Foundations of Indian Philosophy

Heather DeLancett  Fall 2009

Due to the wide diversity of streams of thought and the holistic connection between religious and philosophical beliefs in India, it is often daunting to approach any attempt at a summary of the philosophical philosophical content of Indian traditions with conclusive sounding statements. statements. Hinduism Hinduism is an umbrella  term for the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal, and of India‟s approximate population of 900 million people, 700 million identify themselves as Hindu.

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However, a definition of what 

Hinduism is, or is not, becomes problematic because the term gathers together many related religions and philosophies which do not share a single historical founder, a unified system of beliefs or a central 2

authority. Additionally, Additionally, the issue of multiple and differing qualities of translations from Sanskrit, Pali, and Hindi languages further further complicate understanding. understanding. The Western student of Indian philosophy philosophy must even 3

shift the idea of category  to accommodate the diversity and interwoven nature of the subjects involved in this pursuit. pursuit. Despite these challenges, we can identify identify some key commonalities commonalities and crucial differences  which have played major roles in the development of Indian thought and which continue to be significant  in our current time.

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Gavin Flood,  An Introduction to Hinduism , (Great Britain and New York: Cambridge University University Press, 1996), pgs. 1, 5. This estimate is taken from the March 1991 census of India. 2 Ibid. 3 Gavin Flood (ibid. 7,) refers to “prototype theory” as being the most effective in describing degrees of category membership where there is relation of “family resemblance” with very fuzzy edges, and where “members of a category may be related to one another without all members having any properties in common that define the category.” This theory was developed: developed: George Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind  (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987).

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The central philosophical questions of Indian philosophy, or darshana , (meaning “vision” or “worldview”), “worldview”), began much as Western pre-Socratic philosophy did - with seeking the nature of absolute reality. Is it changing? Is it eternal? Is it made of more than one thing, thing, or is itit a monism? Is it immanent  or transcendent, or both? Of all the diverse religious religious and philosophical philosophical beliefs of Bharat  of Bharat (the (the Republic of  India), the various traditions are primarily divided on how they approach this one central question. During the period 600 – 200 B.C.E. especially, different interpretations of the nature of absolute reality, the nature of self, and solutions to the the problem of suffering arose. arose. The most notable and enduring enduring of  these philosophical philosophical deviances from the main stream are Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism. The challenges raised by  by   Jainism and Buddhism were integrated into the “Hindu” foundations and responded to through the Epics – the most popular being a portion of the Mahabharata called Mahabharata  called the Bhagavad Gita . These enduring living  traditions – Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism – disagree about a few key philosophical philosophical issues, but largely  share many common concepts. The history of Indian philosophy begins with the collection of sacred texts known as the Vedas . The Vedas  can be considered the backbone of  Hinduism‟s spiritual and philosophical beliefs and practices to this this day. It is generally generally accepted that the earliest earliest content within within the Vedic  collection is primarily of the Aryan culture‟s culture‟s influence mixed with with elements of the Dravidian Dravidian Indus Valley culture. culture. The Sanskrit speaking Aryan culture came to dominate the Indus Valley over time, and what we presently  know of these peoples is from the Sanskrit verses which were passed via oral traditions for many hundreds of years prior prior to being being recorded in any existing existing writing. writing. These early  Vedic  writings are composed of  hymns to gods such as Indra, Varuna  and  Agni , as well as rituals for ceremonial sacrifices to gain the blessings of these deities, which are primarily personification of features and forces in the natural world. These earlier components of the Vedas are Vedas are considered to be divinely transmitted and there is a great deal of emphasis on the power of words and language employed to bring about the desired conditions. “In the

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 Vedas, brahman means brahman  means „prayer‟ or „sacred word‟ a nd nd the power that these contain” contain”. It was believed that  our human lives were dependent on the correct ritual interaction with the gods and goddesses, or devas  (shining ones), to secure order and balance in an otherwise hazardous world.

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Absolute reality in the

Vedic  verses  verses is regarded as a cyclical, changing, order which provides structure and rhythm to existence. The cosmic order, rta/rita, is an important concept in all of Indian philosophy because it shapes a moral interaction between humans and a type of divine justice which leads to the widespread acceptance of doing  one‟s duty to uphold and support existence itself.

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The concepts of  dharma and dharma  and karma  arise from this

moral interaction with the cosmic order. Dharma , a complex network of inter-related social and moral duties was originally based purely  on one‟s one‟s place in the caste system and the family, but has changed and expanded through time as Indian philosophers grapple grapple with the question of how it is best to live. Beginning around 800 B.C.E., a tradition of commentaries upon the hymns and rituals of the earlier Vedic verses Vedic  verses took a more philosophical philosophical turn. These increasingly increasingly philosophical commentaries commentaries are known as the Upanishads . The Upanishads are Upanishads are considered part of the Vedas and Vedas and are acknowledged to be inspired, but human human in origin. The Upanishads  were the closely guarded “secret teachings” of the Vedic  tradition and were passed from a  guru  a  guru  to student disciples only after extensive extensive proper training. The training prescribed by the Upanishads includes Upanishads  includes manana  (reflection) for obtaining intellectual conviction, 7

and dhyana (meditation) dhyana  (meditation) for gaining direct experience. This dhyana   /meditation is a form of  yoga meant   yoga  meant  to prepare the student for contemplating the ultimate truth - to enable him to grasp the unity of existence as directly and compellingly as the multiplicity and diversity of the world is grasped – and for that  comprehension to become a permanent influence on the disciple‟s life.

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This form of meditation

World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing, John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: 2007), p. 102 5 Ibid., p. 100 6 th John M. Koller,  Asian Philosophies , 5 ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 12 7 M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 26 8 Ibid.

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demands detachment from selfish interests, which is a necessary prerequisite – “no one that has not  undergone a course of ethical training calculated to kill all egoistic impulses is qualified for serious study of  the Upanishads.” Upanishads.”

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The student signifies the completion of this ethical training by entering the fourth stage

of life and becoming a samnyasin  a samnyasin – – a renunciant who dwells in forest hermitage seated near the guru  the  guru . In many ways, the teachings of the Upanishads  seem to be essentially in opposition to the beliefs inherent in the earlier Vedic hymns Vedic  hymns and rituals. rituals. Amazingly, much much like contradictory contradictory Christian doctrines doctrines being canonized, the Upanishads and Upanishads and the early ritual hymns are fitted together and are all considered parts of the collection of  Vedic  sacred texts which compose compose the more orthodox Hindu views.

As the

‟  teachings grew in social importance, new metaphysical realities emerged in Hindu thought  Upanishads ‟ 

and society. The importance of the highest highest caste was shifted shifted in a profound political-ideological political-ideological sweep sweep  which turned the functions of the Vedic scholar/priests Vedic  scholar/priests and their societal functions on their heads, along   with the previous primary  Vedic values Vedic  values of correct sacred words and exact rituals to gain favor and divine communion with their their beloved gods. gods. New values emerged emerged from the Upanishads – Upanishads – values centered on the axis of the goal of  moksha  (liberation) from samsara  (continual rebirth into the world, world , „wandering‟) „wandering‟) – 10

 where words hold the power only of academic and intellectual interest, but lack the dynamic experience of understanding understanding reality. Where the previous previous Vedic  values Vedic  values centered on affirmation and celebration of  abundance in life‟s pleasures, the Upanishads  set forth a world renouncing philosophy concerned with methods of release release from the wheel wheel of life. life. The ascetic samnyasin , and his  yoga master  yoga  master guru   guru , who leave behind the affairs of the community to seek enlightenment (moksha  ( moksha , liberation), were now the revered spiritual authorities in replacement of the priests who memorized the holy  Vedic scriptures. Vedic scriptures. Additionally, this path of renunciation was open to many, and not merely the high caste.

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M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 28 Ibid., p. 27

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Many different views and schools arose out of the question of how moksha  how moksha is is to be obtained. obtained. One of the earliest movements in reaction to the Upanishads  was that of the Jains. Rejecting the the sacrificial rituals of the Vedic Brahmans ( ritual ritual experts ) as  )  as well as the varnas (caste varnas  (caste system) and what they viewed as the injustices and immoralities within society, they also withdrew into the forest, but due to their views became outside of society altogether.

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The Jains accepted the goal of  moksha  and set themselves to

developing a highly sophisticated theoretical metaphysics of non-action with the aim of liberation via the elimination of karma. of  karma. The idea of  karma , or the idea that one‟s present is affected by previous actions,  was common prior to the Upanishads , but the Jains took an extremely ascetic and austere approach to burning off these accumulations as quickly as possible, believing that the original state of human being  ( Jiva   Jiva ) is pure, and only the bondage of  karma  (action) holds us within matter and prevents us from the realization of our own enlightened enlightened nature. Thus, the Jains sought sought to create a refining process to burn away  accumulated karma  by a path of progressive purification as gold (the soul‟s inherent luminosity) can be separated from ore (matter).

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This path of purification is focused on living a combination of the “three

 jewels” of deep faith, right knowledge, and pure conduct which progresses towards complete self-restraint  13

and the elimination of all of  all passions until the soul attains “disembodied eternal liberation” and becomes a   Jina , (Conqueror), also known as a Tirthankara  a  Tirthankara , (Ford-maker) – he who has conquered material bondage and made it to the other side as pure liberated soul ( Jiva   Jiva ). ). Unfortunately, it seems that the most recent  Tirthankara, Mahavira, was born in 599 B.C.E. and the Jain tradition has greatly embellished his story.

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Personally, this writer would prefer something with a 

higher success rate but recognizes there is much to be appreciated in the Jains‟ theory of truth and philosophical philosophical developments. Pondering absolute reality, Jains posit the rich and complex many-sidedness, many-sidedness, 11

World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing, John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: 2007), p. 124 12 th John M. Koller,  Asian Philosophies , 5 ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), pgs. 34-35 13 Ibid., p. 37 14 Ibid., p. 31

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or anekanta , of existence and affirms both permanence in substances and change in forms/modes of those substances. This goes against the Upanishads‟ teachings that Brahman  that Brahman is is absolute, unchanging reality, and so Jainism, (along with Buddhism), is considered to be heterodox to the Vedanta (the Vedanta  (the settled conclusions 15

of the Vedas taken Vedas taken as a whole ). Though the view of absolute reality reality differs, Jainism shares shares the same goal s‟  teachings, but perhaps with a bit more enthusiasm, and essential methods prescribed by the Upanishad s‟ 

intensity and eccentricity. Indian philosophy, in general, is the pursuit of practical ways of living well and reducing suffering, or dukkha . About a generation later, later, Siddartha Gautama, also known known as the Buddha Buddha (the Enlightened Enlightened One, the Awakened One), presented presented another vision of absolute absolute reality and the path to liberation. liberation. The son of a king, Siddartha had rejected his life of worldly pleasures and joined the ascetic forest-dwellers and studied with the  gurus . Finding worldly worldly indulgence and world renouncing to be but different different sides of the same coin, he sought the “Middle Way” and gained Enlightenment . Instead of taking his Enlightenment  Enlightenment  as an opportunity to be liberated from the world of physical matter and rebirth, the Buddha returned to 16

teach what he had realized about the nature of suffering ( dukkha ) and a new goal concept of  nirvana .

The “Four Noble Truths” taught by the Buddha are a metaphysical revolution in response to the previous ideas of the Absolute (Brahman  (Brahman ), ), the Self ( Atman) and  Atman)  and the problem of suffering (dukkha  (dukkha ), ), based on the assertion of a new metaphysical concept of Dependent Arising ( pratitya-samutpada).  pratitya-samutpada). The Buddha taught taught that nothing exists separately separately by itself and nothing is permanent. permanent. There is no absolute unchanging reality (Brahman  ( Brahman ) and there is no independent soul/self being reborn (Atman). There is only a constant flow of moments of appearance, one giving rise to the next, with the

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M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Indian Philosophy (Bombay: George Allen & Unwin (India) Private Ltd, 1973), p. 151 Compare Hiriyanna’s discussion (Ibid., p 28) on the goal of the Upanishads also b eing “liberation while still alive ,” known nirvana/Enlightenment was truly a “new” concept/goal. The as jivanmukti, for further reflection on whether the Buddha’s nirvana/Enlightenment primary difference in the concepts of  jivanmukti and nirvana, historically, seem to do with orientation to participation in the hermitage vs. larger society, respectively. 16

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consequences of karma  of karma working working themselves out in sequences of reappearances.

Born into a condition of 

ignorance about the true nature of constantly changing interconnected processes, we desperately crave to be or have a separate and permanent self.

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This craving for separateness and permanence due to

ignorance (avidya  (avidya ) is a wrong orientation and gives rise to all forms of  dukkha  (suffering, dissatisfaction). dissatisfaction). By aligning ourselves to the true nature of Dependent Arising via the Eightfold Path, we can obtain nirvana, the extinction of craving for for a separate separate and permanent permanent self.

As this craving for separate separate

permanence is the root of all dukkha, when dukkha,  when it is extinguished, then a life of peace and joy free of suffering  is attained.

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 With the rise of Buddhism, Buddhism, the goal of moksha  of moksha (liberation (liberation from the cycle of rebirth into the world)  was still seen as a goal, but shifted the focus back into spiritual participation participation within society. Buddhists also rejected the varnas (caste varnas  (caste system) and a response was needed from the Vedic authorities Vedic  authorities to speak to and lead the masses of people through these philosophical challenges while reasserting faith in the authority of  the Vedas . These responses responses came in the form of the Epics Epics – the Ramayana and Ramayana and the Mahabharata – Mahabharata – which are moral guides to life which focus on the issue of  dharma . Dharma literally Dharma  literally means that “which holds together” and signifies the basis of all social and moral order. How is it that we should live? What is it  our duty to fulfill? These questions are the glue of the primary philosophical philosophical explorations of these these two great Epics.

 A small section of the Mahabharata  is known as the Bhagavad Gita, and it is one of the most  beloved stories of the Indian subcontinent.

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This story is about Arjuna, a man of the warrior caste, having 

John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing, 2007), p. 148 18 th John M. Koller,  Asian Philosophies , 5 ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 57 19 Ibid. 20 John Bowker, Beliefs That Changed the World: The History and Ideas of the Great Religions (London: Quercus Publishing, 2007), p. 101

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a moral dilemma about whether there is ever a just cause for killing one‟s friends, family, and teachers just  because they are on the other side of the battlefield, and about what the karmic  consequences of such actions might be. Krishna, as an avatar  (manifestation) of the god Vishnu, guides Arjuna through this dharma dilemma dharma dilemma and posits that the key to life is to obey one‟s duty of dharma  of  dharma (to (to act correctly within the social order/caste system), but to do so without attachment to the consequences. Krishna‟s response ‟  teachings that   Atman  (Self) is Brahman  (eternal, unchanging) within the reflects the Upanishads ‟ 

conditional samsara (continuous samsara (continuous rebirth):  Arjuna, when a man knows the self to be indestructible, enduring, unborn, unchanging, how does he kill or cause cause anyone to kill? As a man discards discards worn-out clothes to put put on new and different  different  21 ones, so the embodied self discards its worn-out bodies to take on other new ones.

 Additionally, Krishna Krishna emphasizes the the path of understanding through through yoga  yoga (Jnana yoga) in yoga) in order to become detached from the consequences of action, karma , through fulfilling one‟s duty of  of dharma  dharma : Understanding is defined in terms of philosophy; now hear it in spiritual discipline ( yoga  ( yoga ). ). Armed 22  with this understanding, understanding, Arjuna, you will will escape the bondage bondage of action (karma  (karma ). ). Be intent on action (karma  (karma ), ), not on the fruits of action; avoid attraction to the fruits and attachment  to inaction! Perform actions, firm in discipline ( yoga   yoga ), ), relinquishing attachment; be impartial to failure and success - this equanimity is called discipline ( yoga   yoga ). ). Arjuna, action (karma  (karma ) is far inferior to the discipline (yoga) of understanding; so seek refuge in understanding  – pitiful are men drawn 23 by the fruit of action. Here we find a direct response and rejection of the of  the Jains “attachment to inaction” which then leads into an almost Buddhist styled approach in the recommendation of Raja of Raja Yoga :  When he renounces all desires and acts without craving, possessiveness, or individuality, individuality, he finds peace. This is the place of infinite spirit; achieving it, one is freed from delusion; abiding in it even 24 at the time of death, one finds the pure calm of infinity.

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The Bhagavad Gita , translated by Barbara Stoler Miller Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter II, Verses 21-22 Ibid., Verse 39 23 Ibid., Verses 47-49 24 Ibid., Verses 71-72 22

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 While the goal of  moksha  is inherent to this text, this passage does seem to suggest, much like the Buddha‟s teachings, that if our craving for individuality is extinguished, we may find peace and joy within this life.

Later in the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna rejoins this goal to the social structure by means of making it  proper to a life-cycle (samnyasin/sannyasin  (samnyasin/sannyasin ) within the greater scope scope of one‟s dharma : One who does what must be done, without concern for the fruits, is a man of renunciation (sannyasin ) and discipline, discipline, not one who shuns shuns ritual fire and rites. Know that discipline discipline ( yoga   yoga ), ),  Arjuna, is what men call renunciation (sannyasam ); ); no man is disciplined without renouncing   willful intent. intent.  Action (karma  ( karma ) is the means for a sage who seeks to mature in discipline ( yoga  ( yoga ); ); tranquility is the means for one who is mature in discipline ( yoga  ( yoga ). ). He is said to be mature in discipline ( yoga   yoga ) 25  when he has renounced renounced all intention and is detached detached from sense objects objects and actions.  As the text goes on, Krishna advises to Arjuna a path of discipline discipline ( yoga   yoga ) which is actually a progression through the four traditional paths of  yoga   yoga . Beginning with Karma Yoga , the path of service to others and mindfulness of  dharma/karma through dharma/karma through action, Krishna describes how one advances through  Jnana Yoga, discarding false beliefs through introspection leading to conceptual understanding, and Raja Yoga, conf ronting/transcending ronting/transcending the mind‟s contents. contents.

 Arjuna, a Kshatriya, a  Kshatriya, or member of the warrior caste, has received Krishna‟s advice regarding the paths of  yoga   yoga , but still fears:  When a man has faith, but no acetic will, and his mind deviates from discipline ( yoga   yoga ) before its 26 perfection is achieved, what way is there for him, Krishna? Krishna responds by advising the fourth path of  yoga, of  yoga, Bhakti , the path of loving devotion: Of all the men of discipline, the faithful man devoted to me, with his inner self deep in mine, 27 I deem most disciplined. disciplined. 25 26

The Bhagavad Gita , translated by Barbara Stoler Miller Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter VI, Verses 1-4 Ibid., Verse 37

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One who serves me faithfully, with discipline of devotion, transcends the qualities of nature 28 and shares in the infinite spirit (Brahman  ( Brahman ). ). 29

Though there is disagreement  , this does not seem to suggest that the Bhakti  path will lead to moksha  from samsara . However, it is certainly recognized as as a valid and valued path for the masses masses of those not  inclined to ascetic ascetic discipline discipline and world-renouncing.

This is a way for those living in society society and

maintaining its functions to also participate in the spiritual ideals of Indian philosophy, and also reflects the religious attitudes towards the deities of the early Vedic  early Vedic scriptures. scriptures.

There are endless interpretations of the Bhagavad Gita  and its content, and it is difficult not to question whether it is an opiate for the masses merely disguising political symbolisms, especially in regard to Krishna‟s conclusion of advising  Bhakti  yoga as the highest path to the infinite spirit of  Brahman .  Ananda Coomaraswamy urges us to not quickly quickly dismiss dismiss this work, considering: considering: …the Bhagavad Gita as Gita  as probably the most important single work ever produced in India; this book  of eighteen chapters is not, as it has been sometimes called, a “sectarian” work, but one universally  studied and often repeated daily from memory by millions of Indians of all persuasions; it may be described as a compendium of the whole Vedic  doctrine to be found in the earlier Vedas , Brahmanas , and Upanisads , and being therefore the basis of all the later developments, it can be regarded as the focus of all Indian religion. To this we must add that the pseudo-historical Krishna  Krishna  30 and Arjuna are to be identified with the mythical Agni and Indra.

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Ibid., Verse 47

The Bhagavad Gita , translated by Barbara Stoler Miller Miller (New York: Bantam Books, 1986), Chapter XIV , Verse 26 Gavin Flood,  An Introduction to Hinduism , (Great Britain and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pgs. 126 -127. In writing of the importance of the Bhagavad-Gita, Flood asserts: ”Yet above action is the path of  devotion ( bhakti-yoga ) as a way of salvation. Indeed, even women and low castes can achieve liberation in this way, a statement in stark contrast to the orthodox brahmanical idea that only the twice-born have acc ess to liberation through renunciation.” T his writer finds many problematic issues with the above statement: primarily that this is a incredibly liberal interpretation of  “liberation” and does not really equal “ moksha” moksha” in theory or practical application within societal interpretation (until, perhaps, very recently), and secondly, the Upanishads had already opened up the path to moksha to a wider access than the twice-born ( Brahmin caste). Krishna councils Arjuna, a member of the kshatriya (warrior) caste regarding the yogic path. There seems no strong evidence that the authors of the Epics had any intention of philosophically qualifying women women and lower castes for moksha, though they may be happy in their lot of life through merging with Krishna (the Preserver of  life and society) through theistic devotion. 30 Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Hinduism and Buddhism , (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1943), pgs. 4-5 29

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It is common for exoteric religious canons to call on a sense of devotion and worship from the people to a  God-form. However, the idea that the inclusion of Bhakti, of  Bhakti, (as a superior form of discipline for those not  burning with desire to renounce the world to seek knowledge of God and Self), being a later addition to the original text can be satisfactorily satisfactorily dismissed. dismissed. The Four Traditional Paths of  Yoga  have long been regarded as complimentary, as different aspects of the whole, like fingers on a hand: It is popular these days for a teacher or institution to develop some approach to Yoga  that  "synthesizes" "synthesizes" or "integrates" these four paths of  Yoga (along Yoga  (along with other component aspects of Yoga  of  Yoga ). ). However, that is misleading in that they were never really divided in the first place. It is not a  matter of pasting together separate units. Rather, they are all a part of the whole which is called Yoga . Virtually all people have a predisposition predisposition towards one or the other, and will naturally want to 31 emphasize those practices.

 Additionally, as alluded alluded to by Coomaraswamy, Krishna, Krishna, the primary character of the entire Bhagavad Gita , is a  Bhakti  deity, and certainly not a figure emanating out of the other discipline branches of  Yoga . Devotion to a Lord who is personal is the primary characteristic to Bhagavatas  (those who worship a  composite God-form consisting of Vasudeva, Vishnu and Krishna) and this God-form is known as the Preserver/Sustainer (of life, society, the world, etc.) and can also be recognized as a continuing form of  Vedic  deities in charge of maintaining the order (rta  ( rta ) of the the universe. Had the original intent intent of the authors been to suggest the superiority of either  Jnana  (understanding/knowledge) or Raja  (royal meditation), the hero guide of the Epic story would have likely been Shiva due to that God-form‟ God-form ‟s association with ascetic world-renouncing  gurus and  gurus and samnyasin .

Perhaps the greatest commonality between the various darshanas , or worldviews, of India is the relative tolerance and acceptance acceptance of differing beliefs. beliefs. Here generalizations can get slippery and should should certainly not swing too broadly, but a foundational attitude within many Indian philosophical traditions can

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Raja, http://www.swamij.com/four-paths-ofSwami Jnaneshvara Bharati, Four Paths of Yoga: Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Raja, yoga.htm . Accessed 08 Dec. 2009.

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be found in application. application. Testimony, or shabda , as a separate and valid means of knowledge, is at home in Indian philosophical traditions,

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though it is barely regarded beneath the all consuming focus on

perception in Western Western philosophy traditions. traditions. The idea that the mind and experience experience of another person can always only be known as an object, (and therefore unknowable by the knowing subject of self), seems to be a core belief across the Indian philosophical/reli philosophical/religious gious spectrum. spectrum. Though we cannot know the mind of the other, the spirit of Indian philosophy seems to persuade that we are bound (due to moral dharma , realization that we are all Brahman , compassion through wisdom, or need to practice ahimsa ) to give due reverence to the many streams, threads, paths, visions of truth which are relative and proper to each person‟s understanding. understanding. To look at the differences in a hierarchical manner would would be to miss the point.

The goal of Indian philosophy since the time of the Upanishads  has been one seeking liberation, and this can be seen in the quest for enlightenment/ moksha  moksha . A corresponding, corresponding, but slightly less less obvious obvious goal has been another sort of liberation – freedom from the tyranny of words/language words/language to have power over our “worldview.” “worldview.” In the Vedas , the correct words of power were absolutely fundamental to the entire  worldview of the people. The Upanishads  lower the importance of words and point to that which is beyond. The Jains seek to analyze how words are bondage bondage to false concepts and the Buddhists Buddhists remind us that words are empty of inherent existence and push push beyond referential referential conceptions. Remember/Remember: Symbols are only the vehicles of vehicles of communication; they must not be mistaken for the final term, the tenor , of their reference. No matter how attractive or impressive impressive they they may seem, they remain but  convenient means, accommodated to the understanding. understanding. Hence the personality or personalities personalities of  God – whether represented in trinitarian, dualistic, or unitarian terms, in polytheistic, monotheistic, or henotheisitic terms, pictorially or verbally, as documented fact or as apocalyptic 33  vision – no one should attempt to read or interpret as the final thing.

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John M. Koller,  Asian Philosophies , 5 ed. (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2007), p. 144 nd Joseph Campbell, The Hero With a Thousand Faces, 2 ed. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), p. 236

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In conclusion, I find there is no proper conclusion, only many questions and many streams to explore in the mighty currents and tributaries of philosophical philosophical speculation.