Geography

Geography “Geographical” redirects here. For the magazine of the tiveness to the relationship between physical and human Royal Geographical Society, see Geographical (maga- phenomena and its spatial patterns. zine). For other uses, see Geography (disambiguation). Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία, geographia, lit. ...mere names of places...are not geography...know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not Map of the Earth of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.[9] “earth description”[1] ) is a field of science dedicated to — William Hughes, 1863 the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth.[2] A literal translation would be “to describe or picture or write about the earth”. The Just as all phenomena exist in time and first person to use the word “geography” was Eratosthenes thus have a history, they also exist in space and [3] (276–194 BC). Four historical traditions in geographihave a geography.[10] cal research are spatial analysis of the natural and the hu— United States National Research Council, man phenomena (geography as the study of distribution), 1997 area studies (places and regions), study of the human[4] land relationship, and research in the Earth sciences. Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the Earth Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two and all of its human and natural complexities—not merely main subsidiary fields: human geography and physical gewhere objects are, but how they have changed and come ography. The former largely focuses on the built environto be. Geography has been called “the world discipline” ment and how humans create, view, manage, and influand “the bridge between the human and the physical sci- ence space. The latter examines the natural environment, soil, water, and landforms ence". Geography is divided into two main branches: and how organisms, climate, [11] produce and interact. The difference between these [5][6][7] human geography and physical geography. approaches led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines the physical and the human geography, and looks at the interactions between the environment 1 Introduction and humans.[8] Traditionally, geographers have been viewed the same way as cartographers and people who study place names and numbers. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the spatial and the temporal distribution of phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment.[8] Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals; geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical approach depends on an atten-

2 Branches 2.1 Physical geography Main article: Physical geography Physical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, 1

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2 BRANCHES

atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna pat- 2.4 terns (biosphere). Physical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:

2.2

Geomatics

Main article: Geomatics Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged

Human geography

Main article: Human geography Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape the human society. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects. Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as: Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

since the quantitative revolution in geography in the midVarious approaches to the study of human geography 1950s. Geomatics involves the use of traditional spahave also arisen through time and include: tial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines, using tech• Behavioral geography niques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also led to a revitalization of some geography depart• Feminist geography ments, especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s. • Culture theory • Geosophy

2.3

Integrated geography

Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with spatial analysis, such as Cartography, Geographic information systems (GIS), Remote sensing, and Global positioning systems (GPS).

Main article: Integrated geography

2.5 Regional geography

Integrated geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the Main article: Regional geography traditional aspects of the physical and the human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptual- Regional geography is a branch of geography which studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. It has a preize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between vailing descriptive character. The main aim is to underthe human and the physical geography, as a result of stand, or define the uniqueness, or character of a particthe increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Fur- ular region that consists of natural as well as human elthermore, as human relationship with the environment ements. Attention is paid also to regionalization, which has changed as a result of globalization and technological covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into change, a new approach was needed to understand the regions. changing and dynamic relationship. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include: emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, and political ecology.

Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or critical geographies, for more information see History of geography).

3.1

2.6

Cartography

Related fields

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3.1 Cartography

• Urban planning, regional planning, and spatial planning: Use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities, and rural areas may be seen as applied geography. • Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional economics, resource management, location theory, urban and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality. • Interplanetary Sciences: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the planets of the Solar System and even beyond. The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. The study of other planets is usually called planetary science. Alternative terms such as Areology (the study of Mars) have been proposed but are not widely used.

James Cook's 1770 chart of New Zealand.

Main article: Cartography

Cartography studies the representation of the Earth’s surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown 3 Techniques from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual sciAs spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic sci- ence. ence, maps are a key tool. Classical cartography has Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and erbeen joined by a more modern approach to geographi- gonomics to understand which symbols convey informacal analysis, computer-based geographic information sys- tion about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral psytems (GIS). chology to induce the readers of their maps to act on In their study, geographers use four interrelated ap- the information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the proaches: Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, with• Systematic — Groups geographical knowledge into out much controversy, that cartography is the seed from categories that can be explored globally. which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an • Regional — Examines systematic relationships beearly sign they would end up in the field. tween categories for a specific region or location on the planet.

3.2 Geographic information systems

• Descriptive — Simply specifies the locations of features and populations. Main article: Geographic information system

• Analytical — Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area. Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the stor-

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age of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information’s purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyze, and predict the spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands for Geographic Information Science.

3.3

Remote sensing

Main article: Remote sensing

HISTORY

Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques, also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data.

4 History Main article: History of geography The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC.[12] The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC.[13] The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu[14] and several cities, in turn surrounded by a “bitter river” (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a sevenpointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived.[15] In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.[12]

Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many forms, such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth’s land surface, ocean, and atmosphere, because it: a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, c) allows access to distant and inaccessible sites, d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed either indepen- The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC): condently of, or in conjunction with other digital data layers sidered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his (e.g., in a Geographic Information System). successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales is 3.4 Quantitative methods also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, Main article: Geostatistics such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifiboth art and science, achieved this through Cartography, cally the application of statistical methodology to the exPhilosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. ploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics is used There is some debate about who was the first person to extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras planning, logistics, and epidemiology. The mathematical was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, linear circular by explaining eclipses. However, he still believed discriminant analysis and non-parametric statistical tests, that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemand a variety of other subjects. Applications of geostatisporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the tics rely heavily on geographic information systems, parEarth was made by Eratosthenes.[16] ticularly for the interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. Geographers are making notable contributions to The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. He employed a sexagesimal systhe method of quantitative techniques. tem that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided 60′ (minutes). To measure the lon3.5 Qualitative methods gitude at different location on Earth, he suggested using Main article: Ethnography eclipses to determine the relative difference in time.[17] The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored

5 new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases. He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.[18] From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century).[19] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda, Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China.

recording degrees of latitude and longitude. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon. He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of the Earth. He also calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarezm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun, and solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which were close to modern values of the Earth’s circumference.[23] His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors, who measured the Earth’s circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using trigonometric calculations, based on the angle between a plain and mountain top, which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth’s circumference, and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.[24]

The Ptolemy world map, reconstituted from Ptolemy's Geographia, written c. 150.

During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.[19] Muslim geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi produced detailed world maps (such as Tabula Rogeriana), while other geographers such as Yaqut al-Hamawi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geography of the regions they visited. Turkish geographer, Mahmud al-Kashgari drew a world map on a linguistic basis, and later so did Piri Reis (Piri Reis map). Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.[20] Abū Zayd al-Balkhī, originally from Balkh, founded the “Balkhī school” of terrestrial mapping in Baghdad.[21] Suhrāb, a late tenth century Muslim geographer accompanied a book of geographical coordinates, with instructions for making a rectangular world map with equirectangular projection or cylindrical equidistant projection.[21] Abu Rayhan Biruni (976-1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.[22] He was regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by

Self portrait of Alexander von Humboldt, one of the early pioneers of geography

The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and the 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. The problem of latitude was solved long ago but that of longitude remained; agreeing on what zero meridian should be was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by

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5

NOTABLE GEOGRAPHERS

inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian as zero meridian.[25] The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century, with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821,[26] the Royal Geographical Society in 1830,[27] Russian Geographical Society in 1845,[28] American Geographical Society in 1851,[29] and the National Geographic Society in 1888.[30] The influence of Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Ritter, and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject. Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics. and new practices such as participant obser- Gerardus Mercator vation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography’s portfolio of tools. In the West during the 20th cen• Carl Ritter (1779–1859) - Considered Father of tury, the discipline of geography went through four mamodern geography. Occupied the first chair of gejor phases: environmental determinism, regional geogography at Berlin University. raphy, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. • Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) - noted the strucThe strong interdisciplinary links between geography and ture of glaciers and advanced understanding in the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow. sociology and demographics have also grown greatly, especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to • William Morris Davis (1850–1934) - father of understand the world in a holistic view. American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.

5

Notable geographers

Main articles: List of geographers and List of GraecoRoman geographers

• Eratosthenes (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth. • Strabo (64/63 BC – ca. AD 24) - wrote Geographica, one of the first books outlining the study of geography. • Ptolemy (c.90–c.168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia. • Al Idrisi (Arabic: ‫;أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي‬ Latin: Dreses) (1100–1165/66) - author of Nuzhatul Mushtaq. • Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) - innovative cartographer produced the mercator projection • Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography, published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography.

• Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography. • Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861–1947) - Cofounder of the LSE, Geographical Association • Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) - Prominent cultural geographer • Walter Christaller (1893–1969) - human geographer and inventor of Central place theory. • Yi-Fu Tuan (1930-) - Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline. • Karl W. Butzer (1934-) - An influential GermanAmerican geographer, cultural ecologist and environmental archaeologist. • David Harvey (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize. • Edward Soja (born 1941) - Noted for his work on regional development, planning and governance along with coining the terms Synekism and Postmetropolis.

7 • Michael Frank Goodchild (1944-) - prominent GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder’s medal in 2003. • Doreen Massey (1944-) - Key scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize. • Nigel Thrift (1949-) - originator of nonrepresentational theory. • Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) - She was America’s first influential female geographer.

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Institutions and societies • Association of American Geographers (AAG) • Anton Melik Geographical Institute (Slovenia) • National Geographic Society (U.S.) • American Geographical Society (U.S.) • Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada) • Royal Geographical Society (UK) • Russian Geographical Society (Russia)

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Publications • African Geographical Review • Geographical Review

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See also • Outline of geography • Index of geography articles

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Notes and references

[1] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2009-04-17. [2] “Geography”. The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved October 9, 2006.

[5] http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf [6] “1(b). Elements of Geography”. Physicalgeography.net. Retrieved 2009-04-17. [7] Bonnett, Alastair What is Geography? London, Sage, 2008 [8] Hayes-Bohanan, James. “What is Environmental Geography, Anyway?". Retrieved October 9, 2006. [9] Hughes, William. (1863). The Study of Geography. Lecture delivered at King’s College, London by Sir Marc Alexander. Quoted in Baker, J.N.L (1963). The History of Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 66. ISBN 0-85328-022-3. [10] “Chapter 3: Geography’s Perspectives”. Rediscovering Geography: New Relevance for Science and Society. Washington DC: The National Academies Press. 1997. p. 28. Retrieved 2014-05-06. [11] “What is geography?". AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences. Association of American Geographers. Archived from the original on October 6, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006. [12] Kurt A. Raaflaub & Richard J. A. Talbert (2009). Geography and Ethnography: Perceptions of the World in PreModern Societies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 147. ISBN 1-4051-9146-5. [13] Siebold, Jim Slide 103 via henry-davis.com - accessed 2008-02-04 [14] , p. 209, JSTOR 1151277 Missing or empty |title= (help) [15] Finel, Irving (1995). A join to the map of the world: A notable discover. pp. 26–27. [16] Jean-Louis and Monique Tassoul (1920). A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics. London: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11711-X. [17] “Hipparcos of Rhodes”. Technology Museum of Thessaloniki. 2001. Retrieved 2006-10-16. [18] Sullivan, Dan (2000). “Mapmaking and its History”. Rutgers University. Retrieved 2006-10-16. [19] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 512. [20] “Education”. IslamiCity.com. Retrieved 2009-04-17. [21] E. Edson and Emilie Savage-Smith, Medieval Views of the Cosmos, pp. 61-3, Bodleian Library, University of Oxford

[3] Eratosthenes’ Geography. Princeton University Press. 2010. ISBN 9780691142678.

[22] David A. King (1996), “Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping”, in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 1, p. 128-184 [153]. Routledge, London and New York.

[4] Pattison, W.D. (1990). “The Four Traditions of Geography” (PDF). Journal of Geography 89 (5): 202– 6. doi:10.1080/00221349008979196. ISSN 0022-1341. Reprint of a 1964 article.

[23] James S. Aber (2003). Alberuni calculated the Earth’s circumference at a small town of Pind Dadan Khan, District Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan.Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, Emporia State University.

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[24] Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), Avicenna, p. 31, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-01929-X. [25] Aughton, Peter (2007). Voyages that changed the world. Quercus. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-84724-004-0. [26] “Société de Géographie, Paris, France” (in French). Retrieved 2007-01-15. [27] “About Us”. Royal Geographical Society. Retrieved 2007-01-15. [28] "Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.)". Rgo.org.ru. Retrieved 2009-04-17. [29] “The American Geographical Society”. Amergeog.org. 2009-04-02. Retrieved 2009-04-17. [30] “Inspiring People to Care About the Planet”. National Geographic. 2002-10-17. Retrieved 2009-04-17.

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External links

EXTERNAL LINKS

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses Text

• Geography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography?oldid=681391131 Contributors: Kpjas, WojPob, Brion VIBBER, Mav, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Gareth Owen, Andre Engels, XJaM, Christian List, Aldie, Toby Bartels, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Imran, Heron, Jaknouse, Hephaestos, Quintessent, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Norm, Vera Cruz, Menchi, Zanimum, IZAK, Delirium, Dori, Ahoerstemeier, WeißNix, Jan Pedersen, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Samuelsen, Angela, JWSchmidt, Alvaro, Mihai~enwiki, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Llull, Lancevortex, Rob Hooft, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, BRG, Denny, Rick.G, Nikola Smolenski, RadarCzar, Tom Peters, Crusadeonilliteracy, Dcoetzee, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Steinsky, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Saltine, Itai, Tero~enwiki, Jimbreed, SEWilco, Pietro, Traroth, Jecar, Stormie, Wetman, Gakrivas, Secretlondon, Camerong, Frazzydee, Pollinator, Francs2000, Jni, PuzzletChung, Darkcore, Robbot, TomPhil, Altenmann, Nurg, Romanm, Casu Marzu, Flauto Dolce, Rholton, Jfire, 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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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