

Philadelphia 1943.

Laprade,

et

.les observa^

.

STRZYGOwsKi,]osd. AufgangdesNordens,L.ei]p2igi9'i6.

Kimball, Sidney Fiske.'Tfc

Louis

.

The

Oracle, Lon.-

Stuttgart 1887-9.

1 £00-1800,

...

Sandrart, Joachim. L'Academia

Rosario 1941 and Buenos Aires 1944.

ture in Spain

etc.

Louis. L' Europe fran(aise au

Sieber, Friedrich. Volk und

2nd ed. Madrid 1653; tr.. The Courtier's don 1694, The Oracle, London 195 3-

GuRLiTT,

de Maupertuis

Picard, etpar

tectura, Scultura e Pittura: oder

scape,

Guido, Angel.

Meridien entre Paris

M.

pays'

Essay on Land'

Madrid 1944.

Barocco,

1622.

autour des habitat

An

Lo

d'.

(L'evolution de I'humaniti, 70), Paris 1938.

de

Etienne Binet). Essay des

merveilles de nature, et des plus nobles artifices,

Girardin, Renc'Louis

Mrs.

Profanbaues

Erik. Dorisch, jonisch, korinthisch. Studien

des i6.''i8. Jahrhunderts,

Reau,

de

Times of Salvator

Life and

Galileo as a Critic of the Arts,

Picard, Jean. Degre du tions de

.,

Kunstgeschichte des Auslands), 1900-8.

Table ronde, Paris September 1961. .

. .

XIIL Cen^

in France,

Vita e opere di Salvator Rosa, pittore,

Panofsky, Erwin. Hague 1954-

DouBROVSKY. 'Cinna etla dialectiquedu monarque*,

Art

1824.

OzzoLA, Leandro. poeta, incisore

note

Bologna 1678.

Sydney.

London

,

Bibliographical

,

Religious

tr..

Pittori Bolognesi .. .,

Morgan,

Dominici, Bernardo.

.

tury, London and New York 1913 and 1961. Malvasia, Carlo Cesare. Felsina Pittrice. Vite

CoRTE, Marcel de. L'Homme contre luiymeme, Paris 1 962. Croce, Benedetto. Storia dell'eta barocca in Italia, Bari

De

.

Male, Emile. L'Art religieux du Xllle siecle en France

1752-6.

Paris 1745.

Brosses, Charles icrites d'ltalie

architectura

Larsen, Erik. Frans Post, interprete du Bresil .. ., Amsterdam and Rio de Janeiro 1962. Le Brun, Charles. Conference ... sur I'expression Amsterdam and Paris 1698; gineraleet particuliere tr.. The Conference... upon Expression, London 1701 etc. Leonard, Emile G. Le Protestant franpis, Paris 1953.

de vie, Paris

Civilisation traditionnelle et genres

1948.

WiLHELMiNA OF Bayreuth. Mmoires

de Frederique

Sophie Wilhelmine de Prusse, Margrave de Bareith, Paris Architecte

de

Architectes), Paris i960.

Leoni, Giacomo. The Architecture of A. Palladia, London 1715-16; The A. ofL. B.Alberti, London 1726.

1811;

tr..

Memoirs

.

.

.

,

London

1812, 1887.

WiNCKELMANN, Johann Joachim. Nachahmung

der griechischen

Wercke

Gedancken

in der

Bildhauer'Kunst, Friedrichstadt 1755.

iiber die

Mahlerey und

357

1

List

MONOCHROME

of illustrations 1

PLATES

Titian (1489-1576). Presentation of the Virgin in

Sttong. Albertinum, Dresden. Skulpturensamm^

theTemple.Accademia,Venice.M«/wf//'yl«(/e/-w«.

2 Tintoretto (1518-94). Presentation of the Virgin

Img, Dresden.

22 Anon.

in the Temple. Santa Maria dell'Orto, Venice.

Titian (1489-1576).

Assumption of

Museum, Vienna.

Kunst^

I.

Kunsthist.

Museum.

Frederick

Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Assumption. MuseesRoyaux des Beaux^Arts, Brussels, yl. C.L. 6 Fra Bartolommeo (1472-1517). Virgin and Child with saints. Lucca cathedral. ManselUBro^i. 7 Jacopo da Pontormo (1493-1557). Virgin and Child with saints. San Michele Visdomini, 5 Peter

de Versailles. ManselU Alinari.

24 Jacob Jordaens (1593-1678). Triumph of Prince

Anderson.

4 GirolamoBedoliMazzola(i 500-69). Immaculate Conception. Pinacoteca, Parma. ManselUAlimri.

Henry (detail), Huis ten Bosch, Nether^

R. K. D. Daniel Gran (1694-1757). Emperor Charles VI 25 surrounded by allegories, Hofburg (Nationals lands.

bibliothek), Vienna, after 1722.

26 Joseph Vernet (1714-89). Sporting contest on the Tiber at Rome (detail). National Gallery, Lon^ don. By courtesy ofthe Trustees of the National Gallery.

27 Giacomo Ceruti

Florence. ManselhAlinari.

(fl.

1750).

Woman

spinning,

with beggar. Private collection, Brescia.

Paul Rubens (1577-1640). Mystic Marriage

28 Los Hoes, farmhouse at Twente, the Netherlands,

of St Catherine. Eglise des Augustins, Antwerp.'

seventeenth

A. C. L.

kenkunde, Arnhem.

9 Alonso Sanchez Coello (15 1 5-90). Sacred Form, in sacristy of the Escurial, Madrid. Mas.

Rijksmuseum voor Vol^

century.

29 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Ceiling of the Mar/ morsaal, MeUc, Ausuia, 173 1.

10 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Third

30 Jean^Baptiste Pigalle (1714-85). Memorial to

project for east front of the Louvre, Paris, engrav/

Marshal Maurice de Saxe, in Saint^Thomas,

ing by Jean Marot.

Strasbourg, 1773. Giraudon.

11 East front of the Louvre, Paris, engraving

by

3

Blondel.

La Madalenha, FaU

Staatliche J.

pftege,

Nuremberg 1586.

Satteling.

Silver

candelabrum, Amsterdam

0"

33

Hamburg.

Hamhurger, Amsterdam.

Augsburg 1745-47. Evangelische Kir^ chengemeinde St Anna, Augsburg. 17 Simon Guillain (1581-1658). Louis XIII (de^ tail). Musee du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon. 18 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Fran/ cesco I d'Este. Galleria Estense, Modena. ManselU

19 Ahtoine

Coysevox (i 640-1 720). The Great Conde. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon. 20 Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720). Louis XFV. Chateau de Versailles. Giraudon. 2.1

Paul Heermann (1673-1732).

Augustus the

Baden/Baden,

Amt fur Denkmah *

Traunkirchen,

Austtia,

Stairway of the Five Senses,

34-5 Charles

eighteenth

Bom Jesus do Monte,

Le Brun (1619-90).

sion: profile

and

full face

of a

Studies of express

ram and

a

Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre,

man. Paris.

^GR.4CJ. 36-7 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Bles^ sed soul

and Damned

soul.

Santa Maria in

Rome. ManselUAnderson. Georges de la Tour (1593-1652). St Peter

Monserrato, 38

tant (detail). Cleveland

Hanna Fund. Museum

Museum

repen/

of Art, Gift of

of Art.

XIV

and other figures in a carrousel, 1662. Chateau de Versailles. Cliche des Musics

39 Louis

Alinari.

Stiftskirche,

Braga, Portugal, 1730-37.

16 Bernhard Heinrich Weye. Silver baptismal ewer tray,

in

century.

15 J. Caffieri. Silver three^branched girandole, Paris, eighteenth century. Private collection, Paris.

and

Margrave Louis William of Baden,

Karlsruhe.

32 Pulpit,

Kunstsammlungen, Dresden.

1770. Collection Erich Schliemann, Premsela

to

eighteenth century. Staatliches

perra, Portugal.

13 Nicolaus Schmidt. Silver ewer,

14

Memorial

'Tiirkenlouis',

12 Detail of rocaille ornament.

358

Emperor Leopold

1695).

XIV. Chateau

the Virgin.

Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice. Mansell-

8 Peter

(c.

historisches

23 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Louis

Maiisell''Anderson. J

,

natioiiaux.

40 Anon, (seventeenth century). Bernini's Ecstasy of St Teresa (see pl. xiii) in Santa Maria della Vit^ toria,

Rome.

Staatliches

Museum, Schwerin.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

41 Giacomo Torelli (1604-78). Set Pelee et ie

for

Les Noces

Ustau Pamatkovi Pice, Prague, Vera Pospisilovd.

ie

Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.

Thetis.

62 Anon. Head of

42 Giacomo Serpotta (1656-1723). Temptation of St Francis (detail), in

in Franziskanerkirche, Salzburg.

64 Thomas Weissfeld (1671-1722). St Hubert, in

43 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). St Lon/ ginus, in St Peter's,

Rome.

45 Gaspare Vigarani (c 1586-1663). Theatre des Tuileries, Paris, 1662 (model by Durignaud). Desprez

Stage

(1743-1804). 46 Jean/Louis Drottningholm, Sweden. Helga SchmiduGlassner.

set,

47 Giuseppe Galli Bibiena (1669-1757) and Carlo Galli Bibiena (1725-87). Auditorium of Mark/ grafUches Opernhaus, Bayreuth.

48 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio {c. 15621609). St Jerome. Cathedral Museum, Valeria, Malta. Gaiinetto fotografico nazionale.

49 Daniele Crespi (1598/1600-1630). St Charles Borromeo at table. Chiesa della Passione, Milan. Alinari.

50 Ferdinand Bol

(f.

1610-80). Philosopher in medi/

ration. Musee du Louvre, Paris. ManselUAlinari. 51 Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69). Philosopher. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Ciraudon, 52 Diego Velazquez(i599-i66o). Philip FV. Museo

del Prado, Madrid. Mas.

53 Francisco de Zurbaran (1598-1666). Fray Fran/

Zumel. Academia de San Fernando,

Madrid. Mas. 54 Gerrit Terborch (1617-81). Portrait of a man. Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Munich. Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen.

cathedral. Giraudon. {ji.

1648-88). Projea

for

fagade of Milan cathedral, 1648. Milan cathedral. ArchwioyBiblioteca, Ven. FabbricadelDuomo diMilano.

57 Carlo Buzzi (d. 1658). Project cathedral, 1653.

for fagade of

Milan cathedral. As

Kamenz,

Silesia.

St

Anne

(detail), in

(c.

1690-1775).

church of Metten, Austria.

66 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741). Decor in choir of Stiftskirche, Zwetd, Austria, 1722-35. Bildy archiv der osterreickischen Nationalbibliothek.

67

Prefettura, Lecce, sixteenth century. Alinari.

68 Francesco Borromini (1599-1667). Vault, in chapel of Collegio di Propaganda Fide,

1649-66.

Rome,

Instituto Editoriale Electa.

69 Janus Lutma (c. 1584-1669). Choir screen of St Catharinakerk, Amsterdam, 1650. Rijksdienst

Monumentemorg.

70 Frangois/Joseph Bellanger (1744-18 18). Design for pavilion. Bagatelle, France, from S. G. Krafft, Recueil d'architecture, 1812.

71 Stucco tracery of window, Arbury Hall, War/ wickshire, eighteenth century. Edwin Smith.

72 John Chute (1701-76). Library of Strawberry Descrip' Hill, begun 1766, from H. Walpole,

A

tiott

oj Strawberry

Hill.

73 Pellegrino Tibaldi (1527-96). Santa Maria presso San Celso, Milan, after 1583. Alinari.

74 Vincenzo Seregno (c. 15 10-1594). Madonna dei Miracoli, Saronno, 1556-66. Alinari. 75 Sant'Angelo, Milan. Gabinettofotografico nazionale. 76 Domenico Frisone (Jl. 1622) and Giovanni

Stucco decor in San

Battista Barberini (d. 1666).

Lorenzo, Laino d'lntelvi, Lombardy.

55 Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742). Fagade, Orleans

CasteUi

Zisterzienserkirche,

65 Franz Joseph Ignaz Holzinger

Anderson.

44 Giambattista Aleotti (1546-1636). Teatro Far/ nese, Parma. ManselhAlinari.

56 Francesco

the Father, in Miinster,

63 Michael Pacher(c. 1435-98). Virgin and Child,

San Lorenzo, Palermo.

Anderson.

cisco

God

Breisach, sixteenth century. Foto Marburg.

Bildarchiv der osterreichisclteii Natioitalbibliothek.

Milan

^6.

58 Giuseppe Brentano (1862-89). Fagade of Milan

begun 1893. ManselUAlinari. 59 Nicholas Hawksmoor (1661-1736). All Souls College, Oxford, 1734. National Buildings Record. 60 Christopher Wren (1632-1723). Tom Tower, cathedral,

Christ Church, Oxford, 1681-82. A. F. Kersting. 61 Johann Santin Aichel (1667-172 3). Monastery

church of Kladrau (Kladruby), 1712-26. Stdtni

77 Diego Carlone (1674-1750) and Carlo Carlone (1686-1775). Decor in Santa Maria, Scaria, Intelvi,

Lombardy.

78 Lorenzo LomelUni. Decor of nave, Santissima

Aimunziata, Genoa, 1587.

Alinari.

79 Edenne Manellange (i 569-1641). Chapel, Col/ legede LaFleche, 1612. Archives Pbotographiques. 80 Lieven de ket),

Key (i 560-1627).

Haarlem, 1602.

81 Canterbury

Vleishal (meat mar/

Rijksdienst

Quadrangle,

St

Mommentenzorg. John's

Oxford, 163 1-6. Royal Commission on

College, Historical

Monuments (England). 82 Fran9ois Aguillon (1566-1617) and Peter Huys/ sens (1577-1637). Saint/Charles/Bonomee,

werp, 1615-21. A. C. L.

Ant/ 359

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Museum, Rotterdam. Boymans'van B. Museum. Heda (1594-1682). Still-life. Hamburger Kunsthalle. Kleinhempel.

83 Santa Teresa, Avila, 1631-54. Mas.

84 Georg Dientzenhofer (1643-1689). Martinskir' che, Bamberg, 1690. A. F. Kerstin£.

104 Willem Claesz.

85 Valentino Pezani (d. 1716). Fa5ade of Neumiin/

105 Roelant Savery (1576-1639). Flower piece. Cen-

ster,

Wiirzburg, begun 1711. Gimdemann.

86 Lukas Kilian

Ornament, from

1618).

(J?.

Huysum (1682-1749). Flower piece. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Rijksmuseum. 108 Frans Hals (1580-1666). Banquet of the guard of

c.

1620. CourtauU

ster,

91

(c.

Uberlingen,

Column,

c.

High

altar of

545-1601) and

1

Frederiksborg,

near

others.

Copenhagen,

(detail).

Hunting scene

des Beaux'Arts, Orleans. Archives

Roelas

las

15 60-1 625). Crucifixion

(c.

Andrew. Museo Provincial, Seville. Mas. Claude Vignon (1593-1670). Croesus display 95 ing his treasure to Solon. Musee des Beaux^Arts,

Judith

dam. Rijksmuseum.

Wine

(1617-92).

Museum

Montreal

clavichord.

Woman

at

of Fine

the

Arts.

Purchased 1894. Tempest Fund. Montreal

Mu^

112 Hendrick

de

Keyser (1565-21).

Zuiderkerk,

Tours.

114 Joost Vingboons Palazzo

centurion.

Corsini,

Rome.

Gabinetto

98 Joseph Wright of Derby (1734-97). Experiment with an air pump. Tate Gallery, London. By Santini

1672-84).

(Jl.

Armillary

Sphere according to the planetary system of Heracleides of Pontus. Science, Oxford.

A. Magny. historisches

Museum

Museum

of the History of

of the History of Science.

Microscope,

Kunsthistorisches

eighteenth

Museum,

century.

Vienna.

Kunst'

Museum.

der

osterreichischen

National'

and

insects.

(1640-79). Flowers, 6uit,

Musee du Louvre,

Paris.

with

la

Stockholm,

1650. Refot.

Quellinus (1609-68). *Triumph of Maximus and Israelites gathering manna, Raadhuis (now royal palace), Amsterdam.

Fabius in

Kunsthistorisch Institut der Rijksuniversiteit tt Utrecht.

117 Doorway, Hotel de Vogiie, Dijon,

1610.

c.

118 Bedroom on second

1650-58.

119 Louis Le

Vau

begun

sailles,

floor.

Hotel Lauzun, Paris,

AGRACI. (1613-70). 1

Cour de Marbre, Ver-

66 1. Archives photographiques.

120 Jules Hardouin-Mansan (1646-1708). Garden

Grand Trianon,

fagade.

Versailles,

1687. Foto

121 Jacques-Ange

Gabriel

(1698-1782).

Garden Giraw

fagade, Petit Trianon, Versailles, 1762-6.

shells (detail).

Ill Colonnade,

east fagade of

Louvre, Paris 1667-70.

Giraudon.

123 Frangois Mansart (1598-1666). Val-de-Grace,

Archives photographiques.

103 Balthasar van der Ast life

1650-70) and Jean de

Riddarhuset,

don.

hibliotliek.

Abraham Mignon birds

c.

c.

(fl.

(1620-95).

Marhurg.

loi Cabinet of natural history, Seitenstetten, Austria,

1760-69. Bildarchiv

Vallee

Giraudon.

courtesy of the Trustees of the Tate Gallery.

99 Domenico

Monumentenzorg.

115-6 Artus

97 Jean Tassel (1608-67). Virgin and Child. Musee de Langres.

360

1610-68).

Rijksmuseum, Amster-

Amsterdam, 1603-14. RJjksdienst Monumentenzorg. 113 Admiraliteitshof, Amsterdam, 1661. RJjksdienst

fotografico nazionale.

102

(c.

Leyster at the virginals.

of St

96 Bernardo Cavallino (1622-54). St Peter and the

100

Rome. GsW-

seum of Fine Arts.

Photographiques.

94 Juan de

Jan Miense Molenaer

111 Emanuel de

Deruet (1588-1660).

Musee

courtesan. Palazzo Barberini,

netto fotografico nazionale.

no

detail of ;>/. go. Etigen Ktisch.

1600-20. A. Brandt.

93 Claude

and

Miin^

161 3. Siegfried Lauterwasser.

92 Hans Steenwinkel (c Slotskirke,

Frans Hals Museum.

109 Hendrick Ter Brugghen (1585-1629). Musician

of Art.

Institute

1583-f. 1630).

Museum, The Hague.

George. Frans Hals

St

89 Doorway of gold room, Schloss Biickeburg,

90 Jdrg Ziim

(1606-83). Flower piece.

107 Jan van

161 8.

Biichkiii,

Heem

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden. Deutsche Fotothek.

87 Wendel Dietterlin (c 1550-99). Design for door' way, from Architectura, Nuremberg 1598. Neues Groteschgen

Uttecht. Centraal Museum.

106 Jan Davidsz.de

Neves Gradesco BuMein, 1607.

88 Johann Smieschek

Museum,

traal

(1579-1637). Grotesques, from

1590-c 1656). StillBoymans-van Beuningen (c.

Paris,

12^ Jules

1645H55. Giraudon.

Hardouin-Mansan (1646-1708).

Saint-

.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Louivdesxinvalides, Paris. Archivesphoto^raphiques.

Holy

125 Michel Anguier (1612-86).

family,

in

Saint'Roch, Paris. Archives photo^raphiques.

126 Frangois Girardon (1628-1715) and

Thomas

Regnaudin (1622-1706). Apollo attended by nymphs, in Grotte d' Apollon.Versailles,

1 666-75



Giraudon.

127 Philippe

Champaigne

de

(1602-74).

Mere

Catherine^ Agnes Arnauld and Soeur Catherine

de Sainte^Suzanne

(detail).

Musee du Louvre,

Le Sueur (1617-55). The Muses Clio, Euterpe and Thalia. Musee du Louvre. Giraudon. 129 Louis Le Nain (c. 1593-1648) and Mathieu Le Nain (c. 1607-77). Venus at Vulcan's forge. 130 Francesco Albani (1578-1660). Triumph

of

(f.

Rome.

Mansell^Anderson.

Le Brun (1619-1690). St Mary Magda^ Musee du Louvre, Paris. Archives photO"

148 Charles len.

149 Pierre Puget (1620-94). Milo of Crotona. Mus^e du Louvre, Paris. Giraudon.

Fernandez

150 Gregorio

Museo

{c.

1576-1636).

Pieti.

Provincial, Valladolid. Mas.

Donner (1639-1741). Angel, formerly

Museum

in Pressburg (Bratislava) cathedral.

of

Kremsmiinster, Austtia, 1682-5. Helga Schmidt^ Glassner.

Clemency (detail), in

sacristy of Seville cathedral,

Carracci (i 560-1609). Diana and Endymion, in Gallery of Hercules, Palazzo

153 Annibale

Farnese,

1606. Mas.

133 Gregorio Fernandez

15 76-1 63 6). Altarpiece,

(c.

Las Huelgas, Valladolid, 1618. 134 Flaminio Ponzio (c. 1560-1613). Pauline Cha/ pel, Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 1605- 11. Anderson.

Giacomo della Porta {c. 15 37-1602). Fagade of II Gesu, Rome, 1584. Anderson. 136 Carlo Maderno (1556-1629). Santa Susanna, Rome, 1603. Anderson.

135

137 Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1483-1546). Palazzo Farnese,

Rome.

Rome.

139 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Square before St Peter's, Rome, begun 1656, from edifices

.

Rome,

1633. ManselU Alinari.

141 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (i 598-1680). Sant' Quirinale,

Rome,

1560-

(c.

Martyrdom of St Matthew. Contarelli chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Anderson. 1609).

155 Juan de Valdes Leal (1622-90). death. La Caridad, Seville. Mas.

Triumph of

156 Bartolome Esteban Murillo (1617-1682). Imma^ culate Conception. Museo Provincial, Seville. Mas. 157 Joshua Reynolds (1723-92). Lord Heathfield. National Gallery, London. By courtesy of the Trustees of the National Gallery.

at Steen.

National Gallery, London. By courtesy

1658. Foto Marburg.

142 Francesco Borromini (1599-1667).

159 Anthony van Mirtillo.

Dyck

(1599-1641). Amarilli and

Gothenburg Art Gallery, Gothenburg.

Gothenburg Art Gallery.

.

140 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (i 598-1 680). Balda^ chin, in St Peter's,

Gabinetto fotografico nazionak.

of the Trustees of the National Gallery.

Alinari.

Barbault, Les plus beaux

Rome.

154 Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio

158 Peter Paul Rubens (i 577-1640). House and park

Anderson.

Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Pa^

lazzo Barberini,

Dome

of

Sant'Ivo alia Sapienza, Rome, 1660. Foto Marburg.

143 Francesco Borromini (i 599-1667). San Carlo alle

San Sisto, Piacenza, 1698. Alinari. 147 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Apollo and Daphne (detail: Daphne). Galleria Borghese,

Rome. A.

Capitolina,

132 Juan Martinez Montanes (1568-1649). Christ of

Andrea al

(jpl.

containing eighteenth/century copy,

1581-1641). Miracle of the pool

Galleria

Villani.

138 Giovanni

now

Fine Arts, Budapest. Museum of Fine Arts. 152 Michael Ziirn the younger (b. c. 1625). Angel,

Diana. Galleria Borghese, Rome.

of Bethesda.

286),

151 Rafael

des Beaux^Arts, Rheims.

131 Domenichino

II

graphiques.

Paris. Giraudoti.

128 Eustache

Musee

Gesu, Rome, 1668-S3. Alinari. Lady Chapel, Monreale. 146 Frame made for Raphael's Sistine Madonna of nave,

145 Altar of

Quattro Fontane, Rome, 1638-40. ManselU

the

left

Game,

fruit

Albert Newport

hunt.

and

attributes of

Gallery,

Zurich.

Albert Newport Gallery.

161 Pedro Roldan (1624-1700) and Bernardo

de Pineda

(Ji.

Simon

1641-89). Altarpiece, La Caridad,

Seville.

162 Altarpiece, Sao Bento, Oporto, 1701. 163 Altarpiece,

Santa Clara, Queretaro, Mexico.

164 Detail of fountain.

Alinari.

144 Antonio Raggi (1624-86). Stucco decor on

160 Jan Fyt (i6ii-6i).

Bom Jesus

Portugal, eighteenth century.

do Monte, Braga, 361

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

186 Columns, Chapel of the Miraculous Fountain,

165 Oratory on Pucnte de Toledo, Madrid.

166 Pedro and Miguel de Borja. Santa Maria

la

Dome

Blanca, Seville,

c.

Zagorsk, near Moscow, 1686-92.

of sacristy,

1652-57. Mas.

187

Statni Ustati Pamdtkove Pice a

Bohemia, 1690.

(1660-1726).

Stiftskirche,

170 Joh. Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (1656-1723). Prunksaal, Hofbibliothek (Nationalbibliothek),

Hofburg, Vienna, begun 1722. Tcni (1660-1726).

172 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741).

Historical Guide

Stiftskirche,

osterreichhckn

der

Wren

Nationalbibliothek.

(1632-1723).

Facade

of

.

,

from Strange,

An

ipoj.

eighteenth century.

194 Giacomo Serpotta (1656-1732). Humility, with putti, in San Lorenzo, Palermo, 1704. Alinari. 195 Lucas von Hildebrandt(i668-i745).Kaisersaal, Residehz, Wiirzburg, with frescoes by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, 1752.

Wren

Naval

(1632-1723). Royal Hospital

College),

Greenwich,

1694.

Ministry of Works.

177 Inigo Jones (i 573-1652). Double Cube Room, Wilton House, Wiltshire, 1649. 178 Crinling Gibbons (1648-1720). Staircase from Cassiobury Park, Hertfordshire, 1677-80. Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Fund, 1932.

Yorkshire, begun 1699- Copyright Country

Life.

180 John Vanbrugh. Hall, Castle Howard, York' Copyright Country

Wren

181 Christopher

Bow, London,

(1632-1723).

St

Mary^c

W.

Agid Quirin Asam (1692-1750). High

altar,

200 Johann Ivlichael Feichtmayr 11 (c. 1709-72). Stucco decoration, Zwiefalten, Bavaria, 1747-51. Hirmer Verlag.

of

Anton Feuchtmayer

(1696-1770).

from Wallfahrtskirche,

angel

Head

Frauenberg,

man

(Bodensee). Jeannine Le Brun.

202 Cartouche with Virgin and Child, Nossa Sen' hora da Luz, Rio de Minhos, Portugal, 1714. Aleijadinho (1738-1814). Doorway, Sao 203

O

Newbery.

Rascrelli

Wies, Bavaria, 1754. Foto Marburg. 199

Baden. Collection Graf Bodman, Schloss Bod^

1706. A. F. Kersting.

History of St Martinyin^the'Fields.Pi'^nPiaonuls

Ltd. Sydney

Zimmermann (1680-1758) and Domimkus Zimmermann (1685-1766). Die

198 Johann Baptist

201 Joseph

Life.

Gibbs (1682-1745). St Martin/inHhe^ London, 1721-26, from The Pictorial

183 Bartolommeo

197 Josef Munggenast (d. 1741). Decor, Prelatur, Altenburg, Austria.

Rohr, Bavaria, 1717-23. Foto Marburg.

Museum.

Metropolitan

196 Wolfgang van der Auvera (1708-56). Decor of Spiegelsaal, Residenz, Wiirzburg. Gundermann.

The

New York, Rogers

179 John Vanbrugh (1664-1726). Castle Howard,

(c.

1700-71).

Petersburg (Leningrad),

Winter 1754-68.

Martin Hiirlimann.

of state apartments, Tsarskoye Selo

(Pushkin).

362

.

193 Francesco de'Guardi (1712-93). Wedding of Tobiolo (detail). Palazzo Grassi, Venice. Archivio

Hiirlimann.

176 Christopher

184 Doorways

.

39. Hirmer Verlag.

Alten/

London, 1775-1710. Martin

transept, St Paul's,

St

1693-1750). Design

fotografico veneziano.

175 Christopher

Palace,

(c.

192 Alcove in breakfast room, Palazzo Reale, Turin,

174 Pulpit, Stiftskirche, Schlierbach, Austria, 1690.

Fields,

salon.

191 Frangois de Cuvillies (1695-1768). Spiegelsaal,

FrodlKraft.

182 James

Oval

Amahenburg, Nymphenburg, Munich, 1734-

begun 173 1. Eva FrodhKraft. 173 Pulpit, Altmiinster, Lin2, Austria, c. 1670. Eva

shire.

AGRACL

for cenffe^piece, Paris, 1734,

Stiftskirche,

Austria,

(Royal

du Petit^Luxembourg,

Hotel

Salon,

190 Just&'Aurele Meissonier

Schneider.

Melk, Austria, 1702-26. Foto Marburg.

Bildarchiv

Poland,

Institut Sztuki,

Hotel de Soubise, Paris, 1738-40. John Webb.

169 JohannBernhardFischervonErlach(i656-i72j). Karlskirche, Vienna, 1716-25. Eva FrodhKraft.

Prandtauer

Krosno,

church,

189 Germain Bofftand (1667-1754).

Melk, Austria, 1702-26.

burg,

Grand

Paris, 1710.

Prandtauer

171 Jakob

Franciscan

Pracownia Fotograficzna.

188

Ochrany Pnrody.

168 Jakob

Dome,

1647-50. Polska Akademia Nauk,

167 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (16561723). Ahnensaal, Schloss Frain (Vranov),

185 Monastery refeaory, Zagorsk, Moscow, 1686-92.

Francisco de Assis,

204 Doorway

Bom

Ouro

Preto,

1766 and 1774.

of chapel. Terrace of the Evangelists,

Jesus

do Monte, Braga, Portugal, 1767.

205 Thomas Chippendale

(c.

1709-79)- Design for

fireplace,

from The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's

Director,

London

1762.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

206 Stucco in North Hall, Claydon House, Bucking/ hamshire,

ture

and Painting. CoUeaion Conte L. Vecelh,

Rome.

1775. Edwin Smith.

c.

207 Inigo Jones(i573-i652). Queen's House, Green/ wich. Ministry of Public Building and Works. 208 Arent van 's/Gravesande (b. 1600). Sebastians/

The Hague,

ManselUAlinari.

Kauffmann (1741-1807). Ariadne

228 Angelika

deserted by Bacchus. Gemaldegalerie, Dresden.

Deutsche Fotothek.

1636.

229 Gavin Hamilton (1723-98). The Eighth Duke of Hamilton. Coll. Duke of Hamilton. Tom Scott.

209 Richard, Earl of Burlington (1695-175 3). Chis/

230 Joseph Vien (1716-1809). Vendor of Loves. Chateau de Fontainebleau. Giraudon.

doelen (Gemeentemuseum), Rijksdienst Monwnentenzorg.

wick House, Middlesex, 1725.

Ministry of Public

Building and Works.

210

1664. Copyright Country

Lodge,

Kent,

Castle,

Kent,

Vitruvius Britannicus,

212 Christian

1715-25, vol.

Friedrich

213

Thomas mond,

Anna

233 Gerard Honthorst (1590-1656). St Joseph the

Mellon Bruce Fund. National Gallery of Art.

Waltrova.

Jefferson (1743-1826). Capitol,

(c

1676-1736).

Rich/

Basilica

(c.

1700-64). San Simeone

Soufflot

(1713-80).

Holkham

1685-1748).

(c.

Great

Hall,

Hall, Norfolk, begun 1734. National

Buildinp Record, B. T. Batsford.

218 Jacques/Germain

Soufflot

(1713-80).

Sainte/

Genevieve(Pantheon),Paris,beguni757.G/raMi/u«.

219 Domenico Merlini (1731-97). Rotunda, La/ zienki,

Warsaw, 1784-93.

220 Filippo Juvarra

(c.

Basilica

di

Round Paris.

salon

on ground

floor.

Hotel de Fersen,

AGRACI.

museum,

St Petersburg,

c.

Fates.

1683). Portrait of a

Museo Civico, Padua.

Fondazione Giorgio Cini.

237 Francesco del Cairo (1598-1674). Herodias. Museo Civico, Vicenza. Museo Civico. 238 Francesco Maffei (c 1620-60). Adoration of the Magi. San Tommaso Cantuariense, Padua. Edizioni Artistiche Florentine.

239 Vittore Ghislandi (1655-1743). bella

Portrait of Isa/

Camozzi de'Gherardi. Collection Conte Alinari.

240 Gaspare Traversi (1732-69). Brawl. Museo di Soprintendenza

Laboratorio Fotografico della

alle Gallerie,

Naples.

241 'Monsu Desiderio'. Fantastic ruins with a vision

222 Charles/Louis Clerisseau (1722-1820). Projea for

(d.

San Martino, Naples.

Superga, Turin, 1717-31.

221

Three

(1581-I644).

Camozzi/Vertova, Bergamo.

Foto Marburg.

1676-1736).

Sttozzi

236 Sebastiano Mazzoni

captain of halberdiers. Sainte/

Genevieve(Pamheon),Paris,beguni757.G/'wHJo«.

217 William Kent

the Detroit Institute of Arts.

zis Bernardo

Piccolo, Venice, 1718-38. Edwin Smith.

216 Jacques/Germain

234 Artemisia Gentileschi (1597-1651). Judith and Holofernes. Institute of Art, Detroit, Courtesy of

di

Superga, Turin, 1717-31. Alinari.

215 Giovanni Scalfarotto

Carpenter. San Silvestro, Montecompatri. Gabi^ netto fotografico nazionale.

Virginia, begun 1785. Ewing Galloway.

214 Filippo Juvarra

AGRACL

232 Orazio Gentileschi

(1753-1832).

Kacina, neat Prague, 1802. Stdtni Ustau Parnate koviPece a Ochrany Pfircdy,

Rock Private

(c. 1565-1639). Lute player. NationalGalleryofAn,Washington,D.C.,Ailsa

3.

Schuricht

Mary (detail).

Campbell,

from

1723,

(1748-1825). St

interceding with the Virgin

Collection, Paris.

Life.

211 Colen Campbell (d. 1729). Elevation of Mere/

worth

David

231 Jacques/Louis

Hugh May (1622-84). Eltham

c.

of St Augustine. National Gallery,

London. By

Courtesy of the Trustees of the National Gallery.

1780.

of Congress.

242 Henry Fuseli (1741-1825). Titania and Bottom. Kunsthaus, Zurich.

224 Carlo Marchionni (1702-86). ViUa Albani,

243 Salvator Rosa (1715-73). Witches. Collection

223 Peter Harrison (1716-75). Synagogue, Newport,

Rhode

Island,

Rome, 1746-63.

1762-63.

Library

Alinari.

225 Jacques/Ange Gabriel (1698-1782). Hotel de la Marine, Place Louis/XV (Place de la Concorde), Paris, 1754. Giraudon.

zz6 Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732-1808). Bran/ denburg Gate, Berlin, 1789-94. Martin Hiirli" mann.

227 Pompeo Batoni (1708-87). Architecture, Sculp/

Busiri Vici.

Magnasco (1667-1749). Woman and soldiers at table. De Jong Memorial Museum, San Francisco, Calif. Dejong Memorial Museum.

244 Alessandro

245 Grotesques

in

grounds

of

Villa

Palagonia,

Bagheria, near Palermo, 1774-82.

246 King with

bearers,

from the

Indes, Gobelins, Paris, 1687.

first

Tenture des 363

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

247 Prince Eugene's bed, in Kaiserzimmer, Sankt Florian, Austria, eighteenth century. Bildarchw

267 Jean'Philippe Carel (fi. 1712). Lacquer com/ mode. Connaissance des Arts, Jacqueline Guillot.

der osteneichischen Natiomlbibliothek.

268 Wenzel Jamnitzer

248 Console table with figures of Moors, in Palazzo Colonna, Rome, seventeenth century. Vasari. Frans Post (c. 1612-80). Oxcart in Brazil. Musee 249

Munich.

(i7i9-95)-

odalisques embroidering.

Vilk

Musk

Musee de Nice. Musee.

d'Art

et d'Histoire.

253 Nicolas de Pigage (1723-96).

Mosque

of the

Moslem Troubadour, Schwetzingen, c. 1780. 254 Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz (1716-96). Turkish 'tent', Drottningholm, Sweden. Comaissance des Arts. Desjardins.

of

Company of

271 Charles Kandler

1734). Wine-cooler. Her/

(Jl.

milage, Leningrad.

272

Adam

vanVianen(c 1569-1627). Ewer. museum, Amsterdam. RJjksmuseum.

garden, from

New

des Arts, Jacqueline Guillot.

274 Base of fountain, Cordoba, eighteenth century. 275 Johann Baptist Pedrozzi (1710-78). Zedern/ saal, Neues Schloss, Bayreuth.

di

Palazzo

Reale,

Instituto Bancario

Germanisches Nationalmuseum.

Toledo

Frankenthal,

Dos Aguas,

Valencia. Courtauld

St John. National Gallery,

eighteenth

Institute

of Art.

London. By

courtesy

of the Trustees of the National Gallery. barber's

bowl,

Kakiemon

style.

283 Bachiacca (1494-1557). Virgin and Child with

&

St John. Formerly Collection Bruscoli, Florence. 284 Sassoferrato (1609-85). Virgin and Child. Gal'

Saxony, eighteenth century. Collection Herr Frau P. Ludwig, Aachen. Foto Hinz.

263 Silver tea caddy, London, 1748. Worshipful of

Goldsmiths,

London.

Wor.>

Company of Goldsmiths.

museum.

26$ Plate with 'Hob in the well' motif, Chelsea, eighteenth century. Irwin

Untermyer Collection,

Pompeo

Rome.

Anderson.

Batoni (1708-87). Virgin and Child.

Rome.

286 Raphael (1483-1520).

ManselUAnderson.

Sistine

Madonna

(detail).

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden. Deutsche Fotothek.

287 Jean/Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Vows of Louis XIII (detail: Virgin and Child). Montau/

ban

cathedral. Bulloz.

288 After Charles Le Brun (1619-90). Louis

York.

266 Thomas Chippendale

Borghese,

leria

285

Galleria Borghese,

264 Rochus Jacobsz. Hoppesteyn (c. 1650-92). Jar, Delft, c. 1690. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. Rijks^

New

Transparente,

cathedral, 1721-32. Mas.

282 Raphael (148 3-1 520). Virgin and Child with

century.

shipful

1715-38).

(Jl.

281 Ignacio Vergara (1715-76). Doorway, Casa de

eighteenth century. Scala.

Company

»

Tome

280 Narciso

San

Torino (Pizzi).

262 Porcelain

Collection

279 Pavilion of the Hermits, Eremitage, Bayreuth,

260 Oval room, Museo di Capodimonte, Naples, 261 Porcelain tea caddy,

1750.

c.

1715 Cinese,

Turin, eighteenth century. Paolo

Venice,

cradle,

278 Stone garden seat, Germany, eighteenth century. Germanisches Nauonalmuseum, Nuremberg.

1755. Martin Hiirlimann.

259 Decor in Gabinetto

Wooden

Saint/Pierre,

AmeUs.Ca.rtei.'V emce.Bayerisches Nationalmuseum.

Principles of Gardening, 1728.

258 Figures, Chinese pavilion, Sanssouci, Potsdam,

Rijks'

273 Physics exhibit. Cabinet Bonnier de la Mosson, Paris (engraving after Courtonne). Connaissance

277

of Art.

for centre^

piece. Uffizi, Florence. Mansell.

256 Christian IV of Denmark (1577-1648). Spire of Royal Exchange, Copenhagen, 1620-40. Courts Institute

London.

Goldsmiths,

276 Jacques Berger (1693-1756). Pulpit, Louvain, 1742. A. C. L.

257 Batty Langley (1696-1751). Design for Chinese

staatlichen

Goldsmiths.

255 Jean'LouisDesprez(i743-i8o4).DesignforChi^ nese pavilion, Drottningholm, 1788. Riksarkivet.

mid

364

Company

shipful

Worshipful

Geneva, Fondation Gottfried Keller.

de Geneve,

der

Seen.

269 Paul de Lamerie (1688-1751). Gilt ewer. Wor/

with

Sultana

252 Jean^Etienne Liotard (1702-89). Countess of Coventry in Turkish costume. Musee d'Art et d'Histoire,

Verwaltung

md

270 Jacques Callot (1592-1635). Design

Nationalmuseum, Stockholm.

Amed^e van Loo

Garten

Schlosser,

du Louvre, Paris. Archives Photographiques. 250 Claude Audran III (1658-1734). Grotesques. 251

1550-99). Ewer. Residenz,

((.

Bayerische

{c.

1760, one of pair. Sothehy

1709-79). Mirror,

&

Co., London.

c.

visits

the Gobelins factory.

Paris. Giraudon.

Musee

XFV

des Gobelins,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

289 Johann Joachim Kandler (1706-75). Porcelain love temple, Meissen. Museum fiir Kunsthand^ wetk, Frankfurt

am

As

Main.

Museum, London.

Museum, Crown Copyright.

c.

Mme 1760.

de Pompadour

as

Wadsworth Athene

um,Hartford,Conn. Courtesy WadsworthAtheneum.

294 Nicolas Ransonnette (1745-18 10). Tide page of L'Art de la porcelaine, 1771. Bibliotheque de la Ma' 295 Retrospective decree of Louis

XV incorporating

crown institution, 1760. Archives de la Manufaaure Nationale de Sevres. the Sevres factory as a

296 Porcelain manufacture, from the of Diderot and d'Alembert, 1777.

Encyclopedie

297 Porcelain teapot (soft paste), Vincennes, Viaoria and Albert Museum, London.

O

Aleijadinho (1738-1814).

Crown

c.

1750.

Victoria

William of Orange,

for fountain. Piazza

Vaticana.

century.

318 David

Bailly

Leyden. By

Private

collection,

AGRACI. London.

Reproduced

by

302 'BVRB'. Desk, Paris, eighteenth century.

Cob

Mrs Charles B. Wrightsman. Museum of Art. 8c

303 'BVRB'. Bureau de dame with Oriental lacquer. Paris, eighteenth century. Schloss

Sclilosser,

Bayerische

Verwaltung

Nymphenburg, der

staatlichen

Garten und Seen.

304 Bas rehef of St Valentine, Veneto, 1662. Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona. Museo di Castelvecchio. 305 Altar, Fazen de Santo Antonio, Sao Paulo, Brazil.

K.

Vosylius.

306 Ivar Gundersen Ovstrud (171 1-75). Stone coffer (detail: Angel). Nordiska Museet, Oslo. Museet. 307 Jaguar

(detail),

Embii, Brazil, eighteenth century.

Alinari.

{c.

artist.

Vanitas: Stedelijk

H. TerryEngell

still/life

Museum, Gallery.

1676-1736). Stage design.

Museum, London. Victoria Crown Copyright. 320 Giacomo Lecchi and Carlo Carlone (1686and Albert Museum,

1776). Frescoes, Villa Lechi, Mortirone, 1745. Georgina Masson. {c.

148&-1546).

Dome

dei Miracoli, Sarotmo, 1534.

Lanfranco

ManselU Alinari.

permission of the Trustees of the Wallace Collection.

Munich.

800.

Victoria and Albert

Paris.

of drawers, France, eighteenth century. Collection,

courtesy of

319 Filippo Juvarra

323 Pietro da

vate collection, Paris.

Metropolitan

1

Minerva, Rome. Biblioteca

(1584-1627).

San Gennaro

joo Faience dredger, Rouen, eighteenth century. Pri^

Mr

(detail).

Biblioteca Vaticana.

Delft,

AGRACI.

Rome.

Jesuit missions, Sant' Ignazio,

322 Giovanni

lection

Isaiah

317 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). Design

A GRA CI.

figurine of

Wallace

Rio

eight'

Congonhas do Campo, Brazil,

321 Gaudeiizio Ferrari

Copyright.

eenth century. Private collection, Paris.

301 Chest

and

Hess.

Madonna

eighteenth

Bolivia.

Ivliguel,

Sul, Brazil, seventeenth

Bom Jesus,

298 Faience wine-cooler, Moustiers, France, eighth

299 Faience

Sao

(details),

with portrait of young

nujacture Nationale de Sevres.

and Albert Museum,

Saints

de Belas Artes.

Potosi,

316 Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709). Allegory of the

de Ceramica.

293 Porcelain figurine of Friendship, Sevres,

Lorenzo,

eenth centuries. Marcel Gautherot.

315

292 Plate with allegory of Architeaure, Alcora, before 1750. Museo de Ceramica, Barcelona.

San

of

Grande do

291 Porcelain plaqueshowing Maria Theresa, Doccia,

Museo

1667-72. Academia Nacional

tugal,

310 Doorway

311-14 Anon.

sewn fiir Kunsthandwerk.

Victoria and Albert

Le Brun, Konstanz.

Einsiedeln. Jeannine

309 Virgin, Santuario de Mosterio, Alcobaga, Por^

2go.

290 Porcelain coffee service, Vienna, 1760. Museum fiir Kunsthandwerk, Frankfurt am Main. Mu'

1745. Viaoria and Albert

Anne,

308 Christoph Daniel Schenk (d. 1691). St

(1582-1647).

of

As ^22.

Dome

of

chapel, Naples cathedral, 1641.

Conona

(1596-1669).

Dome

of Santa

Maria in ValliceUa, Rome. ManselUAlinari. 324 Paul Troger (1698-1762). Dome of Stiftskirche, Altenburg, Austria. Verlag F. Bruckmann. 325 Giambattista Piazzetta (i 682-1754).

SS. Giovanni

e Paolo,

Venice,

c.

Dome

of

1725. ManselU

Anderson.

326 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770).

world pays homage

to

of Art, Washington,

The

Spain. National Gallery

D.

C,

Samuel H. Kress

Collection. National Gallery of Art.

327 Kosmas choir,

Damian Asam (1686-1739).

Klosterkirche,

Weingarten,

Ceiling of

Germany.

Verlag F. Bruckmann.

328 Matthaus Giinther (1705-88).

Triumph

dith, Pfarrkirche, Wilten, Bavaria, lag F.

of Ju^

1754. Ver^

Bruckmann.

329 Johann Jakob Zeiller (1708-83). Pentecost,

dome

above crossing, Ottobeuren, Swabia, 1763 Hirmer. .

330 Johann Georg Bergmiiller (1688-1762). Ceiling

365

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

of

Zwiefalten,

nave,

Bavaria.

331 Guarino Guarini (1624-83).

Hirmer

Lc

renzo, Turin. Alimri.

kirche,

Vierzehnheiligen,

Bavaiia,

335 Pieter Jansz. Saenredam (i 597-1665). View of St Janskerk, Uorecht, 1645. Centraal Museum, Utrecht. Centraal Museum.

336 Kerk, Alkmaar, seventeenth century. 337 Salomon de Brosse (i 571-1626).

Wren

(1632-1723).

London, 1700. A. F.

Roman

(Musee

Louis (1731-1800). Bordeaux,

Theatre,

des

Grand

Staircase,

1772-80.

Helga

Schmidts

Glassner.

361 Luigi Vanvitelli (1700-73). Staircase, Palazzo

(c.

1690 -f. 1780). Marble

Klosterneuburg, Austria, 1730-50.

345 Donato Felice Allio (r. 1690-f. 1780). Kloster^ neuburg, Austria, 1730-50. BiMarchiv der oster^

Aerofilms.

347 Bartolommeo Rastrelli (1700-71). Fagade, Pe^ terhof (Pyetrodvorets), near Leningrad, 1715-57.

Wiirzburg, engraving

Residenz,

(1678-175 3). after

Salomon

Kleiner.

Martin von Wagner.'Museum, Wiirzburg. Ver^ Gundermann.

349 Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736). Zwinger, Dresden, 171 9, engraving showing carrousel.

begun

1752.

Residenz, Wiirzburg,

(1678-1753). c.

Staircase,

1750. Verlag Gundermann. «

363 Salzburg, Austria.

364 Modica, Sicily. Germain Bazin. 1700. A. C. L. 365 Grand' Place, Brussels, 3'7- ^™-'fig^-

123, 202

Asam, Kosmas Damian

313, 321; Frederiks'

borg 82, 92, Rosenborg 244, 326, 389, Royal Exchange 217, 256'

307, 2og, 3^8

Cairo, Francesco del 237 Callot, Jacques 270

Altomonte,

19, 122

Cordoba: cathedral 44, fountain

Bernini,

344-5 Altenburg:

Cochin, Nicolas

79

Biickeburg: castle 82, 8g Bulfinch, Charles 133

Sanssouci 118-9, 25S

Alessi, Galeazzo 36, 78, 75

133,

Coello, Alonso Sanchez 9 College de La Fleche, chapel 79,

36s Brustolon,

Charles'Louis

136, 222

Buzzi, Carlo 75, 57

226, Kurfijrstenbriicke 317, 577,

Aleotti, Giambattista 203, ^4

AUio, Donato

Johann Georg 330 Brandenburg Gate 136,

Bergmiiller,

125,

35,

Claude Lorrain 101-2, 307, xi Claydon House 123, 206

Briihl: palace 243,

Pompeo

Batoni,

Bruegel, Jan ('Velvet') 91, 107

Charenton: Temple 291, 337

333,

Chelsea: Hospital 113, porcelain

panisches Palais 230, Zwinger

faaory 218,

Chippendale,

114, 123,

133, 218, 205, 266, fig. 3 Chiswick House 132, 307, 209,

358 Churriguera, Alberto 312, 3^0

Chute, John 77, 72

Neustadt 317, Ja'

46, 118, 225, ios, 349

2659

Emmanuel

312-3, 368

Herrera, the Elder 80, 324

Herzogenburg: picture room 38J Hildebrandt, Lucas von 117, 118,

Henry 209, 242

Fyt, Jean 106, 160

289, 294. 299, 195. 343. 379 Hobbema, Meindert, 90, Vll

Gabriel Jacques 55, 75

Holkham

Gabriel,

Jacques'Ange

95,

96,

134. 304, 319, 121, 22$, fig. 28

monastery

Hall, Norfolk 132, 217

Holzinger, Franz Joseph Ignaz 76, 123, 65

Clement 84, 326, 3^0 Laino d'Intelvi: San Lorenzo 78, 76 Lafaille,

Lanfranco, Giovanni 240, 322

Langhans, Carl Gotthard 136, 226

Le Blond, Frangois 314, 315 Le Brun, Charles 40-1, 96,

Huyssens, Peter 79, 82 loy

Jean^Dominique 232, 287

Wenzel 221, 268

Thomas

133, 213

Loo, Amedee van 219, 2^1 Lorrain, see Claude Louis

XrV

10, 23, 25, 27-30, 37,

218, 227, 230, 232, 297, 298, 301, 306, 317, 318, 323, 328, 20, 23

Louvain:

Saint--Pierre

276

Lutma, Janus 222, 6g Lyons: Saint'Pierr^295, 341

Maderno, Carlo 75, 103, 287, fig.

136,

16

102,

La Granja

299,

Palacio

308,

Maffei, Francesco 238

210, 244 Male, Emile 17, 42, 43 Malgrange, Chateau de 301,71?. ig Mannheim 315: Schwetzingen

Claude

Nicolas

134,

3^7 loi,

i2g

Le

Leoni,

Le Le

220, 309, 2S3, 355 Mansart, Frangois 95, 107, 124, 301, 318, 123

Nostre,

Andre

96, 219, 306,

Mansart, Jules Hardouin^

see

douin'Mansart, Jules

XII

Jefferson,

290,

Magnasco, Alessandro 77, 208,

Huysum, Jan van

Jamnitzer,

Mary Abchurch

St Mary^le^Bow 181, St Paul's

301, 306, 34-s, 148, 288, 3^2, IX Lecce io6: Prefettura windows 67

Gentileschi, Orazio 207, 2J2 Ghislandi, Vittore 209, 2j^

Girardin, Rene^Louis de 307-8

St

,290, 1 82,

107, 108, 122, 124, 220, 227-8,

Le Mercier, Jacques 95, 304 Le Nain, Louis and Mathieu

Giof&edo, Mario 299-301

St

1 1 3

Real 241-2, 299, 326, Puente de Toledo 165

Hoppesteyn, Rochus Jacobsz. 264 Huygens, Constantijn 39, 90, 94

Ingres,

338,

Juan de Valdes 115, 209, 155

Leal,

Gentileschi, Artemisia 208, 2^4

182,

St

Piccadilly

Madrid: Escurial 79, 293-5, 324> 325, g, Casa del Campo 316,

Ledoux,

Gibbons, Grinling 114, iy8 Gibbs, James 11 3-4, 290-1,

290,

Langley, Batty 77, 257 La Tour, Georges de 44, loi, 38 La Vallee, Jean de 94, 114

233 Hoogstraten, Samuel van v

78,75

James's,

24,

Benetfink

St

297,

Lamerie, Paul de 25, 224, 26^

Galileo Galilei 50, 89

Annunziata

119,

J52,

Honthorst, Gerard 21, 90, 207,

Santissima

Duke

318, 378

51, 95-6. 102, 124, 126, 216,

Gainsborough, Thomas 114

Genoa:

I

Louis, Victor 305, 360 113,

Heda, WillemClaesz.91, 238, 104 Heem, Jan Davidsz. de 91, 106^ Heermann, Paul 21 Here,

78, y8

Fuga, Ferdinando 106, 134, 322-3, Fuseli,

Hawksmoor, Nicholas

do Comercio do Recio 315

113,290, i7S.fii-i3 monastery

von 118, 136

32i, 120, 124, 346,fig. 2j Harrison, Peter 293, 223

Ferdinand

fig. 14,

monastery

Hals, Frans 90, 92, 114, 108

57i

Praga

315, 320, Praga

Martinin'the'Fields

San Lorenzo 78, San Michele Visdomini 7, Laurentian Li' 3i

Ashmolean Museum

Church

77, 60, St John's

Quadrant

Monreale 106, 1^5 Montanes, Juan Martinez 80, 95, 115,235, 132 Moosbrugger, Joseph Simon 294

Palagonia,

Altes

Residenztheater

Nepomuk'Kirche) phenburg 25,

120,

126,

Nym/

121,

igi,

Residenz 126, 304, 326 Murillo, Bartolome Esteban 115,

fig-

209-10,

Prince

Palermo: San Lorenzo 46, 122, 42, ig4,

Bagheria/^.

Stanislas)

368 Naples 106: Albergo dei Poveri iZ2,f£. 30, cathedral 240, 322, di San Martino 79,

Certosa

del

Museo di San Severo

Gesu 321, Capodimonte

380, 260,

122, Santa Chiara

76, 295 Nash, Richard 'Beau' 133, 320

Neumann, Johann

Villa

21,

Palladio,

Pak'

Andrea

16,

Balthasar 124,

116,

131,

132, 302

Pannini, Giovanni Paolo 56^ Paris 322: Les Genovefains 295,

Hopital de fig. 2g,

la

Hotel

Salpetriere

322,

Fersen

221,

de

Hotel des Invalides 96, 323, 124, Lauzun 118, Hotel

382, Hotel

Rigaud, Hyacinthe 102, 108, xiv

Farnese

46,

Roelas, Juan de las 80, 94

Rohr: Augustinian church 125-6,

Piazzetta, Giambattista 209, 241,

igg

Rome

Piedmont: Stupinigi 16, 3^6 Pigage, Nicolas de 136, 220, 309, 255,

50

Pineda, Bernardo Simon de 115,161

68, II Gesii

103, 286, 13s, 144. fig- 5- Palazzo Barberini 297, 138, 104, fig. 16,

Quirinale

del

Palazzo

240, Palazzo Farnese 103, 104,

297, ^53137. Palazzo Veneto 296,

295.

Ponzio, Flaminio 103, 134 Poppelmann, Daniel 118, 549

Giacomo

Biblioteca

322:

310,

paganda Fide 76,

355

Pigalle, Jean'Baptiste 44, 1 01,

Porta,

21,

Corsini 325, CoUegio di Pro/

della 103, ^8, 13^

h-iJ' Piazza

Capitolina 318, Piazza Minerva 244, 317, Piazza Navona 223, 312, 36g, Piazza del Popolo 3 10,

Porta, Giambattista della 41

San Carlo

Post, Frans 216, 24g

104-5, 303,

alle

Quattro Fontane

i42,fig. g,

San Carlo

Potsdam: Sanssouci 220, 25S

Corso 93, San Luigi dei Francesi 104, 154, Sam' Andrea

Poussin, Nicolas 16, 40, 42, 95,

al

Post, Pieter 131,

101-2, 215,

222

al

Pozzo, Andrea 16, 105, 125, 238, 240-1, 242, 316, IV Prandtauer, Jakob 118, 294, 168,

171,342,359 Pressburg (Bratislava):

Quirinale

104,

141, fig. 8,

Sant' Ignazio 105-6, 125, 340-1.

X

242, 243, 316, IV, Sant' Ivo alia Sapienza 105, 219, 143, Santa

Maria Maggiore 103, 134, Santa Maria del Popolo 104, Santa

Puget, Pierre loi, 108, 149

Maria in ValUcella 323, Santa Maria della Vittoria 46, 105, 40, XIII, Santa Susanna 75, 103,

Notre'Dame 74, Place de la Concorde 317, 319, 22^, fig. 28, Dauphine 312, 318, Place

Pushkin: Tsarskoye Selo 119, 126,

136, St Peter's 36. 75. 93, 104,

318, Place

QueUinus, Artus 94-5, 115-6^ Queretaro: Santa Clara 163 Quiiiones, Andres Garcia de 312,

du Petit'Luxembourg de

Soubise

Louvre 96, 296-7, 312: Place Royale (Place

Guglia

24^,

22

Hotel

is6

Palazzo

Sisto 146

Pommersfelden 298, 302 Pontormo, Jacopo da 7

gonia 305, 24s, fig. 22

'Asamkirche' (Johannes^

San

valho e Mello 315, 320

Paine, James ioi, fig. 20

Munich:

Piacenza:

Capi'

Robert, Hubert 557 Rodriguez, Ventura 136, 290

119,299,347

Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de Car^

Pacher, Michael 76, 63

66, 1J2, ig-j

palace

State

133, 213

Roldan, Pedro 115, 161

Molenaer, Jan Miense 91, 110

Munggenast, Josef 118, 123, 289,

(Pyetrodvorets):

Paula 14

Dreifaltigkeitssaule 321,

Mortirone: Villa Lechi 244, 320

Peterhof

tol

Pezani, Valentino Sj

gle 80, 8t

Nancy

228,229, 313, 317.575

126, 242, 290, 294, 32g, 340,

Modica

3 1

Reni, Guido 208, 215

Pater, Jean^Baptiste 122

Pembroke, Earl of 131, 132

College, Canterbury

Mora, Francisco de

Pascal, Blaise 8, 9

Oporto: Sao Bento 162

Christ

38,

Bartolommeo 119, 295,

117,183,347 Rembrandt van Rijn 44, 52, 90, 92, 207-8, 215, 217, 242, 51, in

Olinda: Conceigao 236

326, Bodleian Library 325, 3^1,

311, ^64

Rastrelli,

Reynolds, Sir Joshua 114, 228, 157 Ribera, Jose 208, 234

Mocchi, Francesco 105, 317, ^^2

304,

An'

17, 40, 89, 102, 134, 136,

207, 232, 239, 286, 282, 286

Pedrozzi, Johann Baptist 275

78, /j Millizia, Francesco 16, 135

Modling:

302, 303,

Raphael

Olerys 230, 2g8

Ouro

107-8

Mignon, Abraham 91, loz Milan 78: Cathedral 74-5, 56-^, Palazzo Clerici 242, San Paolo Converse 78, 240, 242, San Sebastiano 45, Santa Maria presso

Aleijadinho

tonio Francisco

XIX

239, 286, 287, 318

Mignard,

325, Teatro Farnese

44

Melk: monastery 42-3, 118, 216,

Merlini,

45,

Ducale 46, San Giovanni 240,

210 May, Hugh Mazzola, Girolamo Bedoli 4 Mazzoni, Sebastiano 209, 2J^

294. 2g, 168, i^ji,

Syna^

Theatre des Tuileries 303,

Val'dc'Grace 95, 96, 12J Parma: cathedral 239, Palazzo

Place Royale 312,

Vendome

120, 188,

120,

i8g,

10, 11, 122,

312, 317. 3i8, 3i9,

des Victoires fig.2j. Place

312,

318, 319, Pont du Change 28, Pont'Neuf 316, 318, Rue de

Crenelle 321, Sainte^Genevieve 134, 216, 218, 125,

school

Saint'Roch 96,

of

surgery

324,

cathedral

119, iji

132, 136, 299, 184

370

124, 244, 286, 287, 43. 140, St Peter's square 311, 139, Vati/

can

93,

296-7,

327,

Villa

Albani 11^,224 Rosa, Salvator 16, 208, 210-15, 307, 243

Rousseau, Jeanjacques 16, 308 Raggi, Antonio 144 Rambouillet, Chateau de 25, xxill Ransonnette, Nicolas 294

Rubens, Peter Paul 20, 21, 24, 35. 104, 106, 114, 215, 217, 227, S, 8, is8,

XVI

3

INDEX Rudbeck, Olov 324, ^84

Seville: cathedral 132,

Ruisdael, Jacob van 90, 307, VI

La Caridad

Real Fabrica de Ta/'

155, 161,

bacos 327, San Salvador 116,

Santa Maria

Saenredam, Pieter Jansz. 291, 555 St Petersburg 26, 313-14, 315:

Antiquarium 327, Museum, pro' for 222, Marble Palace 134, Winter Palace 119, i8y, Peter

jea the

Great 317,575

Saint'Pierre, Joseph

Salamanca:

de 304, 309

Plaza

Mayor

312,

370 Salzburg, 311, 565; Franziskaner^ kjrche 6j, y6, Kollegienkirche

Solari, Santino 116,

308,554 Jacques'Germain 134,

216, 218

Hans g2

Venice

241, 525,

Joachim von 21, 24

Sanfelice,

Ferdinando 106, 302

Sangallo,

xx

Antonio da 286, 287,

296, 297, '37

Sankt Florian:

staircase

55^

236, pi-i4,fy. 4 Sao Paulo: Santo Antonio 505

Madonna

Saronno:

dei Miracoli

(Santa Maria) 45, 78, 239, 240, 74' 321

Sassoferrato 232, 284

Savery, Roelant 210, 105 Scalfarotto,

Thornhill,

Sir

James 114,

323,

Giovanni

Antonio

Scaria d'Intelvi: Santa Maria 36, 7S. 77

Schmidt, Nicolaus 15 Schuricht, Christian Friedrich 212 Seitenstetten: mineralogical collec/

Toledo: cathedral

1

16, 224, 280

Tome, Narciso 116, Torelli, Giacomo 41

214,

220,

Reale

Capella

ig2,

della

San

25^,

42.194,374 Servr.ndoni,

134

Giovanni

Niccolo

126, 120,

Ambassadeurs fig. 24,

house

Twickenham: Strawberry Hill

77,

Oberlingen: Miinster 82, 235, go,

Uppsala: Theatrum Anatomicum (dissecting theatre) 324, 384

Utrecht: St Janskerk 33^

Casa de Dos Aguas Los Desamparados

281,

M

7 2^7, Valladolid: Las Huelgas 95, 133 Sir

John

113,

131,

Thomas

76, 64

177

Winckelmann, Johann Joachim

Emanuel de

111

Wolfflin, Heinrich 16-7, 18

Wood, John Wood, John

I 133, 320,

II 133,

567

320

1

Woudt, Jan Cornelisz. van't 38^ Wren, Sir Christopher 24, 60, 77,

Teatro

108-13, 114, 131, 290, 315-61

Vien, Joseph 135, 230 Vienna 47: HofbibUothek (Na^

Wright, JosejJi (of Derby) 84, Wiirzburg 84, 302: Neumiinster

Trianon 96, 120 Adam van 222, Basilica

272, fig.

132,

Olimpico 302

323, 175-^, 181, 338. 383, fig. 13

tionalbibliothek) 117, 118,242, 170,

Karlskirche 44, 117, 118,

^

83,

S5,

Residenz

ig
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