From Byzantium to El Greco - Greek Frescoes and Icons

FROM BYZANTIUM TO EL GRECO

G R E E K

FR E SC O E S A N D

IC O N S

E d ito r o f th e c a talo g u e d r

C O M M ITTEE OF HONOUR

M Y R TA LI A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U

D e s ig n a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c a ta lo g u e R A C H E L M IS D R A C H I-C A P O N

E n g lish tr a n s la t io n

H IS E M I N E N C E A R C H B I S H O P M E T H O D I O S O F T tf Y A T l IK A A N D G R E A T B R I T A I N T H E RT. H O N . T H E L O R D H A IL S H A M Ol S I LORD CHANCELLOR

M A R Y l, I H O N E ,

d r D A V ID A. H A R D Y

E d ito ria l ad v iso r D IA N A Z A FIR O PO U L O U

E d ito r ia l assistant P H A ID R A K A L A FA TIS

A rtistic ad v iso r

P u b lic a tio n assistant

M OSES CAPON

L IK A SA K K I

E x h ib itio n d esign

JA S P E R JA C O B A SSO C IA T ES

D e s ig n a d v is o r to t h e G r e e k M in istry o f C u lt u r e

M ADAM E M E L IN A M E R C O U R I

M in ister o f C u ltu re , A th e n s H is E x cellen cy th e G r e e k A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , MR STEPHANOS STATHATOS PROFESSOR C O N S T A N T IN E T r V p A N I S

A N T O N IS K Y R IA K O U L IS

P h o to g ra p h s 9, 11, 12, 16,

B R IT ISH M U S E U M

P resid en t of th e A th e n s A c a d e m y M A N O L IS C H A T Z ID A M S o f th e A th e n s A ca d em y

T H E RT. H O N

11 i s I x c c l l a n c y ( I n

M R R O C I R DE

6 7, 6 8 , 6 9, 70 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17,

M. S K IA D A R E S IS

18, 2 0 , 2 1 b , 22 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 25 , 26 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 31, 3 2, 3 4 , 3 7 , 3 8, 39, 4 1, 42, 4 5, 4 6 , 4 7, 4 9, 5 0 , 53, 54, 5 6, 57, 6 0 , 6 2 , 6 2 a , 63, 64, 65 , 7 1 , 7 2, 73 A d d itio n a l p h o to g ra p h s for th e ex h ibition I KDOT1KE ATH EN O N . N A T IO N A L B A N K O F G R E E C E

S tripping G. PA PA PA N A G O PO U LO S

T y p e-setting IO T O G R A M M A L ID . ( 'o l o u r s e p a r a t i o n M i l I IA11 I D E S B R O S .

Print L. K A R Y D A K I S S. K A R Y D A K I S (C o lo u r plates and cover)

« ) I ' m / < «Io r k M i n i l l i y ill ( u l l m i i

Hyzsinliiu· M u s e u m o f A t h e n s

All riglils i c s c i v e i l . N n p u l ol (liir. p u b l i c a t i o n m a y be r e p r o d u c e d o r I r a n s m i l l c i l in liny f o r m o r by a n y m e n u s , e l e c t r o n i c o r m e c h a n i c a l , i n c l u d i n g p h o l o e o p y , rec o i t l in j i o r a n y i n l o n n a l i o n s t o r a g e a n d r e t r i e v a l s y s l c m , w illio u l p e r m i s s i o n in w r i t in g Ironi t h e p u b l i s h e r (I:_) ol· p h o t o g r a p h s B r i t i s h M u s e u m 9, I I , 12, 16. A < C o o p e r 3 0 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 59, 61. B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s a n d a u t h o r s o f t h e e n t r i e s 1-K, 10, 13-15, 1 7 - 2 9 , 3 1 - 3 9 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 4 - 5 8 , 6 0 , 6 2 - 7 3

C over illustration: Cat. no. 35 P rinted a n d b o u n d in Greece, 1987

—

6

—

lim it,h

< IRI

n n i ii i n . lit S I I VI N Kl IN< [ M A N i n P n siili nl ol Hi· ini i> ly lm 1 111 I' ι i m u u io n ol l l y / i i n l m r Nlijj!<

3 6, 44, 4 8 , 51 , 52, 55, 58, 66,

BYZANTINE MUSEUM OF ATHENS

Ml*

P r c i i k ' i i l o l 11 n ' K o v i i l A i i u l r m y

1, 2 , 6, 19, 2 1 a , 27, 33, 35,

G. B A L IS,

I I '( I

A m b a s s a d o r in A llii'iis, S I R II R I M Y II I ( ( M A S . κ ι M O

30 , 40, 43, 59, 61

A .C . C O O P E R

l Inn Ii in 11> < n ’.v n ilio l o l tin In c a rn a tio n . P r o s k y n e t a r i o n . S t a n d f o r i c o n s e x p o s e d t o ptib lii in p i i v i i l r v ein m l l o n P r o t h o s i s . T h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o l t h e s a n i li i M i y w liu fi tin o il iui)i I·η I In illv lni l l l n i | i y i u i >li poM li'il S a n c t u a r y d o o r s . T h e c e n t r a ] d o o r s o l (In· i i - o i n w h l i Ii glvi· n n i n i l o lln m iiiiIiimiv (iiImi Iten ia d o o r s ) S l k l u i i i o n . A b i s h o p ’s u n d e r g a r m e n t . A l o n g lin n , i r l n l r d t o tin iillu l| llie Wi I i n < l i n n Ii T r l p l y r l i . P o r t a b l e i c o n c o m p r i s i n g a i v n l i a l p a n i 'l nnil t w o l o l d t n i will)' V i r g i n o f t h e P a s s i o n . R e p r e s e n t a t i o n ol t h e V n i ' i n n nil < III Ii I will) t w o nrtjhiinf.rl·, i iuTylft|i llie s y m b o ls o f Ihe P a ssio n . /.ikkIiii'Iios I’igi. f l i c l i f e - g i v i n g s o m v i Λ t y p e ol II· V l i | t l n i nn ii 'i n p Π ο ι η ιι ι Ί η ι Ι Ι π ' . l i n p r d f o n n l n i n w hich w as in sp ired by B y/an lin i· h ym ns,

I/

T h . wall p a in tin g s a n d ico ns h e r e a s s e m b le d h a v e c o m e fr o m G r e e c e , at th e far e n d o f E u r o p e , to E n g la n d , th e c o u n tr y th a t su p p lie d th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e w ith its finest m e r c e n a ri e s : th e ‘In g lin o i’. T h e p e r i o d w h e n th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e w as at its h e ig h t (tw e lfth to fifte e n th c e n tu r ie s ) a n d B y z a n ti u m th e w o r l d ’s le a d in g p o w e r , is r e p r e s e n t e d only by a few wall p a i n t ­ ings, anti by lesser k n o w n ico ns o f this p e rio d . T h is is th e first ti m e , h o w e v e r , th a t so m a n y G r e e k icons fr o m th e follow ing p e rio d (fiftee n th to s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s ) h av e b e e n b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r in L o n d o n . D u r in g th e s e c e n tu r ie s , th e te r r it o r y o f m o d e r n G r e e c e w as o c c u p ie d b y tw o foreign p o w e rs, th e V e n e t i a n s a n d the O t t o ­ m a n T u r k s . T h e tw o c o n q u e r o r s , w ith th e ir very d if fe re n t h is to ry a n d cu ltu ral origin s, in evita bly e x e rc ise d an influe nce o n th eir su b je c ts, e a c h a t its o w n level. T h e few f r a g m e n ts of d e t a c h e d wall p a in tin gs p r e s e n te d h e r e a re o n ly a tiny fraction o f th o s e th a t h a v e b e e n r e s c u e d fr o m r u i n e d c h u r c h e s in G r e e c e ; n a t u ­ rally, th e s e a r e n o t an a d e q u a t e basis o n w hich to fo rm an id e a o f th e la y o u t of (he p a in t e d d e c o r a t io n o f a B y z a n tin e ch u rc h , w hich w as o n e o f th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f th e B y z a n tin e w o rld . T h e y a re , h o w e v e r, r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f B y z a n ti n e p a in tin g , (or tw o re a s o n s: th e t e c h n i q u e in w hich th ey w ere e x e c u t e d , in h e r i t e d fr o m the ( li e c o - R o m a n tr a d it io n , e n a b l e d th e s e wall p ain tin g s to re t a in th e i r o rig inal, bright c o lo u r s fo r c e n tu r ie s , d e s p ite th e d a m a g e inflicted o n t h e m by th e w e a t h e r mil a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d itio n s . A n d sec o n d ly , b ecause th e i r style is n o t that ol a local sch oo l, b ut e m b r a c e s a v arie ty of te n d e n c ie s w h ich can be f o u n d th r o u g h o u t the leng th a n d b re a d t h o f th e e m p i r e , fr o m C o n s ta n t in o p l e to th e b o u n d s ol Asia M in o r an d fr o m C r e t e to Italy. W h e n we reflect th a t t h e r e a re rou g h ly two 11 ii>iis;mill B y z a n tin e c h u rc h e s in G r e e c e , co n ta in in g an e n d le s s v ariety a n d ill vi rsily o f d e c o r a t io n , we a r e b e t t e r ab le to a p p re c ia te the significance o f what is In i Inips a u n iq u e p h e n o m e n o n : h o w e v e r different all th e s e w o rk s ol art m ay lu in ti frns o f te c h n i q u e a n d q u a lity , th ey n o n e th e le s s h av e s o m e th i n g in c o m m o n that Iii lifles the d e sc r ip tio n o f t h e m as ‘B y z a n ti n e ’ a n d clearly ilisl in gu r.h i's I he in lio in tin· non B y i a n l i n e . F ro m a n o t h e r po int o f view, these wall pain tin g s lo n s lilu U v alu ab le e v id e n c e lor th e a v e ra g e level of art in a B y zan tin e μ ι ο ν ι ι κ τ mil it Iin·, lo be eoiicedeil th a t this w as q u it e high, c o n side ring that th ey did not ■unit in-ui iiiti|oi ii i ban cen tre s.

T h e icon as a fo rm o f a rt w as c re a t e d an d flo u ris h ed in B y z a n ti u m , in d irect re la tio n w ith b o th public a n d p riv a te w orsh ip . N e v e rth e le s s , it w as so closely b o u n d u p w ith public life th a t it a c te d as a cata lyst in tim es o f g r e a t political crisis, such as th a t o f the Ic o n o c la sm , w hich lasted for a p p r o x i m a t e ly a c e n tu r y a n d a h alf (720-863) w ith only a sh o r t b r e a k . T h e significance of a B y z a n ti n e icon for w o rs h ip lay in th e likeness it b o re to a specific p r o t o ty p e . T h e sain t d e p ic t e d in an icon h a d to b e im m e d ia te ly r e c o g n iz a b le , w ith o u t it b ein g n e c e ss a ry to r e a d the insc ription . T h is likeness was a n essen tial c o n d itio n o f th e w o rs h ip o f icons since w ith o u t it th e divine grace i n h e r e n t in th e p r o t o ty p e w o u ld n o t b e t r a n s m i t t e d to th e icons. T h is goes so m e w ay to e x p la in th e c o n s ta n t r e p e t it io n o f c e r t a in ty p e s , no t on ly o f p o rtra its , b u t also o f n a rr a tiv e scenes. In th e case o f th e la t te r it g u a r a n t e e d th e historical ac c u ra c y a n d a u th e n tic ity of th e e v e n t n a r r a t e d . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t this p rin cip le affe c te d the ico n o g ra p h ic d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e art in a v a rie ty o f w ays. By c o n tr a s t, th e stylistic d e v e lo p m e n t w as n o t so strictly c o n fin e d , th o u g h it to o re ta in e d its tr a d itio n a l c h a ra c te r. T h e d if fe re n t fo rm s, sh a p e s an d sizes t a k e n by icons w e re in larg e m e a s u r e d e t e r m i n e d by the d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e sa n c tu a ry s c r e e n , w h ich e v o lv e d fr o m a sim p le p a rt it io n to a tall iconostasis. T h e g ra d u a l e v o lu tio n o f th e ico n o s ta sis an d th e p ra ctice o f a d o rn in g it w ith icons m a y a c co u n t, m o r e th a n a n y o t h e r f a c t o r , for th e vast p ro d u c t io n o f icons in th e B y zan tin e E m p ire . E a c h g r o u p o f icons o n th e ic on ostasis h a d a fixed s u b je c t a n d a fixed size, an d e a c h in dividual icon had a fixed p o sitio n w ithin the g ro u p . T h e su m to tal o f th e m c o n s titu te s a co ncise, hiera rch ically o rg a n iz e d s t a te m e n t o f th e O r t h o d o x d o ctrin e: w o rsh ip o f icon s, ritua l, salv atio n o f th e soul, in c a r n a tio n . T h e la r g e r icons of C h ris t, th e V irg in , St. J o h n th e B ap tist an d th e saints usually b e lo n g to th e b o tt o m ro w close to the w o r s h i p p e r , w h e r e th e y w ere co n v e n ie n tly p la c e d f o r p u r p o s e s of p r o s k y n e s is (v e n e r a ti o n ) ; icons d e p ic tin g scenes fro m th e life o f C h ris t r e l a te d to th e tw elv e m a j o r feasts o f th e y e a r c o m e fro m th e row of th e D o d e k a o r t o n (ritu a l); icons w ith busts o f C h ris t, th e V irgin, St. J o h n th e B a p ti s t, an g els a n d a p o s tle s b e lo n g to th e to p row o f th e G r e a t D eesis (s alv atio n ); finally, th e ic o n o s ­ tasis is c ro w n e d by a large C rucifix, a n d e n tr y to th e S a n c tu a r y is t h r o u g h a richly c a rv e d p a ir o f d o o r s (th e B e m a d o o rs ) d e c o r a t e d w ith a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n sy m b o liz ­ ing th e I n c a r n a ti o n (usually th e A n n u n c i a t i o n ) . T h e s e icons a n d th e i r a r r a n g e m e n t h a d th e i r in flu ence o n Ita lia n a rt, o n th e form t a k e n by th e p a la on t h e a lt a r, an d on E u r o p e a n art in g e n e ra l p r i o r to th e R e n a is s a n c e , w h e r e it c a n b e se e n in the g ro w th o f p an el p a in tin g o n w o o d . Sim ilarly, a n u m b e r of p a r t ic u l a r ico n s, n o ta b l y Iho se o f th e V irgin a n d C h ild in v a rio u s p o s t u r e s a n d the A k r a T a p e in o s i s , o r M a n o f S o rr o w s , serv ed as m o d e ls for W e s t e r n w o rk s, p r o d u c e d in th e m a in fo r the p riv a te w o rsh ip o f C atholics. I'he a rt o f wall p a in tin g a n d o f th e icon did n o t c o m e to an e n d w ith th e final d is so lu tio n o f th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e in 1453. C r e te a n d m a n y o f t h e A e g e a n islands h a d a lr e a d y b e e n o c c u p ie d in 1204 by th e C r u s a d e r s , by w h o m th e y w e re m l e d for m a n y c e n tu r ie s , b u t this d id n o t p r e v e n t th e G r e e k O r t h o d o x i n h a b i ta n t s Im m c o n ti n u in g to p r o d u c e w o r k s of art fo r th e ir religious n e e d s. A llci th e fall o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e , a n e w m a j o r c e n tr e o f art a ro s e in C r e t e , whi i r I h e cities p r o s p e r e d u n d e r t h e V e n e tia n a d m in is tra tio n . T h e n u m b e r of p i u i i l u s was swollen by artists s e e k in g re fu g e fr o m th e c e n tra l a r e a s o f th e e m p i r e 20 —

c o n q u e r e d by th e T u rk s . T h e im p ressive n u m b e r of p a in t e r s a t w o rk in C r e te in th e fifte e n th a n d six te e n th c e n tu r ie s w as e v id e n tly a re s p o n s e to th e inc re ased d e m a n d fo r th e ir p r o d u c t s , n o t on ly fro m th e ir O r t h o d o x c u s t o m e r s b u t also from th e c o n s e r v a tiv e C a tho lics. T h e s a m e forces in d u c e d th e C r e t a n p a in te rs to m o v e to o t h e r p a rts o f G r e e c e , s o m e o f th e m p e r m a n e n tl y ; T h e o p h a n e s Str elitzas B a th a s , fo r e x a m p l e , s e ttle d in M o u n t A t h o s w h e r e , w ith th e assistan ce o f his so n s , h e c re a t e d s o m e s u p e r b e n s e m b le s o f wall pa in tin g s , an d e n ti r e sets o f icons. R e s e a r c h in th e arc hiv es o f V en ice in re c e n t y ears h a s i l lu m in a t e d m a n y asp e c ts of th e p a in tin g a n d w o o d -c a rv in g o f this p e r i o d ; m o s t im p o r t a n tl y o f all, it has e n a b l e d us to id entify w ith so m e accuracy th e m a j o r artists o f th e fiftee n th c e n tu r y a n d th e ir w o rk ; m a n y of th e s e p a in te rs h a d e it h e r b e e n p re v io u sly u n ­ k n o w n , o r h a d b e e n e r r o n e o u s ly d a te d . T h e resu lting f r a m e w o r k h as in tu r n m a d e it po ssib le to assign to this p e r i o d a large n u m b e r o f b o th k n o w n a n d , until r e c e n t ly , u n k n o w n icons. T h is e x h ib itio n has th e privilege o f p r e s e n tin g a large n u m b e r o f th es e icons, w hich h av e n o t yet fo u n d th e i r w ay in to th e h a n d b o o k s . T h e flo w e rin g of icon p a in tin g in fifte e n th -c e n tu ry C r e te offers an e x p l a n a tio n of th e in f lu e n c e a n d a c h ie v e m e n ts o f this a rt in the s ix teen th c e n t u r y , w h ich w e re a lr e a d y k n o w n . If ca lled u p o n to s u m m a r i z e th e c h a r a c t e r a n d qu ality o f C r e t a n a r t , o n e m igh t say th a t it k e p t alive th e B y z a n tin e tr a d itio n , with g re a t success, a n d w as a b le to re n e w it by r e c o u r s e to Italia n e le m e n ts , t h o u g h it is a s to n ish in g h o w few o f th e s e t h e r e a r e at such a late p e r i o d , a n d a fter so m a n y c e n tu r ie s o f co e x is te n c e . T h is w a s th e artistic b a c k g r o u n d fro m w hich T h e o t o k o p o u l o s ( E l G r e c o ) e m e r ­ g ed. L ik e o t h e r fine C r e t a n artists o f his d a y , h e le a r n e d in Ir a k lio n to p a in t in b o th th e G r e e k a n d th e Italian m a n n e r ; it is clea r fro m th e D o r m i t i o n o f the Virgin fr o m S yros th a t e v en b e f o r e he left C r e te (1567) h e w as a b le to h a n d l e b o th styles with im p re ss iv e ea se. H e n e v e r e x p la in e d w hy h e u ltim a te ly c h o se th e r o a d to the W est. His p a in tin g in Italy an d S p a in , h o w e v e r, w hich re v e a ls a c o m p l e te b re a k w ith th e art o f his fellow C r e ta n s , p e r h a p s supplies th e a n s w e r. M A N O LIS C H A T Z ID A K IS of th e A th e n s Academy

F rom A t h e n s (1985-86) to F l o r e n c e (1986), a n d n o w to L o n d o n . T h e e x h ib itio n o f G r e e k wall p ain tin g s a n d icons f r o m B y z a n ti n e a n d P o s t-B y z a n tin e tim es c o n ti n u e s its trav els in E u r o p e , c o m i n g no w to o n e o f t h e w o r l d ’s g re a t cap itals. It brings w ith it th e f r a g ra n c e a n d fla m e of th e fa ith , th e g r a n d e u r , th e p o e tr y a n d th e glory o f B y z a n tiu m , a n d th e s t a t u r e a n d b rillian ce o f H e lle n is m a fte r th e fall of C o n s ta n t in o p l e . ‘T h is w o rld , so sm all, so g r e a t ’ in t h e w o rd s of th e p o e t. It c o n ti n u e s to trav el, ta k in g us w ith it to B y z a n ­ ti u m , to G r e e c e . A m o n g s t th e exhibits a re th e s u p e r b c a rv e d w o o d e n d o o r s fro m a m o n a s t e r y in T h e s s a ly , o n e o f th e r a r e e x a m p l e s o f its k in d (cat. no. 1), a n d a few r e p r e s e n t a ­ tive wall p a in tin g s d e ta c h e d fr o m c h u r c h e s in G r e e c e (cat. nos. 2-6). T h e m a in focus o f in t e re s t , th o u g h , lies in th e p o r t a b l e icons (cat. nos. 7-71). T h e m a j o ri ty o f th e s e a r e o u ts ta n d i n g w o rk s o f th e a rt o f O rth o d o x y , a n d p a r t o f th e rich h e rita g e o f G r e e c e , g a th e r e d t o g e t h e r fr o m d iffe re n t a re a s o f th e c o u n tr y . T h e y a re in m o s t cases th e c re a tio n s o f k n o w n a n d u n k n o w n p a in te rs w h o w o r k e d in th e m a j o r artistic c e n tr e s of B y z a n tiu m , o r in th e r e m o t e o u tp o s ts o f m a i n la n d a n d island G r e e c e . M a n y o f th e m a re d iscov erie s an d acq uisition s o f th e last tw e n ty y e a rs , n o t y e t fully k n o w n to sc h o la rsh ip o r th e pub lic at large. In its p r e s e n t fo r m , Ihc e x h ib itio n also includes s o m e fine icons fr o m the B ritish M u s e u m (cat. no s. 9, I I, 12 a n d 16); a n u m b e r lo a n e d by G r e e k s re s id e n t in L o n d o n (cat. nos. 30, 40, Ί 3 , 59 a n d 61); a n d o th e r s fr o m th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s s e e n a b r o a d for Ihc first tim e (cat. nos. 17, 20 a n d 35). T h e icons a s s e m b le d h e r e , inev itab ly n o m o r e t h a n a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s a m p le , illustrate th e d e d ic a tio n to b e a u ty o f b o th th e c re a to rs a n d th e re c ip ie n ts o f th e ir visible a n d mystical s p l e n d o u r a n d sp iritu al c o n te n t. T h e y also re v e a l t h e firm classics I f o u n d a t io n s , a n d occ asion ally th e anti-classical te n d e n c ie s th a t coexistt il in IJy iaillin e , th a t is, E u r o p e a n art. A n art w h o s e h u m a n i s t ic c h a r a c t e r i I f (,νi m i nftd ils o ri e n ta t io n s a n d f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e rn w ith th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of lli>- divine .iiul ils spiritual m a n ife sta tio n s. T h e icons o ffe r a c o n s p e c t u s o f th e mii|ni and m in o r slylislic an d a e s th e tic tr e n d s , p re f e re n c e s a n d id e as ; f o r m u la t e d

o v e r th e c e n tu r ie s in th e artistic c e n tr e s o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e an d I h e ss a lo n ik e .ind, fro m th e fifte e n th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s , o f C r e t e , th e s e ideas fell o n fertile soil, to ok r o o t a n d b o r e fruit b o th in B y z a n tin e G r e e c e a n d later. In so m e eases, such as in B y z a n ti n e T h e s s a l o n ik e a n d p o s t-B y z a n tin e C r e te , th e y f o r m e d l a n d m a r k s in the d e v e l o p m e n t of a rt, influe ncing p a in tin g a n d supp lyin g il w ith now f a r m s anil ideas in a n a r e a far w id e r th a n th a t of m o d e r n G re e c e . O n e o f th e i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s in c lu d e d in th e e xh ibition consists o f i< o n s f r o m n o r t h e r n G r e e c e . T h o u g h o n ly a small p r o p o r tio n o f th e m a n y surviving Uy/,in tin e a n d p o s t-B y z a n tin e icons o f M a c e d o n i a , m o s t of th e m from k a s l o i i a , they a r e i n t e re s t in g e x a m p le s o f th e d istinctive te c h n iq u e a n d style o f tin nil p i o d m i d in T h e s s a l o n ik e , K a sto r ia a n d o t h e r M a c e d o n i a n w o rk s h o p s . O i k · o f I lit in is a m a s te r p ie c e : th e w o n d e rfu lly e x p res siv e d o u b le - s id e d icon with llu· Virgin I lo d< ‘)H iri* a n d C h ris t in th e typ e o f the A k r a T a p e in o s is , o r M a n o f S o rro w s ( r a l . n o . K). T h e m a j o r p a r t o f th e ex h ib itio n is d e v o te d to the C r e t a n irt of iIn n l i ' c u i l i a n d , to a lesser e x te n t , the s ix te e n th c en tu ries . It includes signed w o rk s by A n g e lo s a n d N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris , a n d by N ik o la o s l.a m b o u d is , an isnigmnln pauil e r fr o m S p a r t a w h o p r o b a b l y w o r k e d in C r e te , un sig n e d icon n lliih m il to A n g e lo s , A n d r e a s R itz o s a n d T z a fo u ris , an d s o n * excellent panel* I’Y a n o n y m o u s artists. T h e s e are typical o f th e artistic qu ality an d the n pi n o i r e ol lilt eiilli and early s i x te e n t h - c e n tu r y C r e t a n p a in tin g , which e o v e n 'd a will, ·,ρςι lim n i nti rin }.·. fo r th e religio us a n d a e s th e tic r e q u i r e m e n ts of a d e m a n d i n g ami mix I < >i llimlox a n d C a th o l ic c lie n te le, b o th in C r e t e an d fu rth e r ih eld Λ sm all Iiul im|i P h ilip S h e r r a r d , ' t h e p i c t u r e is g e n e r a l l y c o n c e i v e d as e x p r e s s i n g t h e . t r u s t 's o w n r e s p o n s e to o r o b s e r v a t i o n o f his s u b j e c t , it is m o r e t r u e in t h e c a s e o f I I I I· oil iii th i n k o f t h e s u b j e c t itse lf p r o j e c t i n g o r r e f l e c t i n g it s e l f o n to t h e m a t e r i IX

al o f t h e i c o n . . . t h e a r t i s t h a s to b e c o m e o n e w ith w h a t h e is to r e p r e s e n t , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r e is n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t a n d c o n t e m p l a t i o n ’. S e c o n d l y , t h e i c o n s e r v e s t o s a f e g u a r d t h e t r u e r e a l i t y o f C h r i s t ’s i n c a r n a t i o n . ‘T h e w o r d w a s m a d e f l e s h ’ ( J o h n 1 .1 4); G o d d id n o t s i m p l y a p p e a r u p o n e a r t h , b u t t o o k a r e a l h u m a n b o d y , f o r m e d o f p h y s ic a l m a t t e r as o u r b o d i e s a r e . T h e i c o n o c l a s t s , in r e f u s i n g t o m a k e a n ic o n o f C h r i s t , i m p l i e d t h a t H i s b o d y , a n d so H i s h u m a n i t y , is s o m e h o w u n r e a l . I c o n s , as t h e C o u n c i l o f 7 8 7 p u t s it, a r e a ‘g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e w o r d o f G o d is g e n u i n e a n d n o t i l l u s o r y ’ . T h e I s r a e l i t e s in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t w e r e rig h tly p r o h i b i t e d f r o m m a k i n g a n y v is u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e u n s e e n d e it y . B u t C h r i s t , w h o is t h e ‘i m a g e ’ o r ‘i c o n ’ o f t h e in v is ib le G o d ( C o l o s s i a n s 1 .1 5 ) , h a s t h r o u g h H i s i n c a r n a t i o n m a d e p o s s i b l e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s a r t . ‘O f o l d ’, s t a t e s S t. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s , ‘G o d , w h o is w i t h o u t f o r m a n d b o d y , w a s n o t d e p i c t e d a t all. B u t n o w , s i n c e H e h a s a p p e a r e d in t h e fl e s h a n d d w e l t a m o n g h u m a n s , I m a k e a n ic o n o f G o d in so f a r a s h a s b e c o m e v i s i b l e ’. T h i r d l y , t h e ic o n h e l p s t o e n s u r e a n a f f i r m a t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d . ‘G o d saw- e v e r y t h i n g t h a t H e h a d m a d e , a n d , b e h o l d , it w a s a l t o g e t h e r g o o d a n d b e a u t i f u l ’ ( G e n e s i s 1 .3 1 ). I c o n s s a f e g u a r d n o t o n l y t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f C h r i s t ' s p h y s i c a l b o d y b u t a ls o t h e s p i r i t - b e a r i n g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f all m a t e r i a l th i n g s . T h e i c o n o c l a s t s , so t h e i r o p p o n e n t s f e l t, s o u g h t to r e s t r i c t t h e w o r s h i p o f G o d t o t h e m i n d a l o n e , a n d f a ile d t o a llo w s u f f ic i e n tl y f o r t h e ‘m a t e r i a l i s m ’ o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . ‘I s h a ll n o t c e a s e t o h o n o u r m a t t e r ’, St. J o h n o f D a m a s c u s p r o t e s t s , ‘f o r it w a s t h r o u g h m a t t e r t h a t m y s a l v a t i o n c a m e to p a s s . . . D o n o t d e s p i s e m a t t e r , f o r it is n o t d e s p i c a b l e ; n o t h i n g is d e s p i c a b l e t h a t G o d h a s m a d e . T o t h i n k s u c h t h i n g s is M a n i c h a e i s m ' . In t h e f o u r t h p l a c e , t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e ic o n h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e h u m a n p e rs o n . T h e ic o n o g r a p h e r ta k e s c u b es o f s to n e , or e ls e p a i n t a n d a p a n e l o f w o o d - th i n g s t h a t a r e p a r t o f t h e m a t e r i a l w o r l d a n d t h a t , a s G o d ’s c r e a t i o n , a r e a l r e a d y c h a r g e d w ith t h e d iv i n e g lo r y - a n d t h e n by m e a n s o f his a r t is t ic skill h e r e n d e r s t h e d iv i n e g lo r y e x p li c it in a n e w a n d d y n a m i c w a y . I n th is m a n n e r h e a c ts as p r i e s t o f th e c r e a t i o n , g iv i n g m a t e r i a l th i n g s a v o ic e a n d r e n d e r i n g t h e m a r t i c u l a t e in p r a i s e o f G o d . ‘T h e c r e a t i o n d o e s n o t v e n e r a t e t h e m a k e r d ir e c t l y a n d b y it s e l f ’, s a y s St. L e o n t i u s o f C y p r u s , ‘b u t it is t h r o u g h m e th a t th e h e a v e n s d e c la re th e g lory o f G o d , th r o u g h m e th e m o o n w o rsh ip s G o d , t h r o u g h m e t h e s t a r s g lo r ify H i m , t h r o u g h m e t h e w a t e r s a n d s h o w e r s o f r a i n , th e d e w a n d all c r e a t i o n , v e n e r a t e G o d a n d give H i m g l o r y ’. S o i c o n s r e v e a l to us tin p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f o u r h u m a n p e r s o n h o o d . T h e ic o n p a i n t e r s h o w s u s h o w , mack· in G o d ’s ‘i m a g e ' o r ‘i c o n ' ( G e n e s i s 1 .2 6 ), w e h u m a n s c a n a c t as ‘s u b - c r e a t o r s ’ a l t e r th e likeness of G o d th e c re a to r. S u c h a r e a m o n g t h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e s e v e n t h E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c i l , t w e l v e cvn t u r i e s a g o , u p h e l d t h e m a k i n g a n d t h e v e n e r a t i o n o f ic o n s , a n d w h y ic o n s ;i u still h o n o u r e d in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h t o d a y . In th e w o r d s o f a c o n t e m p o r a r y R u s s i a n i c o n o g r a p h e r , L e o n i d O u s p e n s k y , ‘it is a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e to i m a g i n e a n y liiui gical r i t e in t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h w i t h o u t t h e i c o n ’. A s t h e l e a d i n g G r e e k ienn p a i n t e r o f th i s c e n t u r y , P h o t i o s K o n t o g l o u , h a s s a i d , 't h i s a rt is u m v e i s a l j f l j e t e r n a l - n o o t h e r a r t h a s u s e d s u c h s i m p l e m e a n s , a n d n o o t h e r art has g i a s p -I m u c h ’. T i n

r n

m

v .

i m

k

a

i

i

i

\

11 i *.I

V)

i

< i s

μ ·| i »ι|

w

\ h

i

I 'M u I· t

■·

h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e t i m e , t h e so cial c la s s e s t o w h i c h t h e p a t r o n s o f a r t

Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ ΙΝ Ε

b e l o n g e d a n d t h e lo cal e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s . D r a s t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e p o li ti c a l

W A L L IN

P A IN T IN G

a u t h o r i t i e s , as in t h e c a s e o f I c o n o c l a s m , w a s r a r e . A t t h e a r t i s t i c le v e l, in e x p l a i n ­ in g t h e v a r i e t y o f e x p r e s s i o n w e a ls o h a v e to t a k e in t o a c c o u n t t h e lo c a l t r a d i t i o n

G R E E C E

a n d t h e p e r s o n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a r t is t , w h i c h w a s n o t as in s ig n i f i c a n t as it m ight seem . G i v e n th is b a c k g r o u n d , w e a r e in a p o s i t i o n b e t t e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d if fi­ c u lt ie s i n v o l v e d in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o m m o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p a i n t i n g o f a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n in t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , su c h as t h e r e g i o n n o w o c c u p i e d b y t h e R e p u b l i c o f G r e e c e . T h e first d if fic u lty is t h a t th is r e g i o n f o r m e d o n l y p a r t o f a w i d e r a r e a in w h ic h G r e e k s li v e d a n d w o r k e d d u r i n g t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , a n d m a y n o t t h e r e f o r e b e r e g a r d e d as a s e p a r a t e g e o g r a p h i c a l e n t i t y . S e c o n d l y , t h e m a i n b o d y o f G r e e c e is d i v i d e d b y h ig h m o u n t a i n s , a n d f r a g m e n t e d in t o n u m e r o u s i s l a n d s , l a r g e a n d s m a l l , s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e m a i n l a n d : t h i s p r o d u c e s d is tin c t r e g i o n s b e t w e e n w h ic h c o m m u n i c a t i o n is n o t e a s y a n d w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , in differ­ e n t p e r i o d s , d e p e n d e d t o d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s o n t h e m a i n B y / a n t i n e c e n t r e s of ( o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d T h e s s a l o n i k e . In th is c o n t e x t it w *s no t p o s s ib le fo r p a i n t i n g , e v e n

]3 y z a n tin e

p ain tin g ,

e sp ecially

m ural

p a i n t i n g , t h o u g h p r e - e m i n e n t l y a c o n s e r v a t i v e a r t f o r m , is n o n e t h e l e s s a liv in g a r t , w h i c h r e s p o n d s to t h e c h a n g i n g d e m a n d s o f official c h u r c h d o c t r i n e a n d o f p o p u l a r

in t h e a r e a ol m o d e r n Greece, t o a c q u i r e a u n if ie d C h a r a c t e r tli.it would set it a p a r t f r o m th a t o f o t l i c r w e g i o n s o u t s i d e Greece It is p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , lo d is ti n g u is h c e r t a i n m o t e g c n c i il shafnci& i isties d<

b e li e f . T o u n d e r s t a n d th is m o r e fu lly , it s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e d y n a m i c

ri v in g f r o m p r e c i s e l y t h o s e n o n - a r t i s t i c f a c t o rs l i n t w e h a v e n o t e d

o f p a i n t i n g is t h e r e s u l t o f t w o c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d t e n d e n c i e s . O n t h e o n e h a n d s t a n d

m o s t in d i c a t i v e is t h e c o m p a r a t i v e n u m b e r s ol w all p a i n t i n g s d c c o i . i t i n g m o n u ­

O n e ol tin-

all t h e e l e m e n t s t h a t le a d t o u n it y o f p l a c e a n d c o n t i n u i t y in t i m e , a n d o n t h e o t h e r

m e n t s . T h r o u g h o u t G r e e c e n o less t h a n tw o t h o u s a n d c y c le s o f w all p a i n t i n g s ,

t h o s e t h a t l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d e v o l u t i o n . T h e first t e n d e n c y e m b r a c e s th e

d a t i n g f r o m t h e s e v e n t h to t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , h a v e s u r v i v e d , o f t e n s u p e r i m ­

c o n s t a n t , u n c h a n g i n g i d e o l o g ic a l v a l u e s t h a t fin d t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h t h e

p o s e d o n e u p o n a n o t h e r . T h i s is n o t th e fin a l c o u n t b u t it is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t fo r

i c o n o g r a p h y o f a n O r t h o d o x c h u r c h a n d b e l o n g t o t h e lev el o f d o c t r i n e , h i s t o r y ,

all t h e s u r v i v i n g c y c le s in all t h e o t h e r B y z a n t i n e r e g i o n s in E u r o p e a n d A s i a

d e v o t i o n a n d r i t u a l . T h e s e v a l u e s u n d e r g o v e r y fe w f l u c t u a t i o n s t h r o u g h t i m e ,

M i n o r , o r in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g O r t h o d o x s t a t e s . M o r e o v e r , d i f f e r e n c e s c a n b e

w i t h o n l y t h e o c c a s i o n a l shift o f e m p h a s i s . T h e y a r e c o n s t a n t s , f i r m l y l i n k e d w ith

d i s t i n g u i s h e d in t h e d e n s i t y o f m o n u m e n t s in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f G r e e c e . T h e y a r e

t h e n o t i o n o f a c c u r a c y in m a t t e r s o f h i s t o r y a n d d o c t r i n e , a n d w i t h t h e d e m a n d

m u c h m o r e d e n s e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d in G r e e c e s o u t h o f O l y m p u s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s

f o r l i k e n e s s , n o t o n l y in t h e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e s a i n ts , b u t a ls o in a m o r e g e n e r a l

f o r th i s d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t in t h e a r e a n o r t h o f O l y m p u s t h e m a j o r i t y o f m o n u ­

se n s e : t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a n e s s e n t i a l p r e c o n d i t i o n if t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f a c h u r c h is t o

m e n t s a r e t o b e f o u n d in t h e r e l a t i v e l y la r g e t o w n s . I n T h e s s a l o n i k e a l o n e w e

f i n d a c c e p t a n c e as a u t h e n t i c f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f O r t h o d o x i c o n o g r a p h y .

k n o w fro m d o c u m e n ta ry sources th at there w ere m o re th a n a h u n d re d ch u rch es

T h o s e w h o d r e w u p i c o n o g r a p h i c p r o g r a m m e s a n d th e p a i n t e r s t h e m s e l v e s n a t u ­

a n d m o n a s t e r i e s , a n d t h e l a y e r s o f p a i n t i n g t h a t will h a v e c o v e r e d t h e w a lls o f

ra lly s o l v e d t h e p r o b l e m s w ith w h ic h t h e y w e r e f a c e d by c o n c e n t r a t i n g s t r ic t ly o n

t h e s e s a c r e d b u i l d i n g s will h a v e b e e n m u c h g r e a t e r in n u m b e r . M o s t o f t h e m

m o d e l s w h o s e a u t h e n t i c i t y w a s i n d i s p u t a b l e : m i r a c u l o u s ic o n s , e a r l i e r w a ll p a i n t ­

d i s a p p e a r e d , h o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e l o n g c e n t u r i e s o f O t t o m a n o c c u p a t i o n . In t h e

in g s , i l l u s t r a t e d m a n u s c r i p t s , s k e t c h b o o k s , d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d so o n . A m o n g s t th e

s o u t h o f G r e e c e , b y c o n t r a s t , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f a f e w t o w n s li k e M i s t r a a n d

c o n se rv a tiv e e le m e n ts should b e in c lu d e d th e te c h n iq u e s o f m u ra l d e c o ra tio n ,

Y e r a k i , m o s t o f t h e k n o w n B y z a n t i n e m o n u m e n t s a r e t o b e f o u n d in t h e c o u n ­

w h e t h e r w e a r e ta l k i n g o f m o s a i c s , o r f r e s c o e s , o r o f a m i x t u r e o f f r e s c o a n d

t r y s i d e , o u t s i d e t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll f o r t i f i e d t o w n s t h a t w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e s a f e r m o u n ta in regions.

t e m p e r a t h a t d e r i v e d f r o m G r e c o - R o m a n p a i n t i n g . T h e sty le s o f p a i n t i n g , t o o , c o n t i n u e d t o t h e e n d to e x h i b i t t h e b a s i c v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e m a i n t r e n d s t h a t h a d

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e f o r a r t o f th is d i s t i n c t i o n is t h a t t h e a r t o f t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n

a l i c . i d y e m e r g e d in la te a n t i q u i t y . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d h e r e t h a t o n e o f t h e c o n s t a n t

h a s a n u r b a n c h a r a c t e r , s i n c e it w a s f o s t e r e d w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d

p i c c o m l i t io n s m a k i n g f o r t h e u n i t y o f a r t is t ic e x p r e s s i o n w a s its a n t i - r e a l i s t i c a n d

c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e city. T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t all t h e m o n u m e n t s in t h e

n m s c e n d c n t n l c h a r a c t e r , t h o u g h it n o n e t h e l e s s r e s p e c t e d t h e h u m a n f i g u r e a n d

s o u t h w e r e n o n - u r b a n in c h a r a c t e r . F i r s t , t h e r e w e r e l a r g e m o n a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s ,

d ie Iiimc s h a p e s o f o b j e c t s . W i( 11111 th is c o n s t a n t f r a m e w o r k , p r e s e n t e d h e r e in a v e r y s i m p l i f i e d f o r m ,

b u il t a n d d e d i c a t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r s , o r b y s e c u l a r a n d r e l i g i o u s r u l e r s , w h o

I l i n e w e i e c o u n t l e s s v a r i a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e t h o u s a n d y e a r s , o r m o r e , o f v ita l c r e a -

l e v e l , if n o t o f t h e le v e l o f l u x u r y r e p r e s e n t e d b y m a r b l e r e v e t m e n t s a n d m o s a ic s .

ii\i

S e c o n d l y , b e c a u s e w o r k s lik e t h e s e , w h ic h a r c ‘i m p o r t e d ’ in c h a r a c t e r , m ig h t infill

.11

livilv

s o n n Him s t h e s e w e r e d e t e r m i n e d by n o n - a r t i s t i c f a c t o r s , s u c h as t h e Ul

b r o u g h t t o t h e p e r i p h e r a l a r e a s t h e m e a n s to c o n s t r u c t w o r k s o f a high artisfic

41

e n c e t h e lo c a l p r o d u c t i o n , w h ic h ( t o u s e a m o d e r n G r e e k i m a g e ) a l w a y s s t o o d t o

B Y Z A N T IN E

IC O N S

t h e m in t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a v is u a l ‘d e m o t i c ’, o r p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e , to t h e ‘p u r e ’ l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , o r k a th a r e v o u s a . O t h e r lo c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s i n c l u d e i c o n o g r a p h i c a l a r c h a i s m s , s u c h as t h e r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n o f t h e f o u n d e r s o r o f t h e p r o p h e t s in t h e S a n c t u a r y a p s e , o r t h e m a n n e r o f p a i n t i n g t h e P a n t o c r a t o r , in t h e d o m e , w i t h o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n v a r i a t i o n s , b o t h in t h e o v e r a l l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d in t h e s e c o n d a r y f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d . A p r e f e r e n c e f o r n o n - f i g u r a t i v e d e c o r a t i o n c a n a ls o b e o b s e r v e d in G r e e c e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e i s l a n d s , f r o m t h e p e r i o d o f I c o n o c l a s m o n w a r d s . T h i s is a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g p h e n o m e n o n , w h o s e full e x t e n t h a s y e t t o b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e s e p h e n o m e n a , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t u n i q u e , o r e x c lu s iv e , a n d w e r e n o t p a r t o f an a u to n o m o u s e v o lu tio n . T o d iffe re n t d e g re e s , ac c o rd in g to p lace a n d to p e r io d , t h e y a r e r e l a t e d to d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s a n d in t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g r e g i o n s s u c h a s A s i a M i n o r a n d Ita ly . T h e li n k s w i t h t h e W e s t , f o r w h i c h B y z a n t i n e p a i n t i n g a lw a y s s e r v e d as a m o d e l a n d a t e a c h e r , b e c a m e c l o s e r a f t e r t h e F o u r t h C r u s a d e , w h ic h r e s u l t e d in t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e ( 1 2 0 4 ) . A la r g e p a r t o f s o u t h e r n G r e e c e , i n c l u d i n g C r e t e , t h e is la n d s o f t h e A e g e a n a n d s o m e p a r t s o f t h e P e l o p o n n e s e ,

T h e

r e m a i n e d u n d e r L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n u n ti l t h e O t t o m a n c o n q u e s t . W h a t is r e m a r k ­

p l a c e in t h e p a i n t i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y o f a re l ig i o u s n a t u r e , w h i c h w a s a n o t a b l e

a b l e is t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e c e n t u r i e s t h e O r t h o d o x p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o ' s e e '

f e a t u r e o f B y z a n t i n e c u l t u r e . W h i l e its o ri g in s w e r e in G r e c o - R o m a n p o r t r a i t u r e

a m i lo p a in t in a p u r e l y B y z a n t i n e m o d e . T h e in e v i t a b l e f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e s w e r e

t h e ic o n w a s a n a u t h e n t i c p r o d u c t o f B y z a n t i n e c iv i li z a ti o n a n d c a m e t o p l a y a

v e r y l e w , a f f e c t i n g m linly t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d to a m u c h le s s e r e x t e n t t h e sty le . A n o th e r

p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e d e t e c t e d in th is r e g i o n at

l e a d i n g r o l e in r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l , b e c o m i n g t h e s u p r e m e c u lt o b j e c t o f t h e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h . T h e rich d e c o r a t i o n o f t h e B y z a n t i n e c h u r c h w i t h m o s a i c s a n d w a ll p a i n t ­

a b o u t 9 0 0 in

in g s g a v e v isu a l e x p r e s s i o n to t h e id e o l o g y o f t h e C h u r c h , t r i u m p h a n t a n d d i d a c ­

w h ic h v a ry g r e a t l y in q u a l i t y , w e r e p a i n t e d in t h e f o u r t e e n t h a n d f i f t e e n t h

tic, t h r o u g h t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d s p a c e i n t o a m i c r o c o s m o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

tins p c i i o d all

eq u ally rem ark ab le

p o r t a b l e ic o n o c c u p i e s a n i m p o r t a n t

cen tu ries

In C'ro te

S o f llu· s u r v iv in g B y z a n t i n e w all p a i n t i n g s

th a t is, d u r i n g th e V e n e t i a n p e r i o d . Λ s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e

un iv erse.

A b o v e all it w a s t h e ic o n t h a t a c t e d as t h e c a t a l y s t o f t h e m y s ti c a l

o b s e r v e d in th e o t h e r re g i o n s o c c u p i e d by t h e 1 r a n k s . It c a n b e e x p l a i n e d t o s o m e

c o m m u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e f a i th fu l a n d t h e w o r l d o f t h e t r a n s c e d e n t a l . T h e ico n w a s

e x t e n t by th e c h a n g e in t h e so cial r a n k o f t h e p a t r o n s , a n d a ls o b y c o m p a r i s o n

t h e i m m e d i a t e r e c i p i e n t o f t h e p r a y e r s d i r e c t e d to t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e p o r t i a i t

w ith w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g in t h e B y z a n t i n e a r e a . F o r , in t h e s a m e p e r i o d , at t h e e n d o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , t h e r e w a s a

t h r o u g h p r a y e r , it s e r v e d as th e c h a n n e l ol s p i rit u a l e x a l t a l i o n

g e n e r a l f l o w e r i n g o f a r t , w ith i m p o r t a n t c e n t r e s in T h e s s a l o n i k e , M i s t r a , A r t a a n d

terv en tio n of hum an h ands

in d ol ic o n s ol tin

M o u n t A t h o s p r o d u c i n g w o r k o f a h ig h q u a l i t y w h o s e i n f l u e n c e w a s w i d e l y felt.

su b tle th eo lo g ical p o sitio n s

mil d is ti n c ti o n s l o i m u l i t i d

T h e s e c e n t r e s n o w ri v a ll e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e still d e p e n d e n t

C h u r c h o n t h e q u e s t i o n ol tin. r e l a t i o n s h i p b t w e e n n o n a n d p f o i o t y p i

o n it. P a l a e o l o g a n p a i n t i n g s u c c e e d e d in c r e a t i n g p i c t o r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n s t h a t f r e ­

o u s r e l i g i o u s , so c ia l a n d p o litic a l d i s p u t e s p r o m p t e d I m m

s a l v a t i o n ol th e so ul

tn d ,

m oral stren g th

mil

Πιο beliol in th e e x i s t e n c e ol n o u s m a d e w i t h o u t tin V irg in p u n t e d by St by rhi lino

I uki

l a t h , is ol lo turn

e x c e s s i v e w o r s h i p o f ic o n s cu l m i l * ting in I In g re a t crisis ol k o h o c l a r m

tin

th ■ s e n by th e all ill so

le m s o f t h e p e r i o d . T h i s p a i n t i n g w a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by its m a s t e r y o f t h e full r a n g e

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e v a l u e a n d p o w e r o f ico n s in Ihe l l v / m l n n a m o n g s t t h e l o w e r c la s s e s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n

o f t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , u s i n g t h e ric h r e p e r t o i r e o f O r t h o d o x i c o n o g r a p h y . B y t h e s e m e a n s it c r e a t e d a n e w s ty le t h a t w a s t o h a v e its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e W e s t .

ti o n s , b u t e v e r y w h e r e , in p u b l i c b u il d in g s , in p r i v a t e h o u s e s u n i in III·- I’a lu c e

q u e n t l y g iv e e x p r e s s i o n t o c o m p l e x t h e o l o g i c a l id e a s r e l a t i n g to t h e b u r n i n g p r o b ­

T h i s fin a l f l o w e r i n g o f t h e s p i r i t u a l w o r l d o f B y z a n t i u m w a s to live o n in t h e a r t

w o flll. (‘s p e c ia lly

F o r i c o n s w e r e t o b e f o u n d n o t o n ly in c h u r c h e s a n d o t h e f i c l u ' i o u s m s ti tu in

ro y a l ‘p r o s k y n e t a r i a ’ a n d in t h e im p e r i a l t r e a s u r y , w h e r e llioy w e n e x h i b i t e d w ith t h e o t h e r t r e a s u r e s in t h e s u m p t u o u s l l a ll o f tin

o f th e G re e k s after th e cap tu re o f C o n sta n tin o p le .

in i he

( lu y s o iiik lm o s on d ay s w hen

o fficia l a u d i e n c e s w e r e h e l d f o r f o r e i g n e r s , I a li s n i a n a n d o b j e c t ol w o i s l u p ol Un­ f a i t h f u l , t h e ic o n w a s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e p u b lii

mil p r i v a t e hli ol th e B y / a n

ti n e s . I c o n s a c c o m p a n i e d m i li ta r y e x p e d i t i o n s a n d m y a l e m b a s s i e s . T h e y f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e t r i u m p h a l e n t r y o f t h e e m p e r o r in to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o n Ins r e t u r n fr o m M A N O L IS C H A T Z ID A K IS of th e A t h e n s A c a d e m y

-

42 —

v i c t o r i o u s w a r s . T h e y w e r e u s e d to c o n s e c r a t e l o i t r e s s e s a n d p r o t e c t c itie s .

They

w e r e c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n , w i t h g r e a t p o m p , o n feast d a y s , a l t e r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s , — 43

(II will

III·· l i l y w.is u n d e r sie g e . T h e b r i l l i a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s i o n s in h o n o u r o f

c h a n g e s a n d sh ifts in p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t e n d e n c i e s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e o c c a s i o n a l

m u ;u lr w in k m ; ’, ic o n s is c a p t u r e d in a la t e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w a ll p a i n t i n g , u n i q u e >111 tin s pi m u nl v ie w , p r e s e r v e d in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f V l a c h e r n a a t A r t a , t h e

‘r e n e w a l s ’ a n d o t h e r c u r r e n t s in a r t , r u n n i n g f r o m t h e c e n t r e t o t h e p e r i p h e r y a n d vic e v e r s a .

cap fu l I 01 I lu D e s p o t a t e o f E p i r u s . T h i s d e p i c t s in d e ta i l t h e p r o c e s s i o n in w h i c h tin- f a m o u s m m o f t h e V i r g i n H o d e g e t r i a w a s c a r r i e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a p r e -

d i f f ic u l t, s i n c e , s a v e in a v e r y few i n s t a n c e s , t h e w r i t t e n e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e x is t,

111

11

T h e t a s k o f l o c a t i n g t h e a r t is t ic w o r k s h o p s in w h ic h th e i c o n s w e r e p r o d u c e d is

si i lin ’d i itu a l e v e r y T u e s d a y in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , b e f o r e h o s t s o f w o r s h i p p e r s , a n d

a n d t h e ic o n w a s a n e a s ily t r a n s p o r t e d i t e m . T h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y h ig h q u a l i t y a n d

i οι Μ'spoilt Is w i t h d e s c r i p t i o n s g iv e n b y f o r e i g n tr a v e l l e r s . Iro n s w e re m a d e fro m a w ide v a rie ty o f m a te ria ls , d e p e n d in g o n th e p u r p o s e

s e n s iti v it y o f m a n y o f t h e m s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o w o r k s h o p s in

lo r w h ic h t h e y w e r e d e s i g n e d ; s o m e t o o k t h e f o r m o f m o s a i c s , o r w e r e p a i n t e d o r

a p o s i t i o n t h a t e n a b l e d it to d i r e c t t h e p r o c e s s e s r e g u l a t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d

I a r v e d in w o o d o r m a r b l e ; o t h e r w e r e m a d e o f p r e c i o u s m e t a l , e n a m e l , a n d s o o n .

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ico ns.

W a ll p a i n t i n g s s o m e t i m e s t o o k t h e p l a c e o f p o r t a b l e i c o n s o n t h e i c o n o s t a s i s

E m p i r e , in w h ic h so c ia l a n d o t h e r a c tiv ity w a s a lw a y s o f t h e liv e lie st o r d e r , a n d

w h e r e th is w a s b u il t in m a s o n r y . I c o n s m i g h t b e a d o r n e d w i t h d e l i c a t c s i lv e r a n d

w h i c h h a d M o u n t A t h o s c lo s e b y , p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t h e C a p i t a l , w h ic h w a s t h e l e a d e r a n d focal p o i n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a r t is t ic c u r r e n t s , I h e s s a l o n i k e t o o , t h e s e c o n d la r g e s t c ity in t h e B y z a n t i n e

g o l d le a f , w i t h e l a b o r a t e f r a m e s , w i t h e n a m e l s , iv o r y , p e a r l s a n d p r e c i o u s s t o n e s .

t h e a r t . H e r e t h e r e w e r e s o m e u n d o u b t e d l y i m p o r t a n t w o r k s h o p s p r o d u c i n g ic o n s

Π ι ε m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e t h a t h a v e s u r v i v e d - a n d t h e s e will h a v e b e e n t h e g r e a t e r

a n d d i r e c t i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o i l i e r local w o r k s h o p s in t h e w i d e r a r e a i n f l u e n c e d

n u m b e r - a r e p a i n t e d o n w o o d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s : w ith

b y t h e city ( K a s t o r i a , M o u n t A t h o s a n d O c h n d ) . C y p r u s , f r o m w h i c h i m p o r t a n t

e n c a u s t i c p a i n t i n g , a t e c h n i q u e f o u n d m a i n l y in t h e E a r l y B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , in

e x a m p l e s ol local p r o d u c t i o n a r e k n o w n , w as p r o b a b l y a c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n

w h i c h t h e p i g m e n t s w e r e m i x e d w ith t h e m e l t e d w a x , o r m o r e u s u a l l y w i t h e g g

o f t h e s o - c a lle d C r u s a d e r ic o n s o f th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m a n y o f w h i c h s u r v iv e

te m p e r a , o n a g r o u n d p r e p a r e d w ith g esso, o r gesso on c a n v a s, a n d m o r e rarely

o n t h e is la n d a n d in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n M o u n t S in a i.

w i t h p a r c h m e n t i n s t e a d o f c a n v a s . A s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f ic o n a n d t h e i r u s e ,

T h e M o n a s t e r y o f S in a i p o s s e s s e s t h e la r g e s t c o l l e c t i o n of B y z a n t i n e i c o n s n o w

th e r e w e re icons th a t a d o r n e d th e ico n o stasis, icons d e s tin e d fo r th e ep isty le w ith

in e x i s t e n c e . M a n y i c o n s h a v e a ls o s u r v i v e d in G r e e c e , in K a s t o r i a , V e r i a , T h e s s a ­

t h e D o d e k a o r t o n a n d t h e G r e a t D e e s i s , a n d o t h e r , d o u b l e - s i d e d ic o n s , w h i c h

lo n ik e , M o u n t A th o s , th e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m of A th e n s , a n d e ls e w h e re . L arge

w e r e u s u a l ly i n t e n d e d t o b e c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n , r e l i q u a r i e s , d i p t y c h s a n d tr ip -

n u m b e r s o f B y z a n t i n e i c o n s h a v e , o f c o u r s e , b e e n lost as a r e s u l t o f n a t u r a l d i s a s ­

ty c h s . In t e r m s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t h e y c a n b e d i v i d e d in t o c u lt i c o n s o f

te r s a n d lo o t i n g . O t h e r s still a w a i t d i s c o v e r y , a n d m a n y t h a t h a v e b e e n d a m a g e d

C h r i s t , t h e V i r g i n a n d t h e s a i n ts , a n d t h o s e , m a i n l y o f a d i d a c t i c c h a r a c t e r , d e p i c ­

h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n , sin ce t h e y w e r e p a i n t e d o v e r in t h e P o s t - B y ­

tin g s c e n e s f r o m t h e O l d a n d N e w T e s t a m e n t s , t h e L ife o f t h e V i r g i n , t h e lives

z a n t i n e p e r i o d . It is a l w a y s a g r e a t s o u r c e o f d e l i g h t w h e n a h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n

a n d m a r t y r d o m s o f t h e s a i n ts , a n d o t h e r c o m p l e x s u b j e c t s li k e t h e L a s t J u d g m e n t .

B y z a n t i n e ic o n is d i s c o v e r e d o r , as h a p p e n s n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y , is r e v e a l e d in t h e

M a n y i c o n s te ll t h e s t o r y o f t h e D o d e k a o r t o n ; t h a t is, t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e t w e l v e

c o n s e r v a t i o n l a b o r a t o r y u n d e r n e a t h t h e m o r e r e c e n t p a i n t i n g c o v e r i n g it. F o r

m ain ly ev an g elical scenes w h o se c o n te n t w as o f g re a t d o c trin a l im p o r ta n c e a n d

e v e r y n e w d i s c o v e r y , w h e t h e r t h e p a i n t i n g o n it is o f a h i g h q u a l i t y o r m e r e l y o f

w h i c h a d o r n e d t h e e p is ty l e o f t h e i c o n o s t a s i s f r o m t h e M i d d l e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d

r o u t i n e c r a f t s m a n s h i p , n o t o n l y f u r n i s h e s n e w e v i d e n c e f o r s c h o l a r s h i p b u t a ls o

onw ards. T h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t g o v e r n e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ic o n s in B y z a n t i u m a r e n o t

p r e s e r v e s t h e m e m o r y o f B y z a n t i u m , w h ic h k e p t t h e G r e e k i d e a a liv e in E u r o p e

k n o w n in a n y d e t a i l . T h e y w e r e n o r m a l l y a n o n y m o u s w o r k s o f p i e t y , a n d t h e i r

t i n e a r t . F o r th is w a s a n a r t d r e s s e d in o fficia l r e l i g i o u s a t t i r e w h i c h , t h a n k s to its

d u rin g th e M id d le A g e s, a n d co n v ey s so m e th in g of th e sp iritu al o d o u r o f B y z a n ­

c re a tio n w as s u b je c t to th e lim itatio n s o f th e d o c trin e re q u irin g a g o o d lik e n e ss of

s o l id i n t e l l e c t u a l f o u n d a t i o n a n d its H e l l e n i s t i c r o o t s , t h a n k s t o its a d o p t i o n ol'

th e o b j e c t o r p e r s o n d e p i c t e d , w h i c h g u a r a n t e e d t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e r e l i g i o u s

e a s t e r n d e c o r a t i v e sk ills, a n d t h e w a y in w h ic h it r e f l e c t e d t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e a n d

w o rk . T h e u n c h a n g in g ic o n o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s o f h oly p e rs o n s a n d s a c r e d e v e n ts

f o r t u n e s o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , s u s t a i n e d a h ig h le v e l o f p o e t i c p o w e r , v itality and relevan ce.

w e r e i n s u r e d b y r e f e r e n c e to m o d e l s s u p p l i e d b y m i r a c u l o u s , c u lt a n d o t h e r ic o n s , b y s k e t c h b o o k s , a n d b y w r i t t e n d e s c r i p t i o n s s u c h as t h o s e o f U l p i u s t h e R o m a n fr o m t h e n i n t h - t e n t h c e n t u r i e s , o r t h e p o s t - B y z a n t i n e P a in te r 's M a n u a l b y D i o n y ­ sius o f 1 'o u r n a . S ty lis tic a lly i c o n - p a i n t i n g w a s i n f l u e n c e d b y , a n d i n f l u n c e , m u r a l p a i n t i n g a n d m i n i a t u r e p a i n t i n g , b u t w ith c e r t a i n d e c i s i v e d if f e r e n c e s : t h e m o s t o b v i o u s a r e Iliosc s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e n o r m s o f t h e m o r e d e t a i l e d , p r e c i s e a n d d i s c i p l i n e d a r t ol tin- e a s e l ; f r o m t h e li m i te d size a n d s h a p e o f t h e ic o n s ; f r o m t h e g o l d b a c k p o i m i l w h ic h w a s a n e s s e n tia l f a c t o r in t h e a b s t r a c t - t r a n s c e n d e n t a l c h a r a c t e r a n d llu

in o f l u x u r y o f t h e p o r t a b l e ic o n ; a n d f r o m t h e i r c o m p a r a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e ,

hit i kite l o n e

p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e c a s e o f c u lt ic o n s . T h e s e , w i t h t h e i r ‘o r d a i n e d ’

, i*1111ί i llu· lo

i n c i r n t m o d e l s , d id fo l lo w , a l b e i t in a m o r e r e s t r a i n e d f a s h i o n , th e 4 ·)

M Y R T A L I A C H E I M A S T O U - P O T A M I A N ( >t I D i r e c t o r o f the B y z a n t in e M u s e u m of A lin n

A N D

T H E

G R E E K

T H E

L A T IN

W O R L D D O M IN A T IO N

I f t h e d iv is io n o f C h r i s t e n d o m i n t o tw o h o s t il e w o r l d s c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h a p t e r s in t h e h i s t o r y o f E u r o p e , t h e e v e n t s f o l lo w in g t h e F o u r t h C r u s a d e w e r e as d e c is iv e as t h e fall o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e f o r t h e h is t o r y o f H e l l e n i s m . T h e c a p t u r e o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e b y t h e C r u s a d e r s in 1204 a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e d i s m e m b e r e d B y z a n t i n e s t a t e m a r k e d t h e e n d o f t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e as a n e n t i t y ; a t t h e s a m e t i m e , w h a t N i c e t a s C h o n i a t e s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e ‘μ έ γ ι σ τ ο ν χ ά σ μ α δ ι α φ ο ρ ά ς ' ( ‘g r e a t c h a s m ’) w a s fin a lly c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n E a s t a n d th e C h ristia n W est. T h e h isto ry o f th e p o p u la tio n o f th e E a s te r n E m p ire a fte r th e W e s te r n w o rld h a d p r e v a i l e d p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h r e e p h a s e s ; first, t h e r e w a s r e s i s t a n c e t o L a t i n i n f l u e n c e , t h e n a d j u s t m e n t to t h e n e w s i t u a t i o n a n d c o n t a c t w ith W e s t e r n c iv ili­ z a t i o n a n d t h e m o r e d e v e l o p e d W e s t e r n e c o n o m i e s , a n d , fin a lly , a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e in stitu tio n a l f r a m e w o rk o f fo reig n so v e re ig n ty . T h is th r e e fo ld r e a c tio n , th e e x p r e s s i o n o f a c u l t u r e w h o s e m a i n h a l l m a r k w a s t h e v ita lity s t e m m i n g f r o m its p o w e r s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , e n a b l e d t h e G r e e k e l e m e n t t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e ol t h e f a v o u r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s c r e a t e d b y W e s t e r n r u l e , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e le d it to d e l i n c ils soc ial a n d id e o lo g ic a l o i i i il la t io n i o r c l c r lo th e l e i r i l o i i c s o f ih c B y / a n l m c E m p i r e , Ihe I a t i n s u s e d t h e t e r m ' R o m a n i a ' , a w o r d o f p o p u l a r o r i g i n , s y n o n y m o u s in th e B y z a n t i n e s o u r c e s w ith Ih e Β ( ( ο ιλ ικ < tciv Ι’ο ιμ α ίο ιν ( ‘K i n g d o m ol t h e R o m a n s ’). T h e L a t i n e m p i r e o f ( on· l a m i n o p l c w a s th u s c a ll e d ‘I m p e r i u m R o m a n i a e ’, t h e D o g e o f V e n i c e a d d e d lo liis lilie s t h a t o f ‘d o m i n u s q u a r t a e p a r t i s e t d i m i d i a e t o t i u s I m p e r i i R o m a n i a e ' , t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f f e u d a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in G r e e c e w a s g iv e n t h e n a m e o f ‘A s s i s e s d e R o m a n i c ' , a n d N a u p l i o n is r e f e r r e d to t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n a s ‘N a p o l i d i R o m a n i a ’. T h e V e n e t i a n s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n ‘R o m a n i a b a s s a ' ( t h e P e l o p o n n e s e , E u b o e a , C r e t e , a n d t h e i s la n d s ) a n d ' R o m a n i a a l t a ’ ( M a c e d o ­ n ia , T h r a c e , a n d t h e B o s p h o r u s ) . F o r t h e c h r o n o g r a p h e r S a l i m b e n e , t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y G r e e c e w a s a p r o v i n c e o f R o m a n i a ( ‘G r e c i a ... e s t p r o v i n c i a R o m a n i a e ’). A n d th e v e ry d o c u m e n t by w h ich th e te r rito rie s o f th e B y z a n tin e E m p i r e w e re d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g s t t h e C r u s a d e r s is k n o w n as t h e ‘P a r t i t i o t e r r a r u m I m p e r i i R o m a n i e ’. D i v i d e d in t o F r a n k i s h a n d V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s i o n s , t h e G r e e k r e g i o n s e x p e ­ rie n c e d d ifferin g fo r tu n e s fro m th e th ir te e n th to th e e n d of th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ­ rie s , in v o l v in g v a r y i n g p e r i o d s o f L a t i n s o v e r e i g n t y , a n d o n e o r m o r e f o r e i g n l o r d s . S o m e a r e a s p a s s e d d ir e c tl y f r o m t h e B y z a n t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o V e n e t i a n s o v e r e i g n t y , o t h e r s b e c a m e fiefs, in a c c o r d a n c e w ith W e s t e r n p r a c t i c e , a n d y e t o th e r s p a ss e d th r o u g h a feu d al p h a s e b e fo re b e c o m in g V e n e tia n p o sse ssio n s. T h e h is to r i c a l c l i m a t e a f f e c t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f e a c h r e g i o n t h u s v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g to th e s p e c ific lo c a l c o n d i t i o n s . E v e n b e f o r e t h e F o u r t h C r u s a d e C y p r u s h a d c o m e u n d e r Ih c d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e F r e n c h L u s i g n a n s , w h o r u l e d o v e r t h e i s l a n d f o r a b o u t t h r e e h u n d r e d y e a r s , u n ti l t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1489 o f V e n e t i a n a u t h o r i t y , - - 46 —

w h i c h l a s t e d u n til 1570. f r o m 1211 u n til 1669 C r e t e w a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o l o n y o f t h e n a v a l p o w e r , V e n i c e , in t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . A t t i c a , B o e o t i a a n d t h e M e g a r i d in itia lly c a m e u n d e r F r e n c h s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e first D u k e b e i n g t h e B u r g u n d i a n O t t o d e la R o c h e ; t h e y w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y r u l e d b y t h e C a t a l a n s , t h e N a v a r r e s e a n d th e F l o r e n t i n e s . T h e P ri n c ip a l it y o f A c h a e a w a s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t L a t i n a r e a s in G r e e c e , a n d u n d e r t h e V i l l e h a r d o u i n s o c c u p i e d a u n i q u e p o s i t i o n in t h e f e u d a l w o i k l o f (lie e a s t . T h e I o n i a n is la n d s w e r e g o v e r n e d by t h e A n g e v i n s , O r s i n i , T o c c h i , V e n i e r a n d o t h e r L a t i n r u l e r s , u n ti l t h e y w e r e a n n e x e d to t h e c o l o n i a l s y s te m o f V e n i c e . E u b o e a , h a v in g in itia lly b e e n g r a n t e d a s a fief to t h r e e n o b l e s fr o m V e r o n a , w h o g o v e r n e d it as a t r i u m v i r a t e ( ' t e r z i e r i ' ) , a ls o b e c a m e a V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s i o n . V e n e t i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in t h e P e l o p o n n e s e i n c l u d e d M o d o n , C o r o n a n d l a t e r N a u p l i o n A r g o s a n d M o n e m v a s i a . T h e is l a n d s o f t h e A e g e a n b e c a m e th e D u c h y o f Ih c A r c h i p e l a g o , a n d w e r e d i v i d e d as fiefs a m o n g s t V e n e t i a n n o b l e s ( S a n u d i O u c r i n i , Baro/./.i, D a n d o l o , G h i s i e t c . ) . C h i o s a n d L e s ­ b o s w e r e G e n o e s e tr a i l i n g p o s t s , w h ile R h o d e s , u n d e r t h e K n i g h t s H o s p i t a l l e r s o f S t. J o h n b e c a m e th e c e n t r e o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e s t a t e t h a t s e r v e d as a n id e a l b a s e o f o p e r a t i o n s a g a in s t T u r k i s h a t t a c k s . T h e n e w o r d e r o f t h i n g s e s t a b l i s h e d in th e G r e e k w o r l d in 1204 n o t o n ly s i g n a l l e d t h e e n d o f a p o li ti c a l s i t u a t i o n b u t als o b r o u g h t a b o u t s i g n if i c a n t c h a n g e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f G r e e k s o c i e ty . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e f e u d a l s y s t e m in t o R o m a n i a g ra d u a lly p r o d u c e d a diversified reg im e c o m p o u n d e d o f fo r m e r B y z a n ­ t i n e i n s t i t u t i o n s , lo c a l c u s t o m s a n d F r a n k i s h p r a c t ic e s . B e l i e f in t h e e a s t e r n c r e e d , w h i c h , a l o n g w ith t h e l a n g u a g e , d i s t i n g u i s h e d th e n a t i v e e l e m e n t f r o m t h e f o r e i g n , c a m e t o b e t h e line t h a t d i v i d e d t h e L a t i n C a t h o l i c c o n q u e r o r f r o m t h e G r e e k O r t h o d o x c o n q u e r e d . T h e r e s u l t w a s t h a t re l ig i o u s b e l i e f b e g a n t o b e c o n f u s e d w ith t h e n a t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t s o f H e l l e n i s m , a n d g r a d u a l l y c a m e to c o i n c i d e w ith n a tio n a l identity. A lo n g ti m e w a s t o e l a p s e b e f o r e t h e t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n t h e tw o C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n itie s o f L atin G r e e c e re la x e d , th eir d ifferen ces d im in ish e d a n d a c o m m o n w a y o f life w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t f in a lly e n a b l e d t h e t w o d i s p a r a t e r e l i g i o u s c o m m u ­ n it ie s t o c o e x is t in t h e s a m e g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n . T h e c o e x i s t e n c e o f G r e e k s a n d f o r e i g n e r s in t h e s a m e a r e a w a s t h e r e s u l t o f t w o p a r a l l e l h i s t o r i c a l p h e n o m e n a t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d d u r i n g th is p e r i o d : o n th e o n e h a n d , t h e L a t i n s slo w ly but s u r e l y c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t a n ti b e g a n t o b e a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o G r e e k c u l t u r e , a n d o n t h e o t h e r t h e G r e e k s , d e s p i t e r e l a in in g t h e i r r e l ig i o n , l a n g u a g e a n d t r a d i t i o n s , a n d a t t e m p t i n g to p r e s e r v e t h e n i d e n t i t y a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , b e g a n n o n e t h e l e s s to in f il tr a t e a n d p a r t i c i p a l e in I lie so c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e c o n q u e r o r s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h a c u liim il g a p c o u l d b e d e t e c t e d b e t w e e n G r e e k s a n d f o r e i g n e r s in t h e first < . m u i u ' . ul L a t i n d o m i n a t i o n , H e l l e n i s m l a t e r c a m e u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Ih e K e n . i r .11 it ■· a n d a b s o r b e d t h e v a l u e s o f W e s t e r n c iv iliz a tio n . C o n t a c t b e t w e e n Wi . l e m mu I G r e e k f o r m s f o u n d its f i n e s t e x p r e s s i o n s in C r e t e , ( ' r e t a i l c r a l i m e n in d n i l I w h ile r e m a i n i n g t r u e to t h e B y z a n t i n e t r a d i t i o n , s u c c e e d e d m iimhi· new i p i. iw m e a n s t o i n t e r p r e t R e n a i s s a n c e m o d e l s o f aicliilee.lu it a n d pauiiui)· A l t h o u g h f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n u n d o u b t e d l y h a d ils p a in f u l n-.pei ι 1 1u I I i r e I s u c c e e d e d t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n a b il it ie s in fi n d in g a nc w i niluT I |«.iili mil in O Pvning up n e w a v e n u e s o f creativ ity . < lll< VS A M A I 1*11ill··.·.! II II dll

1/

II / ( M l

I h 11Vi' I ΜIV III ( i e t f

IC O N

P A IN T IN G

D U R IN G A N D

T H E

IN

C R E T E

F IF T E E N T H

SIX T E E N T H

C E N T U R IE S

. ^ ^ . f t e r th e fall of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 1453, C r e t e , w hich h a d b e e n u n d e r V e n e tia n o c c u p a t io n since 1204, t o o k its p la c e as th e m o st i m p o r t a n t c e n tr e o f a rt in th e G r e e k w o rld . T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in C a n d ia (I ra k lio n ) o f a g ro u p o f artists o f o u t s t a n d i n g ta le n t e s ta b lis h e d th e a u th o r it y o f C r e t a n a rt, w hich s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t th e G r e e k w o rld , th e in flu en ce o f C r e ta n p a in t e r s b ein g partic ula rly p r o n o u n c e d in th e m a j o r c e n tr e s o f O r t h o d o x y , on M o u n t A tlio s, at M e t e o r a , on the is land o f P a t m o s an d at llie M o n a s te r y o f Sinai. 1 he C r e t a n p a in t e rs , w h o fr e q u e n tly v isited V e n ic e , n atu ra lly d e v e lo p e d close ties with the G r e e k c o m m u n it y th e r e , w h ich w as 5,000 s tr o n g in th e s ix te e n th centu ry . T h e r e is d o c u m e n t a r y e v id en c e for th e m o v e m e n t o f p a in te rs fr o m C o n s t a n t i ­ n o p le to C r e t e e v e n b e fo r e th e fall o f th e city, an d d u rin g this sa m e p e r i o d C r e ta n p a in t e r s such as A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s tr a v e lle d to th e capital fro m C r e te . T h e e s t a b ­ lis h m e n t in C r e t e o f p a in te rs fr o m C o n s t a n t in o p l e th a t s e e m s likely to h a v e t a k e n p lace a f t e r 1453 w as t h e r e f o r e a c o n ti n u a ti o n o f ea rlie r links b e t w e e n th e island a n d th e cap ital. W all p a in tin g s in c h u rc h e s o f the first half o f th e fifte e n th c c n tu r y , like th ose p a i n t e d by m e m b e r s o f th e P h o k a s fam ily, d isplay stro n g affinities w ith w o rk s fro m a C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n a te lie r, such as th o s e in th e C h u r c h ol th e P e r i b le p t o s at M istra (s e c o n d h alf o f th e f o u r te e n t h c e n tu r y ) . T h e art in th es e p a in tin g s is o f a very high q u a lity , a n d has n o n e o f the prov in cial c h a r a c t e r to be f o u n d in o t h e r churclxts from (his p e rio d o n the island. O n ly a lew icons no w d a t e d to th e early pari o f th e fiftee n th c e n tu r y arc’ inclu ded in this e x h ib itio n . D e s p ite the d if fe re n c e s o f style b e tw e e n Ιΐκ-ηι, they w ere all prpilueoiJ in a highly c u lt u r e d e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e D o r m i l i o n from the K a n e llo p o u lo s M u s e u m (cat. no. 23 ), w ith its e ru d i te ic o n o g r a p h y , r e l in e d d ra w in g an d s u b d u e d c o lo u rs, can only be th e w o r k o f a p a i n t e r w h o h a d le a r n e d his art in th e B y z an tin e cap ital. 1 h e N a tiv ity in th e P e ra t ik o s C o lle c tio n (fo rm e rly Volpi C o lle c tio n , cat. no. 30) is clo ser to th e s u p ­ e r b e n s e m b l e s o f wall p ain tin gs at M istra. T h e icon d e p ic tin g St. M a r i n a f r o m th e B v z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s (cat. no. 31) is an e x a m p le o f th e a d o p t i o n o f the P a la e o l o g a n style in C re te . - 48 —

T h e s e wall p ainting s a n d icons fo r m an integral p a r t o f th e P a la e o l o g a n t r a d i ­ tio n ; at th e sa m e tim e th ey display th o s e fe a tu re s th a t g av e C r e t a n p a in tin g its d istin ctive c h a ra c te r: th e p recise o u tlin es , th e m o d e llin g o f th e flesh w ith d a r k b ro w n u n d e r p a i n t an d d e n s e tiny highlights on th e c h e e k s o f th e faces, th e b rig h t c o lo u r s in th e g a r m e n ts , th e g e o m e tric a l tr e a t m e n t of th e d r a p e r y , a n d , finally, th e b a l a n c e d a rtic u latio n o f th e co m p o s itio n . All th e s e a re h a ll m a r k s o f late fif­ te e n t h - o r ea rly s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y C r e ta n p ainting , w hich w a s to a c q u ir e a r a t h e r a c a d e m ic c h a ra c te r. A t th e s a m e tim e , fe a tu re s fro m Italian p a in tin g w e re a ss im i­ la t e d a n d h a rm o n io u s ly a d a p t e d to th e a u s te re B y z a n tin e t r a d it io n w ith a qu ality n o t e n c o u n t e r e d in e a rlie r wall p ainting s in flu en ced by Italian art. T h e a rt o f th e p a i n t e r w h o signs his w o r k ΧΕΙΡ Α Γ Γ ΕΛ Ο Υ (‘t h e h a n d o f A n ­ g e lo s ’) clearly reveals the im p a c t o f th e P a la e o lo g a n tr a d itio n a n d th e assim ilatio n o f s e c o n d a r y fe a tu re s fr o m Italian p a in tin g ; th e e m e r g e n c e of a n e w artistic v o c a b u la r y can also b e d e t e c t e d at a d if fe re n t level in e a c h o f his w o rk s . T h is p a i n t e r is p r o b a b l y to be id e n tifie d w ith the A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s k n o w n fr o m the t e s t a m e n t he d r e w up in 1436 b e fo re settin g o u t on a jo u r n e y to C o n s ta n t in o p l e ; th e id e n tif ic a tio n , h o w e v e r , d o e s not solve all the p r o b l e m s re la te d to the v ariety of styles th a t a rc disc ern ible in his signed w orks. T h e c h ro n o lo g ic al fr a m e w o r k in which m a y be set the activity of the most i m p o r t a n t p a in te rs , such as A n d r e a s R itz o s a nd his son N ik o la o s , A n d r e a s Pavias a n d N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris, res ts o n d o c u m e n t a r y ev ide nc e. T h e s e p a in t e r s h ad ate liers a n d c o n s i d e ra b l e n u m b e r s o f a p p re n tic e s , a n d c r e a t e d ic o n - p r o to t y p e s w ith a n e w ic o n o g r a p h y . T h e V irg in , in th e ty p es o f th e H o d e g e t r i a , G ly k o p h il o u s a o r th e V irg in o f th e P a ss io n , w a rrio r saints, St. N ic h o las a n d St. A n t h o n y , scen es fro m th e D o d e k a o r t o n such as th e N a tivity , th e E n tr y in to J e r u s a l e m , th e R e s ­ u r r e c ti o n , th e A n n u n c i a t i o n a n d th e D o r m i t i o n of th e V irg in , a n d finally s u b je c ts like th e H o s p ita lity o f A b r a h a m , th e Noli M e T a n g e r e an d th e D o r m i t i o n of v a rio u s h e r m it s , w ere a m o n g th e m o s t p o p u l a r su b jects co p ie d fr o m such c o m m o n ic o n o g r a p h ic a l m o d els. A n i m p o r t a n t g r o u p of icons can n o w be d a t e d fro m th e m id d le o f th e fiftee n th to th e b e g in n in g of th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r ie s ; th es e h a v e th e ir o w n p a rtic u la r c h a r ­ a c te r , a distin guish ing f e a t u r e o f w h ich w as th e s u p e r b tech nic al e x e c u tio n . T h e p a i n t e r s o f th e s e w o rk s, m a s te rs o f a te c h n iq u e in h e r it e d fr o m P a la e o l o g a n a rt, f r e q u e n tl y d is p lay ed an eclecticism th a t e n a b le d t h e m to in c lu d e e le m e n ts fr o m Ita lia n a r t in th e ir p ain ting s. T h e a c q u a i n ta n c e w ith th e Italian style o f p a in tin g is m u c h m o r e a p p a r e n t in a n o t h e r g r o u p o f icons p r o d u c e d o n C r e te . T h e s e icons, w hich re v e a l an u n u s u a l k n o w le d g e o f th e L a te G o th ic a rt a n d a re in a re f in e d style, w e re p a i n t e d by N ik o la o s T z a fo u ris (cat. no . 42), A n d r e a s P avias, A n d r e a s R itz o s a n d o t h e r f a ­ m o u s artists. T h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y c o m m is s io n e d by C a th o lic c u s t o m e r s , a n d th e ir ic o n o g r a p h y follows typical Italia n m o d e ls , such as th e M a d r e della C o n s o la z i o n e (cat. no . 42), th e P ieta (cat. no . 45) an d th e M a n o f S o rr o w s (cat. no. 44). T h e s e I t a l o - C r e t a n w o rk s a re r e t r o s p e c t iv e r a t h e r t h a n c o n se rv a tiv e in c h a ra c te r. T h e y re fle ct th e tas te s o f th e clien tele w hich h e lp e d to defin e a n d d is s e m in a te this u n i q u e i c o n o g r a p h y a n d style t h r o u g h icons th a t o ften h a v e a hyb rid cliaiacli-i like t h e icon with the S a m a r it a n W o m a n , w hich w as p r o f o u n d ly in flu en ced by T u s c a n p a in tin g of th e q u a t t r o c e n t o . 4 hiv al sOuf c e s . F o r p a i n t i n g , a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n is f u r n i s h e d b y t h e A rchives i c U i i n g lo t h e V e n e t i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in C r e t e ( n o w p r e s e r v e d in t h e S ta l l A n h iv e s in V e n i c e ) . N o t a r i a l d o c u m e n t s , in p a r t i c u l a r , y ie ld v a lu a b l i

info rm ation on

th e

s o u r c e s o f d e m a n d f o r a n d s u p p l y o f C r e t a n ic o n s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s ot n o n p r o d u c t i o n , t h e o r g a n i z e d m a r k e t in C r e t a n i c o n s a n d t h e i r i l i s s e m m a i i o n in r a n e a n w o rld and n o rth e rn

E u r o p e t h r o u g h th e e x p o r t

tra d e

111

* M ed iter­

tin· i c l a l i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n p a t r o n s a n d p a i n t e r s , a n d t h e c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e of tin- public

to w a rd s

p ain tin g . A m o n g t h e s o u r c e s o f d e m a n d fo r ( ' r e t a i l ic o n s , m e r c h a n t s

b o th ( n e c k a n d

I t a l i a n , h e l d a s i g n ifi c a n t p o s i t i o n . I’lie m e r c h a n t s , a sp e c ia l p n u p o f c u s t o m e r s o f C r e t a n p a i n t e r s , a c t e d as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n C r e t a n

11

lists a n d W e s t e r n m a r ­

k e t s , a n d o f t e n e x p r e s s e d c o l l e c t i v e a e s l h e t i c p i e l e i c n c e v 1 h e ir w r i t t e n c o n t r a c t s co n stitu te a considerable p ro p o rtio n (about

I V / , ) ol th e s u r v i v i n g c o m m i s s i o n s

p l a c e d w i t h p a i n t e r s a c tiv e in C r e t e . D o c u m e n t s i n v o l v in g c o m m e r c i a l o r d e r s l o r la r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f C r e t a n i c o n s re v e a l th a t th e s e w o rk s w e re m ass p ro d u c e d lo r e x p o rt. Λ vast n u m b e r o f icons w e r e c o m m i s s i o n e d in 1497 b y a V e n e t i a n d e a l e r f r o m a C r e t a n p a i n t e r . T h e p a i n t i n g s w e r e t o b e p u t u p f o r s a le in E u r o p e , n o t a b l y in F l a n d e r s . H a l f o f t h e m h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d i s p o s e d o f, w ith g r e a t s u c c e s s , in t h e W e s t e r n m a r k e t s b y M a y 1498.

The

constant d e m a n d

for th ese

ic o n s is d e m o n s t r a t e d

b y t h e d e a l e r ’s

i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e o r d e r b e c o m p l e t e d as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e .

—

50 —

—

51 —

All οιιΐι-ι Ιπι h u n d r e d s o f icons of th e V irg in w as p la c e d in 1499 by tw o ik-aleis m u lio in V en ic e a n d th e o t h e r fr o m th e P e lo p o n n e s e , w ith th r e e p a in t e r s livmj’ in C a n d ia , ea c h o f th e m b ein g d e a lt w ith se p a r a te ly . T h e re s tric tio n s set by lh« 1111 ' ii li . 1111s as to th e ic o n o g r a p h y a n d style o f th e p ain tin g s (in fo r m a greca or in ju t m u ti la la tin a ), th e explicit in s tru c tio n s r e g a r d in g th e c o lo u rs of th e V ir g i n ’s g a r m e n ts , an d th e o b lig a to ry use o f p r e d e t e r m i n e d m o d e ls , all reflect th e d e m a n d s of I he foreign m a r k e t , w hich in f lu e n c e d a rt p r o d u c t io n in C r e te . T h e larg e n u m b e r of the pieces c o m m is s io n e d (seven h u n d r e d ) a n d th e s h o r t d eliv ery p e r i o d (fo rty live days) a tt e s t to th e efficiency o f C r e t a n w o rk s h o p s , w hich c a n in fact b e re g a r d e d as p r o d u c t i o n u n its w ith a c o n s id e ra b le o u tp u t . Five h u n d r e d o f th e icons c o m m is s io n e d w e r e to be in th e style of L a te G o th ic p a in tin g , a n d th e re m a in i n g tw o h u n d r e d in th e B y z a n tin e tr a d it io n , a p p a r e n t ly follow ing th e d e m a n d s of an a u d ie n c e w ith d ifferin g a e sth e tic p re f e re n c e s . C r e t a n p a in t e rs , e x p e ri e n c in g p a r t ic ­ u la r historical a n d social c irc u m sta n c e s, w e re v ersatile. T h e i r re la tio n s h ip to th e art o f th e d o m i n a ti n g political p o w e r , V e n ic e , a n d to o t h e r W e s t e r n in flu e n c es , c o m b i n e d w ith th e ta s te o f th eir m ix ed pu b lic (w hich in c lu d e d b o th G r e e k O r t h o ­ d o x a n d R o m a n C a th o lic , w ith a b r o a d social a n d cu ltu ra l r a n g e ) , led t h e m to an o b v io u s eclecticism , as a resu lt o f w hich th ey w e re c a p a b le o f p r o d u c i n g icon s in d if fe re n t tr a d itio n s. D o c u m e n t s o f t h e a b o v e k in d a tte st n o t only to th e m a s s p r o d u c t io n o f fif­ te e n t h - c e n t u r y C r e t a n icons, b u t also to th e re p e titio n o f c e rta in ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p es, a c c o rd in g to th e usual practice o f m e d ie v a l w o rk s h o p s . S urviving fiftee n th c e n tu r y ic o ns, b o t h sig n ed a n d u n s ig n e d , illu s trate this re p e titiv e use of successful a n d e s ta b lis h e d ic o n o g r a p h ic m o d e ls. O n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y rev ea l t h e high level o f tech nical c o m p e t e n c e a n d artistic skill o f th e m e n w h o p a in t e d th e m . It w as w ith in this f r a m e w o r k th a t th e t r a d e in art w as d e v e lo p e d in C r e te . P ain tin g s w e re tr e a t e d as m e r c h a n d is e a n d th e p ro d u c t io n of icons b e c a m e p a r t of th e sy stem o f su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . B esid es p a in te rs a n d th e i r a ss istan ts, o t h e r p ro f e ssio n a ls, such as w o o d -c a rv e rs a n d c a r p e n t e r s , w e re also c o n n e c t e d w ith the a rt tr a d e . P ain tin g s p r o d u c e d u n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s m a y h a v e b e e n lack in g in o rig in ality, b u t this w as offset by th e ir te c h n ical p e rf e c tio n , w h ich g u a r a n t e e d th e fine qu ality of th e w o rk s an d s e c u r e d th e g o o d r e p u t a ti o n o f th e C r e t a n p a in t e rs . In fact s o m e o f th e b est k n o w n f i fte e n th -c e n tu ry C r e ta n m a s te r s o fte n a d d e d th e n a m e o f th e ir n a tiv e to w n to th e ir s ig n a tu re o n p a in tin g s d e s t in e d fo r e x p o r t a ti o n : fo r e x a m p l e , A n d r e a s R ig o de C andia p in x it; A n d re a s P avias p in x it de C a n d ia . T h e v ast p r o d u c t i o n o f fine icons in C r e te is also a tt e s t e d by th e t e s ti m o n y o f a F r e n c h tr a v e lle r, J a c q u e s L e S aige, w h o visited C a n d ia in 1518: ‘e t il se fait aussy a la d ite ville [de C a n d ie ] l a r g e m e n t d e belles y m aig es d e n o s tre d a m e e n c lo s e s de ta b l e a u x d e c ip r e s ’. T h e flo u ris h in g tr a d e in C r e t a n icons w h ich is m a n ife s te d to w a r d s t h e e n d o f (he fifte e n th c e n tu r y d o e s n o t se e m to h a v e c o n ti n u e d in to th e s ix te e n th . D o c u ­ m e n ts su gg est e i t h e r th e failure o f c o m m e rc ia l e n te r p r i s e s o r a lack o f in t e r e s t on I he p a rt o f th e m e r c h a n ts in th e m a r k e t in icons. A c o n tr a c t d r a f t e d in 1509 in C a n d ia registers th e b e g in n in g o f an a t t e m p t to t r a d e in sm all trip ty c h s w h ich , h o w e v e r, n e v e r c a m e to fru itio n. In 1556 a m e r c h a n t p la c e d an o r d e r fo r a specific nu trth er of icons w ith tw o p a in te rs e s ta b lis h e d in C a n d ia . A l t h o u g h th e c o m m is ­ s i o n was c a rr ie d o u t , th e m e r c h a n t e x h ib i te d o b v io u s in d iffe r e n c e to t h e d elivery —

52

—

o f th e icons he h a d o r d e r e d , a p p a r e n t ly ow ing lo lack of sufficient d e m a n d . T h e d if fe re n t p ic tu re to be d e riv e d Irom six te e n th -c e n tu r y d o c u m e n t s m a y be i n t e r p r e t e d as th e result of so m e radical c h a n g e s in llie d e m a n d for an d d is tr i b u ­ tio n o f C r e t a n icons in th e W est. I lie art tr a d e in C r e te h ad most likely b e e n a ff e c te d b y a shift in the taste of th e public. I he di p re c a t o ry re m a r k s m a d e by G . B . A r m e n i n i (1587) a b o u t G r e e k icons w hich he hail see n in n o r t h e r n Italy w e r e p e r h a p s th e result o f a shift o f this kind ; he d escrib es ‘p it tu r c delle saero im a g in i, le qu ali e r a n o la m a g g io r p a r t e q u a d r e t ti di c e r t e figure latte alia g re c a , g offissim e, d ispiacevoli e tu t te a ff u m ic a te ’ ( ‘p ain tin g s o f sa c re d im age s w hich w ere fo r th e m o s t p a rt p ic tu re s of c e rta in figures d o n e in th e G r e e k m a n n e r , most u n c o u t h , u n p le a s in g a n d s m o k y ’). In th e six te e n th c e n tu r y th e p r e d o m i n a n t artistic fas h io n s w e re th o s e o f th e R e n a is s a n c e a n d M a n n e r is m , a n d th e s e o v e rs h a d o w e d th e e a r l ie r e n th u s ia s m fo r p a in tin g in th e B y z a n tin e o r L a te G o th ic tr a d itio n s , a lt h o u g h m a d o n n e ca n d io tte a n d q u a d ri d o ra ti de nostra d o n n a alia greca c o n ti n u e d to figure a m o n g th e v a lu a b le p o ssessio n s o f late six te e n th -c e n tu r y w ealth y V e n e tia n h o u s e h o ld s . N o t o n ly can this n e w t u r n in artistic taste be d e te c te d in th e a t t it u d e o f th e Italian a n d th e C r e ta n pu blic; it is also d e m o n s t r a t e d by th e e n r i c h m e n t of the existing tr a d it io n s of ic o n o g r a p h y w h ich w as a t t e m p t e d , w ith in th e limits o f reli­ gio us p a in t in g , by a n u m b e r o f C r e t a n artists. Suffice it to m e n t io n h e re th e n a m e s o f th r e e s i x te e n t h - c e n tu r y m a s te rs , th e y o u n g D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s (la te r th e f a m o u s E l G r e c o ) , M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s a n d G e o r g io s K lo n tz a s , w h o all a d o p t e d a fresh a p p r o a c h to th e t r e a t m e n t o f tr a d itio n a l s u b j e c ts , in volving th e use o f W e s t e r n e le m e n ts , a n d o fte n sig n e d th eir w o rk s in n e w a n d orig inal w ays. T h e i r ic o n o g r a p h ic in n o v a tio n s w e re u n d o u b te d l y h e ld in e s t e e m by c e rt a in social circles, such as th e m e m b e r s o f th e lite ra ry society o f th e A c c a d e m ia degli stravag a n ti o f C a n d ia . A f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t is th e a p p e a r a n c e , fro m the b eg in n in g of th e six te e n th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s , o f p riv a te colle ctio ns th at included icons a m o n g s t th e Italian an d F le m is h p a in tin g s an d p ieces o f sc u lp tu re o w n e d by C r e ta n s an d by V e n e tia n n o b l e m e n a n d th e w ea lth y b o u rg e o isie of C a n d ia . Icons w ere n ow r e g a r d e d as w o rk s o f a rt w ith th e i r o w n intrinsic aesth e tic v alu e, anil w ere ju d g e d to be ‘p i t cious th in gs fo r G r e e k p a in t in g ’ (cose p retio se p e r p ittu ra greca). By th e se c o n d h a lf o f th e s ix te e n th c e n tu r y large c o m m e rc ia l c o m m is sio n s a n d th e m ass p r o d u c t io n o f icons b e lo n g e d to th e p a st, b u t a n ew c o n c e p t o f p a in tin g a n d a m o r e f a v o u r a b le a tt it u d e to w a rd s p a in te rs an d th e ir w o r k h a d e m e r g e d in R e n a is s a n c e C re te . M A R IA C O N ST A N T O U D A K I-K IT R O M IL ID E S Teaching fellow at the University of A thens

W O R K IN G O F A F T E R

D R A W IN G S

P A IN T E R S

T H E

F A L L

IN

G R E E C E

O F C O N S T A N T IN O P L E

I c o n s a n d fresco es a fte r 1453 b e lo n g to th e last p h a s e o f a p a in tin g tr a d itio n w h ich c an b e tr a c e d b ack in to A n tiq u i ty . T h e te c h n o lo g ic a l b a c k g r o u n d o f this p a in tin g is accessible, to s o m e e x te n t , to m o d e r n sch o lars, m ain ly t h r o u g h th e P a in ter’s M a n u a l by D io n y siu s o f F o u r n a , w h ich was w ritte n o n M o u n t A t h o s , ro u g h ly b e tw e e n 1730 a n d 1734. D io n y s i u s ’s M a n u a l p ro v id e s d e ta i le d in f o r m a t io n c o n c e rn in g th e p ro d u c t io n of d ra w in g s on tra c in g p a p e r , a n d also o f a specific typ e of i m p r i n te d c a r t o o n , th e so-called a n th iv o lo n , w hich w as d r a w n fr o m an ex istin g w o rk , w h e t h e r a d ra w in g , p a n e l or wall p a i n t ­ ing: '.. . p u t s o m e b lack c o lo u r in to a scallop-shell w ith s o m e garlic ju ice ... an d mix th e m ; t h e n go o v e r th e fo r m s o f th e w h o le figure o f th e s a in t t h a t y ou a re co p y in g ... T h e n y o u mix re d co lo u r w ith garlic ju ice a n d go o v e r th e h igh lig hts of th e face a n d c lo th e s ... th e n w e t a s h e e t o f p a p e r th e s a m e size as the p r o t o t y p e ... p lace it on th e a r c h e t y p e a n d pres s it d o w n carefully w ith y o u r h a n d . . . Y o u will th u s h a v e m a d e a p r i n te d cop y in e v e ry w ay identical to th e p r o t o t y p e ’. T h e d e s c r ip tio n b y D io n y siu s refers to a fam iliar m e t h o d o f m a k i n g w o rk in g d ra w in g s , usually in r e d an d black , a n d s o m e ti m e s a c c o m p a n ie d by a b b r e v i a t e d v e rb a l in d ic a tio n s o f th e co lo u rs to b e u sed ; it w as po ssib le fr o m th e s e to o b ta i n fu r th e r co p ies by m e a n s o f p ric k in g (p o n c if). Such p ri c k e d c o p ie s w e r e o ft e n e m ­ p lo y e d by p a n e l p a in t e r s in o r d e r to p r o d u c e a p o u n c c d d ra w in g o v e r th e gesso g r o u n d p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e p an el. T h is in its tu r n w as incised a n d th e p a in te rs p r o c e e d e d by a d d in g th e gold leaf a n d successive layers of egg t e m p e r a . A c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f p a i n t e r s ’ w o rk in g draw in g s h as su r v iv e d . T h e tw o m o s t im p o r t a n t ( I h o u g h largely u n p u b li s h e d ) collectio ns a re fo u n d at th e B yzanliiu M u s e u m o f A th e n s , w hich o w n s m o r e th an 3,000 d ra w in g s , a n d at th e B e n a k i M u s e u m ol A llie n s, which lias tw o p a i n t e r s ’ po rtfo lio s. A th ird sm a lle r co llection ol so m e I M) dr iwings o w n e d b y S. M ilia llria s , is m I o n d o n . I lie B e n a k i M u s e u m p o rtfo lio s a n p a r t i c u l a r ^ im p o rta n t b e c a u s e th e y a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n a c c u ­ m u la te d over llitee e e u tu i ie s liy suecossive g e n e r a t io n s ol p a in te rs , a n d con sist of tw o distinctly d i H e i e n l types ol w o rk in g d raw in gs, e ith e r t r e e d r a w n s k e t c h e s o r p ric k e d c a r t o o n s , fl u first p o rtfo lio consists ol 188 s k e tc h e s , o n m o s t o f w hich n u m b e r s h ave b e e n w ritten, t he c iilii it ol th e s e '-ketches m ay d a te fr o m c. 1600, a n d th e r e are sev eral nulu atio n s th at th ey w e re in te n d e d for use in th e m a k i n g of wall p ain tin g s I he n u m b e r s on I h e u p p e r p art ol th e s e d ra w in g s su g g est t h a t th e y w e r e a r r a n g e d by s u b |e c t roughly lo llow ing the ico n o g ra p h ic a l la y o u t o f th e M a n u a l by D io n y siu s o f F o u rn a . I his first p o rtfo lio m u s t th e r e f o r e b e an i c o n o ­ g rap h ical i n v e n t o ry , a n d this e x pla ins w hy it inclu des a lim ited n u m b e r o f e n g r a v ­ ings, m o d e l s for capital letters a n d recip es t a k e n from th e M a n u a l o f D io n y siu s. A m o n g t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e d ra w in g s a re nin e scenes o f an A p o c a ly p s e cycle —

54 —

d a tin g fr o m c. 1600 a n d m ost p ro b a b ly d e riv e d from th e illu s tra te d B ib le s of C r a n a c h a n d H o lb e in . A n o t h e r rare cycle, ol th e S u n d a y P ra y e r , is c o p ie d fro m th e illu s tra te d B ible of the V ie n n e s e e n g r a v e r C h r is to p h W eige l (1654-1725), w h ich s e r v e d as a p a i n t e r s m o d el b o o k in S erbia, llu* d ra w in g s a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n b o u n d in to a v o lu m e , possibly in llu co u rse ol the e ig h t e e n th c e n tu r y . T h e latest p a r t o f this p o rtfo lio cont.iins large, uirnjinibcrc d d ra w in g s , o l t e n sig ned by m e m b e r s o f a w o r k s h o p Iro m CJalatista, n e a r T h e s s a lo n ik i The p a in te rs b o m this w o r k s h o p a r e k n o w n to have b e e n active o n M o u n t A th o s in Ihe first hall o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry , l his an d several o t h e r in d ication s imply th it the p o r t f o l i o m u s t h a v e c o m e from M o u n t A t h o s w hich, iller 1453, was ol eo u rs e a m a j o r c e n tr e o f a rt, particularly o f m o n u m e n t a l painting. T h e s e c o n d B en aki M u s e u m p o rtfo lio was a gitt o f th e By/.antinc s c h o la r A. X y n g o p o u lo s . l i e r e l a te d so m e o f th e d ra w in g s to icons by th e C r e t a n p a in t e r T h c o d o r o s P o u la k is (1622-1692). T h e p o rtfo lio c o n ta in s so m e 308 s h e e t s , o n to w hich a re p i n n e d c a rto o n s o f d if fe re n t sizes for u se in icon p a in tin g . T h e c a r t o o n s a r e in th e fo r m o f e it h e r draw in g s o r p ric k e d c o p ie s , m ostly fo ld e d in to fo u r . A n u m b e r o f th e c a rt o o n s a r e o n ‘s t a n d a r d ’ p a p e r m e a s u r in g 3 T x 4 2 cm a n d sh o w in g w a t e r m a r k s w ith th e initials V G (V a n G a n g e lt) . T his p a p e r s e e m s to h a v e c o m e fr o m A m s t e r d a m . T h e c a r t o o n s a re a r r a n g e d by s u b je c t; fo r in s ta n c e , s c e n e s fr o m th e O ld T e s t a m e n t , P r o p h e t s , E v an g elists , p o rt ra it s o f C h ris t a n d th e V irg in , D o d e k a o r to n s c e n e s , a n d scen es fr o m th e life of v ario u s saints. T h e r e a re also t h r e e c a r t o o n s fo r c h u rc h e m b r o id e r y . T h e e arliest o f th e s e d ra w in g s , su ch as, for e x a m ­ p le , a p r i c k e d c o p y with th e N ativ ity o f th e V irgin, a re c o n n e c t e d w ith six te e n th c e n tu r y icons. F o u r p ric k e d c a rt o o n s h a v e scenes fr o m th e life o f St. G e o r g e co p ie d fr o m an icon in K e r k y r a ( C o rf u ) by th e C r e ta n m a s te r M ic h a e l D a m a s k i nos (activ e 1555-1591) a n d T h e o d o r o s P o u lak is, w h o is k n o w n sy stem a tically to h a v e e x p lo i te d F le m ish en g ra v in g s by J. S a d e le r a n d J. W ierix . It th e r e f o r e s e e m s th a t th e c o re o f this se c o n d B e n a k i M u s e u m p o rtfo lio r e p r e s e n ts th e e q u i p ­ m e n t o f s o m e w ell-o rg an ized w o r k s h o p o f ic o n -p ain tin g o f th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u ­ ry in th e I o n i a n Islan ds, m o s t p r o b a b l y K e rk y ra . T h is island d e v e lo p e d in to a m a j o r c e n tr e fo r icon p a in tin g a fte r th e fall o f C r e te to th e T u r k s in T669. T w o o f th e m o s t in te re s tin g a sp ec ts o f this p o rtfo lio are th e c o m p lic a te d p e r m u t a t i o n of sce n e s fr o m th e life o f v a rio u s saints (p r e s u m a b l y to be e x p la in e d by th e rising d e m a n d f o r icons w ith such cycles in th e c o u rse of th e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n tu r y ) , an d th e g ro w in g in filtra tio n o f W e s t e r n ic o n o g r a p h y , possibly d u e to th e availability of en g ra v in g s a n d p r i n t e d bo o k s. A d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a t io n a b o u t the w o rk in g draw in g s o f icon p a in t e r s is f o u n d in th e V e n e t i a n A r c h iv e s o f C r e te . T h e earliest re f e r e n c e is in the will o f th e o u t ­ s t a n d in g C r e t a n m a s te r A n g e lo s A k o t a n t o s (cat. nos. 32, 33, 35 ), d a tin g fro m 1436. A n g e l o s w ro te it o n th e eve o f his d e p a r t u r e o n a trip to C o n s ta n t in o p l e , a n tic ip a tin g the d a n g e rs o f trave lling b y sea. In his will th e p a i n t e r re c o r d e d a c o llectio n o f d raw in g s , his teseniasm ata (disegni) o r sk ia sm a ta . T h e s e w ere lo lie given to his u n b o r n child w h ich his wife w as e x p ectin g at th e ti m e , p r o v id e d it was a b o y a n d p ro v id in g it w ish ed to b e c o m e a p a in te r. O th e rw is e th e d ra w in g s w e ie to b e g iven to A n g e l o s ’s b r o t h e r J o h n , also an icon p a in te r. It tr a n s p il e s from la t e r d o c u m e n t s in th e s a m e archives th a t A n g e lo s ’s o nly child was a girl a n d ,o -

55

t h e d r a w i n g s p r e s u m a b l y e n d e d in h is b r o t h e r ’s h a n d s . I n 1477, w h e n h e w a s e l d e r l y a n d s ic k , t h e b r o t h e r , J o h n A k o t a n t o s , is k n o w n t o h a v e s o l d 5 4 d r a w i n g s o f v a r i o u s s a i n t s (e x e m p lo r u m fi g u r a r u m d iv e r s o r u m s a n c to r u m , g re c e d ic ta sq ia sinarit) lo a n o t h e r m a j o r i c o n - p a i n t e r , A n d r e a s R i t z o s , f o r t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m o f l l ir e e g o l d d n e a t s . T h e t r a n s a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e o n t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e d r a w i n g s w e r e to b e e x c lu s iv e l y u s e d b y R i t z o s h i m s e l f a n d w e r e n o t to b e s o l d t o o t h e r p .m ilt is. A n g i los w a s a m a j o r f i g u r e in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e C r e t a n S c h o o l , a n d a t le a s t I(9 w o r k s by h im a r e k n o w n t o d a y . H e a p p e a r s t o h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l ic o n o g r a p h i c f o r m u l a s b a s e d o n L a t e B y z a n t i n e t r a d i t i o n s , a n d a ls o o n a l i m i t e d n u m b i i ol I c ’i t u r e s d e r i v i n g f r o m I t a l i a n p a i n t i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l G o t h i c s t y le , It>i i n s t a n c e , llie d r a g o n - s l a y i n g s a i n t s m o u n t e d o n r e a r i n g h o r s e s ( c a t . n o . 59 ). I In f e a r o l lo lu t A k o t a n t o s t h a t h is d r a w i n g s m i g h t fall i n t o t h e h a n d s o f le s s e r ai lists s u g g e s ts t h a t h e w a s fu lly a w a r e o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e kn o w nollim g a b o u t th eir precise n a tu r e - w h e th e r, for e x a m p le , th e y w e re fr e e ­ h inet t h a w i n g s Or p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s . A m o n g t h e s i g n e d w o r k s o f A n g e l o s t h e r e is o n lv ο ι »

llu c li n s t 1 n t h r o n e d o n Z a k y n t h o s ( c a t . n o . 33) o f w h ic h a n e x a c t c o p y

is I o n n d in tin slight

B y z a n tin e M u s e u m o f A th e n s . T h e e x isten ce o f th e tw o p a n e ls

Is lh a l prickti tl c a r t o o n s m a y a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n in u se in t h e firs t h a l f o f t h e

li l l e e n t l i e e i i t m v

In a n y e a s e , a r t h i s t o r i a n s h a v e r e p e a t e d l y o b s e r v e d c e r t a i n

fo r m a l ii u n o g r iphit

m i i l a r m e s in th e w o r k s o f A n g e l o s a n d R i t z o s ( s u c h a s t h o s e

hi t w e e n th e ( liiist I n l h i t m c d ol Z-ak.yflthos a n d th a t by Ritv.os o n P a t m o s ) . P e r ­ h a p s silt'll l e l a i i o n s b e t w e e n i c o n s a r t b e l t e r u n d e r s t o o d in t h e light o f t h e s e ree o it le t l c a s e s ol Lhf t r a n s m i s s i o n o f d r a w in g s . I he s y s te m a t ic use o f p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s m o s t p r o b a b l y b e g a n in t h e f i f t e e n t h e e n l u r y , w h e n t l i c i c w a s a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o d u c t i o n o f ic o n s , r e s u l t i n g in t h e d iv i s i o n o f l a b o u r in p a i n t e r s ’ w o r k s h o p s . These d e v e l o p m e n t s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d i ­ z a t i o n o f i c o n o g r a p h y t h a t m a y b e o b s e r v e d a r o u n d t h e y e a r 1500. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t C r e t a n p a n e l p a i n t e r s w e r e n o t a l o n e in th is w i d e s p r e a d u se of prick ed c a rto o n s. R e c e n t la b o ra to ry research has d e m o n s tra te d th a t th e ir use w as c o m m o n a m o n g st E u ro p e a n p a in te rs of th e fifteen th and six te e n th c e n tu rie s , in clu d in g V a n d e r W e y d e n , M e m lin c , D a v id , J o o s v an C lev e a n d P a ris B o r d o n e . A p p r e n t i c e s ’ c o n t r a c t s in t h e V e n e t i a n A r c h i v e s o f C r e t e s u g g e s t t h a t d e s i g n r e t a i n e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e t r a i n i n g o f C r e t a n p a i n t e r s , b u t t h e s y s t e m a t i c u s e o f p r i c k e d c a r t o o n s a n d t h e a c c e s s ib i lit y o f e n g r a v i n g s m a y h a v e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b il it y in f r e e h a n d d r a w i n g . H o w e v e r , e x c e p t i o n a l l y g i f t e d m a s t e r s s u c h as D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s a p p e a r to h a v e p r e f e r r e d f r e e h a n d d r a w i n g t o t h e u s e o f c a r t o o n s . T h i s is t h e c a s e w i t h t w o o f his e a r l y w o r k s , t h e D o r m i t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n o n S y r o s (c a t . n o . 6 3 ) a n d t h e A d o r a t i o n o f t h e M a g i in t h e B e n a ki M u s e u m , A t h e n s (c a t . n o . 6 2 a ) . C o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e p r o v e s t h a t w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m h a n d to h a n d t o b e u s e d b y s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n s o f ic o n p a i n t e r s . T h i s p r o c e s s m a y a c c o u n t f o r t h e e c le c tic c h a r a c t e r o f P o s t B y z a n t i n e a r t , a n d ju s ti f ie s t h e c la i m t h a t its i c o n o g r a p h y w a s t h e o u t c o m e o f a ‘c o l l e c t i v e ’ p r o c e s s . L A SK A R IN A B O U R A S Benaki M useum , Athens

PLATES

I

I

I

I C urved w ood en door* V>

l2W»or I Mis

I

1

I

C a r v e d w o o d e n d o o rs . D etail

C a rv e d w o o d e n d o o rs. D etail

C a rv e d w o o d e n d o o rs. D etail

Ml

2 C h r i s t E m m a n u e l , SS C o s m a s , D a m i a n a n d 1 l i e o d o t c , E n d o f t h e 12th c e n t u r v

— ίι4

•f/iitgm. iio^ptt-rtcG m tist.

16 S t. P e t e r . 14th c e n t u r v --

ko -

18 Double-sided Icon. Λ. T he Virgin H odegetria. Second q uarte r of the 14th century —

82

IS

Double-sided Icon. B Si. Nijhohis Secniul ψι;ιιΙιΊ ol I he I lili i r n l u r

19

Double-sided Icon. A. St. George. B. Decorative motif. First half of the 14th century

20

Christ the W isdom of G od. End of the 14th century

21

21

Double-sided Icon with smaller icon inlaid. A. Christ with Angels, Apostles and Saints.

I >nuhk'-suU

—

61 T he A kra Tapeinosis. Beginning of the 16th century 130

62a D o m e n i k o s ( T h e o to k o p o u lo s ) : T h e A d o r a tio n of th e M agi. c\ 1565-1575

(>3 I > m m n ik o s

I'h c o lo k o p o iilo s :

I h i I )o i m iliO ii.

I u

Im ll ol Ih r

K illi i

H im

64

65

E m m a n u e l L am bardos: T h e A d o r a t i o n o f th e M a g i. 16th c e n t u r y

Michael Damaskinos: SS Sergius llacclius and luslimi, ΛΙΙι ι I / 1

69 Triptych. End of the 16th century — 138 —

71 Silvestros Thcocharis: Triptych in a portable altar. Altar: second half of the 15th century. Triptych: first half of the 17th century - 140 —

71 S i l v e s t r o s I l i e o c h a r i s : T r i p t y c h . F irs t h a l f o f t h e 17t h c e n t u r y 141

7 2

C a r t o o n of the R es u r r e c t i o n. I7lh c e nt u r y

CATALOGUE

73 C a rto o n o f th e B aptism o f C hrist. 17th cen tu ry

3

1 C arved w ood en doors 1 2 9 6 or 1305 237X 140 cm E lasson, L a ris sa . M o n a ste ry o f the O ly m p io tissa, Sacristy

e n c lo s e d w ithin d iffe re n t

b o rd ers, each

d esig n .

The

in laid

of a

A n o n y m o u s D e a c o n (E u p lo s)

ivory

F ir st h a lf o f th e 13th c e n tu r y

d e c o r a t i o n is p r e s e r v e d a t a n u m b e r o f poin ts. d elicate

T he w ork and

as a w h o le

refin ed .

T here

is are

in sc rip tio n s c a rv e d o n th e to p , o u t­ er

O n e of the rarest and most r e p r e ­ sentative exam ples of Byzantine wood-carving from G re e c e , this door illustrates the im portance of this art from the E arly Christian period o n ­ wards and also its relationship to Islamic w ood-carving, to which it had a similar develo pm en t. Both leaves are divided into three dif­ ferently d e c o ra te d parts; the d ec­ oration consists o f geom etric motifs

corners

of

each

leaf:

L eft:

[ A N ] E K A 1 / [ N I C ] 0 H C A N ' [AI Π Ι]Λ Ε . R i g h t : E T O Y C 5 Ω Δ Ι / E N ( o r Y ) ΝΓ. P rovenance. M onastery o f the O lym pioiissa. F orm erly in corporated into the m;iin, west en tran ce o f the katholikon. B ibliography. S otiriou 1927. pp. 327ff. Byzanlinc A rt 1964, no. 127, p. 203. Skouvaras 1967. pp. 23ff. Byzantine A rt 1986, no. 20, pp. 32-35. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 1, pp. 40-41 E. M . C h,

2 C h r ist E m m a n u e l, SS C o s m a s, D a m ia n a n d T h e o d o te E n d o f th e 12th c e n tu r y 157X105 cm Z akynthos. M useum

T he wall painting has been d etach ed from the prothesis conch of the Church of the Saviour P an to c ra to r in the K astro on Z a k y n th o s. which was c onverted into a C atholic C athedral (.luring the early years of the R om an Catholic episcopate on the island (1207-1212). 11 was rem oved after the e a r th q u a k e of 1953. T he sem i-dom e is dec o rate d with a bust of Christ E m m a n u e l in an atti­ tude of p raye r, and below it are SS Cosm as and D am ian with their m o th e r T h e o d o te . T he saints are depicted frontally, as beardless youths w ho hold the surgical tools that are their usual attributes. T he oval faces, with alm ond eyes and fleshy fea tu re s are softly modelled with a successive series of green shadow s that replace the outlines. T h e d rap e ry is trea ted in a d e c o r a ­ tive m a n n e r, as a series of triangles with bright edges, but still retains som e feeling of volume. - 146

1 9 6 X 5 8 cm A t h e n s . B y z a n t i n e M u s e u m , T . 2227

T hese features set the wall painting within the 'classical’ m onum ental style of late C o m n en ia n painting. T h a n k s to the conservatism of the provincial w orkshops this continued to be em p lo y ed until the late 12th or early 13th century, to which period this w ork should be dated: the conversion of the church into a C atholic C ath e d ra l furnishes a termi nus ante quern. Provenance. T he ruined Church of (he Sav­ iour in the K astro on Z akynthos. Rem oved from wall in 1953 (M. C hatzidakis). Conservation. K. K outsouris (1953-54). B ibliography. Salvator 1904. pp. 99ff. C h a l/| dakis 1956. p. 14. V okotopoulos 1970. pp 15Kff. K onom os 1979. pp. 41 ff. Byzantine A rt. no. 25. pp. 39-40. 41. A ffrcschi e icone 1986. no. 9. pp. 46. 47. M. (.

Full-length frontal portrait of a youthful saint-deacon. A small area of the feet and at the top of the head is missing. In his left hand, which is covered by a d e e p red-brow n m a te ­ rial, he is holding a tall censer, p a in t­ ed in ochre to represent gold; his right arm is held in front of his chest in a gesture of reverence. D espite the fact that the wall painting was exposed to the elem ents for m any years, the original colours are still fully preserved in the face: a thick red-b ro w n outline encloses a b road light are a of a cold grey colour, with som e green to nes, on which the flesh is re n d e re d by m eans of white highlights. T h e nose is m ade to stand o u t from the face by the use of a red shadow to the left and a green shadow to the right. T he sticharion is w hite, with gree n , linear folds, sug­ gesting that originally the drapery

will have had a more scu Ip un ill quality. It may be co njectured on lli> basis of all this that the first painting was executed in a fresco technique, while the applied colours that gave il the sculptural feeling that slill survives in the face, were painted a secco (tem p era). T h e frontal figure is by no m eans h an d s o m e , but the wilful head, with its sidelong gaze, and the long, sturdy neck, give it an air of pride. All the characteristics of this wall painting connect it with the m o n u ­ m ents of a w ider area dating from the first half of the 13th century, such as the C hurch of Mileseva, the C h u rch of the A cheiropiitos in T hessalo nike, and the neighbouring C h u rch of Ioannis Kalyvitis on E u b o e a (1245). Provenance. T he sanctuary of Ihe ruined C hurch of A yios G corgios al I’alios O riip o v B ocolia (1959). Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (195H-59). Bibliography C hatzidakis 1960 ( I) . QjiiriO 1979. p. 225.

M. C II

4

C h u rc h F ath er 14th c e n t u r y 200X 77 cm C r e t e , l r a k l i i m . ('ulli-ctim i of I lit C h u r c h o f S t. C a t h e r i n e S iniiiton

F ro m the ruined dom e d C hurch of the Virgin at Patso. T he figure is depicted frontally, supporting the the o ry that the side walls of the S an ctuary w ere dec o rate d with a row of full-length, frontal r e p r e s e n ta ­ tions of bishops. In the alternative iconographic type, the figures on the side walls are turning so as to offi­ ciate in the ce rem o n y along with the bishops p ainted in the apse. T he style in which the wall paintings of the C h urch of the Virgin are exe cu­ ted is that of Palaeologan painting 147

w hiili, with stylistic viiPiunis, pent, liali il C rete lit Ihe beginning ol tIn I-till le n l m y . I hi brOud figure, with the neck almost sunk into Ihe stio n g shoulders, freely m odelled face and intense gaze, has a lifelike quality associated with the wall paintings of M acedonia. Provenance. T he ruined Church of ihe Virgin at P atso, A m ari in C rete. Conservation. A. D asyras. B ibliography. B orboudakis 1973, pp. 504ff B orboudakis 1973-74. p. 941. pis. 711 712. B yzantine A rt 1986, no. 54, pp. 56, 57. A flrcschi e icone 1986, no. 21, p. 58.

Μ H

6

5 T h e A s c e n sio n M id d le o f th e 15th c en tu r y 2 5 0 X 160 cm A thens. B y z an tin e M u s e u m

Wall painting rem oved from the wall of the church of the form er M o n a s­ tery of the I lo d e g e tria n ea r Apolpcn a on Lefkas. It was pain ted on the ea ste rn wall of the church, above the Sanctuary apse; parts of a scene of the Pentecost (originally situated above it) an d of a decorative b o rd er aro u n d the apse were rem oved with it. It follows the usual iconographic type: the angels flanking the mandorla of Christ, though reminiscent of Byzantine m odels, seem m ore directly influenced by W estern icon­ ography. T h e landscape is unusual, having the th ree rocky hills u su ­ ally found in scenes of the T ra nsfi­ guration; they form a line, curving dow n tow ard s the centre, as though to suggest a horizon and a d ep th of perspective. T h e sam e intention lies behind the a tte m p t to render the vol­ u m es of the m o unta ins by m eans of gentle transitions from lit to shaded surfaces, so as to give the feeling of fo re ground and backg ro und, along with that of height and depth. T he trees at th e sides w ere clearly m eant by the pain ter to be recognizable as olives (the scene takes place on the M o u n t of Olives: A cts of the A p o s ­ tles 1.9-12). T h e aim was to achieve a realistic effect, and to convey things as they actually ap p e ared . T he sam e aim lies behind the way the fig­ ures are a rra n g e d , in a kind of p e r ­ spective, th ough this is not scientifi­ cally based, th e re being no vanishing point; the feeling of d epth is conveyed by locating the figures in such a way as to suggest m ov e m en t, in this case m ov e m en t along two sides of a triangle (the Virgin and the angel on the left and Paul and the o th e r angel on the right). This artistic intent can also be seen in the modelling of the exposed parts of the bodies an d the d rap e ry , w here there -

148 -

W a ll p a in tin g s fr o m th e C h u r ch

is an a tte m p t to em phasize the curves and volumes, and in the m aterial texture of th e objects. O th e r notable features include the balance betw een m ove m ent and rest, the expression of the inner m o o d of the figures, an d the ju d i­ cious use of colour. This wall p a in t­ ing from Lefkas reflects two dif­ ferent approa ches to the way in which artistic form is conceived and ren d e re d . In this it represe nts a u niqu e m o m e n t in the history of Byzantine painting, a m o m e n t of creative contact with W e ste rn art, at a tim e w hen the p red o m in an t style was that of Late or International G othic. In the perio d to which the wall paintings of the H o d eg e tria b elong, Lefkas was part of the D uchy of K ephallonia, which was ruled by the Florentine family of the Tocchi. T h e secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy of C o n stantino ple itself w e re also familiar with W estern art. T h e G r e e k artist w ho w ork e d on L efkas, p erh a p s shortly before the fall of C o n s tantinople, rem ained true to traditional Byzantine ic ono ­ grap h y and the types of the figures p o rtra y e d , but had assimilated the new ideas of the art of the W est to a r e m a rk a b le degree, and p roduce d a w o rk of high quality which w ent far beyond the traditional conventions of Byzantine painting. Provenance. T he C hurch o f th e H odegetria n ear A p o lp en a on Lefkas. C onservation. F. A sim akou. A. M argaritoff and colleagues. S. V arotsis (1985). Bibliography. Pallas 1956, p. 292, fig. 6, Pallas 1960, pp. 21 Off. Pallas 1961, pp. 83ff. Pallas 1968. p. 15 R ondoyannis 1973, pp. 27ff. B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 62, pp. 60-62. Affreschi c icone 1986, no. 23. pp. 59-60, 61. D. P

o f A y io s N ik o la o s in V e r ia , L a k o n ia 1597 343X 217 cm Y e ra k i, L a k o n ia . L a b o r a to r y of the 5th E p h o r a te o f B yz antine Antiquities ( t e m p o r a r y locatio n)

T h e iconography of the wall p a in t­ ings rem o v e d from the walls of the small d o m e d C hurch of A yios N ik o ­ laos in V eria follows the familiar rep e rto ire of the period for churches of this type. T h e Virgin, in the type of P latytera, is r ep rese n ted on the vault of the Sanctuary apse, with the 'M elism o s’ and the Officiating Bishops on the wall b en e a th ; the A n n u n cia tio n is depicted on the piers, and the D escent from the C ross is pain ted in the prothesis. T he S anctuary walls have representatio ns of bishops. A b o v e the Sanctuary d o o r of the iconostasis is the inscription recording the decoration of the church: + Ά ν ισ τ ο ρ ή θ η ό θ είος κ (« ί) π ά ν ο ιπ τ ο ς ν α ό ς ο ύ τ ο ς τ ο ύ ί ν ( ιγ ίο ις π α τ ρ ό ς η μώ ν Ν ικ ο λ ά ο υ ά ρ χ ιιπ ιο κ ό π ο υ Μ ύ ρ ω ν τ ή ς Α υ κ ί α ς Ton Ο αιιμα τ ο υ ρ γ ο ϋ (·-)> ο(|ΐΐλι οτ(κ π ο υ Β ρ ΐ 'ο τ ( ( ) ν ( ΐ | ζ ) Κϋζβ,)()|' Νι οΐ| ή το ιι i v i τι ι ά π ό ιπls 74-75. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 78, pp. 75·7ίι A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 35, p. 74.

M )

a lo n g s id e th e m o r e classical p a i n t m n o f t h e p e r i o d r e p r e s e n t e d in th e Γι r i b l e p t o s at M i s tr a ( C h a tz i d a k is I*>7 I (4). A c h a ra c t e ri s ti c o f w o r k s in tin style is th e h a lo , p a i n t e d as th o u g h in relief, as in th e A k r a T a p e in o s i ' (c a t. n o . 27 ), to r e n d e r th e t r u e I f ile I h a lo e s in 1 4 th -cen tu ry M a c e d o n i a n ic o n s like th e icon o f ( 'l u isl in I lit B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m . C h r is t's a n x io u s e x p re s s io n mid p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e s a r e timilul in t h o s e in a g r o u p o f ico ns d ρΙι ΐΗψ th e s a m e su b je c t d a t e d lo the Ιιι··Ι q u a r t e r o f th e 14th e e n t m y , will* li in c lu d e s th e icon ol < Iiii m In III· N a t i o n a l M u s e u m ol S i r Μΐ’Ίιιι ( B y z a n ti n e A rt I'Uv n o ’I I 1) uni esp ec ially th e icon ol t Ii i KI . n n d n tis (I i f c - g iv e i) m S k o p je p u ln i e d l. I'>·’ ), T h e laig e s l/e nl llil ailiM n ijijtlilv m u ·1

I· mi ιιι·Ι lit II ί IlllJlSj

d e c o r a t i o n o f th e ic o n o s ta sis o f th e C h u r c h o f A y i a S o p h ia in T h e s s a l o n ik e , f r o m w h ic h it c o m e s . Provenance. T he C hurch o f Ayia Sophia, T hessalonikc. Conservation. Ph. K ontoglou (1930), A. M arg aritoff (1959).

B ibliography. Sotiriou 1931. p. 80. Sotiriou 1956. p. 17, pi. X X . C hatzidakis 1960 (2), p. 11, pis. 6-7. C halzidakis 1969, p. 8. C hatzidakis 1974 (3). p. 336. fig. 14. C hatzidakis 1974 (4). p 184. fig. 18. Chatzidakis 1977 (1), pp. 83-84. C hatzidakis-B abic 1983, p. 192.

N. Ch.

23

T h e D o r m itio n B e g in n in g o f th e 15th c e n tu r y 5 4 . 5 X 3 9 . 5 cm Athens. K anellopoulos M useum

21 D o u b le -s id e d Icon w ith sm a lle r ico n in la id A . C h r ist w ith A n g e ls , A p o stle s a n d

sio n a n d G lo r y o f C hrist. A p o r t r a i t o f t h e m o n k w h o d e d ic a te d it is p r e ­ s e r v e d o n th e re v e rse o f th e icon.

S a in ts B.

T h e C r u c ifix io n

14th a n d 1 6th c e n tu r ie s 9 8 X 7 1 cm

T hessalonike.

M onastery of Vlatadon, Sacristy

Conservation. Ph. Z achariou. Bibliography. Xyngopoulos 1948. pp. 114ff. B yzantine A rt 1964. no. 199. p. 253. T o u rta 1977. pp. 133ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 83. pp. 82-83. Affrcschi e icone 1986. no. 36. p. 75.

A . T.

T h is inlaid ico n h a s tw o ro w s o f d e c o r a t i o n . T h e r a r e c o m p o s it io n is an a lleg o rical a llu sio n to th e I n c a r ­ n a t i o n . P a ss io n a n d H e a v e n l y G lo r y o f C h ris t, a n d re f le c ts th e ic o n o g r a p hic p r e f e r e n c e s o f 1 4 th -ce n tu ry p a in tin g . T h e p a i n t e r l y m o d e llin g o f th e fig u re s, w ith soft c h i a r o s c u r o a n d a few h ig h lig h ts, is typical o f a n u m ­ b e r o f w o rk s fr o m th e m id d le o f the c e n l u r y , a n d t h u s p o in t s to th e s a m e p e ri o d . I'he s c e n e s o n b o th : .ties o f I hi- large K ith -c e n tu ry p ro c e s sio n a l li on a re a ls o c o n n e c t e d with th e P a s ­

22 S ix sc e n e s fr o m the P a ssio n 14th c e n tu r y Thessalonike.

5 1 X 4 1 cm M onastery of Vlatadon, Sacristy

I'he icon d e p ic ts six sc e n e s a r r a n g e d in th r e e row s: th e L a st S u p p e r a n d th e W a s h i n g o f t h e F e e t , th e A g o n y in th e G a r d e n a n d t h e B e tr a y a l, th e I la g e lla tio n a n d t h e P ro c e s sio n to C a lv a ry . T h e w o r k h a s a n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s ty pical o f th e classicizing t r e n d in 1 4 th -c e n tu ry p a in tin g . T h e free m o d e l li n g o f t h e flesh w ith g r a ­ d a t i o n s o f c o l o u r s u g g e s ts a d a te in th e th ird q u a r t e r o f t h e 14th c e n tu r y . —

160 —

T h e c h o ic e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f the sc e n e s , th e ic o n o g r a p h y , a n d th eir e x e c u t i o n o n a sm all scale a r e all r e m i n i s c e n t o f m i n ia t u r e s , a n d p r o b ­ a b ly in d ic a te th e so u rc e s o f insp i­ ra t io n o f th e w o rk . Provenance. T he M onastery of V latadon. T hessalonike. Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (1977). B ibliography. T o u rta 1982, pp. 154-179. By­ zantine A rt 1986, no. 85. pp. 8(1-81. 83. Arfrc schi e icone 1986. no. 38. pp. 76-77. A . T.

T h e c e n tr a l s c e n e o f th e icon d ep ic ts th e D o r m i t i o n o f th e V irgin . O n the b r o a d , slightly raise d f r a m e a re r e p ­ resen tatio n s o f four hym n o g rap h ers w h o w r o te h y m n s o n th e th e m e o f th e D o r m i t i o n , a l t e r n a t i n g w ith fo u r sc e n e s fr o m th e V irg in 's c h il d h o o d . T h e fo u r p a n e ls at th e c o r n e r s d ep ict th e M e e t in g o f J o a c h i m a n d A n n e , th e B irth o f th e V irg in , th e V irgin B le ss e d by th e P rie sts , a n d P r e s e n t a ­ tion o f th e V irg in in th e T e m p l e . T h e v e rtic a ls o f th e f r a m e h a v e th e fig­ u re s o f K o s m a s M a i o u m a on th e left, a n d J o h n D a m a s k i n o s o n th e rig h t, t u r n e d to face th e c e n tr a l sc e n e ; D a m a s k i n o s is w e a r in g th e c h a r ­ a cte ris tic t u r b a n . B u sts o f J o s e p h a n d T h e o p h a n e s a r e set a b o v e a n d b e lo w th e c e n tr a l sc e n e . T h e y are w e a r in g m o n k ' s h a b its a n d h o ld in g o p e n scrolls w ith texts. T h e m a in s c e n e follow s the i c o n o g r a ­ p h y o f th e M o n a s t e r y o f C h o r a ( U n d e r w o o d 1966, pi. 320). T h e m a i n ax e s o f th e c o m p o s it io n are f o r m e d by th e tall s l e n d e r figure o f C h ris t in a b rig h t m a n d o r l a a n d th e b o d y o f th e V irg in o n th e b e d . A t e i t h e r sid e is a c o m p a c t g r o u p o f a p o s t le s giving r e s t r a i n e d e x p re s s io n to th e i r grief. A n g e ls a r e w o r k e d in grisaille o n th e m a n d o r l a . F u r t h e r e m p h a s is is le n t to th e v ertical axis by th e inclusio n o f a six -w in ged s e r a p h in th e m a n d o r l a , h o v e r i n g a b o v e C h r is t's h e a d . T h e icon d iffers fr o m its m o d e l in th e fo r m o f th e b u ildin gs in th e b a c k g r o u n d , a n d in th e a d d it io n h e r e o f th e an g e ls high in th e sky. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t is s im i­ lar to th a t o f an icon fro m P a tm o s d a t e d to th e first h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 (1), no. 7, pi. 7), t h o u g h th e r e a re i m p o r t a n t d if fe re n c e s in th e b u ild in g s in tlu* 161

b a c k g r o u n d il is also In In- In u u d III th e 15th l e n l m v wall p n m iin i" in lln C h u r c h ol A \ i o s I , m u m ! " it Vifl s a m o n e i o , ( n*u ( kiiluk vi ι·- I1* / ' fig. B W 55). B o t h th e c o m p o s it io n a n d tin lull b u ild in g s in th e bai k g in u in l Willi th e i r sm all d e c o ra tiv e I·.■I......... .m·ι· I' g r o u n d like i h r Uni.M'l» in · I n im m a n d o l i n , mil the ij m a l l < mu*··

oil I lie a rc h ite c tu re recall the p a in t­ ing o f C o n s ta n t in o p l e ( M o n a s te r y of C h o r a ) o r o f M istra (C h u rc h o f the I’c rib le p to s an d C h u rc h o f th e Panta n a s sa). Finally, the extensive texts relatin g to th e D o rm itio n o f th e V ir ­ gin 0 1 1 the scrolls held by th e hym nog r a p h e r s reveal th a t the p a in te r was a m an o f lea rn ing . T h e icon m ay be

c o n s i d e r e d to be on e o f th e best e x a m p l e s of early 15 th-century Pala e o lo g a n a rt , fo r e sh a d o w in g m a n y of th e charac teristic fe a tu re s of C r e ­ tan painting.

l'hessalonike.

9 0 X 7 1 cm M onastery S a c r isty

of Vlatadon,

A w ork o f high qu ality e x e c u te d in the spirit o f C o n s ta n tin o p o lita n pain ting . F r o m a stylistic p o int of view , the icon has very close affini­ ties with th e wall painting s recently u n c o v e re d in the nav e an d the so uth ch ap el o f th e k a th o lik o n of the

N. C h .

M o n a s te r y o f V la ta d o n . It was p r o b ­ ably p r o d u c e d by th e sa m e w o rk s h o p a n d , like the wall pain tin gs, m u s t have b e e n p a in te d in the p e rio d 1360­ 1380, n o t in the 15th c e n tu r y , as was p re v io u sly th o u g h t to be th e case.

Conservation. N. Nomikos (1985). Bibliography. Stoyoglou 1971, pp. 132ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 84. p. S3. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 37. p. 76. C h M .- T .

25

S t. N ich o la s L ast q u a rte r o f the 14th cen tu ry 1 29 X 7 8 cm K a s t o r i a . A r ch aeo lo g ical Collection

-M3* \JLw.

T h e saint is d e p ic te d frontally at half length, w ea rin g b is h o p 's rob es. H e m a k e s a b e n e d ic tio n an d holds a closed b o o k . A lth o u g h large a re a s o f co lo u r have b een lost, th e size o f the saint an d the w a rm t h o f th e colouring still m a k e this an im pressive w ork. The design is v ig o ro us, but th e s a in t’s lace has a tr a n s lu c e n t qu ality , as I hough lit by an in n e r light, and ev o k e s in th e b e lie v e r a feeling o f tranquility a n d security. T h e firm ­ in' >s o f line a n d th e calc ula ted use of thinly ap p lied layers o f colo u r, w ith ­ out any s u d d e n , a b r u p t tran sition s, em p h as ize th e s a i n t’s h u m a n quality. This w o rk has m a n y affinities with tlic m o n u m e n ta l p ain tin g o f th e e a r ­ ly P a laeo lo g an p e ri o d , at the e n d of ] 62

C h rist P a n to cra to r c. 1400 2HX26 cm Alliens. Ity/.antlnn M u s e u m , T . 185

Bibliography Byzantine A rt 1964. no. 197. p. 252. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 40. pp. 80. 81.

24

T h e V irg in H od egetria S econ d h a lf o f the 14th cen tu ry

26

th e 13th c e n tu ry . T h e revival o f the v alu es an d ac h ie v e m e n ts o f the p a in tin g o f th a t p erio d at a tim e after th e m id d le of the 14th c e n tu ry is an in dic atio n o f the general co n c ern to u n d e r p i n religious values at a histo ri­ cal p e rio d o f crisis and political in sta­ bility in B yz antium . T h e su g g es tio n that th e icon o f St. N ich o las sh o u ld be d a te d to the final q u a r t e r o f th e 14th c e n tu ry is s u p p o r te d by a c o m p a r iso n with m o r e a c c u rate ly d a te d w orks o f art fro m th e se c o n d half o f th e 14th c e n tu r y , such as th e wall p aintings in the M o n a s te r y of th e P a n to c r a to r on M o u n t A tlio s (1360-70), o f the C h u rc h of P r o p h e t Elias in Thessalon ik e, a n d of th e C h u rc h of St. A n d r e w n e a r S k o p je (1388/9). Provenance. From a church in Kastoria. Conservation. Ph. Z achariou. Bibliography. Byzantine Frcscocs 1976, no. 1 10. p. 78. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 41. pp. 80. 82.

Th. V

The p a in tin g is d a m a g e d . C h ris t, in Ihe type o f th e l ’a n t o e r a i o i , has the title O CC2-THI’ (' The Sav io u r'). I he a u s t e re figure, with its d a rk colo u rs, illu m in a te d by Ihe gold lighl ol the g r o u n d , lias all the force ol ils m o n u ­ m e n ta l m o del. A w o rk of artistic quality with the h a llm a r k s o f th e p aintin g o f th e turn o f th e 14th c e n tu r y , it h as certain stylistic fe a tu re s in c o m m o n with a n icon o f th e Virgin in th e Sinai M o n a s te r y , w h e re similar sm all-scale

icons o f C hrist an d th e V irgin a re to be fo u n d (S otiriou 1956, 1958, no. 226, pp . 198ff., an d nos. 227-229, pp. 199ff.). Provenance. Acquired in 1985. Conservation. Th. Papageorgiou (1985). Hihliogniphy. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 87. p. 85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 43, pp. 82. 83. M. A . - P .

27

size the u p p e r m o s t p o in ts of t h e v o l­ u m e s a n d surfaces an d c re a te a d r a ­ m atic lighting effect. Sim ilar s c u lp tu ­ 8 7 X 6 8 .5 cm ral q ualities can also be seen in the A th en s . P r i v a te Co llection m o d e llin g o f the arm s o f th e cross a n d th e tab let at the to p , an d in the h alo . T h e closest r e p r e s e n ta t io n of T h is icon is p a in t e d directly on th e A k r a T a p e in o sis in te r m s of w o o d , an d h as a fra m e in low relief. ic o n o g r a p h y a n d p o rt ra it u re is th at T h e figure of C hrist is d e p ic te d h a lf­ o n th e diptych at M e t e o r a (cf. also len g th , with his a rm s fo ld ed , o n an th e wall pain tin g in C re te 1401/2, o c h r e g ro u n d . In the relation sh ip o f B o rb o u d a k is 1‘>71 pi. 535t»); c o m p a ­ th e h e a d to the sh o u ld e rs an d th e rison ol the tw o show s how in th e a rr a n g e m e n t ol the curls ol hair, this p re s e n l w ork th e fe atu re s b e c o m e ty pe is th e successor to the earliest h a r d e n e d as a result ol the m o re lin­ kn o w n type (cl. cat no. 8), lo unil in e a r t r e a tm e n t, and d e m o n s tr a t e s icons of the 13th a n d 14th c e n tu ries ho w o n e an d Ihe sam e scen e, s ta rtin g (in the M o n a s te ry o f l a l a m a , in with residual classicizing fe a tu re s, is R o m e an d in manuscript·.) (H elling t r a n s f o r m e d into an anti-classical 1981, figs. 57, 58. 73 e tc.). It is f u r ­ g e n re . T h e e ru d ite c o n te n t of th e t h e r related to the icons ol this inscrip tion s is o f significance, as is p e rio d th r o u g h th e d ram atic co n trast th e eq u ally e ru d ite calligraphy. All b e tw e e n the s tro n g , health y body the fe a tu re s of this w o rk po int to and the e m a c ia te d a rm s, an d the w e ste r n M a c e d o n ia a b o u t 1400 (cf. e m p h a s is on the a n a to m y ol the th e icon fro m P o g a n o v o w ith the c h e st, a f e a tu re which m ay b e in­ sa m e inscrip tion . M ilosevic 1980. no. t e n d e d to suggest th e sw ollen llesli o f th e c o rp s e . T h e icon has an alm o st 27). e x a g g e ra te d exp ressiv e n e ss, d u e in Bibliography. Byzantine Art 1986. no. 86. pp. p a r t to th e m o de lling , with its small 83-85. Affrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 42. pp. 80. clusters of w hite lights on th e b r o w n ­ 82-83. M. C h . ish-grey u n d e r p a i n t, w hich e m p h a ­ T h e A k ra T a p ein o sis 1400

2 8

T h e R a isin g o f L a z a ru s c. 1400 5 6 X 4 8 cm K a s t o r i a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o llectio n

T h e icon is p a i n t e d o n a p a n e l w ith a ra ise d f r a m e , w hich h a s a red b o r d e r . T h e c o m p o s it io n con sists o f tw o c a re f u lly b a la n c e d groups, lin k e d by the g e s t u r e s o f C h ris t a n d o f th e .lews, a n d by th e p o se a n d g e s ­ tu r e o f M a r y a n d M a r t h a , w h o a re s h o w n in th e f o r e g r o u n d . C h rist is p o r t r a y e d m o v i n g to th e right at th e h e a d o f a g r o u p o f a p o s tle s w h o a c c o m p a n y h im , w ith th e a p o s tle P e t e r in th e f o r e g r o u n d . L a z a r u s is d e p i c t e d o n t h e rig h t, in a t o m b w ith a p e d i m e n t , th e c o v e rin g slab o f w h ich h a s falle n a w a y to th e rig h t; h e is w r a p p e d in a w in d in g - s h e e t, th e e n d o f w hich is h eld by a y o u n g slave. B e h i n d th e slav e, a n d n ex t to L a z a r u s , is a g r o u p o f J e w s, o n e o f w h o m m ak es a gesture, a n o th e r t o u c h e s his b e a r d , a n d a th ird h o ld s his h a n d to his n o se ag ain st th e sm ell o f th e o p e n t o m b . T h e sisters o f L a z a r u s a r e s h o w n k n e e li n g in w o r ­ sh ip b e f o r e C h ris t. T w o ro c k s rise in sta g e s in th e b a c k g r o u n d a n d lean o u t w a r d s , re v e a l in g th e city of B e t h a n y in th e d is ta n c e . T h is sim p le i c o n o g r a p h ic s c h e m e is a revival o f 1 4 th -c e n tu ry C o m n e n i a n ty p es O H a d e rm a n n -M i s g u i c h 1975, figs. 5 7-5 8), a n d is clo s e to th e spirit o f th e s c e n e s o f th e F o u r G o s p e ls fro m th e M o n a s t e r y o f Iviron (M illet I9)(>, |'ij>. 2 12 ), in th e C h u r c h o f '< h risto s ' at W iia ( I’c lc k a n id is 1973, lig. 20), in ( retail m o n u m e n t s fr o m th e e n d o f th e 14th c e n tu r y ( K a lo k y r is 1973, figs. 28-29) a n d in St. S o p h ia in T r e h i z o n d (M illet 1916. fig. 231). t h e p r e s e n t icon differs fro m w o r k s o f th e so -calle d M a c e d o ­ n ia n S c h o o l, su c h as th e p a in tin g s at A r il je ( Z iv c o v ic 1970, fig. 19), in the C h u r c h o f St. C l e m e n t at O c h r id ( M ill e t- F r o lo w 1962, pi. 3, 3), a n d in th a t o f A y io s N ik o la o s O r p h a n o s in T h e s s a l o n i k e ( X y n g o p o u l o s 1964,

—

164 —

2 9

pi. 2 0 ), in th a t L a z a r u s is n o t sh o w n rising f r o m a s a r c o p h a g u s p la c e d h o r i z o n ta l ly o n th e g r o u n d , bu t f o llo w s a n e a r l ie r m o d e l a n d s t a n d s u p r i g h t in a t o m b built in th e f o r m o f a t e m p l e w ith in th e ro ck. T e c h n ic a l d e ta i ls , like th e silver g r o u n d a n d th e silver h a lo e s a r e sim ilar to f e a t u r e s f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in icons in K a sto ria , V e r i a a n d M a c e d o n i a in g e n e r a l . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e c o m p o s it io n is s i m p l e a n d c o m p a c t , w ith th e v o l­ u m e s o f th e d e ta ils sy m m e tric a lly b a l a n c e d , a n d th e style is s im ila r to th a t o f w o r k s o f th e C r e t a n S ch o o l in t h e 15th c e n t u r y ( C h a tz i d a k is 1977 (1), p p . 77 ff.). T h e te c h n ical a n d s ty l­ istic c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f th e icon o f th e E n t r y in to J e r u s a l e m (cat. n o. 29) a r e als o f o u n d in th e icon o f th e R a is i n g o f L a z a r u s , b o th b e in g fr o m th e s a m e w o r k s h o p , w hich w as also r e s p o n s i b l e fo r th e d e c o r a t i o n o f th e C h u r c h o f th e A y io i T r e is in K asto ria (1 4 0 1 ); in artistic te r m s , th ey b o t h b e lo n g to th e anti-classical c u r ­ r e n t o f B y z a n ti n e p a in tin g in th e late P a la e o l o g a n p e rio d .

Provenance. Church of the Ayioi T reis, Kastoria. Conservation. Ph. Z achariou (1973). Bibliography. T sigaridas 1972, p. 572, pi. 512a. A ffresehi e icone 1986. no. 44, pp. 84-85. E. N . T.

T h e E n tr y in to J e r u sa le m c. 1400 5 7 X 4 9 cm K a s t o r i a . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l C o llectio n

T h e icon o f th e E n t r y into J e r u s a l e m is p a i n t e d o n a single p a n e l w ith a r a is e d f r a m e , w hich has a red b o r d e r . G e s s o o n c a n v a s. C h ris t is d e p i c t e d s ittin g o n an ass, m o v i n g to t h e righ t. H e is h o ld in g a clo sed scroll in his left h a n d , a n d his right h a n d is e x t e n d e d in b e n e d ic tio n . H is h e a d is t u r n e d to th e g r o u p o f a p o s ­ tles fo llo w in g h im , a n d he is ta lk in g to P e t e r , w h o g e s tic u la te s v i g o r ­ o u sly . C h r is t a n d th e a p o s t le s s t a n d o u t a g a in s t th e m a s s o f th e M o u n t o f O liv e s th a t rises a b r u p t ly in th e b a c k g r o u n d . O n th e rig h t, in f r o n t o f t h e g a te in t h e wall o f J e r u s a l e m , a c r o w d o f J e w s , b o th m e n a n d w o m e n , has c o m e o u t o f t h e city to re c e iv e C h ris t. In f r o n t o f th is g r o u p o f J e w s , a child is h o ld i n g a p a lm b r a n c h , a n d a n o t h e r is s h o w n in th e b r a n c h e s o f a tr e e . T h e c ir c u la r b u i l d ­ ing th a t can be se e n in th e city o f J e r u s a l e m ca n b e id e n tif ie d as th e church o f th e R esurrection. T h e c o m p o s it io n inv o lv es o n ly a lim ited n u m b e r o f fig u re s, a r r a n g e d in a s y m m e t r ic a l and b a la n c e d w ay a r o u n d th e c e n tr a l fig u re o f C h ris t, a n d follow s an a u s t e r e ic o n o g r a p h ic s c h e m e th a t is th e su c c e s so r in th e 14th c e n tu r y to th e ic o n o g r a p h ic t r a ­ d itio n o f th e M id d le B y z a n ti n e p e r i o d ( H a d e r m a n n - M i s g u i c h 1975, fig. 61). A sim ila r ic o n o g r a p h ic s c h e m e in th e 14th c e n tu r y is to be s e e n in t h e C h u r c h o f A y io s N i k o ­ lao s O rphanos in T h e s s a l o n ik e ( X y n g o p o u l o s 1964, fig. 23 ). th e C h u r c h o f ‘C h r is to s ' in V e r ia (P elek a n id is 1973, pi. 21 ), in th e M o n a s ­ t e r y at M a r k o ( M i ll e t- V e l m a n s 1969, fig. 166), a n d in 1 5 th - c e n tu r y m o n u ­ m e n t s in th e re g io n a r o u n d O c h r id (S u b o t ic 1980, figs. 43 a n d 111. pi. 46). A n u m b e r o f f e a t u r e s a re also s h a r e d w ith th e icon o f th e R aisin g ol L a z a ru s : th e realistic p o r t r a y a l ol the WvS

fig u re s, t i n m i I i i i m u o l H u n j j i i a ·. th e Obvioir. uliensi· ii Ihr i> io ii|ir nl a p o s t le s anil lews, til· nimli lime nl t h e laces w ith th e n s l u in g in i ii i.i i. b e t w e e n light anil -

1

kmiVMi l i m n B i(

Ι Η ίΛ ιιιχ ιιν ιιΐ! m i I lie

Ili··

1

ilplH

ill'l l

,V pp 134-135. fig.79. C hatzidakis 1979 (2), p I W fig. p. 131. D clivorrias 1980, lig. 62 lluhlt C h atzidakis 1983. p. 314. fig. p. 3(»6 (I»»· I hi recognition that the inscription is Ιοιμ«'fl / h k y th i n o s 1975, p p . 215 an d 1 Ml) w n t p r o b a b l y also a m e m b e r o f it P rovenance. A cquired at S o lh efV s ( I'W M B ibliography. S o theby’s ( ‘;it;tlo^iir ol Iimh L o n d o n 1984. no. 30. pp. I t I** (Ion· *tu· tio n ). B yzantine A rt 1986. no I I 1', |>|■ I I I 116. A ffrcschi e icone I9H(», im Ή, |·|< 117-118.

Μ Λ I·

42

N ik o la o s T z a fo u r is : V ir g in a n d C h ild 15th c e n tu r y 5 6 .5 X 4 5 cm; 1 0 6 X 8 5 cm (with frame)

Athens. P. K anellopoulos Collection

T h e V irg in is p o r t r a y e d in th e fa m il­ ia r W e s t e r n ty p e o f th e M a d r e d ella C o n s o l a z i o n e , as p a i n t e d by th e C r e ­ ta n artists o f t h e 15th c e n t u r y ( C h a ­ tz id a k is 1977 (1 ), p. 91). C h a r a c t e r ­ istic f e a t u r e s o f this ty p e in clu d e the p la c in g o f th e child in a p o sitio n th at p ro v i d e s a n e l e m e n t o f c o n l r a p p o s t o . th e s p h e r e in his left h a n d , his

175

w estern-style shirt, tin· μοΜ Iminl w ith pseudo-kulii d e i o i . i l t o n ιΐΐιιιιμ the edges of the < i i h o li· m i p l m i i o n w orn by the Virgin innl iiIm n .ill the I.ate G othic sI%ΊI ΊΜ . | Ί

n m l·

11·i

"

· Imki ' \

I

o l

Hi·

ipllm l l i i l l e l -

i ii·· . I * | i l l l '

III llllll l ul l I M III· lu ll· lin

1

- >1 ( ! 1

H i :! Itn :il

of th e torsi), th e r e n d e r in g o f the flesh in soft m o n o c h r o m e to n e s , the w o n d e r f u l p re c isio n in th e incised d esig n of th e h a lo , a n d th e m i n u te d e ta il in th e d r a w in g o f th e h a ir a n d th e c ro w n o f th o r n s ; all th e s e are c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f th e m i n ia t u r e p a i n t ­ ing ol th e C r e t a n p a i n t e r N ik o la o s Γ/a f o u r i s ( a t t e s t e d 1489-1500), to w h o m th e icon is a t t r i b u t e d . It h a s a

p a r t ic u l a r ly close affinity w ith th e s i g n e d w o r k by him in V i e n n a ( K r e i d l - P a p a d o p o u l o s 1970. p. 30, fig. 39). Conservation. S. Baltoyannis (1964). B ibliography. Byzantine A rl 1964. no. 213. p. 260. C hatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 40. pp. S9ff.. pis. 33 and 101. Byzantine A rl 19S6. no. 111. pp. 111. 112. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 63. pp. 108-109.

M. C h.

45

P ie ta S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 1 5 t h c e n t u r 7 1 X 58 cm Athens. Benaki M useum , 3050

y

E g g t e m p e r a o n w o o d . T h e V irg in is sittin g o n a ro c k a n d h o ld in g th e b o d y o f C h r is t o n h e r k n e e s . T h e s u b j e c t is Ita lia n in o rig in (cf. th e P ie t a by G i o v a n n i B ellini in V e n ic e ) a n d id e n tic a l v e rs io n s o f it a r e f o u n d in a g r o u p o f C r e t a n icons fr o m th e s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e 15th c e n t u r y (icon by A n d r e a s P a v ia s in R o s s a n o , icons in th e P. K a n e l l o p o u l o s (B a lt o y a n n i 1986 (1), no. 8) a n d D. E c o n o m o ­ p o u lo s C o ll e c ti o n s (B a lt o y a n n i 1986 (2 ), pis. 16-17), ico n fo r m e r l y in th e C h u r c h o f S a n t a M a r ia d e lla M iser ic o rd ia in V e n ic e , a n d o t h e r icons in S p lit, S a r a j e v o , in th e N i k o l e n k o G a lle r y ( l e o n e s 1975, fig. 9) a n d e l s e w h e r e ) . T h e C r e t a n artist has b o r r o w e d n o t o n ly th e o v e ra ll c o m p o s i t i o n , b u t also a n u m b e r o f ic o n o g r a p h ic d e ta i ls fr o m V e n e tia n p a in t in g b o t h o f th e 14th c e n tu r y (cf. th e a t t i t u d e o f th e V irg i n 's h e a d , a n d th e h e a d d r e s s c o v e ri n g h e r h a ir a n d th r o a t in a c o m p o s it io n by P a o lo V e n e z i a n o d e d i c a t e d to t h e D o g e Fr. D a n d o l o in 1339. n o w in V e n ic e ) (R izzi 1972) a n d o f th e 15th c e n tu r y (cf. th e b a r e ro c k in th e T r a n s f ig u ­ r a tio n by G i o v a n n i B ellin i in th e C o r r e r M u s e u m in V e n ic e a n d th e sim ila r d e ta il in th e P r a y e r in G c l h s e m a n e by A n d r e a M a n t e g n a in th e N a tio n a l G a l l e r y in L o n d o n ) . I he icon has a n u m b e r o f ic o n o g r a ­ p h ic a n d stylistic f e a t u r e s in c o m m o n w ith th e A k r a T a p e in o s i s by N i k o ­

—

178

laos T z a f o u r i s (s e c o n d h a lf o f the 15th c e n t u r y ) in V i e n n a , a n d is p r o b ­ ab ly to be a t t r i b u t e d to th e s a m e p a in t e r . T h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s MP ΘΥ. in G r e e k , d o n o t p ro v id e a n a n s w e r to th e q u e s t io n o f th e n a tio n a lity o f th e c u s ­ t o m e r f o r w h o m th e icon w as i n t e n d ­ e d , sin ce w e k n o w o f an icon w ith a s u b j e c t t a k e n fr o m Italian p a in t in g , s u i ta b l e fo r a C a th o l ic c u s t o m e r , w h ic h h a s a G r e e k in s c rip tio n (cf. A ffre s c h i e ico n e 1986, no. 75). It t h u s b e l o n g e d e it h e r to a C a th o l ic c u s t o m e r o f G r e e k e d u c a t i o n , o r to a n O r t h o d o x w ith W e s t e r n tastes. T h e p r o b l e m o f th e c u s t o m e r s for w h o m icon s in th e G r e e k m a n n e r a n d in th e Italian m a n n e r w e re i n t e n d e d is th u s a c o m p l e x o n e th at n e e d s to be c o n s i d e r e d in th e light o f a w ide v a r i e ty o f ev id e n c e . C onservation. K. M ilanou (19X2). Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1973. pp. fiSKff.. figs. 52-53. C hatzidakis 1974 (2). pp. 10ΧΙΪ.. fig. 81. P rijatclj 1974. pp. 55ff. Chatzidakis (N .) 19X3. no. 45. p. 52. A ffrcschi c iconc 19X6. no. 65. pp. 11(1-111. Μ . V.

4 6

M a d r e d e lla C o n so la z io n e w ith S t. F ra n cis S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y 6 0 x 5 2 cm Athens. Byzantine M useum , T. 233

A few sm all p ie c e s o f th e w o o d p a n e l a n d s o m e p a in t at th e e d g e s a re m iss­ ing. G e s s o o n c a n v a s. G o ld g r o u n d a n d h a lo e s , th e l a t te r d e c o r a t e d in a p o in tille t e c h n i q u e w ith a stylized floral d esign . T h e V irg in is d e p i c t e d in th e well k n o w n I ta lia n ty p e o f th e M a d r e d e lla C o n s o l a z i o n e as r e n d e r e d by t h e C r e t a n p a i n t e r s o f th e 15th c e n ­ tu r y (cf. c a t. no . 4 2 ), h o ld in g C h ris t in h e r rig ht a r m ; th e l a t te r is m a k i n g a b e n e d i c t i o n a n d h o ld i n g t h e s p h e r e o f th e w o rld in his left h a n d . T o his left is a fu ll-len g th p o r t r a i t o f St. F ra n c is o f A ssisi, w ith th e s t ig m a ta , o n a s m a ll e r scale. H e is facin g th e V irgin a n d C h ild , a n d h o ld s a cro ss in his left h a n d a n d a clo sed bible in his rig ht. T h e p o s itio n o f th e sa in t, his gaze d ir e c te d t o w a r d s C h ris t, a n d th e cro s s th a t he is h o ld in g , suggest w ith a s u b tle s y m b o lis m th e m iracle o f th e s t ig m a ta fr o m th e w o u n d s of th e c ru c ified C h ris t th a t St. F ran cis r e c e i v e d in a vision (th e th e m e is f o u n d in I t a l o - C r e t a n icons o f th e 15th c e n t u r y , cf. P a v a n 1979. n o. 157, p. 95, C h a t z i d a k i s ( N .) 1983, n o. 37, p. 44) a n d a n ti c ip a t e s th e f u t ­ u r e su ffe rin g o f Je s u s . T h e p r e s e n c e o f th e sain t o f A ssisi, w h o d o e s n o t a p p e a r in o t h e r Italo C r e t a n ico n s o f th e M a d r e d e lla C o n ­ so l a z io n e , a n d th e e s t a b li s h e d fact t h a t th e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m icon c a m e fr o m C r e t e , m a k e it ve ry p r o b ­ a b le th a t it e i t h e r a d o r n e d a c h u r c h o f th e F r a n c i s c a n s o n th e islan d , o r w a s o w n e d by a m e m b e r o f th e V e n e t i a n o r C r e t a n nobility. T h e ty p e o f th e M a d r e della C o n s o ­ la z io n e w as p a r t ic u l a r ly p o p u l a r in C r e t a n p a in t in g a n d m et the r e ­ q u i r e m e n t s o f b o th C a th o l ic a n d

— I7>>

O r t h o d o x C h u r c h e s until tlu· I /tli c e n tu r y . T h is is a t t e s t e d by th e uiclii val s o u r c e s , w h ich re f e r to c o u n t li ,s ic o n s o f th e V irg in p a in t e d a /i■i ■ o f C h r is t w ith his red liin iallo n. t In p a r t ia l lightin g o f th e flesh ιι to t h a t o f th e V irgin in III t w o li Ol by T z a f o u r i s ; th e soil I ill· C io ij l ll d r a p e r y , stro n g ly lit ill the pi'uloi nl th e fo ld s o f th e m a p h o i i o n w m fl )n th e V irg in ; th e soli slvli . d fnld* c r o w n in g h e r la c e , n mi tin l i h t h V irg in a n d in a n o lh i I I r o n l>\ l i fouris in Vii mill ( Ki t nil I*··|n ln |..... los 1970, pp. (> Ί I a n d 1Ί I fig. 39): a n d I lit pt'i hi I ιι i i! . n nl th e line go ld di o i i i i i m ili'l.ill lilt’ c h ild 's sliu i I In \ ιι |iln ill ilm li o n , th e lii‘loi'‘i a n d Μ I iiiiu l Icallii'i I>i1111id bllili l a k c n tojiv tin i III * l\lM |i n ul ly pologK nl li ill in < nl llil" li mi «un

gest a ilatc in th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n t u r y , a n d an a tt r i b u ti o n to th e w o r k s h o p o f N ik o la o s T z a f o u r i s , t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t to the h a n d o f th e artist h im s e lf (cf. B ia n c o F io rin I9N3, p. 167, fig. 8 , w h o e r r o n e o u s l y id en tifie s th e s a in t w ith St. A n t h o n y of Padua).

Provenance. C rete. D onated by I. F rangoudis in 1897 to the C hristian A rchaeological So­ ciety (X A E 2338). C onservation. T h. Papageorgiou (1974). A. Sim andoni (1986). B ibliography. C hatzidakis 1977 (2). p. 688, fig. 49. B ianco Fiorin 1983. p. 167. fig. 8. A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 67. pp. 113-115. M . A .-P .

4 7

T h e D o r m itio n o f S t. S a b b a s 15th c e n tu r y 6 7 x 5 7 cm Lelkas. Collection in the Public Library

A m u lti-fig u ra l c o m p o s it io n w ith sc c n e s f r o m t h e life o f th e h e r m it s in th e w ild e r n e s s . It follo w s th e ty p e o f th e D o r m i t i o n o f E p h r a i m th e S y­ ria n . w h ic h o c c u rs in a large n u m b e r of icons f r o m th e 15th c e n tu r y . A

4 8

S a n c tu a r y D o o r s , r ig h t le a f V ir g in o f th e A n n u n c ia tio n , S S B asil a n d N ic h o la s S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y 123X 49 cm Patm os. M onastery o f St. John the T heologian, New Sacristy

T h is s a n c t u a r y d o o r is a n o t h e r e x a m ­ ple (cf. c at. nos. 38 a n d 39) o f C r e t a n w o o d - c a r v i n g w ith p u r e V e n e t i a n L a te G o t h i c tr a c e r y a n d floral m o tifs. A t th e t o p , th e V irgin sittin g in fr o n t o f a G o t h i c b u ild in g is r e n ­ d e r e d in th e I t a l o - C r e t a n m a n n e r , w h ile the fig u re s o f SS B asil a n d N ic h o la s at th e b o t t o m h ave a less r e f in e d sty le , in w h ich t h e r e a re n o Italian in flu en ce s.

Provenance. T he C hurch o f Christ D im archias or M cgalis Portas in C h o ra. Patm os. ( om crvation. Ph. Z achariou (1977). F. G alakou ( 1987). Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1977 (1). no. 38, pp. 87IT.. pi. A and pp. 98-99 Byzantine A rt 1986. no 113. pp. 112. 114-115. Affreschi c iconc 1986. no. 68. pp 115. 116. M . Ch.

—

180 —

ty p ical e x a m p l e o f C r e t a n p a in tin g t h a t strictly follow s th e tr a d it io n a l style.

Provenance. Lcfkas. C onservation. F. A sim akou (1967). Bibliography. C hatzinikolaou 1966, p. 371. C hatzidiikis 1974 (1). pp. 190ff. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 130. p. 128. Affrcschi c iconc 1986. no. 86. pp. 134. 136.

N. T.

49 C h r ist a n d th e S a m a r ita n W o m a n L a st q u a r te r o f th e 15th c e n tu r y 3 8 .5 x 4 8 cm Athens. K anellopoulos M useum

C h ris t is s e a t e d b e f o r e a well in th e f o r e g r o u n d , w ith th e S a m a r i t a n w o m a n s t a n d i n g o p p o s i te him . T h e l a n d s c a p e is filled w ith p i c t u r e s q u e e p i s o d e s set in d if fe re n t p la n e s (fo r t h e i c o n o g r a p h y , cf. M ille t 1916, pp . 6U2ff.). O n th e left tw o g r o u p s o f a p o s t l e s a r e w a lk in g t o w a r d s C h rist. O n th e right th e r e is a g r o u p o f p e o ­ ple g a t h e r e d b e f o r e th e g a te of th e city w h ich h a s th e in s c rip tio n S A M A T I E . T h e r e is a s im ila r s c e n e on th e left d e p ic t in g th e city o f J e r u s a l e m , w ith th e in s c rip tio n J E R U S A L E M . T h e m o n k s o n th e rig ht a n d m a n y o f th e o t h e r fig ures a r e p a i n t e d o n a sm all scale, w ith g r e a t a t t e n t i o n to d e ta il (su ch as th e tw o fig u res in the m i d d l e g r o u n d w a lk in g t o w a r d s a sm all b u ild in g on a hill, a n d th e m a n d i s m o u n t i n g fr o m his h o rs e b e h in d th e city o n th e rig h t). D e e r a n d o t h ­

e r a n im a ls can be se e n s c a n n e d a m o n g s t th e tr e e s a n d h ushe s. T h e c o m p o s it io n is in f lu e n c e d by 14th- a n d 1 5 th -c e n tu ry I u scan p.mil ing: th e t r a d it io n a l gold b a c k g r o u n d h as b e e n r e p l a c e d by a la n d s c a p e w ith b lu e sky a n d sm all c l o d s in Ilu d i s ta n c e , as f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in tin p a i n t i n g o f G e n til e d a F a b r i a n o ; a n d th e cities recall th o s e in th e wall p a in t in g s o f A m b r o g i o L o r c n / c l l i (C a rli 1957, pis. 72, 83). T h e «flaw in g o f th e faces in d i c a te s a k n o w le d g e o f P a l a e o l o g a n p a in t in g ; but th e c o m b i n a t i o n o f this w ith ta m iliai ity w ith Ita lia n a rt su g g ests that th e icon w as p a i n t e d in th e m ix ed c u lt u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f 1 5th-ccnlu ry C r e t e . T h is is a p a in t in g o f tin h ig h e s t qu ality . Bibliography. C hatzidakis 1974 ( I) , |>l X X X IV . C hatzidakis 1974 (2). p. 1 13. Ιιμ. Hll C hatzidiikis (Th ) 1982. no. 19. C h a t/itln k r (N .) 1983. no. 48. p. 55. Byzantine A ll I'JMO no. 112. pp. 112. 113. A ffrcschi e icone, no 66. pp. 112-113. N. ( li

5 0

T h e E n tr y in to J e r u sa le m L a st q u a r te r o f th e 15th c e n tu r y 4 9 .1 X 48.3 cm Athens. P. K anellopoulos Collection

T h e c o m p o s it io n is d iv id e d in to tw o e q u a lly b a l a n c e d p a r t s by a tall tr e e w h ic h rises o u ts id e th e w alls o f J e r u ­ s a l e m . C h r is t, th e m a in fig u re , is s h o w n o n th e left, sittin g o n th e ass a n d m o v i n g to th e rig h t, a c c o m ­ p a n i e d by th e tw e lv e a p o s t le s in a com pact group. T he background co n sists o f a r o c k y l a n d s c a p e , in w hich is set a d e p ic t io n o f a s m a lle r w a lle d city; f r o m it a re d e p a r t i n g a n u m b e r o f fig u re s p a i n t e d in m i n ia ­ t u r e , o n e o f t h e m m o u n t e d o n a w h ite h o r s e . O n th e rig ht o f th e p a n e l rise th e w alls of J e r u s a l e m , w ith th e d if­ fe r e n t b u ild in g s pre cisely d ra w n . B e f o r e th e w alls o f th e city, tw o d e n s e g r o u p s o f Je w s a p p e a r Irom INI

tw o g a te s to m e e t C h r i s t , «>11it' I sm all fig u re s a r e le a n in g mil n v ri I In wall. Y o u n g ch ild re n a n s i a l l c i d t h r o u g h o u t th e c o m p o s it io n n g a g e d in lively activities s o n n mi c li m b i n g tr e e s to cut pa lm l> mu In o t h e r s a re s p r e a d in g th e n i Im ln ‘>>· th e g r o u n d , a n d at tin liollon i ■*ιIn i still a r e w re stlin g a n d pliivinji mi ·> hill in fr o n t ol a ΓοιιιιΙιιίη I In i co w s in fro nt ol this lotinln ln nml t h r e e m o r e o n a low plait' ui il I In right a d d a bueolii rlt lilt ill I·· III· s c e n e w hic h is noi | it I til I In liinll tio n a l ic o n o g r a p h y I hi unlui all· m m a n n e r in w hich 11it· s itn iin n .i recalls w in k s l i m n li t t|tin.......... ..... (Beicnson 'arbitrary

IVfiK

be cinnpiu animal·, 111r

11p

in

l>\

i ,■ ■ n

Ι Ι 1. Ί 1 iti·

I w i t h lltitl n l Hi

i hul

( ielan m m i le f

II

in· l u s l o n i n l l n m hiilni i nl l i i m

11 ill

tnlni -

il i n J i l l · ■ ; n

11 I*

d a k is 1974 ( I ) , pp. 203-204). T h is ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e o f th e E n t r y in to J e r u s a l e m w as p o p u l a r in C r e t a n p a in t in g , as w a s th e ty p e f o u n d in a n u m b e r o f o t h e r icon s (cf. C h a t z i d a ­ kis ( N .) 1983, n o . 28. V o k o t o p o u l o s 1978-79, pis. 116, 117, 121). It also o c c u rs in th e 1 5 th - c e n tu r y wall p a i n t ­ ings al S k l a v e r o c h o r i , a n d in an icon in th e M o n a s t e r y o f D io n v s io s fr o m 111* s a m e p e r i o d (C h a tz i d a k is 1969­ 70. figs. 122, 130). I'he i c o n o g r a p h ic m o d e l f o r th e c o m p o s it io n is t o b e so u g h t in Misira , in th e w all p a in tin g s o f th e C h u r c h o f th e P e r i b l e p t o s , a n d p a r ­ ticu larly t h a t o f th e P a n t a n a s s a (1430) ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1981, figs. 52, 67, 68). C lo s e s im ilarities ca n be d e t e c t e d in th e n a r r a t i v e a sp e c t o f th e c o m p o s i t i o n , th e v e ry ro ck y l a n d s c a p e , a n d th e g ra p h ic d etails o f th e e p is o d e s w ith c h il d r e n , a m o n g s t w h ic h is th e sp in a rio (th e b o y r e m o v ­ ing a t h o r n f r o m his fo o t) (M o u rik i 1970-72, p p . 5 8 f f . , pis. 23 a-b). T h e s im ila ritie s e x t e n d to o t h e r details, like th e m i n i a t u r e fig u re s o f w o m e n

le a n in g o u t fr o m th e w alls o f J e r u ­ s a l e m , a n d th e fo r m o f th e sp rin g. F in a lly , th e large num ber of c lassicizing m a s k -m o t if s e x e c u t e d in g risaille o n t h e b u ildin gs is a n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f th e p a in t in g o f th e P a n t a ­ n ass a ( M o u r i k i 1980-81) th a t is also f o u n d in t h e E n t r y into J e r u s a l e m . T h e o b v i o u s links b e t w e e n th is icon a n d its m o d e l in th e P a n ta n a s s a illu s tra te j u s t h o w w i d e s p r e a d w as C onstan tin o p o litan m odel am ongst th e le a d i n g p a in t e r s w o r k i n g in d if­ f e r e n t p a r t s o f G r e e c e in th e 15th c e n tu r y . T h e c o m p o s it io n o f th e icon is m o r e strictly o r g a n i z e d , a n d th e g r o u p s of a p o s t le s a r e t r e a t e d in a m o r e c o m p a c t w a y ; th e r e n d e r i n g o f th e d e ta ils o f th e h u m a n figu res a n d o f th e b u ild in g s reflects th e a c a d e m ic c h a r a c t e r o f C r e t a n icon s p r o d u c e d in t h e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y . B ibliography. C hatzidakis 1969-70. p. 325, fig. 129. C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982.no. 11 C h atzid a­ kis (N .) 1983. no. 27. Affrcschi c iconc 1986, no. 82. pp. 132. 133.

N. Ch.

51

T h e M ir a c le at C h o n a e E n d o f th e 15th c en tu r y 37X 30 cm K ephallonia, Lixouri. lakovatios Library

T h e ico n d e p ic t s th e m iracle o f th e A r c h a n g e l M ic h a e l at C h o n a e , a s u b j e c t a lr e a d y k n o w n fr o m th e M e n o l o g i o n ' o f B asil (c. 980). M ic h a e l is u sin g a p o le to d iv e r t th e w a te r s o f th e riv er th a t h a d b e e n t u r n e d to t h r e a t e n his c h u rc h by evil p a g a n s ( H e l l e n i z o n t e s -). T h e m o n k A r c h i p p o s is p o r t r a y e d o n a s m a lle r scale at th e rig h t, b o w in g in an a tt i­ tu d e o f p ra y e r , in g r a t it u d e fo r th e in t e r v e n t io n by th e A r c h a n g e l. E a c h ol the tw o b a l a n c e d fig u res is set b e f o r e a s o a r in g m o u n t a i n p e a k . A n im p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f th e ic o n o g r a ­ p hy is th e d o m e d c h u rc h a n d th e b u ild in g w ith a p itc h e d r o o f n e x t to il; this is lo b e fo u n d in an icon in the I o v e r d o s C o ll e c ti o n in th e B y z a n ­ tin e M u s e u m o f A t h e n s , p r o b a b l y

52 T h e S e v e n S le e p e r s o f E p h eso s c . 1500 42 .5 X 3 4 .5 cm Athens. City o f Athens M useum

T h e S e v e n S le e p e r s o f E p h e s o s a re d e p ic t e d insid e a cav e th a t t a k e s u p th e e n ti r e s u r fa c e o f th e ico n , lea vin g o n ly a sm all a r e a o f g o ld b a c k ­ g r o u n d . T h e i r p o s t u r e s recall th o s e o f th e a p o s t le s in th e tr a d it io n a l ic o n o g r a p h y o f th e P r a y e r in G e t h s e m a n e (M ille t 1916. pp. 654ff., figs. 65 9-6 62 ), as fo r e x a m p l e in th e C h u r c h o f A y io s Io a n n i s K o u d o u m a s in C r e t e ( B o u g r a t 1982, fig. 27). T h e s a m e s u b j e c t , well k n o w n in B y z a n ti n e p a in t in g (cf. th e V a tic a n 'M e n o l o g i o n ' o f Basil I I ), is also f o u n d in 15th- a n d 1 6 th -c e n tu ry W estern e n g ra v i n g s ( M a s s ig n o n 1961. p p . 12 ff.. 2 0 f f ., pis. V I, 1. V I I . 1-5). a n d in 1 5 th - c e n tu r y C r e t a n icon s (cf. an icon fr o m S inai. M a s s i­ g n o n 1961, pi. V I I , 2). It also o c c u rs in th e w all p a in t in g s by T h e o p h a n e s

in t h e re f e c to r y o f th e Cireui I tivm (M ille t 1927, pi. 147, 2) a n d in I Hi a n d 1 8 th - c e n tu r y icons in tin Iten nk i M u s e u m a n d th e L o v e r d o s C ol le c tio n . T h e ico n is th e w o r k o f a m a j o r ( t ta n p a i n t e r ; th e d r a w in g is u n u su a lly p re c is e a n d th e p a i n t e r has a rau· s e n s e o f c o lo u r . P a r t ic u l a r ly s trik in g is th e tr a n s l u c e n t q u ality o f the w hite a n d b lu e - g r e y t o n e s , a n d th e bo ld c o m b i n a t i o n s o f d if fe re n t h u e s ol r e d . T h e sm all b a s k e t o f olives h a n g ing in t h e cave is well m o d e l le d d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t th e artist w a s f a m il ia r w ith I ta lia n p a in tin g . It m a y b e s u g g e s te d th a t th e icon is to be d a t e d to c. 1500. O n th e r e v e r se is a cro s s s t a n d in g o n a s t e p p e d plm lli p a i n t e d at a la t e r d a t e (1639). Conservation. S. Stasinopoulos. B ibliography. C hatzidakis (T h .) 1982, no M C h atzid ak is (N .) 1983. no. 35. p. 42 lly/m i tine A rt 1986. no. 129. pp. 126-127 A lin ■· hi e iconc 1986. no. 85, pp. 134. 135.

N. > I n n H c t c r i s t i c i v l e t tii K i n

i

111 ■ I ■ **

Α Ν Δ Ρ Ε Ο Υ T O Y [Λ Ι)Μ Ο Γ Α Λ Λ |Ο Υ |.

w h ic h e x p la in s th e inclusion o f th e a p o s t le A n d r e w : he w as th e p a t r o n sain t o f th e m a n w h o d e d ic a te d lhis

t h e s e m e l o I·· I m i n i ill ill llit p i iliil

1K.1

In l i n

di

W e s le t n eltim «nl

i n g o l t III·· p e l toil in < n l > w μ 11 llii

lo lu in n

»■ ■ mi·

lm

) In ι Ι ι Ι ί ι Ι

u t m o m i l · ■! ·■»

·

flo w e r p o t s e p a r a t i n g th e tw o fig­ u r e s , w hich s e e m s r a t h e r d e t a c h e d a n d u n c o n n e c t e d w ith th e c o m p o ­ s i ti o n , h a s b e e n s h o w n to be c o n n e c t ­ e d w ith th e c o l o n n a d e th a t w as in v a ­ riab ly in c lu d e d in s c e n e s o f the A n n u n c i a t i o n p a i n t e d by th e S ie n ­ n e se artists o f th e 14th a n d 15th c e n ­ t u r ie s ( B a l t o y a n n i 1984, p. 58). A n u m b e r o f stylistic f e a t u r e s , suc h as th e d i a p h a n o u s , li g h t- c o lo u re d ey es ot th e a n g e l, th e o v e r - s w e e t face of th e V irgin a n d th e realistic e x p r e s ­ sion o n th e fac e o f D a v i d , also have th e i r o rig in s in W e s t e r n art. T h e A n n u n c i a t i o n , th e s u p r e m e s y m b o l o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n , h e re g a in s in m e a n i n g b y v irtu e o f its b e in g p a in t e d o n th e le a v e s o f the S a n c tu a r y d o o r s . T h e sig nificance o f th e c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n th e S a n c ­ t u a r y d o o r s a n d th e A n n u n c i a t i o n ( C h a tz i d a k is 1973, col. 343) is p e r ­ h a p s i n d i c a te d by th e fact t h a t th e e v id e n c e f o r th e first use o f th e s ce n e o n su ch a d o o r p o in ts to a d a t e in the 12th c e n t u r y ( W e i t z m a n n 1964-65, p p. 17-18), w h e n th e d o c tr in a l m e a n i n g o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n w as w id ely d is p u te d ( B a b ic 1968. pp . 368-386). It is also k n o w n th a t o n e of th e m o s t f r e q u e n t m e t a p h o r s a n d sim iles u se d in B y z a n ti n e h y m n o g r a -

p h y a n d h o m ilie s re la tin g to th e V i r ­ gin is th e ‘G a t e ' o f E z e k ie l ( ‘T h is g a t e shall be c lo s e d ') (E z e k ie l X L V . 2 ) ; a t a v e ry early d a t e this c a m e to b e r e g a r d e d as a p r e f ig u ­ ra t io n o f th e ro le o f th e V irgin in the I n c a r n a t i o n . O n e o f th e a p p lic a tio n s o f th is s y m b o li s m , w h ich w a s diffi­ cu lt to r e n d e r ic o n o g r a p h ic a lly , w as to p a in t a s c e n e o f th e A n n u n c i a t i o n o n th e S a n c t u a r y d o o r s . T h is i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n f u r t h e r a c c o u n t s fo r the in clu sion o f Is a ia h , w h o is also to be f o u n d in W e s t e r n sc e n e s o f the A n n u n c i a t i o n , in f lu e n c e d by th e L a ti n M e d i t a t i o n e s V ita e C h ris ti' o f P s e u d o b o n a v e n t u r a ; a c c o rd in g to this te x t , at th e tim e o f th e A n ­ n u n c i a t i o n th e V irgin w as re a d i n g th e p r o p h e c y o f Isaiah ( R o b b 1936. p. 4 8 5 ) : Ι Δ Ο Υ Η Π Α Ρ Θ Ε Ν Ο Ο E N ΓA C T P I ΕΞΕ1 Κ Α Ι Τ Ε Ξ Ε Τ Α Ι Υ ΙΟ Ν KAl

KAAECOYCl

TO

ΟΝΟΜΑ

Α Υ Τ Ο Υ Ε Μ Μ Α Ν Ο Υ Η Λ ; this is also

th e te x t o n th e scroll h e ld by th e p r o p h e t in th e icon.

Provenance. M essina. Italy. Conservation. S. Baltoyannis. S. V arotsis. A. S im andoni. G. Skaraki (1981). Bibliography. Baltoyanni 1984. pp. 43-72. A ffrcschi e iconc 1986. no. 87. pp. 136-138. C h . B.

54

TIu- H o sp ita lity o f A b ra h a m 15 1li c e n tu r y 7 2 X 5 7 cm A t h e n s . Ily/.iiiiliiie M u s e u m , T . 911

T h e s c e n e is a n illu s tra tio n o f G e n e ­ sis (1 8 .1 -1 5 ). d e s c r ib in g th e d in n e r given by A b r a h a m to th e t h r e e a n g e ls n e a r t h e ‘o a k o f M a t u r e ’. It in c lu d e s t h r e e a n g e ls s e a t e d a r o u n d a s q u a r e ta b l e l o a d e d w ith d is h e s a n d f o o d , A b r a h a m a n d S a r a h , tw o tall, n a r r o w b u ild in g s a t th e sid es, an d tw o leafy tr e e s le a n i n g in w a rd s , all a r r a n g e d in a c lo s e d c o m p o s it io n , d e v e l o p e d v ertic a lly a r o u n d th e fig­ u re o f th e c e n tr a l an g e l. T h e tw o -lin e in s c rip tio n o n th e g o ld g r o u n d b e ­ t w e e n th e tw o t r e e s r e f e rs to th e —

184 —

t h e o lo g ic a l c o n t e n t o f th e scen e: [H EN

TH

C jK H N II

TOY

ΑΒΡΑΑΜ

[T |H C Ζ Ω [ A P ]X IK H C T P IA A O C Φ Α -

o f th e r e f in e d circles o f artists a n d p a t r o n s in th e c a p ita l at this p e r ­ iod w e r e c e n t r e d o n th e revival o f a n ti q u it y , a n d c a n be d e t e c t e d in th is icon in a v a ri e ty o f w ays. W e m a y n o t e , fo r e x a m p l e , th e classical p r o p o r t i o n s , th e e le g a n t p o s t u r e s a n d th e re f in e d faces o f th e a n g e ls , th e "p a tria rc h a l' appearance of A b r a h a m , a g a in fo llo w in g a n c ie n t ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e s , a n d a ls o a n u m ­ b e r of d e ta ils , su c h as th e c a r a f e c o v ­ e r e d by a n u p t u r n e d glass on th e t a b l e , w h ic h c a n b e s e e n in a wall p a in t in g fr o m H e r c u l a n e u m , th e lion m a s k w ith fo liage c o m i n g o u t o f its m o u t h , e x e c u t e d in grisaille o n th e f a c a d e o f th e b u ild in g o n th e rig h t, a n d th e re d c lo th o n th e r o o f o f th e o n e on th e left. T h e m o n u m e n t a l size o f t h e fig u re s a n d th e r e d u c e d scale o f th e a c h it e c tu r e a n d tr e e s in th e b a c k g r o u n d , th e r e t u r n to a f la t­ t e r c o n c e p t io n o f s p a c e , a n d th e dry m o d e llin g o f t h e flesh a n d d r a p e r y a re s o m e o f th e f e a t u r e s th a t p ro v i d e a r g u m e n t s fo r d a ti n g this icon to th e p e r i o d a f t e r 1453. T h e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m icon p a n e l b e e n d a t e d v a rio u s ly to th e 15th c e n tu r y (S o t i­ rio u 1931. p. 7 4), to th e first h a lf o f th e 16th c e n t u r y , in re la tio n to th e e a rly c r e a t i o n s o f th e C r e t a n S ch o o l (C h a t z i d a k i s 1961. no . 3, w ith c o lo u r p la te . C h a r a l a m p o u s - M o u r i k i 1962­ 63. p p . 8 7 f f .), o r m o r e precise ly to th e m i d d le o f th e 16th c e n tu r y , w hile still b e in g c o n s i d e r e d a C r e t a n w o r k (C h a tz i d a k is 1969, fig. p. 45). H o w ­ e v e r . th e view th a t this icon w as th e

w o r k o f th e C r e t a n School cun In q u e s t i o n e d a fte r th e p n b ln iitJnn nl p e r t i n e n t d o c u m e n t s in llu V e n n a rc h iv e s by C a t t a p a n , a n d I In· i I| h c o v e r y o f h it h e r t o u n k n o w n p n l n u u l m a t e r i a l a ss ig n ed to this sch o o l I h. re s u lt is t h a t th e d a te s th a t h a v e b e e n s u g g e s te d fo r th e m a j o r i ty o f ic o n 1, f r o m th is circle h a v e to b e ra is e d , by a c e n t u r y in s o m e cases. T a k i n g tinr e c e n t d is c o v e rie s in to a c c o u n t , it m a y be s u g g e s te d th a t th e B y z a n lin e M u s e u m icon o f th e H o s p ita lity ol A b r a h a m s h o u l d b e p la c e d in llu s e c o n d h a lf o f t h e 15th c e n tu r y , S o m e r e s e r v a ti o n is also n e e d e d as lo its p re c i s e re la ti o n s h ip to th e ( icliin S c h o o l, a t least u ntil th e stu d y o f (he d a t e d 1 5 th - c e n tu r y e n s e m b le s o f wall p a in t in g s is c o m p l e t e d , a m o n g · ) w h ic h t h e d e c o r a t i o n o f th e Pan t a n a s s a a t M is tr a is o f special i m p o r t a n c e (c. 1428). T h e B y z a n tin e M u s e u m icon has close ic o n o g r a p h ic a n d stylistic affinities with tw o m n i i icon s d e p ic t in g th e s a m e s u b j e c t . in t h e H e r m i t a g e a n d th e N a i h o m n M u s e u m , w hich w e re p r o b a b l y painl e d e a r l i e r , t h o u g h still in th e I “Mil c e n tu r y . T h e s a m e ic o n o g r a p h ) nl t y p e , w ith m i n o r v a ria tio n s , is In q u e n t l y r e p e a t e d in la te r painim^·· m o s tly icons. Provenance. A cquired 1111 Z akynlhns Conservation. A. MargaritoM. Bibliography. Sotiriou 1931, p >I < Itu izidakis 1961. no. 3. with culom pliil 1 < Ιικ ιί lam pous-M ouriki 1962-63, pp, H711 1 IhiIcIiIh kis 1969. fig. p. 45. Affrcschi ν κοη»* (ίμιί ini H8. pp. 138-140.

I» M

N t . P H C I C . T h e f r e q u e n t o c c u rr e n c e

o f this O ld T e s t a m e n t scen e fr o m the B ible in th e B y z a n ti n e a n d PostB y z a n ti n e p e r i o d s is a c c o u n t e d for by th e fa ct th a t it s y m b o liz e s the I loly T rin ity . The i c o n o g r a p h y o f th e H o s p ita lity o f A b r a h a m w a s e s ta b lis h e d in E a rly C h r is ti a n ti m e s , b u t th e ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e in t h e B y z a n ti n e M u s e u m p a n e l w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y f o r m u l a t e d in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e d u r i n g th e P a laeo lo g a n p e r i o d , as m a y be in f e r r e d fro m a n u m b e r o f e x a m p l e s in m a n u s c rip t m i n i a t u r e s , ico ns a n d wall p ainting s. T h e p re v a i li n g a e s t h e ti c p r e f e r e n c e s

55 S t. N icholas

c. 1500 9 0 X 5 6 cm

Islan d in I he I akt n l liiiin illHii l> I 1' , A ffrc s c h i e icone l'*Hl> n n 119).

I o a n n i n a . C h a p e l o f t h e B i s h o p 's P a l a c e

T h e se v e r e m o d e l li n g , th e d r a p e r y a n d th e c o n s e r v a ti v e ic o n o g r a p h y su g g e s t th a t this icon b e lo n g s lo the s a m e g r o u p as th e icon s fro m llu· M o n a s t e r y o f the 1 Icousa o n tIn185

/'ro ve m tn te

llu ΜηιιιΜι ιι >·Ι IIt· I I· ■■

1 lit. ·

Hit-

M u t u l

iti

I ilkr

nl

Iikhiiiiim

( i>n\rrvaUifH < h Λι< ΙιιημιηΙι Id· I I*> '! /iihtu»finipliv I i h m l i i p l t i I l n p H i i l i * I ' IίιΛΙΊ M v /iiiililii S 1 1 I'Ollt n n I 1 · | Allirsi 111 i‘ l i h i m I ' I M l i lit: '■ |i i

i· i

5 6

S t. N ic h o la s w ith sc e n e s o f h is m ir a c le s c . 1500 92X 62 cm Ioannina. Chapel of the Bishop's Palace

iM flJ

G esso on canvas. G o ld ground. F r a m e w ith m o u l d in g s . B u s t o f St. N ic h o la s , willi C h r is t a n d th e V irg in in m i n ia t u r e a b o v e h im , o fferin g him th e g o sp e l a n d o m o p h o r i o n . T h e n a r r o w h a n d b e lo w e n c lo s e s th r e e sc e n e s o f his m ira c le s p a i n t e d o n a s m a ll e r scale in a c o n t i n u o u s c o m p o ­ sitio n : th e s a in t sav in g th e th r e e in n o c e n t s fr o m t h e s w o r d o f th e e x e c u t i o n e r , p r o v i d in g d o w rie s fo r th e t h r e e d a u g h t e r s o f t h e i m p o v e r ­ is h e d n o b l e , a n d r e s c u in g a sh ip in d a n g e r at sea. T h e h a lo e s h a v e r o u g h p o in tille d e c o r a t i o n , a n d vivid c o lo u r s a r e u s e d . T h e d a r k u n d e r ­ p a in t o f th e face s c o n t r a s t s w ith th e flesh t o n e s a n d w h ite h igh ligh ts. T h e sc e n e s o f t h e m i r a c l e s c o n ta i n m a n y

w e s te r n e l e m e n t s o f Ita lian o rig in . T h e s e a s c a p e in th e m ira c le o f th e sh ip is p a r t ic u l a r ly im p re ss iv e fo r this p e r i o d . T h e icon is p a i n t e d in th e m a n n e r o f C r e t a n p a in tin g o f th e 15 th-16 th c e n t u r i e s , an d th e m o d e l f o r th e s a in t is to be fo u n d in icons by A n d r e a s R i t z o s (C h a tz i d a k is 1977 (1), pi. 2 0 3 a . B y z a n ti n e A r t 1986, no . 107, p. 108). A n u m b e r o f e l e ­ m e n t s , h o w e v e r , su g g e st th a t it s h o u ld b e a t t r i b u t e d to a w o r k s h o p in I o a n n i n a . A n ic o n o f th e V irg in in th e M o n a s t e r y o f t h e E l e o u s a o n th e Is lan d in th e L a k e o f I o a n n i n a m a y b e a t t r i b u t e d to th e p a i n t e r o f St. N ic h o la s . Provenance. T he M onastery of the E leousa on the Island in the L ake of Ioannina Conservation. C h. A rchim andritis (1974). Bibliography. A cheim astou-P otam ianou 1973­ 74, p. 613. B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 123, pp. 122-124. A ffreschi e icone 1986. no. 80, pp. 129, 130.

M. A.-P.

5 7

S t. N ic h o la s w ith s c e n e s fr o m his life c. 1500 41 X 3 6 c m A th e n s . U. A n d r c a d is C o lle c tio n

E g g t e m p e r a o n w o o d . The c e n tra l s c e n e is a p o r t r a y a l o f St. N ic h o las e n t h r o n e d . In th e b o r d e r s u r r o u n d ­ ing it t h e r e a r e tw e lv e s c e n e s from th e life a n d m i ra c l e s o f th e saint. S ta r ti n g in th e t o p left c o r n e r , an d p r o c e e d i n g left to r ig h t, th e s e are: t h e b ir th o f th e s a in t; his e le c tio n as b is h o p ; t h e sain t r e s c u in g th e th r e e d a u g h t e r s f r o m p r o s t i t u t i o n ; the s a in t re s c u in g t h e t h r e e in n o c e n ts fr o m t h e e x e c u t i o n e r ; th e sain t d e ­ s t r o y in g th e id ols in th e te m p le ; th e m i ra c l e o f th e sh ip ( t h e c a lm in g of t h e w a v e s ); t h e t h r e e g e n e ra ls in p ri s o n ; th e s a i n t a p p e a r i n g in a d r e a m t o C o n s t a n t i n e t h e G r e a t ; th e s a in t a p p e a r i n g in a d r e a m to th e g e n e r a l ; th e t h r e e g e n e r a l s o ffe rin g gifts to C o n s t a n t i n e th e G r e a t ; th e —

186

—

D o r m i t i o n o f th e sa in t; a n d th e t h r e e g e n e r a l s o f f e r in g gifts to St. N i c h o ­ las. T h e s e e p i s o d e s f r o m t h e life an d m ira c le s o f t h e s a in t a re n o t in th e c h r o n o l o g ic a l o r d e r o f th e sy n a x a ria (lives o f t h e sa in ts) . T h is is also tr u e o f o t h e r ico n s o f St. N ic h o la s ro u g h ly c o n t e m p o r a r y w ith this o n e (ico n on P a t m o s fr o m 1430-60, a n d a late 1 5 th - c e n tu r y icon fr o m K a s to r ia ) a n d also o f e a r l i e r icon s (icon fro m S in a i, fr o m th e e n d o f th e 12th c e n ­ tu r y ). T h e icon h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to a C r e t a n p a i n t e r a n d is d a t e d to c. 1500. C e r t a i n P a la e o l o g a n i c o n o g r a ­ p h ic f e a t u r e s m a y h a v e b e e n t r a n s ­ m i tt e d t h r o u g h t h e w o rk s of 15thc e n t u r y C r e t a n p a i n t e r s such as A n g e l o s A k o t a n t o s (cf. th e ty p e of t h e t h r o n e in t h e D e e s is icons by this p a i n t e r in t h e M o n a s t e r y o f V i a n n o u a n d th e K a n e l l o p o u l o s C o lle c tio n ) a n d A n d r e a s R itz o s (cf. t h e ty p e ol th e t h r o n e in t h e ico n o f C h ris t on

P a t m o s , a n d th e a rc h i te c t u r e in th e C h ris to lo g ic a l sc e n e s in th e icon o f t h e V irg in E n t h r o n e d in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m ) . H o w e v e r , th e flow ing d r a p e r y o f th e s a in t's g a r m e n ts , ty p ical o f C r e t a n ico ns in t h e Italian m a n n e r (e .g . cat. n o . 45), d e m o n ­ s t r a t e t h a t I ta lia n f e a t u r e s c o u ld find t h e i r p la c e e v e n in a n ico n like this.

w h ic h o th e r w i s e follo w e d llie ( iie ek m a n n e r , in t e r m s o f hot Ii ιι ο ιιομ ιιι p h y a n d style.

Bibliography. C hatzidakis (T h.) 1982. no .M C hatzid ak is (N .) 1983, no. 33, p. 41. Ιιμ. S evccnko 1983. A ffrcschi e iconc 1986, no. 81, pp. 130-131. Μ . V.

58

N oli M e T a n g e r e 16th c e n tu r y 1 2 0 x 8 2 cm Zakynthos. M etochion of the M onastery of St. Catherine Sinaiton

T h e icon d e p ic t s th e a p p e a r a n c e o f C h r is t to M a r y M a g d a l e n e a f t e r th e R e s u r r e c t i o n , as n a r r a t e d in the G o s p e l o f St. J o h n ( X X V I I I . 14-17). T h e L o r d t u r n s b a c k to M a r y , w h o h a s fallen to h e r k n e e s , a n d s tr e tc h e s o u t his h a n d to s t o p h e r to u c h i n g h im . T o th e left, t h e r e is a c a v e in th e s id e o f a s t e e p m o u n t a i n w ith th e o p e n s a r c o p h a g u s in w hich th e s h r o u d lies, a c c o r d i n g to th e te x t of th e G o s p e l. T h e Z a k y n t h o s ico n b e lo n g s to a v a r i a ti o n o f th e N oli M e T a n g e r e

t h a t w a s p r o b a b l y c re a t e d in C r e t e in th e 15th c e n tu r y a n d is f r e q u e n tl y f o u n d in w o r k s by th e C r e t a n S c h o o l. A strik in g f e a t u r e o f it is the d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n th e t r e a t m e n t o f C h r i s t 's g a r m e n t s , w h ich a r e b a s e d o n B y z a n t i n e m o d e l s a n d h a v e still a c c e n t u a t e d d r a p e r y g le a m in g with g o ld , a n d th e so ft, flow ing d r a p e r y ol t h o s e o f th e k n e e li n g w o m a n , w hich w e r e in s p ire d by L a te G o t h i c art T h e icon s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to a C r e t a n a rtist o f th e b e g in n in g o l tin 16th c e n tu r y . Conservation. M. Rousca-Bnrb.i Bibliography C hatzidakis 1967. p. 27. |il I III B yzantine A rt 1986. no. 135. pp. 1 '2 . I 'I A ffrcschi e iconc 19X6. no. 91. pp. 1-1.’ I I '

l> I

V

5 9

S t. G e o r g e o n H o r se b a c k B e g in n in g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y 65X 51 cm London. M. P eraticos Collection

St. G e o r g e is m o u n t e d o n a w h ite re a r in g h o r s e , w ith th e u p p e r p a r t o f his b o d y t u r n e d t o w a r d s th e v iew er. W it h his lan ce he is s trik in g a d a r k , t h r e a t e n i n g d r a g o n w h o s e tail is w o u n d a r o u n d th e h o r s e 's h in d legs. T h e tin y p rin c e ss raises h e r h a n d s in s u p p l ic a t io n t o w a r d s h e r sav io u r. T h e d ra g o n - s la y i n g s c e n e ( A u f h a u se r , 1913. p p . 113-129) is c o m p l e te d by a s u m m a r i ly d r a w n castle with to w e r s at th e c o r n e r s . O n to p o f it s t a n d th e king a n d q u e e n , a c c o m ­ p a n i e d by c o u r t i e r s a n d t r u m p e t e r s ; th e k in g h o ld s o u t th e keys of tin IS7

c a stle t o th e c o n q u e r o r ol tin dragon. T h e tiny w h ite - c la d lig u ie o n lh< r u m p o f t h e h o rs e relur^ lo iiiioiIh i o f St. G e o r g e ' s m iracle s III is ill· y o u t h o f M y tile n e d e l i v e i n l li m n c a p tiv ity by th e saint ( A 11111·>■ i 1913, p p . 100-1(13). In hr. li mil i" th e glass a n d tile wi i ol wlm Mini h e w a s h o ld in g at the mom» nt ol tin m i ra c u l o u s in t e rv e n t io n Al III· I >| left, t h e h a n d ol t mil ι γ ί Ι ι π ι Ι ι Ί hi blessing. 'I'he

b a sil

c o m p o '.il Ion

d r a g o n slayer occu rs

w ith

*>ιι1111 on .lli'lit

\Mlll In ί

v j lliillm u

ill-

In i in

■

g r o u p o l al I fiml I« · l> · lui| ic o n s , 11*.i in 11v o l V o m e r . Iv ι ί K\ 111 ι

Iii 11: >l· ι· i i |

in nil

I'alm o·. A n l io n nl Hi ( : · ■ • « φ m |!W

c h u r c h o f th e G r e e k c o m m u n it y in V e n ic e in fact su g g e s ts th a t icons like t h e s e m a y h a v e s e r v e d as p r o s k y n e ta r ia o f th e p a t r o n s ain t (C h a tz i d a k is 1962, p p . 38-39). It h as re c e n tly b e e n s h o w n by P. V o k o t o p o u l o s a n d M . V a s s ila k e s t h a t t h e s e icon s w e r e b a s e d o n a n a r c h e t y p e by the f a m o u s C r e t a n p a i n t e r A n g e l o s , w h o lived in th e first h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y ( V a s s i l a k e s - M a v r a k a k e s 1981, pp. 29 0-2 98 ), th e f i g u re s o f th e d r a g o n

a n d th e h o r s e b e in g in s p ire d by an e a r l i e r w o r k by P a o lo V e n e z i a n o ( H o r s e s o f S an M a r c o 1979, p. 83. fig. 109). T h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e r id e r, th e d e c o r a t i o n o f his le a t h e r cu irass an d a c e r t a i n stiffn ess in th e d ra w in g , d a t e th e w o r k a f t e r A n g e l o s 's d e a t h , p o ss ib ly to th e b e g in n in g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y . Bibliography. U n p ublished.

L. B.

60 S t. D e m e tr iu s 16th c e n tu r y 108X 82 cm Kerkyra. M useum of the Antivouniotissa

T h e p a t r o n s a in t o f T h e s s a l o n ik e is p o r t r a y e d m o u n t e d o n a h o rs e , a ty p e in s p ir e d b y m o d e l s fr o m th e I t a ­ lian R e n a i s s a n c e . H e is b ein g b le sse d by th e h a n d o f G o d , w hile th e city o f T h e s s a l o n i k e (as w e a re in f o r m e d by th e in s c r ip t io n ) rises in th e b a c k ­ g r o u n d . p r o t e c t e d by v ery high walls. T h is ty p e o f the saint o n h o r s e b a c k , in w hich th e h o rs e is sh o w n fr o m th e s i d e , m o v i n g slowly

f o r w a r d , w h ile th e sa in t is t u r n e d t o w a r d s t h e v ie w e r, w as p r o b a b l y c r e a t e d in C r e t e in th e 15th c e n tu r y f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f B y z a n ti n e a n d I ta lia n e l e m e n t s , a n d w a s not v e ry w i d e s p r e a d . T h e h a rs h m o d e l ­ ling o f th e icon su g g e s ts th a t it s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to a c o n s e r v a ­ tive C r e t a n p a i n t e r at th e e n d o f the 16th e n t u r y w h o w a s in s p ire d by 1 5 th - c e n tu r y m o d e ls . Conservation. F. Asim ukou. B ibliography. V okotopoulos 1972. C h atzid a­ kis (N .) 19K3. no. 31. pp. 38. 40. Byzantine A rt 1986. no. 134. pp 130 133. A ffcschi c iconc 1986. no. 90. pp. 141-142. P. L . V.

61 The A k r a T a p e in o s is Iti'gim iiiig o f th e 16th c e n tu r y 23X 18.5 cm London. M. I’craticos Collection

T h e u p p e r p a rt o f C h r is t's n a k e d b o d y is p o r t r a y e d against a gold b a c k g r o u n d . 11c is sta n d in g in a m a r ­ ble s a r c o p h a g u s , in fron t ol th e a rm s o f th e c ro ss. T w o sm all a n g els at the to p a r e m o u r n i n g , w ith ex p res siv e g e s tu re s . T h e s u b j e c t o c c u r s in B y z a n tin e icons fr o m th e 12th c e n tu r y o n w a r d s (cf. cat. n o s. 8 a n d 27). T h e B y z a n ­ tine t r a d it io n c a n be se e n in th e c o m p a c t t r e a t m e n t o f th e b o d y , in w h ic h t h e p r o m i n e n t v o lu m e s , e s p e ­ cially o f th e c h e st m u s c le s, recall th e —

INK -

fig u re o f C h ris t in a 1 4 th-cen tu ry d ip t y c h a t M e t e o r a ( B y z a n ti n e A n 1964. n o . 210). T h e fig u re o f C h ris t in th e p rese n l icon d o e s n o t follo w th e ro b u s t, h e a l t h y ty p e w ith th e la rg e , alm osl s q u a r e h e a d fa m ilia r fr o m o t h i i B y z a n ti n e w o r k s (cat. no s. 8, 27); ils a ffin ities a r e r a t h e r w ith th e type u se d by T h e o p h a n e s in a wall pam l ing in th e C h u r c h o f A y io s N ik o la o s A n a p a f s a s at M e t e o r a (1527) (Clin tz id a k is 1974 (1). p. 201, pi. Ι Δ ’. Ί F e a t u r e s s h a r e d by the tw o th at sc I t h e m a p a r t fr o m th e tr a d itio n a l typi· are th e frail b o d y a n d th e s h a p e ol th e h e a d , s e t o n a th ick n e c k , which d o e s n o t d r o o p o n to th e s h o u h le t T h e a r m s a r e c ro s s e d at th e wrisl imil n o t f o l d e d , as in th e icons ol I In

B y z a n ti n e p e r i o d . T h is f e a t u r e , w h ic h is f o u n d in e a r l ie r v e rs io n s o f t h e t y p e in Ita ly , such as th e 14thc e n t u r y d ip ty c h in F lo r e n c e ( B e ltin g 1981, fig. 10), w as u s e d in I ta lo -C re ta n ico ns like th e A k r a T a p e in o s i s by N ik o la o s T z a f o u r i s in th e K u n sth isto r is c h e M u s e u m , V i e n n a (K re id lP a p a d o p o u l o s 1970, p. 93, no . 2, fig. 3 9 ), a n d a large C r e t a n icon f r o m th e e n d o f th e 15th c e n tu r y in th e R eck lin g h au sen M u seu m (Ik o n en 1981. n o. 250, fig. 17); in this last w o r k , th e sty le , as well as th e s u b j e c t , is sim ila r to t h a t o f th e p r e ­ s e n t ico n. O t h e r f e a t u r e s c o m ­ m o n to th e tw o a re t h e inc lusio n o f th e tw o m o u r n i n g a n g e ls at th e t o p , a n d t h e p a le p in k m a r b l e s a r c o p h a g u s . In th e sm all icon p r e s e n t e d h e r e , th e

fin e d e ta il, se e n in llu· ren d i ■111μ ol t h e v e in s o f th e m a r b k ol i h r ν ι π ι χ p h a g u s a n d th e t h r e e s o in 11 ι < I It-1 li o n 's h e a d s , sh o w s th a t Ihe ufltai w a s f a m ilia r w ith Italian p a m l m g t h e p re c i s io n o f th e d ra w in g in lli m i n i a t u r e p a in tin g s o f th e angel·, m o u r n i n g at th e to p recalls C r e t a n ico n s fr o m th e e n d o f th e 15th i o n tu r y . T h e soft m o d e llin g o f t h e flesh, a n d t h e u se o f an ic o n o g r a p lm m o d e l sim ila r to th a t e m p l o y e d by T h e o p h a n e s at M e t e o r a sug gests t h a t t h e icon s h o u l d b e d a t e d to the b e g i n n i n g o f th e 16th c e n tu r y .

B ibliography. Fine Icons 1981. no. 69. < luit/l dakis (T h .) 1982, no. 8. N . C l'

62 T h e D o r m itio n S e c o n d h a lf o f th e 16th c e n tu r y 116X 77.5 cm Kos. M etropolitan Chapel of the Annunciation

G e s s o o n c a n v a s . G o l d g ro u n d . P a in t in g d a m a g e d . T h e t u r b a n e d fig­ u r e o f J e p h o n i a s in th e f o r e g r o u n d d a t e s in p a r t fr o m a r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e icon in 1831. T h e s c e n e is a m ulti-fig ural c o m p o ­ s itio n , d e v e l o p e d v ertically in a s y m ­ m e t r i c a l. o r d e r e d fa s h io n ; it is b a l a n c e d a r o u n d th e h o r i z o n ta l a n d v e rtic a l a x e s a n d th e d ia g o n a l s , w h ic h d e t e r m i n e th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e c ro w d to th e rig ht a n d left o f th e V irg in o n th e b ier. T h e r e is livelier m o v e m e n t at th e lo w e r fr o n t o f th e icon , a n d in th e t h r e e - s t o r e y R e n a is s a n c e b u ild in g s in th e b a c k g r o u n d at e it h e r side: h e r e , o n th e b a lc o n ie s a n d at the w in d o w s , a n d o n th e s tairca se o f the b u ild in g to th e rig h t, o ld m e n , w o m e n a n d a y o u n g m o t h e r , all e x e c u t e d in m i n i a t u r e , a r e follow in g e v e n t s fr o m a d is ta n c e , ta lk in g a n x ­ iou sly to e a c h o t h e r a n d m o u r n in g . In th e h e a v e n s , t h e r e a re s c e n e s of

—

IOT

th e a p o s t le s a rriv in g on c lo u d s , a n d th e a s c e n t of th e soul o f th e V u y in In t e r m s o f th e m o n u m e n t a l c om p tio n a n d a m b i ti o u s t r e a t m e n t , 111' c lo s e s t p a ra lle ls to this icon '·>. m I· b e t h e e a r l ie r v e rs io n o f the I >■ί ml tio n by A n d r e a s R itz o s in In i in ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1977 ( I ) , pi 211(1). .mil th e icon c lo s e r to it in d a te by I >mm n i k o s T h e o t o k o p o u l o s recuinSy ill· c o v e r e d o n S y ros (cat. n o o l ) It is th e w o r k o f an im p o itim l Huh c e n t u r y p a i n t e r , a n d I hi m l n ln l m i a n d d e ta i le d e x e c u t io n in tl IM s triv in g fo r p e r s p e c t i v e . nnl »l*> facial ty p e s p o r t r a y e d in ill n mint s c e n t o f th e a il ol ( η ο ι μ Ι ο · I Imi tzas , t h o u g h the > n o t close e n o u g h lo m a k e it i m il u t tio n to K l o n l / a s cei la m T*h· > >>> resem blances, h o w v e i >iihI ilii i c o n o g r a p h ic iillm llloi u illi I In I m itio n by K Ion I / ιι ί mi 11>■ I' (Ini tr ip ty c h (< Ιιιιΐ/lilnl·u I 1 1 I I I n. p. 360 (in English and F rench). Byzantine Art I9X(>, no 139. pp. 135-136. A ffrcschi c iconc I9H6. no 95. pp. 147. 148.

Μ. O i

67

69

S t. J o h n th e B a p tist 16th c e n tu r y 104.5X 32 cm C r e t e , I r u k l i o n . C h u r c h o f S t. M a t t h e w Sinaiton

I his ic o n o g r a p h ic ty p e o f St. J o h n th e Biiptist d e r i v e s f r o m a m o d e l d a t ­ ing fro m th e P a l a e o l o g a n p e r i o d , w h ich w as also f o l lo w e d by th e C r e ­ ta n p a in t e r s o f t h e 15th c e n tu r y . T h e v e ry tall fig u re o f th e sa in t, p o r ­ t r a y e d f r o n ta ll y , is w e a r in g a m e l o te ( s h e e p s k in ) a n d a h im a ti o n : his right h a n d is ra ise d in b les sin g , a n d in his left he h o ld s an o p e n scroll a n d a lon g sta ff t h a t t e r m i n a t e s in a cross. T h e f o r e s h o r t e n i n g o f th e left a r m in this icon is a c h a ra c t e r i s ti c o f th e ty p e . T h e a d d i t i o n o f th e w ings, h o w e v e r , w h ic h a r e n o t f o u n d in th e P a l a e o l o g a n m o d e l a n d th e a b s e n c e o f th e d e c a p i t a t e d h e a d o n th e g r o u n d , a r e n e w f e a t u r e s . T h e style

a n d th e m o d e l li n g , in w h ich th e flesh is p a i n t e d o n a b ro w n u n d e r p a i n t , a n d th e f r e e d o m w ith w h ich th e v o l­ u m e s a n d th e p r o m i n e n t c h e e k ­ b o n e s a r e r e n d e r e d , a re f e a t u r e s th a t are also t o b e f o u n d in th e figu re o f S y m e o n (ca t. n o 68), a n d su gg est th a t t h e ico n sh o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d to M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s . B o th ico ns h av e t h e s a m e d im e n s i o n s , a n d s e e m t o h a v e c o m e fr o m th e s a m e i c o n ­ ostasis. C onservation. T . M oschos. B ibliography. B orboudakis 1971. p. 529. pi. 544γ. B yzantine A rt 1986, no. 141. pp. 137-138. A ffrcschi c icone 1986. no. 96. pp. 147, 148.

Μ. B.

68 S ym eon T heodochos 16th c e n tu r y 9 9 x 3 2 cm C r e t e , I r a k l i o n . C h u r c h o f St. M a t t h e w S inaiton

T h is rare s c e n e o f S y m e o n T h e o d o ­ c h o s ( ‘R e c e iv e r o f G o d ') w ith th e C h ris t C h ild in his a r m s is t h o u g h t to be an a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m o f th e P r e ­ s e n t a t i o n in th e T e m p l e , a n d d e riv e s m a in ly f r o m t h e m i n i a t u r e s in th e m a r g in s o f i l l u m in a t e d m a n u s c rip ts . T h e m a n n e r in w h ic h S y m e o n is h o ld in g C h r is t, t o g e t h e r w ith th e text o n th e scroll, a r e d e s i g n e d to focus th e w o r s h i p p e r ’s a t t e n t i o n o n the ho ly in fa n t. T h e t e c h n i q u e u s e d in th e v e n e r a b l e fig u re o f S y m e o n is th a t o f C r e t a n p a i n t in g , a n d the b ru s h w o r k is r a t h e r fr e e ; it gives him a distin ctly in d i v id u a l , p e rs o n a l q u a li ty , full o f s t r e n g t h , w hich is in te n sifie d by th e p r o f o u n d , re f le c ­ tive g aze. T h e fig u re o f S y m e o n is

—

194

-

r e l a t e d to t h e fig u re s o f a g e d b ish o p s in th e icon o f the First E c u m e n i c a l C o u n c il (1591) by M ic h a e l D a m a s k i ­ n o s, a n d t h e p lu m p figu re o f the y o u n g C h r is t is r e m in i s c e n t o f C hrist in this s a m e ico n , in th e V isio n o f S t . P e t e r o f A le x a n d r i a . T h e icon ol S y m e o n m a y also be a t t r i b u t e d to D am askinos. A f u r t h e r fe a tu ri c o m m o n to th e tw o is th e realistic t r e a t m e n t o f th e vein s o n th e h a n d s a n d t e m p l e s o f th e a g e d fig u re s ol t h e b is h o p s a n d o f S y m e o n , which re flec ts th e p a i n t e r 's e x p e r i e n c e o| Ita lia n a rt. C onservation. T . M oschos. Bibliography. B orboudakis 1969. p. 527. pi Ρ Λ Δ \ B orboudakis 1971. p. 529. Borbomln kis 1985. no. 33. p. 137. Byzantine A rt I9H6, no. 142. p. 138. Affrcschi c icone 1986. no. 97. pp. 148. 149.

Μ 11

T r ip ty c h E n d o f th e 16th c e n tu r y c m ( o p e n ) ; 2 0 x 1 5 c m (closed) A thens. City of A th en s M u s e u m

2 0 x 2 8

T h e c e n tr a l p a n e l ha s a r e p r e s e n ­ ta t io n o f th e D e e s is , w ith C h ris t in th e c e n t r e a n d th e V irgin a n d St. J o h n th e B a p ti s t o n e i t h e r side. A t th e to p a r e b u sts o f SS G e o r g e an d D e m e t r i u s . E a c h o f th e sid e leav es h a s tw o C h u r c h F a t h e r s d e p ic t e d fro n ta lly : St. G r e g o r y th e T h e o lo ­ g ian a n d St. J o h n C h r y s o s t o m o n the left, a n d SS Basil a n d S p y ri d o n on th e rig h t, a c c o m p a n i e d by b u sts of SS P e t e r a n d Paul re s p ectiv ely . T h e o u ts id e o f th e tw o w ings is d e c o r a t e d w ith th e A n n u n c i a t i o n . T h e p a in t e r is cle a rly fo llo w in g 1 5 th -cen tu ry m o d e l s . T h e m a in s c e n e o f th e D e e ­ sis a n d th e fig u re s o f th e C h u r c h F a t h e r s r e s e m b le t h o s e in th e icon by N ik o la o s R it z o s in S a r a j e v o . C h ris t is h o ld in g a n o p e n G o s p e l b o o k , a n d th e V irgin a n d th e B a p tist are s t a n d i n g in a t t i t u d e s o f p r a y e r ( B a b i c - C h a t z i d a k i s 1983. p. 321). T h e g a r m e n t s w o r n by th e C h u r c h F a t h e r s als o fo llo w m o d e l s fr o m the e n d o f th e 15th c e n t u r y (cf. B y z a n ­ tin e A r t 1986. no . 133, A ffres c h i e ic o n e 1986, n o . 78). T h e s c e n e o f the A n n u n c i a t i o n o n th e o u ts id e o f the w in g s, h o w e v e r , h a s n o a rc h i te c t u r a l b a c k g r o u n d , a n d th e V irgin is sittin g o n an im p o s i n g w o o d e n t h r o n e ; in b o t h r e s p e c ts th e c o m p o s it io n d iffers

f r o m t h e u sual e arly C r e t a n icon o g r a p h y , a n d a ls o fr o m that u sed liv T h e o p h a n e s in th e 16th curriLPy (C h a t z i d a k i s ( N . ) 1983, no . 4Q C h a t z i d a k i s 1969-70, figs. 34, 11.ι ιι ιι i ijf I l a d e s ; l l i e hiiiuc IV|n iippi'iiit in in i c o n by I m i m i n n r l I · iih mi I ta tin g a g o o d C re ta n

kyr;i ( C h o r e m i s 1981. pi. 5). T h e C ru cifix io n follo w s th e ty p e w idely e s t a b li s h e d by th e C r e t a n S ch o o l in th e 16th c e n t u r y , w h ic h c an be se e n in an icon in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m a t t r i b u t e d to N ik o la o s R itz o s. In it the e n d s o f th e a r m s o f th e cro s s a re d r a w n in p e r s p e c ti v e , a n d t h e r e is a g r o u p o f fo u r w o m e n on th e right anil th e g riev ing J o h n w ith L o n g in u s o n th e left. In th e p r e s e n t icon, h o w e v e r , th e w alls o f J e r u s a l e m in th e b a c k g r o u n d s u g g e s t a s o m e w h a t la ter d a te . T h e o u ts id e o f th e p a n e l w ith the R e s u r r e c t i o n h a s a s c e n e d ep ic tin g t h r e e f o u n d e r s o f m o n a s ti c is m in E g y p t a n d P a le s ti n e , s h o w n f r o n ta lly a n d full-len gth : SS A n t h o n y , S a b b a s a n d E u t h y m i o s . F in a lly , o n th e o u t ­ side o f th e tr ip t y c h a t th e b a c k o f the C ru c if ix io n , th e fig u re o f St. C a t h e ­ rine ca n b e d is ti n g u is h e d , d e s p i te th e d a m a g e , w e a r i n g im p e ri a l r o b e s a n d r e n d e r e d in th e I t a l o - C r e t a n ty pe th a t b e c a m e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e M o n a s t e r y o f Sinai f r o m th e b e g i n ­ nin g o f t h e 17th c e n t u r y o n w a r d s ( W e i t z m a n n 1982 (2 ), p. 40). T h is last s c e n e is also d ir e c tly c o n n e c t e d w ith th e re lie f at t h e to p o f th e t r i p ­ ty c h . w h ic h d e p ic t s M o u n t Sinai. In th e c e n t r e o f it is a s c e n e o f th e b u r ­ n in g b u s h , fr o m b e h i n d w h ic h th e a n g el is e m e r g i n g at th e left, a n d c o m m a n d i n g M o s e s to ta k e o ff his sa n d a l s ( E x o d u s 3 .5 ) , w hile at th e rig ht M o s e s is k n e e li n g b e f o r e his flo ck, in o r d e r to o b e y . A t th e s u m m i t o f th e m o u n t a i n M o s e s is sh o w n fo r a th ird t i m e , rec eiv ing th e T a b l e s o f th e L a w f r o m th e h a n d o f G o d . O n a lo w e r p e a k , at th e rig h t, ca n b e se e n t h e relic o f St. C a t h e r i n e b e t w e e n tw o a n g e ls , in th e sam e fo r m in w h ich it w a s p a i n t e d by M ic h a e l D a m a s k i n o s in th e icon w ith t h e B u r n in g B u s h in Ir a k lio n , C r e te . F in ally, th e c ave o f th e P r o p h e t E lias c a n b e se e n o n th e left, o n a third p e a k , b e h i n d w h ich rises th e su n , c a r v e d in relief. T h e in clu sio n o f th e t h r e e fo u n d e r s o f m o n a s tic is m su g g e s ts t h a t th e tr ip ty c h w as p r o b a b l y c o n n e c t e d w ith a m o n k . M o r e o v e r , th e d e p i c ­

—

1%

—

tion o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n th e o u ts id e , a n d o f M o u n t Sinai at th e to p leav e no r o o m fo r d o u b t t h a t th e tr ip ty c h w as c o n n e c t e d w ith th e M o n a s t e r y o f St. C a t h e r i n e o n Sinai. T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p f u r t h e r a c c o u n t s f o r th e ch o ic e o f th e T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n fo r th e c e n t r a l p a n e l. M o u n t S in ai m a k e s its first a p p e a ­ r a n c e in p a in t in g in th e s e c o n d h a lf o f th e 16th c e n t u r y , o n e o f th e e a r ­ liest e x a m p l e s b e in g th e f a m o u s tr ip ty c h by D o m e n i k o s T h e o t o k o ­ p o u lo s in M o d e n a , d a t e d to c. 1567 ( W e t h e y 1962, pi. 33). M o u n t Sinai is p a i n t e d in s im ila r f a s h io n in th e large ico n w ith St. C a t h e r i n e by Ierem ias P a l l a d a s , w h ic h is d a t e d to 1612 ( W e i t z m a n n 1982 (2), pi. 52). T h e r e t h u s s e e m to b e k n o w n ic o n o g r a p h ic p a ra l le l s fo r th e d e p ic tio n o f Sinai. Its r a t h e r u n u s u a l r e n d e r in g in relief, w h ic h is also to be f o u n d o n a n o t h e r t r i p t y c h , in t h e M o n a s t e r y o n Sinai, sig n e d by V i c t o r a n d d a t e d to 1684 ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1966 (2 ), p. 56) is p r o b ­ a b ly d u e to W e s t e r n in flu en ce s . T h e I t a l o - C r e t a n ty p e o f St. C a t h e ­ r i n e , w ith t h e m a n n e r is t ic t u r n o f the h e a d in th e o p p o s i t e d ir e c tio n to th at o f th e b o d y , th e c lo a k w ith gold e m b r o i d e r e d e a g le s, t r i m m e d with e r m i n e , a n d th e le c t io n a r y with R e n a i s s a n c e sty le d e c o r a t i o n , r e n ­ d e r e d in g o ld w e b b in g , is also to be e n c o u n t e r e d in p a in tin g s fr o m thi b e g in n i n g o f th e 17th c e n tu r y . Tin· s a i n t's rig h t h a n d , h o w e v e r , w hich is ra is e d in f r o n t o f h e r b r e a s t, is mil h o ld i n g a p a lm lea f, as in t h e icon by P a ll a d a s , b u t fo llow s th e v a ria tio n in th e icon s by V ic to r a n d by Silvestrn T h e o c h a r i s , o n Sinai a n d P a tm o s . T h e s e ic o n o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , com b i n e d w ith th e a rc h a iz in g C h ris to logical s c e n e s , su g g est th a t llu tr ip ty c h s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d lo ιι C r e t a n a rtist fr o m the b e g in n in g nl th e 17th c e n t u r y , a n d possibly In S ilv e s tro s T heocharis (attcsleil 1633-1638), o n e o f w h o s e tr ip ty c h 1 (cat. n o . 71) ha s a w o o d - c a r v e d busi· sim ila r to t h a t o f th e p r e s e n t w m k B ibliography. B ouras 1985. pp. 62-6.1. A lin · chi e iconc 1986, no. 100. pp 150-152.

I

u

71 S ilv e s tr o s T h e o c h a r is : T r ip ty c h in a p o r ta b le a lta r A lta r : se c o n d h a lf o f th e 15th c e n tu r y T r ip ty c h : fir st h a lf o f th e 17th c e n tu r y 5 5 x 5 7 .2 cm (open)

Athens. Private Collection

O n th e o u ts id e o f th e tw o w ings of t h e a lt a r c a n b e s e e n f o u r figu res, q u it e b a d ly d a m a g e d by use: th o s e of K in g D a v i d a n d K in g S o l o m o n at th e to p a n d tw o o t h e r p r o p h e t s , p ossibly E z e k ie l a n d I s a ia h , a t th e b o t t o m ; all f o u r h o ld o p e n scrolls. T h e insid e o f th e tw o w in g s a r e d e c o r a t e d w ith tw o p a r t s o f a n A n n u n c i a t i o n scen e. T h e p o s t u r e s a n d th e p r o p o r t i o n s o f th e tw o fig u re s a n d th e a r c h i te c t u r e in t h e b a c k g r o u n d b e a r o b v io u s r e s e m ­ b la n c e s to th e A n n u n c i a t i o n o n th e f r a m e o f t h e icon by N ik o la o s R itz o s in S a r a j e v o ( B a b i c - C h a tz id a k i s 1983 p. 321). T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f th e p r o p h e t s a n d t h e A n n u n c i a t i o n on th e w in g s o f th e a lt a r recalls th e d e c o r a t i o n o f S a n c tu a r y D o o r s , in w h ich e m p h a s is is laid o n th e ro le o f th e V irgin in th e I n c a r n a ti o n . T h e trip ty c h h a s a c a r v e d w o o d e n t o p r e m in i s c e n t o f a n ico n o s tasis cro ss, w ith m i n i a t u r e 'ly p ira ' a n d a w o o d - c a r v e d b a s e . O rig in a lly tw o c o lu m n s c o n n e c t e d th is c a r v e d to p w ith t h e b a s e , b u t th e s e a r e n o w m issing. O n th e in s id e , th e tr ip ty ch h a s a s c e n e o f th e D e e s is , w ith C h r is t, in t h e liturgical ty p e p a r excellen ce o f th e H ig h P rie s t, f la n k e d by th e fig u res o f t h e V irg in a n d St. J o h n th e B a p ti s t. C h r is t is s u p p o r t e d o n w h e e ls o f fire a n d is e n c ir c le d by th e s y m b o ls o f t h e f o u r ev ang elists. T h e side w in gs h a v e sc e n e s o f th e th r e e C h u r c h F a t h e r s , SS Basil, J o h n C h r y s o s t o m a n d G r e g o r y th e T h e o ­ lo g ia n (left) a n d SS S p y r i d o n , N i c h o ­ las a n d A r s e n i u s t h e G r e a t (righ t). T w o a n g e ls (in th e fo r m o f n a k e d c u p id s ) a r e h o ld i n g an o p e n G o s p e l b o o k a b o v e th e h e a d s o f th e th r e e C h u r c h F a t h e r s , a n d th e c o r r e s p o n d ­ 197

ing a n g e ls a b o v e St. N ich o las m e i> t u r n i n g to h im his b i s h o p ’s insignia th e G o sp el book and o m n p h o n o n , a n d a c r o w n . O n th e b ack o f th e Itfl leaf, th e a p o s t le s P e t e r a n d Pau l are h o l d i n g a m o d e l o f a d o m e d c h in c h , a b o v e w h ic h can b e se e n th e I Inly T r in i ty . F in a lly , th e b a c k o f th e light w in g h a s t h e m o s t ca re fu lly exeeult>cl s c e n e o f t h e tr ip t y c h , w ith a d u p it tio n t h e T h e o t o k o s - Z o o d o c h o s Pigi ( F o u n t a i n o f L ife ) a n d th e signaling o f t h e a rt is t at th e b o t t o m left: X Γ Ί I· CYABECTPOY

ΙΕ Ρ Ο (M O N ) Λ Χ ( ) Y /

T O Y Θ ( Ε ) Ο Χ Α Ρ Ι . T h e o u t e r su rface o f th e p h ia l e is d e c o r a t e d willi a l t e r n a t i n g A tla s e s a n d lio n ’s h e a d w a t e r s p o u t s . T h e p h ia le rises fro m ιι r e c t a n g u l a r c is te rn , to w hic h flo cked th e fa ith fu l - th e d e a f , th e la m e , tin b lin d , th e p a r a l y s e d a n d th e p os s e s s e d , all o f t h e m s e e k i n g a mi r a c u l o u s c u r e (P a lla s 1971, pp. 201-224). T h e a rtist S ilve stros T h e n c h a ris ( a t t e s t e d 1633-1638), w h o wns f a m o u s f o r his skill in m i n i a t m e p a i n t in g , w a s a m o n k w h o set I lad ill Iraklion, C rete ( K a z a n a k i J.ap p a 1981, p p . 177-267), a n d w h o w as om· o f t h e c o n s e r v a ti v e p a in t e r s ol III· first h a lf o f th e 17th c e n tu r y ( ( 'hiiltti d a k is 1977 (1 ), p. 122). ΓΙι« c a iv c d w o o d e n b a s e o f th e tr ip ty c h , vvitli II· b a r o q u e v o lu t e s , a n d its c a rv e d to p c o p y in g an ic o n o s ta sis cross, n n a lm o s t id e n tic a l w ith the cm veil d e c o r a t i o n o f a n o t h e r ex· c p tin n n llt w ell p r e s e r v e d tr ip ty c h in the Mv/ini ti n e M u s e u m , A t h e n s (< h n l / l d i i U 1 1969. fig. 54). T h e faithful imiliillnii o f th e ic o n o s ta sis c ro s s, mid ll> d e c o r a t i o n o f th e a lta r will))·. m i l firm a n e a r l ie r o b s e r v a tio n by K W e i t z m a n n , th at triptych*, w e n Inin gical o b j e c t s w hich h a d ffl my I . t u r e s in c o m m o n w ith 11if Ιι ηιιη«ι·ι«ίι ( W e i t z m a n n l ‘W2 I I I |i V ■

a / ill \ < IlillM llllk l*

I m l t l i it

( N

I

M ill*

ΙΊΗ Ι

cln i" i m n r I'JMti. nit

Mil

//

|i|i

|·

III

fin |

I

I j|

1

i ■,.

im

M il.

I

ll

73

72 C a r to o n o f th e R e su r r e c tio n 17th c e n tu r y 4 1 .5 x 3 0 .5 cm Athens. Benaki M useum . Xyngopoulos Collection, Φ 22.113Α

P ric k e d c a r t o o n w ith t h e R e s u r r e c ­ tion i m p r i n t e d in b la c k a n d re d an d a c c o m p a n i e d by a p r i c k e d cop y. T h e p a p e r h a s a w a t e r m a r k c o n sistin g of an e i g h t - p o i n t e d s t a r a n d a lily, w ith th e in itials G P. T h e p ric k in g m u s t h ave b e e n d o n e w ith th e aid o f a t o o t h e d w h e e l. C h ris t is s h o w n in th e c e n tr e o f th e c o m p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n tw o g r o u p s o f a n c e s t o r s . H e is s t a n d in g firm ly o n t h e b r o k e n g a te s o f H a d e s , ra isin g A d a m fr o m a s a r c o p h a g u s ; A d a m is fo llo w e d by E v e , A b e l a n d o t h e r s o f the r i g h t­ e o u s . T h e o t h e r g r o u p is led by St. J o h n th e B a p ti s t, f o llo w e d by th e p r o p h e t s D a v id a n d S o l o m o n , with o t h e r kings b e h i n d t h e m . A t th e t o p , b e t w e e n tw o c ra g g y m o u n t a i n p e a k s , a r e a n g e ls h o ld in g th e s y m b o ls o f th e P a ss io n ; a th i rd a n g e l at th e b o t t o m is c h a in in g H a d e s . T h e s i g n a tu re ’Α θ α ν ά σ ι ο ς c a n be s e e n at th e b o t ­ to m rig h t, a n d b e lo w th e tw o an g e ls w ith th e s y m b o ls o f t h e P assion is the re v e r s e in s c rip tio n : Η ΑΓΙΑ T O Y XI’ICTOY A N A I T A C I C . The i c o n o g r a p h y is in s p ire d b y th e apocryphal gospel o f N icodem us ( K a r t s o n is 1986), a n d h a s a n u m b e r o f P a l a e o l o g a n f e a t u r e s , such as th e large n u m b e r o f figu res in th e c o m p o s it io n a n d t h e ang el c h a in in g H a d e s . T h e fig u re o f C h ris t p u llin g A dam fr o m th e sarcophagus, in s p ire d by th e im p e ria l ic o n o g r a p h y o f late a n ti q u it y , s y m b o liz e s th e r e d e m p t i o n o f m a n k i n d (M o u rik i 1985. p. 147). T h e tw o a n g e ls with th e s y m b o ls o f th e P a s s io n , h o w e v e r , w e re a d d e d by th e C r e t a n p a in t e r s , a n d first a p p e a r in th e 15th c e n tu r y (C h a tz i d a k is ( N .) 1983. no. 29. p. 38). T h e s a m e i c o n o g r a p h y can be seen in th e tr ip ty c h w ith a t o p o g r a ­ phical view o f M o u n t Sinai (cat. no. I9H

-

70) f r o m t h e b e g in n i n g o f th e 17th c e n tu r y ; in an icon by E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (1610-1690) o n K erkyra ( C h o r e m i s 1981. pp. 2 2 1f f .); a n d in an in f e r io r 1 7 th -c e n tu ry icon in P aris ( l e o n e s 1977, no. 17). T h is is t h e b e s t d r a w n c a r t o o n in th e B e n a k i M u s e u m ; it follo w s th e in s tr u c t io n s in th e ‘P a i n t e r ’s M a n u a l ' by D io n y s i u s o f F o u r n a (cf. H e t h e r i n g to n 1978, p. 5). T h e o u tl in e s an d d e ta i ls o f th e d r a p e r y a re r e n d e r e d in b la c k , w h ile th e h ig hlig hts a re defined by re d o u tlin e s . The p ric k e d d esig n w as th e w o r k o f an a c c o m p lis h e d d r a u g h t s m a n , t h o u g h it h a s a c e r t a i n stiffness. T h e s i g n a ­ tu r e ’Α θ α ν ά σ ι ο ς o c c u rs in te n o t h ­ e r c a r t o o n s in th e s a m e B e n a k i M u s e u m p o r t f o li o w h ich a re n ot u n if o r m in style. T w o of t h e m re la te t o w o r k s b y T h e o d o r o s P o u la k i s (1 62 2-16 92 ). It s e e m s likely t h e r e ­ fo r e t h a t th e d ra w in g s a re n o e a r ­ lier t h a n th e m id d le o f th e 17th c e n ­ tu r y , t h o u g h th e o n ly w a y in which this ca n be d e m o n s t r a t e d be y o n il d o u b t w o u ld in v o lv e th e f u t u r e i d e n ­ tific a tio n o f th e w a t e r m a r k . Conservation. J. Brown (1983). B i b lio g r a p h y . U n p u b l i s h e d .

L. U.

C a r to o n o f th e B a p tism o f C h rist

17th c e n tu r y 42X 3 1 .6 cm Athens. Benaki M useum , Xyngopoulos C ollection, Φ 22.88

P ric k e d d r a w in g w ith th e B a p ti s m of C h r is t i m p r i n t e d in red a n d black . T h e p a p e r h as a w a t e r m a r k w ith a b ir d , a n d tw o strip s h a v e b e e n a t ­ t a c h e d at th e b o t t o m a n d r i g h t-h a n d s id e ; o n th e r e v e r s e is a grid for t r a n s f e r r i n g th e c o m p o s it io n o n a d if f e r e n t scale. T h e figu re o f C h ris t, in t h r e e q u a r t e r s v iew , is t u r n e d t o w a r d s St. J o h n th e B a p tis t. D i r e c t ­ ly a b o v e C h r is t a r e th e d o v e s y m b o l ­ izing th e H o ly S p ir it, a n d th e h a n d o f G o d em erging from a radiant circle. T h e s c e n e is v ie w e d fr o m a b o v e , so th a t C h r is t's b o d y is set a g a in s t th e b a c k g r o u n d o f th e R iv e r J o r d a n . Fish s w im in th e w a te r s o f th e riv e r, a n d in th e f o r e g r o u n d can b e se e n th e p e r s o n if i c a ti o n s o f th e S e a a n d th e R iv e r J o r d a n , in s p ire d by P sa lm 113 (1 1 4 ), 3. T h e S e a , with its b a c k t u r n e d to th e v ie w e r, is rid in g o n a se a m o n s t e r , a n d th e R iv e r J o r d a n is h o ld in g a n u p t u r n e d p it c h e r f r o m w h ic h w a t e r is flow ing, fo llo w in g a ty p e e s t a b li s h e d in th e E a r ly C h r is ti a n p e r i o d (M o u r ik i 1985, p p . 135-136). A s th e ro ck y b a n k s o f t h e riv e r c o n v e r g e , th e y e n d in tw o s t e e p p e a k s . A t th e left are f o u r a n g e l - d e a c o n s , set o n e b e h in d th e o t h e r w ith n o a t t e m p t at p e r s p e c ­ tive. e x t e n d i n g th e i r h a n d s , w hich a r e c o v e r e d by th e i r h im a ti a , t o ­ w a r d s C h r is t. St. J o h n th e B a p tis t s t a n d s a b o v e C h ris t on th e o p p o s i te b a n k a n d , w ith a lively m o v e m e n t , is s t o o p in g to i m p o s e his h a n d on C h r is t's h e a d , in a g e s t u r e signifying th e tr a n s m i s s i o n o f th e H o ly Spirit ( W a l t e r 1980. p. 24). T h e axe l e a n ­ ing a g a in s t a b u s h b e lo w him is a r e f e r e n c e to th e biblical a c c o u n t of th e B a p t i s m ( M a t t h e w 3.10 , L u k e 3.9). The

i c o n o g r a p h ic I W

ty p e

is

known

f r o m th e b e g in n i n g o f I ho I (>■Ii c m tu r y o n w a r d s in w o r k s a l t i i b u l c d In th e C retan pain ter Ihcoplm iH ". ( C h a t z i d a k i s 1969-70, pi. 37). Il also o c c u r s in an icon o n th e Island in llie L a k e at I o a n n i n a ( T r i a n ta p h y l lo p o u los 1977, pi. 101), a n d in a D o d o k a o r t o n icon o n K e r k y r a allrihu ti.il to E m m a n u e l T z a n e s (1610 lo9(l) ( C h o r e m i s 1981, p. 220). T h is p r i c k e d c a r t o o n , w h ich w as o n gin ally f o l d e d in to fo u r , w as niiidi a c c o r d i n g to th e in s tru c tio n s o f I >io n y siu s o f F o u r n a , like th e p re v io u s o n e (ca t. n o . 72). D ra w i n g s like this f a c i li ta t e d t h e d is s e m i n a ti o n Of lin ic o n o g r a p h i c ty p e , a n d acc o u n t foi its use w ith a lm o s t im p e rc e p tib le v a r i a t i o n s in w o r k s th a t m ust be til leas t a h u n d r e d y e a r s a p a rt. Conservation. J. Brow n (1983). B ibliography. U npublished.

i

li

ABBREVIATIONS

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. B E C K W IT H , E arly C h ristian and B yzan­ tine A r t. H a rm o n d sw o rth 1970. C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N . A ffrcschi c icone d alla G rccia (X -X V 1I seco lo ). A tc n e e F ire n ze, P alazzo S trozzi (16 S c ttc m b rc - 16 N o v cm b rc 1986). A te n e 1986. C A T A L O G U E E X H IB IT IO N , B y zantine an d P o st-B y za n tin e A rt, A th e n s , O ld U n i­ v ersity (Ju ly 26th 1985 - Ja n u a ry 6th 1986), A th e n s 1986. M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . leo n es d e S ain t-G co rgcs d es G re c s c t d c la C o llectio n d c l ln stitu t, In stitu t G rc c d e V e n ic e , N cri P ozza-V enicc 1962. M . C H A T Z ID A K IS - V D J U R IC , L es icon es d a n s les C o llectio n s S uisscs. B ern e 1968. M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . Icons o f P atm o s. N a­ tio n al B a n k o f G re e c e , A th en s 1985. T H C H A T Z ID A K IS . E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , L 'a rt d es ico n es c n C re te el d a n s les lies ap rcs B y zan cc. E u ro p a lia G re c c 1982. C h a rle ro is. P alais d e s B eau x A rts, 3 O c to b re - 21 N o v cm ­ b rc 1982. N. C H A T Z ID A K IS . E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e . Icons o f th e C re ta n S chool (15th - 16th c e n tu ­ ries). B cn ak i M u seu m . A th en s 1983. R. C O R M A C K . W ritin g in G o ld . L o n d o n 1985. G . G A L A V A R IS . T h e Icon in th e Life o f the C h u rc h . Ic o n o g ra p h y o f R eligions X X IV . 8. L eid en 1981. A. G R A B A R . B y zan tin e P ain tin g . G en ev a 1953. P. H E T H E R IN G T O N . T h e P a in te r s M anual o f D ionysius o f F o u rn a , L o n d o n 1978. M A N G O . T h e A rt o f th e B yzantine E m p ire 312-1453. N ew Je rse y 1972. A. P A P A G E O R G I O U . E x h ib itio n C a ta ­ log u e. B y zan tin e Icons o f C y p ru s. B cnaki M u ­ seu m . A th e n s 1976. K. W E IT Z M A N N . T h e M o n astery o f Saint C a th e rin e at M o u n t S inai. T h e Ico n s, vol. I: I to m th e Sixth to th e T e n th C e n tu ry , P rin c e­ ton 1976. K W E IT Z M A N N . T h e Icon. C h a tto and W indus, L o n d o n 1978.

MAP WITH T H E PR O V E N A N C E OF THE WORKS

K W E IT Z M A N N . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . S. U A D O J i l C . Icons. N ew Y o rk 1980. K W E IT Z M A N N . G . A LI B E G A S VI L I . A . V O L S K A JA . M. C H A T Z ID A K IS . G . B A ­ KU M. A L P A T O V . T . V O IN E S C U . T he lin n . A lfred A . K n o p f. N ew Y ork 1982.

AAA ΑΔ AE ΔΧΑΕ ΕΕΒΣ ΕΕΛΜ θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α τα

ΝΕ ΠΑΕ

Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ικ ά Α νά λ εκ τα εξ Α θη ν ώ ν Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ικ ό ν Δ ελτίο ν Α ρ χα ιο λ ο γικ ή Ε φ η μ ερ ίς Δ ελ τίο ν τη ς Χ ρ ισ τια ν ικ ή ς Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ικ ή ς Ε τ α ιρ ε ία ς Ε π ετη ρ ίς Ε τ α ιρ εία ς Β υ ζα ν τιν ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ ν Ε π ετη ρ ίς Ε τα ιρ εία ς Λ ευ κ α δικ ώ ν Μ ελετώ ν Θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α τ α , Π ε ρ ιο δ ικ ό ν το υ Ε λ λ η ν ικ ο ύ Ινσ τιτο ύ το υ Β υ ζα ν τιν ώ ν κ α ι Μ ετα β υ ζα ν τιν ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ ν Κ ερ κ υ ρ α ϊκ ά Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά Π ε ρ ιο δ ικ ό ν δ η μ ο σ ίευ μ α το υ Π α τ ρ ια ρ χ ικ ο ύ Ιδρύ μ α το ς Π α τερικ ώ ν Μ ελετώ ν Κ ρ η τικ ά Χ ρ ο νικ ά Μ α κεδο νικ ά , Σ ύ γγρ α μ μ α π ερ ιο δ ικ ό ν της Ε τα ιρ εία ς Μ α κεδο νικ ώ ν Σ π ο υ δ ώ ν Ν έος Ελληνομνήμω ν Π ρ α κ τ ικ ά τ η ς εν Α θ ή ν α ις Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ικ ή ς Ε τ α ιρ ε ία ς

A rtB BCH CA DOP JO B PKg

A rt B u lletin B ulletin de C o r r e s p o n d e n c e H ellen iq u e C a h ie rs A rch eo lo g iq u es D u m b arto n O aks Papers J a h r b u c h d e r O s te rre ic h isc h e n B y zan tin istik P ro p y la e n K u n stg esch ich te

Κ ερκυρ. Χρον. Κ λ η ρ ο νο μ ιά Κ ρητ. Χ ρον. Μ α κεδο νικ ά

A C H E IM A S T O U 1966 = Α χειμ ά σ το υ M .. Α μ φ ιπ ρ ό σ ω π ε ς ε ικ ό ν ε ς τη ς Ρ ό δ ο υ . Η εικ ό ν α τη ς Ο δ η γ ή τ ρ ια ς κ α ι το υ Α γ ίο υ Ν ικ ο λ ά ο υ , Α Δ 21 (1966): Μ ελ έτα ι. p p . 62-83. A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1973­ 74 = Α χ ε ιμ ά σ τ ο υ -Π ο τ α μ ιά ν ο υ Μ .. Β υ ζ α ν ­ τ ιν ά . μ εσ α ΐίο νικ ά κ α ι ν ε ώ τε ρ α μ νη μ εία Η π ε ί­ ρ ο υ . Α Δ 29 (1973-1974): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 609-614. A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1976 = Α χ ε ιμ ά σ τ ο υ -Π ο τ α μ ιά ν ο υ Μ .. Κ έντρο Σ υ ν τη ρ ή σ ε ω ς Α ρ χ α ιο τ ή τ ω ν . Α Δ 31 (1976): Χ ρ ο ­ ν ικ ά , p p . 14-20. A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1977 = Α χ ε ιμ ά σ τ ο υ -Π ο τ α μ ιά ν ο υ Μ .. Κ έντρ ο Σ υ ντη ρ ή σ ε ω ς Α ρ χ α ιο τ ή τ ω ν , Α Δ 32 (1977): Χ ρ ο ­ ν ικ ά , p p . 8-14. A C H E IM A S T O U -P O T A M IA N O U 1987 (in p rin t) = Α χ ε ιμ ά σ το υ Π ο τα μ ιά ν ο υ Μ .. Η Κ οίμ ησ η τη ς Θ ε ο τό κ ο υ σε δ ύ ο κ ρ η τικ έ ς ε ικ ό ν ε ς τη ς Ken, Δ Χ Α Ε , π ε ρ . Δ - τ. ΙΓ' (1987) (in p rin t). A F F R E S C H 1 Ε IC O N E 1986 = E xhib itio n C a ta lo g u e . A ffrcsch i e iconc d alla G rccia (X -X V II se c o lo ). A te n e c F ire n ze, Palazzo Slrozzi (16 S c ttc m b rc - 16 N o v cm b rc 1986), A te n e 1986. A IN A L O V 1917 = A in alo v D .. B yzantine P ain tin g o f th e F o u rte e n th C e n tu ry (in R u s­ sia n ). P c tro g ra d 1917. A U F H A U S E R 1913 = A u fh au ser B.J . Miracu la S. G e o rg ii. L eipzig 1913. B A B IC 1968 = B abic G .. L es discussions C h risto lo g iq u cs ct 1c d e c o r d es eglises byzantins au X II sicclc. F ru h m ittclaltcrlich c S tu ­ dio n. B erlin 1968, p p . 368-386. B A B IC -C H A T Z ID A K J S 1983 = B abic G -

C h a tz id a k is M ., Le iconc della penisolu Mul can ica c d cllc isolc G rc c h e (2 ). W eil/n u iim Κ .. A libegasvili G .. V o lsk a ja A ., liab le ιή νεο ιτερ η ε π ιζίο γ ρ ά ψ η σ η στο β η μ ό θ υ ρ ο I Μ / το υ Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ο ύ Μ ο υ σ είο υ , Λ Α Λ X VIII (1 9 8 4 ), p p . 43-72. B A L T O Y A N N I 1985 = Μ π α λ τ ο γ ιά ν ν η \»ι Ε ικ ό ν ε ς. Σ υ λ λ ο γή Δ η μ η τρ ίο υ Ο ικονομο>ιοι· λ ο υ . Α θ ή ν α 1985. B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (1) - H alloytuim t Ιι E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , Icones ilc t oll· · linn· p riv ecs en G rc c e , A th c n e s 1986 B A L T O Y A N N I 1986 (2) lialto y m tn i < li Ico n s, D cm etrio s E k o n o m o p o u lo s ( ollt i llmi A th e n s 1986. B A N K 1977 = B ank A .. I ‘a it hy/iiiiilii «I.... les m u sccs d e l'U n io n S o v ietism I ι itlniHHlhl 1977. B E L T IN G 1980-81 B elling II Λιι hinn and its F u n ctio n in the I ϊΐιιιμ ν Ih e M nn "I S o rro w s in B y zan tiu m . IX >1* M L | | 1 n 1981), pp. 1-16. B E L T IN G 1981 B elting II Mu· M*l«l und sein P u h lik u m im M illcliillei M iilln l ,J| I B E R E N S O N 1968 IU h i i , imi It Iitill.m P ictu re s o f th e K enaissiiiut A Imi ι ·I Μι» |Hfli cipal artists an d th en w nil wllli nil III·li “ I p lates, vol. Il l o n tlo n MJliH 111 M IN I I') 1 ί Mil I Mil S I < |·«Ι I (M ill ico n c c ie le s e veinvliiiiii ι I iiiihIinun 1 1 Γ ■ι ■■ 1933. HI 1 I INI I'MII

II· Mini

IMllun · · ■

v c n c z ia n c . slave e d italiane del M u sco N azion ale di R a v e n n a . R avenna 1940.

CECC HI 1928 = C ccchi S en esi. R om a 1928.

B IA N C O F IO R IN 1983 = B ianco F iorin M ., N icola Z a fu ri. C rc tc sc del Q u a ttro c c n to . c u n a sua in c d ita 'M a d o n n a '. A rte V c n e ta , X X X V II (1983). pp. 164-169.

C l I A R A l .A M P O U S -M O U R IK I 1962-63 = Χ α ρ α λ ά μ π ο υ ς-Μ ο υ ρ ίκ η N .. Η π α ρ ά σ τα σ η τη ς ‘Φ ιλ ο ξενία ς το υ Α β ρ α ά μ σε μ ια εικ ό ν α του Β υ ζα ντινοί» Μ ο υ σ ε ίο υ , Δ Χ Α Ε , π ε ρ . Δ τ. Γ (1962-1963), p p . 87-1 14.

B O R B O U D A K IS 1969 = Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υ δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ά κ α ι μ ε σ α ιω ν ικ ά μ νη μ εία Κ ρ ή τη ς. Κ ρητ. Χ ρ ον. Κ Β ' (1969). p p. 521­ 528. B O R B O U D A K IS 1971 Μ πορμπουδάκης Μ .. Μ ε σ α ιω ν ικ ά μ νη μ εία Κ ρ ή τη ς. Α Λ 26 (1971): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , p p. 520-533. B O R B O U D A K IS 1973 - Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υ δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ά κ α ι μ ε σ α ιω ν ικ ά μ νη μ εία Κ ρ ή τη ς. Κ ρ η τ. Χ ρ ον. Κ Ι;' (1973), pp. 478­ 511. B O R B O U D A K IS 1973-74 Μ πορμπουδάκ η ς Μ ., β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ά κ α ι μ ε σ α ιω ν ικ ά μ νη μ εία Κ ρ ή τη ς. Α Δ 29 (1973 1974): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 935-945. B O R B O U D A K IS 1985 = Μ π ο ρ μ π ο υ δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Η μ ε ρ ο λ ό γ ιο 1985. κ ο σ μ η μ ένο με κ ρ η τικ έ ς φ ο ρ η τ έ ς ε ικ ό ν ε ς , έ χ δ . Δ ή μ ο υ Η ρ α κ λ ε ίο υ . Η ρ ά κ λ ε ιο Κ ρ ή τη ς 1985. B O U G R A T 1982 B ougrat Μ .. L c g lis c S a in l-J c a n . p rC sd e K o u d o u m as. C r e te . C A 30 (1982). pp. 147-174. BOURAS Μ π ο ύ ρ α A .. Έ ν α τ ρ ίπ τ υ χ ο με ο ιν α ϊτ ικ ή ε ικ ο ν ο γ ρ α φ ία σε ιδ κ ο τικ ή συλλογή τω ν Α θ η ν ώ ν . Π έ μ π το σ υ μ π ό σ ιο Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ή ς και Μ ε τ α β υ ζ α ν τιν ή ς Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ία ς κ α ι Τ έχ ν η ς. I Ιερ ιλ ή ψ εις α ν α κ ο ιν ιό ο ειο ν, θ ε σ ο α ­ λ ο ν ίκ η 1985. pp. 62-63. Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ ΙΝ Ε Α Κ Ι 1958 I n h ib itio n C ata lo g u c . H y /an tin e A il, I d in b u ig h , Royal S co ttish M u seu m . 1958. B Y Z A N T IN E A R I 1964 1-xhihition ( at a lo g u e , B y zan tin e A il, an I u to p e a n A il. 9th E x h ib itio n o f the C ouncil ol I .u io p c . A lliens 1964. B Y Z A N T IN E A R T 1986 In h ib itio n ( at a lo g u e . B y zan tin e and Post H y /a n lm e A it, A th e n s , O ld U niversily (July 26th Junuary 6th 1986), A th e n s 1986. B Y Z A N T IN E F R E S C O E S 1976 I Exhi­ b itio n C a ta lo g u e , Β υ ζα ν τ ιν ές α > ιχο γ ρ α φ ίες κ α ι ε ικ ό ν ε ς . Ε θ ν ικ ή Π ιν α κ ο θ ή κ η ( £ ιπ τ έ μ 6 ρ ιο ς -Δ ε κ έ μ β ρ ιο ς 1976), Α θ ή ν α 1976.

E ..

T rccen tisti

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972(1) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M .. Π ερ ί Σ χ ο λ ή ς Κ ω ν σ τα ν τιν ο υ π ό λ ε ω ς ο λ ίγ α , Α Δ 27 (1972): Μ ελ έτα ι, pp. 121-137.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1981 = C h a tz id a k is M .. M y slra. E k d o lik c A lh in o n . A th e n s 1981.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1950 = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Ο Α ο μ ή ν ικ ο ς θ ε ο τ ο κ ό π ο υ λ ο ς κ α ι η Κ ρητική ζιο γ ρ α φ ικ ή . Κ ρ η τ. Χ ρ ο ν . Δ ' (1950). pp. 371-440. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1953 = C h a tz id a k is Μ .. C o n trib u tio n a I’c tu d e de la p c in tu rc postb y z a n tin e . A th c n c s 1953.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1973 = C h atzid ak is M . Ik o n o sta s, R c allc x ik o n zur B yzantinischcn K unst (1973), III. col. 343.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1956 = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M ., Μ ε τ α β υ ζ α ν τ ιν έ ς τ ο ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς στη Ζ ά κ υ ν θ ο . Α ' μ έρ ο ς. Ζ υ γ ό ς , Μ ά ρ τ ιο ς 1956.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (1) = C h a tz id a k is M .. L cs d e b u ts d e I’cco lc crcto isc et la q u estio n d e I’cco lc d itc ‘ita lo g rc c q u c ', Μ νη μ ό σ υνο ν Σ ο ­ φ ία ς Α ν τ ω ν ιά δ η . Β εν ε τία 1974. pp. 169-211.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1960(1) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ ., Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν έ ς τ ο ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς σ το ν Ω ρ ω π ό , Δ Χ Α Ε , π ερ . Δ ' - τ. Α ' (1960), pp. 87-107. C H A T Z ID A K IS 196 0 (2 ) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό Μ ο υ σ ε ίο . Α Δ 16(1960): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 1 1-13. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1961 = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Δ ώ δ ε κ α β υ ζ α ν τ ιν έ ς ε ικ ό ν ε ς (έκ δ. Ε μ π ο ρ ικ ή ς Τ ρ α π έ ζ η ς Ε λ λ ά δ ο ς ). Α θ ή ν α ι 1961. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1962 = C h a tz id a k is Μ ., le o n e s d e S a in t-G c o rg e s d c s G recs c t de la C o llectio n d e I 'ln stitu t. In stitu t G re c de V en ice. N cri P ozza-V cnice 1962. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1964-65 = Χ α τ ζη δ ά κ η ς Μ ., Ε ικ ό ν ε ς ε π ισ τ υ λ ίο υ α π ό το Ά γ ι ο ν Ό ­ ρ ο ς . Δ Χ Α Ε , π ε ρ . Δ ' - τ . Δ ' (1964-1965), pp. 377-403. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1 965(1) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ . . Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό ν κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τ ια ν ικ ό ν Μ ο υ ο είο ν , Α Δ 20 (1965): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , p p. 11-15. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1965 (2) = C h a tz id a k is Μ .. Iko n en a u s G ric c h c n la n d . W eitzm ann Κ ., C h a t/id a k is M ., M iatcv Κ ., R ad o jcic S., I riihc Ik o n e n , Sinai - G ric c h c n la n d - Bulgalie n - Ju g o slaw ien , W ien un d M unchen 1965, pp. X X III-X X X X . C l 1A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (1) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό ν κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τ ια ν ικ ό ν Μ ο υ σ είο ν. Α Δ 21 (1966): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , p p. 16-35. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1966 (2) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Τ α χ υ δ ρ ό μ ο ς 2 4 .1 2 -1966, p. 56. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1967 = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς Μ .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό ν κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τ ια ν ικ ό ν Μ ο υ σ είο ν. Α Δ 22 (1967): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 16-33.

B Y Z A N T IN E G R E E K A N D R U S S IA N IC O N S 1979 = E xhibition C a ta lo g u e . B yzan­ tin e G re e k an d R ussian Icons (ex h ib itio n 18th A p ril - 6 th A u g u st 1979. T e m p le G a lle ry ). L o n d o n 1979.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1968 = C h a tz id a k is Μ .. C iricchcnland. P K g, B d. 3. von W . F. V olbach un d J. L a fo n ta in e -D o so g n c . B erlin 1968. pp. 231-241.

C A T T A P A N 1973 = C a tta p a n Μ . I pitto ri A n d re a e N icola R izo da C a n d ia , θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α τ α 19 (1973). p p. 238-282.

W eitzm an n Κ .. R a d o jc ic S .. Le g r a n d livrc d cs ico n es, A g cn ce I n t e r n a t i o n a l e d ' e d i t i o n . P aris 1979.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1972 (2) = C h atzid ak is Μ .. A sp ects d e la p c in tu rc m u ralc du X I lie sicclc c n G re c c . S tu d ies in B yzantine A rt and A rc h a e o lo g y . V ario ru m R e p rin ts, L o n d o n 1972, c h a p te r X III. pp. 59-73.

Β Υ Ζ Α Ν Τ ΙΝ Ε IC O N S 1976 - E xhibition C a ta lo g u e . B y zan tin e Icons of C y p ru s, B enaki M u seu m . A th e n s 1976.

C A R L I 1957 — C arli E .. L cs prim itifs sicnn o is. P aris 1957.

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969-70 = C h atzid ak is M .. R c c h c rc h e s su r le p ein tre T h e o p h a n e le C rctois. D O P 23-24 (1969-1970), pp. 309-352.

C H A T Z ID A K IS -D J U R IC 1968 = C h a tz id a­ kis M - D ju ric V ., L cs icones d an s lcs C ollec­ tions S uisscs, B e rn e 1968. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1969 = C h atzid ak is M .. M uscc B yzantin d ’A th c n c s , Icones. E d. A p o llo , A th c n c s 1969.

—

202

—

C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (2) = C h atzid ak is M .. E ssai s u r I’eco lc d itc ‘italo g rc cq u c' prcccd c d ’unc n o te su r les ra p p o rts d e 1‘a rt vcniticn avec l'a rt c rcto is ju s q u ’a 15(K), V en ezia e il L ev an tc fino al secolo X V , F iren ze 1974, pp. 69-124. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974(3) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M .. Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό Μ ο υ σ είο , Τ α Ε λ λ η ν ικ ά Μ ο υ σ εία . Ε κ δ ο τ ικ ή Α θ η ν ώ ν , Α θ ή ν α 1974. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1974 (4) = C h a tz id a k is Μ .. C lassicism c c t tcn d a n c c s p o p u laircs au X IX e siccle. L cs rcch c rc h e s s u r re v o lu tio n d u style, A c te s du X IV c C o n g res In te rn a tio n a l des E tu d e s B y z an tin e s (B u c a rc st. 6-12 S ep tem b re 1971). B ucarest 1974. pp. 153-188. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1976 = C h atzid ak is M . L 'c v o lu tio n d e l iconc au 1 lc-13e sicclcs et la tra n sfo rm a tio n du tc m p lo n . X V e C on g n is I n te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s B yzan tin es. R a p p o rls, III. A rt c t A rc h e o lo g ic , A th c n c s 1976. pp. 159-191. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977(1) = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M . Ε ικ ό ν ε ς τη ς Π ά τ μ ο υ . Ε θ ν ικ ή Τ ρ ά π ε ζ α της Ε λ λ ά δ ο ς, Α θ ή ν α 1977. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977 (2) = C h atzid ak is Μ La p c in tu rc d cs *m a d o n n c ri’ o u ‘v cnctocrc toisc* c t sa d e s tin a tio n , V en ezia C e n tro dl M cd iazio n c tra O rie n tc c O ccid en te (sccoii X V -X V I). A sp e tti c p ro b lcm i. A tti del II C o n v c g n o In te rn a z io n a le di S to ria della C ivilta V c n c z ia n a (1973). II. F iren ze 1977 pp. 675-690. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1977-79 = Χ α τ ζ η δ ά κ η ς M Ν ε ώ τε ρ α γ ι α τη ν ισ το ρ ία κ α ι τη ν τέχνη· 11 | Μ η τρ ό π ο λ η ς το υ Μ υ σ τρ ά . Δ Χ Α Ε , π ερ , Λ τ. 0 ' (1977-1979). pp. 143-175. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (1) = C hatzid ak is Μ L 'c v o lu tio n d e I'iconc au llc -1 3 e si£clcs el Iit tra n sfo rm a tio n du tcm p lo n . A ctes du XVi1 C o n g res In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s Byzanlltl· » A th c n c s (S e p te m b re 1976). I. Athene?» 19/9 p p. 333-366. C H A T Z ID A K IS 1979 (2) = C hatzid ak is M

C H A T Z ID A K IS (T h .) 1981= C h a tz id a k is T h ., P rd sen ccs classiq u cs d a n s lcs m o saiq u cs d c H o sio s L o u k a s. X V I In tc rn a tio n a lc r B y z an tin istcn k o n g rc ss. A k te n . 11/5. JO B 32/5 (1 9 8 2 ). p p . 101-109. C H A T Z ID A K IS ( T h .) 1982 = C h a tz id a k is T h .. E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e . L 'a rt d cs ico n es cn C re te e t d a n s les lies a p rc s B yzance, E u ro p alia G re c c 1982. C h a rlc ro is P alais dcs B eaux A rts. 30 O c to b rc - 21 N o v cm b rc 1982. C H A T Z ID A K IS (N .) 1983= C h a tz id a k is N .. E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , Icons o f th e C re ta n School (15th- 16th c e n tu rie s). B en ak i M u ­ se u m . A th e n s 1983. C H A T Z ID A K IS -B A B IC 1983 = C h a tz id a k is M. - B ab ic G .. L e iconc della P en iso la Balcan ica c d cllc isolc G re c h c (1 ). W eitzm an n Κ .. A libegasvili G ., V o lsk a ja A .. B abic G .. C h a tz id a k is M .. A lp a to v M ., V oincscu T .. Le ico n c. M ilan o 1983, p p . 129-199C IIA T Z IN IK O L A O U 1966 = Χ α τ ζ η ν ικ ο λ ά ο υ A . , Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ά κ α ι μ ε σ α ιω ν ικ ά μνη μ εία Η π ε ίρ ο υ . Α Δ 21 (1966): Χ ρ ο ν ικ ά , pp. 295-298. C H O R E M IS 1981 = Χ ω ρ έμ η ς Α .. Ν έο εικ ο ν ο γ ρ α φ ικ ό το υ Τ ζ ά ν ε σ τη ν Κ έρ κ υ ρ α , Κ ερ κ υ ρ . Χ ρ ο ν. 25 (1981), pp. 217-227. C O R M A C K -M I M A L A R IA S 1984 = C o r m ack R. - M ih alarias S .. A C ru sa d e r P ain tin g o f St. G e o rg e : m an icra g rc c a ' o r ‘lingua fra n c a ’? . B u rlin g to n M ag azin e. 126 (M arch 1984). p p . 132-141. C O R M A C K -M I H A L A R IA S 1986 = C o rm ack R . - M ih alarias S .. T w o Icons M o re o r Less B y zan tin e, A p o llo . Ju ly 1986. C X X IV (1986). p p . 6-10. C Z E R W E N K A P A P A D O P O U L O S 1984 = C z crw c n k a -P a p a d o p o u lo s Κ ., E in c W ien er Ik o n c au s d cm U m k rcis d e s A n d re a s R itzos, Β υ ζ ά ν τ ιο ς . F estsch rift fu r H e rb e rt H u n g er, W ien 1984, p p . 203-212. D A L T O N 1901 = D alto n M .O ., C a ta lo g u e o f I arly C h ristian A n tiq u itie s and O b je c ts from the C h ristian E ast in the B ritish M u seu m , L o n d o n 1901.

g en d cs g rccq u cs d cs S ain ts m ilitaircs. Paris 1909.

d c S ain t-G co rg es et la p c in tu ie hy/itiiMm ilti X II si6clc. B ruxelles 1975,

D E L IV O R R IA S 1980 = Δ ε λ η β ο ρ ρ ιά ς A ., Ο δ η γ ό ς το υ Μ ο υ σ είο υ Μ π ε ν ά κ η , Α θ ή ν α 1980.

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC I! 198 U I Uni. i m an n -M isg u ich L , P clagonitissa »i k a itllo tissa: V a ria n tc s ex tre m e s du lype Virtu» th T c n d rc s sc , B yzan tio n L III (I9H3), |»|‘ ,J I*1

D E M U S = D em u s Ο .. T h e M osaics o f N o r­ m an Sicily, L o n d o n 1949. D E M U S 1975 = D em u s O ., T h e Style o f the K ariye D jam i and its Place in th e D ev el­ o p m e n t o f P alaco lo g an A rt, T h e K ariye D jam i. 4. E d . P .A . U n d e rw o o d . P rin ceto n 1975. p p . 109-160. DJURIC!? 1961 = D ju ric J .V ., F resq u cs m cd icv alcs a C h ila n d a r, A ctcs d u X lle C ong rcs In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s B yzantines (O h rid e , 10-16 S e p te m b re 1961), III. B eograd 1964, p p . 59-98. D J U R IC 1979 = D j uric J .V ., L a p c in tu rc m u rale B y z an tin e , A ctcs du X V c C o n g res In te rn a tio n a l d 'E tu d c s B y zan tin es (A th c n c s. S e p te m b re 1976). A th c n c s 1979. vol. 1, pp. 159-252. D R A N D A K IS 1962 = Δ ρ α ν δ ά κ η ς B .N ., O Ε μ μ α ν ο υ ή λ Τ ζ ά ν ε Μ π ό υ ν ια λ ή ς, θ ε ω ρ ο ύ μ ε ­ ν ο ς ε ξ ε ικ ό ν ω ν το υ σ ω ζ ο μ έν ω ν κ υ ρ ίω ς εν Β ε ν ε τ ία . Ε ν Α θ ή ν α ις 1962. D R A N D A K IS 1969 = Δ ρ α ν δ ά κ η ς Β .Ν .. Ε ικ ο ν ο γ ρ α φ ία τω ν Τ ρ ιώ ν Ιερ α ρ χ ώ ν . Ιω ά ν ­ ν ιν α 1969. E L B E R N 1979 = E lb e rn V ., D as Ik o n en k a b in c tt d c r F ru h c h ristlich -B y zan tin isch cn S am m lu n g in d c r S k u lp tu rc n g a le ric B erlin , B ild erh cft d c r S taatlich cn M u secn P rcussisch er K u ltu rb csitz-B crlin . H eft 34/35, B e r­ lin 1979. E L G R E C O E X H IB IT IO N 1986, E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e . El G rc c o , T o k y o 1986. E M B IR IC O S 1967 = E m b irico s A ., L ’ccolc crc to isc . D c rn ic re p h ase d e la p c in tu rc byzantin c . P aris 1967. E X H IB IT IO N F O R T H E C E N T E N A R Y O F C h .A .E . 1984 = E x h ib itio n C a ta lo g u e , Ε κ θ εσ η γ ια τ α 100 χ ρ ό ν ια τη ς Χ ρ ισ τια ν ικ ή ς Α ρ χ α ιο λ ο γ ικ ή ς Ε τ α ιρ ε ία ς (1884-1894), Β υ ζ α ν τ ιν ό κ α ι Χ ρ ισ τ ια ν ικ ό Μ ο υ σ είο Α θ η ­ νώ ν (6 Ο κ τ ω β ρ ίο υ 1984 - 30 Ιο υ ν ίο υ 1985), Α θ ή ν α 1984.

IIE T H E R I N G T O N 197H - I lelltci ............ I* T he P a in te r's M an u al o f D ionysius ol I o u uiti L o n d o n 1978. H O R S E S O F SA N M A R C O 19/9 | Oil b itio n C a ta lo g u e , T h e H o rses «>1 Sun M a n n V cn ise, R oyal A cad em y o f A its. I om ltm M ilan t979. IC O N E S 1975 = Ico n es g rccq u cs el 111·. i G a le ric N ik o lcn k o , P aris 1975. IC O N E S 1977 = Ico n es g rccq u cs el iu , . G a le ric N ik o lcn k o , R eck lin g h au sen 1 9 // IK O N E N 1981 = Ik o n cn m u scu m Uei k lin g h au sc n , 6 A u sg ab c 1981. R eckh n ^h aiisi n 1981. IO A N N O U 1959 = Ιω ά νν ο υ Α Β υ ζ α ν ιιν ι . τ ο ιχ ο γ ρ α φ ίε ς τη ς Ε ύ β ο ια ς , Α A / xh io k τ ρ ίτ ο υ κ α ι δ έ κ α τ ο υ τέ τα ρ το υ α κ ίιν α , Α θήνα 1959. K A F T A L 1978 = K aftal G .. Icono^wnpli ν ol th e S ain ts in th e P ain tin g o f N orth I nsl lluly S ain ts in Italian A rt. F lo ren ce 1978 K A L O K Y R IS 1973 = K alokyris ( I In B y z an tin e W all-p ain tin g s o f C re te . N ew Yoik 1973. K A R A M A N 1932 = K aram an I . N oli sin P art byzan tin ct les Slaves C a th o h q m s dt li D a lm a tic , L ’art B yzantin c h e / les Shiv· R cccu il d c d ic a la m e m o ire de I lu 'o tlo n U sp e n sk ij, II. P aris 1932. pp. 332 '8 0 K A R T S O N IS 1986 = K arlso n is D A All·· tasis. T h e M aking o f an Im age, l*i im ·*11 n« N ew Je rse y 1986. Κ Α Ζ Α Ν Α Κ Ι 1974 = Κ α ζα νά κ ι] Μ I hmM| σ ια σ τικ ή ξ υ λ ο γ λ υ π τ ικ ή σ ι ο ΧιινδοΜ .......... 17ο α ιώ ν α , θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α τ α II ( | 9 / | ] |·|· 251-283. K A Z A N A K I-L A P P A 1981 K oi.ovoio) Α ά π π α Μ .. Ο ι ζ ω γ ρ ά φ ο ι του ,\« ιν δ ο μ........ ο ι το 17ο α κ ό ν α . Θ η σ α υ ρ ίσ μ α ια |Μ (|9 Μ |) |·|ΐ 177-267. K O N O M O S 1966 Κ ο νό μ ο Ν· σ τ ια ν ικ ή τέχνη σ τη ν K n |o > o v io 1966.

II ■■■ M hpo

K O N O M O S 1979 Κ ονόμ ο Νι θ ο ς . Κ α ο τ ρ ό λ ο φ ο ς χοι Α ιγ ιο ιλ ο . 1979.

■ \ Ι ■·■

G A R IS S O N 1949 = G arisso n E .B ., Italian R o m a n e sq u e P anel P ain tin g , F lo ren ce 1949.

K O U T E L A K IS 19ΚΙ Κ ο ο ιιλ ο - .| Τ ή ν ο ς . Ισ το ρ ία Ι ϊχ ν η Α ρ χ α ιο λ ό γ ο 1981.

Μ . M hp

III*» E u c h a ito ru m

G R A B A R 1975 = G ra b a r A ., L cs im ages de la V icrge d c T c n d rc ssc - T y p e ico n o g rap h iq u c ct th e m e , a p ro p o s d e d eu x ico n cs a D ecan i, Z o g ra p h c 6 (1975), p p . 25-30.

K R I I D I Ρ Α Ρ Α ΙΧ )|·( )U | I >S |9 /Η \ t nil P a p a d o p o u lo s Κ D u ΙΚοιι«ίι im I tin i h isto risch e n M useum in W h n ImIiiI·««· li i K u n slh islo riseh cn Simmthmjii ti in W h n ■■

Ml L E I IA Y E 1909 = D clc h a y c H . L es Ic-

H A D E R M A N N -M IS G U IC II 1975 = H ad erm ann-M isguich L .. K u rb in o v o , Lcs fresqucs

D A L T O N 1909 = D alto n M .O .. A B yzantine Panel in th e B ritish M u seu m , B urlington M agazine. 14 (Ja n u a ry 1909). p p . 230-236. I ) A L T O N 1911 = D alto n M .O ., B yzantine A il and A rch aeo lo g y , O x fo rd 1911. DALTON 1925 = D alto n i h risiian A rt, O x fo rd 1925.

M .O ..

E ast

I >1 1 A G A R D E 1882 = D c L ag ard e P ., lo an m c tro p o lita c q u a e su p e r­ mini . C o ttig ac 1882.

F E L IC E T T I-L IE B E N F E L S 1956 = FcliccttiL icb en fcls W ., G csch ich tc d e r b yzantinischcn Ik o n e n m a lc re i, O ltc n -L a u sa n n c 1956. F IN E IC O N S 1980 = C a ta lo g u e o f F ine Ico n s. S o th e b y ’s. 18th D c c c m b e r 1980, London.

-

203

—

i I''Tii! pp Ci | \.\ K R I I DI

Ι Ά Ι Ά Ι K H*( M i| i I*.

|