Full Biology Notes

 

BIOL   G Y

 

What is Biology? It is derived from 2 Greek words :

 It’ss a scientific  It’  study

Bios logos The study of  life  Biology is … The study of life or living things

 

The importance of Biology • Improved understanding on functions of organisms • Improved understanding on causes of disease • !inding treatment for diseases • Improved understanding on ecology • Better management on environment pro"lems • Improved #uality and production of food

 

• *orphology • Bacteriology

• ,hysiology

• *icro"iology • +oology

• -istology

*ain Group of (iving Things

(iving Things & • )cology Their • )nvironmental )nvironment • 'cience Biogeography

'tructure & !unction

Fields of Biology Study

%hanges & • )m"ryology development • Genetic • )volution

 $pplied Biology

• Biotechnology • ,harmacy

 

The .ifferent !ields of 'tudy in Biology -istology  $natomy Bacteriology Biochemistry Biotechnology Bacteriology

%ytology )cology Genetic ,hysiology *arine "iology

0rnithology +oology *icro"iology Ta/onomy )ntomology *orphology

 

1o" or %areers elated to Biology The following are all biologist in different ways:

Doctors

Biotechnologists

Nurses

Forensic Scientists

Dentists Physiotherapists

Nutritionists Farmers

Veterinarians

Horticulturalists & Horticulturalists Foresters

 

The characteristics of living things? •

%ell is "asic unit of life

•

They are highly organised

•

They response to stimuli

•

3utrition 4 they feed to o"tain energy

•

espiration 4 they "reak down food to o"tain energy

•

*eta"olism 4 they are capa"le to increasing in si5e and num"er

•

eproduction 4 they produce offspring

• •

)/cretion 4 they e/pelled wastes They are a"le to adapt to different environments

 

The levels of organisation in an organism Biosphere 'u"6atomic particles

)cosystem %ommunity

 $toms

,opulation

*olecules

'pecies 0rganelles *ulticellular organisms

%ells

systems

Tissues 0rgans

 

T-) '%I)3TI!I% I37)'TIG$TI03 • Biologist employ the scientific method to make certain discoveries a"out living things • The scientific method re#uires the use of scientific skills which are science process skills  skills  and manipulative skills skills SPS 0"serving8 classifying8 inferring8 interpreting data8 controlling varia"les

 

'cientifics Investigation The 'cientific *ethod:

•

Defining the problem

•

Making hypothesis

•

Planning the experiment 

•

Controlling variables

•

Conducting the experiment 

• Recording the results •  nalysing  nalysing the results •

!nterpreting the data

•

Drawing conclusion

Prepare the report   

-ow to identify a pro"lem? 0"serving a specific phenomenon and #uestioning

-ow to form a hypothesis? • Interpretation "ased on an o"servation • *aking an inference • !ormulating o"servation a logical e/planation to the

 

-ow to plan an investigation? • eviewing availa"le related information a"out the investigation • .etermining the reagents and e#uipment re#uired • .etermining the financial and time limitations • Writing out the protocols of the e/periments in the investigation • %onducting preliminary research on the

hypothesis  

9 types of varia"les that are encountered in an e/periment

*anipulated varia"le  An independent variable, which is set at differe different nt values, to test a hypothesis.

esponding varia"le  A dependent variable, which is the outcome of an experiment, due to changes in manipulative variable.

fi/ed varia"le  A parameter that may affect the outcome of an experiment  should be kept constant throughout the experiment.

 

-ow to record data efficiently? efficiently? • Ta"ulation of com comple/ ple/ data data • Graphical presentation of data8 especially important in showing the connection "etween manipulative and responding varia"les • .iagrammatic presentation with clear la"elling

 

-ow to analyse and interpret data for all the data collected in an e/periment? •  $ccurate calculation • .etermine the association "etween manipulative and responding varia"les • %ompare with previous reports • )/plore any hidden information • nderstand the limitations of the e/periment conducted

 

-ow to make conclusion? • ;eep in short and simple ective • -ypothesis8 • 7aria"les • *aterials and $pparatus • Techni#ue • • • • •

,rocedure esults .ata analysis .iscussion %onclusion

 

@ 'teps of 'cientific Investigation

Identify a problem

Form a hypothesis

Plan the experiment

onduct the experiment

Identify & ontrol variables

ollect data $rite a report

!nalyse data

"ra# conclusion Interpret data

 

Writing a Report %. b'e b'ect ctiv ive e (. Proble oblem m ). *ypo *ypoth thes esis is +. ,ari riab able les s -. ateri aterial al and !ppa !pparat ratus us /. Techni chni0u 0ue e 1. Proc Proced edur ure e 2. 3esult 4. "isc "iscus ussi sion on %5. onclusion

 

Hypothesis • The higher the AAAAAA8 the higher the AAAAAAA • The lower the AAAAAA8 the lower l ower the AAAAAAA • The longer the AAAAAA8 the higher the AAAAAAA • The fittest student has the shortest recovery time after vigorous e/ercise

 

Variables : *anipulated 7aria"le

esponding 7aria"le

!i/ed 7aria"le

Subjects

Time taken for the pulse rate return to normal

The rate of steps height of the bench bench age of subject

 

 Techniques  T echniques How you handle the responding variable : onduct the step test to measure the  pulse rate of the sub!ects at one" minute intervals until the pulse rate returns to normal.

 

Proceure :

•

onduct experiment 6passive form7

•

"esign experiment 6active form7

 *easure the pulse rate of each student in your group "efore the test

 The pulse rate of each student is measured "efore the test

 

!ell "tructure an #unction

 

•  $ll living things are made up of "asic units units called cells cells

• %ells vary in shape8 si5es and content  content   depending on their function microscope is  is usually used to •  $ light microscope help us o"serve microscopic m icroscopic cells

 

• The The livi living ng com compo pone nent nt of of a cel celll is call called ed protoplasm protoplasm • Protoplasm 8 cytoplasm 9 nucleus • ,rot ,rotop opla lasm sm surr surrou ound nded ed "y plasma membrane membrane • ,lant ,lant cells cells have have an an oute outerr "oun "oundar dary y call called ed the cell #all #all

 

 $nimal cell

,lant cell

 

!ell Parts an "tructures •

microscopes s8 scientists are a"le to see With electron microscope the cellular components of a cell in greater detail

•

The cytoplasm contains structures called organelles organelles

•

0rganelles perform function which ena"le the as a specific unit of life  cell to function life

 

   l    l   e   c    l    a   m    i   n    $

 

   l    l   e   c    t   n   a    l    ,

 

• ontrols cellular activities activities • 3ucleus mem"rane controls inflow and outflow of outflow  of material to and from nucleus • 3ucleolus acts as site of ri"osome construction • %hromosome carries hereditary information

 

•  $cts as a medium #here biochemical reactions and most living occur processes #ithin the cell cell • ,rovides the organelles su"stanceswith o"tained from e/ternal environment

 

• 'eparates the content of the cell from its e/ternal environment • 3egulates the movement of substances entering and leaving the cell cell •  $llows the e/change e/change of nutrients8 respiratory gases and wastes products "etween the cell and its environment environment

 

• %hlorophyll captures the energy of sunlight and sunlight and converts light energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis photosynthesis • The green pigment of chlorophyll gives chlorophyll  gives plants their colour

 

• 'tores such aschemicals organic acids" sugar" amino acids" mineral salts" oxygen" carbon dioxide and dioxide  and so on • egulates water "alance in plant cells cells

 

• *aintains the shape of plant cells cells  • ,rovides mechanical strength and support support to  to plant cells ,rotects  plants cells from  due to the  due • ,rotects plants movement of e/cess waterrupturing  into the cells

 

• !orms a network of transportation within the cell

3ough endoplasmic reticulum uries and dehydration

• ndergo changes to form glands glands

 

uscle Tissue  Tissue  • Most abundant tissue in the body 

'mooth muscle • %ontraction and rela/ation involuntaryfor "ody activities "S I> T*? ?==S

• CARBOHYDRATES

9 A ma+or common energ source in source in cell. 0:g glucose  :; T*? ?==S

• LIPIDS 9 Sources & storage of energ 0:g 9 /o form lipid ilaer of *

 => T*? ?==S

• PROTEINS 9 /o form the structure of cell 0protoplasm 9 /o form connective tissues such as tendons" ligaments & muscle covering 9 /o form the protein molecules in the plasma memrane 9 /o uild up muscles for movement 9 /o snthesise en7mes" hormones"

antiodies" haemogloin 9 /o produce new cells  

IP3T!>? F 3I P;>"S I> T*? ?==S

• NUCLEIC ACIDS 9 !ontain C, H, O, N & P . 9 4ts asic unit structure is nucleotide which consist of a sugar" a phosphate & a nitrogen ase. 9 /wo tpes , DNA 0deoxrionucleic acid & RNA 0rionucleic acid 9 4mportance ,

• !arr genetic information • ?irect protein snthesis • ?etermine the traits which are inherited from

the parents • !ontrol all the core activities that characterise life such as chemical reactions & growth

 

IP3T!>? F $!T?3 I> T*? ?==S

• 4norganic compound • 4mportance , 9 As a ma+or component of protoplasm 9 As a transport medium within cells & etween cells 9 Allows chemical changes to tae place in solution 9 As a medium for iochemical reactions in the cell 9 As a universal solvent to dissolve respirator gases & allow diffusion during gaseous exchange at alveolus & cells 9 /o provide support especiall in non-wood

plants when cells are turgid & hdrostatic in some animals 9 seleton !omponent of luricants & secretion 0snovial fluid" digestive +uices" mucus & sweat  

*!PT?3 + @ *?I!= PSITI> F T*? ?==

 

!3B*"3!T?S

• %ontain the element car"on8 hydrogen & o/ygen • 9 main groups : monosaccharides8 disaccharides & polysaccharides

 

onosaccharides

• Basic "uilding "locks • 'imple sugar as glucose8 fructose & galactose • %onsist of single chemical group made up of a ring of car"on8 hydrogen & o/ygen atoms • educing sugars

• %an "e detected "y using BenedictHs test  

"isaccharides • %omple/ sugars • %onsist of two monosaccharides com"ined monosaccharides com"ined chemically through condensation condensation • *ono M mono  disaccharides M water  • )g: maltose OF EN@MES < By aing K4ase to the $ain part o% the na$e o% substrate on 1hich they act< 5=a$ples : < 3altose  $altase $altase < "ucrose  sucrase sucrase < Lactose  lactase lactase < Protein  protease protease < Lipis  lipase lipase < &$ylu$ /starch0 4 a$ylase a$ylase

< "o$e en;y$es 1hich cannot be na$e this 1ay because na$es o% these en;y$es

ha+e been use %or a long ti$eD 5=a$ples : rennin* pepsin* erepsin* trypsin

 

S7TES OF EN@ME • *ade  protein snthesis within the S@NT!ES7S cells. • protoplasm Located at the ribosomes of the cells. in the • ?epends on the ?%A code. • ?%A  C%A  mC%A  leaves the nucleus  enters into ctoplasm

 

inds with the riosomes

 C%A

assemles a.a into proteins the  modified to specific ecome en7mes.  

  ETRAE##U#AR EN@MES • Intracelllar en!"mes F produced

 the cell & function within the cell.

• Examples , en7mes that are involved in respiration 0mitochondria respiration 0mitochondria & in photosnthesis 0chloroplast  0chloroplast photosnthesis

 

• Extracellular en7mes F en7mes F secreted out of the cell & functions outside the cell. • Examples , salivar amlase" trpsin" & lipase are lipase are produced in the pancreas & transported to the duodenum.

• roduction of extracellular en7mes  

FATORS AFFET7N> EN@ME AT7V7T@   pH level • rotein are denatured  denatured  changes in the p$ level of the reaction medium.

• *ost en7mes are effective in effective in onl a narrow p$ range. range.

• /he optimum p$ p$ ,  , the particular p$ at which the rate of reaction is fastest.  

Temperature

< Lo1 te$perature* the rate o% en;y$e rea te$perature* reaction ction is lo1  n    s s  i    u u  d d i s  s >  n  n

 

*IT0'I' N *)I0'I' • b'ectives • Students should be able to@ • Identify and descri"e the stages of the cell cycle • Identify8 using prepared slides8 the phases of plant and animal mitosis • .escri"e the phases of mitosis • .escri"e the events of karyokinesis and cytokinesis • Identify and descri"e the phases of meiosis

• %ompare and contrast mitosis m itosis with meiosis • .escri"e spermatogenesis and oogenesis

 

itosis • *itosis is a division of the nucleus to produce two new daughter cells containing chromosomes identical to the parent cell Significance of mitosis • Growth6 allows a 5ygote to produce more cell in order to grow • epair and replacement6 allow the multicellular

organism maintain its tissues8 e/ample skin cells and "lood •  $se/ual reproduction6 reproduction6 clone  

Phases in the cell cycle • a " •

The cell cycle divided into two ma>or phases Interphase *itosis Interphase is the period "etween division8 divided into 9 su" phases - Genetic4 so so$e $e %or$s %or$s o% can cancer cer li8 li8e e pr prostate* ostate* colon* breast* s8in* o+ary are suspecte to be inherite %ro$ the parents A- !arcin !arcinogens4 ogens4 tthese hese ar are e che$i che$icals cals 1hich a.ect genetic acti+ity an cause cancer* e-g- o% carcinogen a iesel e=haust* cigarette s$o8e* hair yes* soot* arsenic* ben;ene an %or$alehye- Ra Raiation4 iation4 e= e=cess cess e=po e=posure sure tto o =4ray* ga$$a ga$$a4rays 4rays an ultra +iolet rays lea to incre increase ase cancer ris8C- &ge4 so$ so$e e cancers are %oun pri$ pri$arily arily in young

people /e-g- leu8e$ia0* 1hile so$e cancers /e-gcolon cancers0 are %oun $ostly in oler aultsD- Virus Viruses4 so$e +iruses /such as the 5B a an n HIV HIV4>0 4>0 causees4 cancer-

 

%loning  %lon %lonin ing g is is the the proc proces ess s of of the the maki making ng %lon %lones es are genetically identical cells produced from a single parent cell "y mitotic division8 or through ase/ual reproduction 2 gene geneti tica calllly y iden identi tica call copi copies es of of an ori origi gina nall plan plantt or animal 9 We sha shallll stud study y the the appl applic icat atio ion n of know knowle ledg dge e on mitosis the cloning of

a= *icro"es "= ,lants c= animals  

%loning of micro"es < $icrobes using cells culture an %er$enters* < !lone !ell culture a0  Y  You ou can easily clone $icrobes /bacteria an so$e %ungi0 in you science laboratory through natural ase=ual repr reprouctionouctionb0 nutrient #irst* gro1 a sa$ple o% agar $icrobial $eiu$ in an plate-cells on a soli c0  Then ienti%y* isolate an select strain %ro$ the agar plate an gro1 it in liqui $eiu$ in a culture as8< #er$enters a0 #er$enters are +essels use in biotechnology to gro1 $icrobes on a large scale-

b0 3icrobes* li8e yeast are $i=e 1ith a culture $eiu$ an le%t in a %er$enters to gro1 by $itosisc0  The %er$enters is constantly stirre* an aerate0  The en+iron$ental conitions / such as pH* o=ygen* pressure pressur e an te$perature0 t e$perature0 are constantly $onitore using pro+es ti ensure the $a=i$u$ gro1th o% the $icrobes 

%loning in plants6tissue culture 7. Pla lant ntss can can be clon cloned ed usin usingg tis tissu suee cul cultture. ure. 8. Tis issue sue cultu culture re is the proces processs of of gro growi wing ng cells cells artif artific icia iallllyy in the laboratory, it is a modern and efficient way of cloning plants. 9. Tis issu suee cultu culture re pro produ duce cess gene genetitica callllyy iden identitica call clon clones es..

 

The main principals of tissue culturea0 & pieces o% tissue* calle e=plants* its ta8en %ro$ a

parents plant carrot root or ste$ root b0  The pieces o% /e-gtissues are sterilise 1ithtissue*0 ilute soiu$ hypochlorite solution to pre+ent the gro1th o% pathogens /such as bacteria an %ungus0c0 5ach sterile tissue piece is place on to a gro1th $eiu$ /gel containing nutrients an gro1th regulators00  The tissues cells i+ie by $itosis to prouce a $ass o% loosely arrange uni.erentiate cells calle calluse0 !allus is sti$ulate 1ith shoot4sti$ulating hor$one to %or$ $ultiple shoots-

%0  The shoots are separate an each is place in nutrient $eiu$ 1ith root4sti$ulating hor$one to encourage rooting g0 Once the roots gro1* the plantlets /little plants0 are plante in sterile co$post to gro1 gro1- 

%loning of animals <  There are are t1o types o% ani$al cloning accoring to purpose: >- Repr epro ouct ucti+ i+e e clo cloni ning ng < Proucing Pr oucingtoan entire ani$al that is genetically ientical the parent ani$al <  The entire ani$al is prouce prouce %ro$ a single cell by ase=ual as e=ual reprouction reprouction through $itosisA- Ther Therap apeu euti tic c clo cloni ning ng < Is a branch o% $eicine concerne 1ith the treat$ent o% iseases-