Frm Salvan Book

ARCHITECURAL CHARACTER AND THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, GEORGE SALVAN

INFLUENCES GEOGRAPHICAL In Northern Europe, remote from Rome, development depended largely upon a common concern with sea and river routes. The geographical similarities of political divisions of Scandinavia are sufficient to give the whole region a unity which was emphasized by the greater ease of sailing across the narrow waters within the region than of crossing the mountains toward the rest of Europe. Skill in navigation during the early middle ages .led to the Nordic colonization of Iceland and Greenland and to cultural and commercial contact with Ireland and Britain. Natural resources in Scandinavia provided tor principally agrarian products in the south and East and for forestry and fur-trading in the North. The export of copper and iron ores led to strong mercantile connections with the continent. The deep Norwegian valleus dictated both an independent and generally slower rate of evolution, and a wider variety of local building techniques.

GEOLOGICAL Geological formation of Great Britain was varied. The English hardwood forests, particularly in the North-western and South-eastern countries, provided roof-framing material for the more important buildings, and for lesser buildings which were-entirely timber framed. Most of the indigenous building stones contributed to the materials of the more mature military and religious buildings and local characteristics in masonry developed at an early stage.

CLIMATIC The generally low northern light tended to encourage the development of ways of producing larger or multiple openings in walls. Massive masonry construction and steeply-pitched roofs were customary devices for dealing with the more severe Northern European climate, though in those parts of Scandinavia where snow could normally be expected to persist for some time, roof pitches were often reduced in order that it should assist in retaining heat within buildings.

HISTORICAL, SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS THE BRITISH ISLES The Roman conquest of Britain was preceded by the landings of Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 B.C. During the military occupation following the Claudian invasion of A.D. 43 progress was made in developing natural resources such as tin, iron and lead; orderly government was ensured by the Roman legions, and improved methods in agriculture stabilized society. Roman dress and language were adopted by those in contact with the new rulers. The building of towns and later of the large country settlements called villas was necessary to support the civil administration and to propagate the Roman way of life. Christianity first made its way into Britain during the Roman occupation, but during the years of the Anglo-Saxon settlements, after the middle of the fifth century, church building was of historical importance only in Ireland. The conversion to Christianity of the Anglo-Saxon kings and their people is evidenced by numerous surviving churches, towers and crosses of the 7th and 8th centuries. In 1042, Edward, son of the English Ethelred, acceded to the throne. He assured the Norman influence of England before the conquest. He begun in 1045 the building of Westminster Abbey, the church planned in the current Norman Benedictine fashion, and the comentual buildings based largely upon the Cluniac pattern. The Norman conquest of 1066 linked England to the continent and introduced a fully developed feudal system. Yet all land was held from the king, who established the most efficient and

centralized government in Europe. Castles were built to strengthen the position of the conquerors. Towns which grew up around abbeys and castles, became trading centres, and through their merchant guilds laid the foundations of urban government. Settled government prompted the pursuit of learning, based in the 12th and 13th centuries upon monastic schools and upon the two English universities. French was the language commonly used in court circles until the 13th century, when, owing to resentment cause by the introduction of Angevin stangers, English gradually supplanted it, and the final fusion of Norman and English occurred. The crusades gave impetus to the progress of learning and in the foundation of the military orders which influenced some aspects of church-building later in the middle ages.

SCANDINAVIA: The Kingdoms were first in Denmark and Norway, and that by about the year 1000 Sweden was united as part of the Svear kingdom. The Viking expansion of the 9th century, which included in the early Danish settlement in North-East England, the colonization of Normandy and the establishment of Svear colonies in Latvia, all brought Northern influences to bear upon European development. The earliest domestic building customs were based upon timber techniques allied to forms probably derived from ancient Greek cultures. The most distinctive building development of the period in Scandinavia followed the conversion of the Northern races, which was started by the Frankish missionary Angar at Hedeby in Denmark in 826. The Norse church itself was established from Britain, and Christianity was legally maintained in Norway, Greenland and Iceland by the end of the 10th century. In 980 the Danish King Harold made his people Christians, English bishops were introduced, and the Empire was spread into England. The earliest Christian Scandinavian buildings those of Frankish missionaries, were certainly, Timber-built, and particularly in Norway, the development of timber techniques continued well into the 13th century. Subsequent building in stone reflects predominantly German and cluniac influences in Denmark. The monastic orders played an important part in reinforcing Scandinavian links with Europe and the Benedictine Church Architecture of Denmark and Norway followed very closely much of the custom of the order, though with some cluniac modifications, and in both Denmark and Sweden were established several examples

ARCHITECURAL CHARACTER 1. THE BRITISH ISLES a. ROMAN PERIOD

Examples of Mosaic Flooring, pottery and sculptures indicate the cave which the Romans bestowed on dwellings houses and public buildings. The characteristics of Roman Architecture were so virile that they inevitably influenced subsequent Anglo-Saxon and Romanesque architecture in Britain. The Form of the Christian Church in Britain before the end of the Roman occupation is exemplified at Silchester.

This was a small church, with a Basilican plan, built early in the 4th century. It had a western apse, for the vitual at this time required that the celebrant face east from beyond the altar.

b. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD Domestic building was largely dependent upon the use of Timber, but little evidence remains of methods of construction. The masonry of church buildings from about the middle of the 7th century shows signs of dependence on Timber prototypes, as in the 'long and short work in groins.

Pilaster strips derived from the 'Liesenen' of the Carolingian Rhineland and blind arcading.

Before the period of-the Heptarchy, architecture of any pretension free from direct Roman influence was in framed timber. But 'a link 'with earlier stone-built forms was expressed in some permanent post Carolingian building in Ireland where in spite of remoteness from Rome, there were strong early connections with the coptic church in Egypt. The Olatory of Gallerus, near Dingle in Kerry is a Monastic cell of the 6th or 7th century, rectangular in plan, in the form of a corbel vault, smooth worked internally, and with a pointed extrados.

It also occurred transept apses ('absidoles') introduced by Archibishop Lanfranc at Canterburry in 1065. It was common in both secular and monastery churches, to find a central lantern tower over the choir crossing. The municipality of apsidal chapels in monastic churches was necessitated by the growing demand for facilities for the individual offices of a Benedectine community. Grained aisle vaults were built in the nave at Ely after 1087, but no high groin vault was even attempted in Norman England. The earliest great church designed initially and entirely with a rib-vaulting system is Durham cathedral, where work was began in 1093; the choir aisle vaults, with depressed Segmental diagonal ribs, were finished in 1096, the-high vault of the eastern arm in 1107 and the nave by about 1132. The significant difference between these and the quadripartite vaults of Durham is that the English version combines the ribbed vault with single nave bays, having alternating cylindrical and compound piers from the shafts of which spring heavy transverse pointed arches. Mouldings are generally enriched by comentional carving with increased vigour through the late 11th and 12th centuries. Doorways and windows have jambs in square recesses or 'orders' enclosing nook-shafts. These 'orders' are frequently carved with zigzag and beak-head ornament. Windows are small and the internal jambs are deeply splayed.