Foundation Hypothesis

DEPARTEMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Content Page Introduction Section 1: Overview of the Scientific Method Section 1: Section 1: Section 1: Section 1: Section 1:

Meaning Meani ng of Hypothesis Hypothesi s Definitions of Hypothesis Importance of Hypothesis Nature of Hypothesis Writing a HypothesisMethodology: Research

Section 1: Section 1: Section 1: Section 1:

Characteristics of Good Hypothesis Good Hypotheses Tips Variables in a Hypothesis Kinds of Hypotheses Hypothes es

Foundation of Hypothesis

Section 1: Scientific Hypothesis Requirements Bibliography

BODJE NKAUH NATHAN REGIS M.PHIL 2010 CHRIST UNIVERSITY

Unit I

Content Page

 Section 01 :

Introduction

03

Overview

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of the Scientific Method

 Section 02 : Meaning of Hypothesis

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 Section 03 : Definitions of Hypothesis

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 Section 04 : Importance of Hypothesis

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 Section 05 : Nature of Hypothesis

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 Section 06 : Writing a Hypothesis

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 Section 07 : Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

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Hypotheses Tips  Section 08 : Good Hypotheses

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 Section 09 : Variables in a Hypothesis

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 Section 10 : Kinds of Hypotheses

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 Section 11 : Scientific Hypothesis Requirements

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Conclusion

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References

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Introduction

The typical presentation of the Scientific Method suggests that scientific research follows a path, proceeding from a question through observation, hypothesis formation, and experimentation and finally producing results and a conclusion. A scientific study is based on hypotheses. For the assignment of research methodology courses, we have chosen to speak about hypothesis , because it may  be appropriate before write the research proposal to formulate major hypotheses and several hypotheses of our subject. The formulation of hypothesis is a central step in good research [6], and it is important to give and understand very well many aspect of this. It is what; this document is tried to do. To avoid some problem in formulate hypothesis, and aid to ask the right question to write the good hypothesis.

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Overview

of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for  cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. [1] The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number. Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your  science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your  experiment.

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Meaning of Hypothesis The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis [1] (1) Hypo¶ means tentative or subject to the verification and Thesis¶ means statement about solution of a problem. µ

µ

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the  problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and  based on some rationale. (2) Hypo¶ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified. Thesis¶ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference. µ

µ

This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified empirically. It is a proposition about the fact ual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under  observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of  what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action- in the research for new truth.

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Definitions of Hypothesis A hypothesis is an "educated guess" about how things work. It can be an educated guess about what nature is going to do, or about why nature does what it does. [3] is simply an educated²and testable²guess about the answer to your research question [6]

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A tentative supposition or provisional guess ³

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³

A Tentative generalization 

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It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.´ John W. Best ³

Guides the Thinking Process 

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A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes the basis for further investigation.´ A Lungberg ³

Shrewd Guess 

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Hypotheses are single tentative guesses--good hunches--assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiment, intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible.´ Eric M. Rogers, "Physics for the Inquiring Mind." (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1966) It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which se ems to explain the situation under observation.´ James E. Greighton

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Science employs hypothesis in guiding the thinking process. When our  experience tells us that a given phenomenon follows regularly upon the appearance of certain other phenomena, we conclude that the former is connected with the latter by some sort of r elationship and we form an hypothesis concerning this relationship.´ A.D. Carmichael ³

Test to determine its validity 

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A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a  proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.´ Goode and Han ³

A theory when stated as a testable proposition formally and clearly a nd subjected to empirical or experimental verification is known as a hypothesis.´ M. Verma ³

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Relationship between two or more variables 

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A hypothesis then could be defined as an expectation about events based on generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.´ Bruce W. Tuckman ³

Statement temporarily accepted as true 

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A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known about a phenomena, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search for new truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts, principles and theories.´ Barr and Scates ³

Hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested on the  basis of the computability of its implications with empirical evidence with  previous knowledge.´ George, J. Mouly ³

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Importance of Hypothesis Bruce W. Tuckman presents the importance of Hypothesis in the Research Spectrum : Research begins with a problem and utilization of both theories and findings in arriving at hypothesis. These hypotheses contain variables which must be labelled a nd then operationally defined to construct predictions. These steps might be considered the logical stages of t he research. These stages are followed by methodological stages, which culminate in the development of research design and development of measures and finally in the finding themselves.

George J. Mouley thinks that Hypotheses serve the following purposes: 1. They provide direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the collection of useful or excess data. 2. They sensitize the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the standpoint of the problem at hand. 3. They enable the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its ramification. 4. They serve as a framework for the conclusive-in short a good hypothesis: (a) Gives help in deciding the direction in which he has to proceed. (b) It helps in selecting pertinent fact. (c) It helps in drawing conclusions.

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Nature of Hypothesis The following are the main features of a hypothesis: 1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a hypothesis. The concepts should be clearly defined, operationally if possible. Moreover, they should be definitions which are commonly accepted and communicable rather than the  products of a  private world´ . ³

2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts, it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification. 3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates t he tentative relationship between two or more variables. In other words, while the hypothesis may study value judgments, such a goal must be separated from a moral preachment or a plea for acceptance of one¶s values [7] 4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future verification not the past facts and inf ormations. 5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification. The nature of hypothesis can be well understood by differentiating it with other terms like assumption and postulate.

 Rapid  Reference: Assum ption, Postul ate and Hy pothesis Assumption: Assumption means taking things for granted so that the situation is simplified

for logical procedure. They merely facilitate the progress of an agreement a partial simplification by introducing restrictive conditions. For example, the for mulas of Statistics and measurement are based on number of assumptions. Assumption means restrictive conditions before the argument can become valid. Assumptions are made on the basis of  logical insight and their truthfulness can be observed on the basis of data or evidences. Postulate: Postulates are the working beliefs of most scientific activity. The mathematician  begins by postulating a system of numbers which range from 0 to 9 and can permute and combine only thereafter. Similarly Hull¶s Theory of Reinforcement¶s is based on eight  postulates of behavior of an organism. With many people God and Spirit is a postulate of the good life or godly life. Postulates are not proven; they ar e simply accepted at their face value so that their basic work for the discovery of other facts of nature can begin. µ

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is different from both of these. It is the presumptive statement of a  proposition which the investigator seeks to pr ove. It is a condensed generalization. This generalization requires a knowledge of principles of things or essential characteristics which  pertain to entire class of phenomena.

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Writing a Hypothesis Most of the time a hypothesis is written like this: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." [1] Example - If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light , then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer. - If leaf color change is related to temperature, then exposing plants to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.  Notice that these statements contain t he words, if and then. They are necessary in a formalized hypothesis. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. For example, - If I play the lottery, then I will get rich. T his is a simple prediction. In a formalized hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. if you a lways ask yourself that if  one thing is related to another, then you should be able to test it. Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is "independent" and the other is "dependent" [4]. The independent variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results.  Rapid  Reference: S am ple V ari ables & Hy pothesis [5] Question: Which AA battery maintains its voltage for the longest period of time in low,

medium, and high current drain devices? Variables: - Independent Variable: Time, how long each battery operates. - Dependent Variable: Voltage.

Experime ntal Group

Controlled Variables for Each Group

Low current drain

Same portable CD player | Play the same music track | Play at the same volume level

Medium current drain

Identical flashlight | Identical light bulb

High current drain

Same camera flash

All groups

Battery size (AA) | Constant temperature (A battery works better at a warm temperature.)

Hypothesis: As I test for increasingly long periods of ti me, the Energizer AA battery will maintain a higher voltage than other batteries.

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Characteristics of Good Hypothesis A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics: 1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts. 2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true. 3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term. 4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning. 5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally called hunch. 6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the investigator. 7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools a nd techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of verification. 8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different t ypes controls which are to be exercised for the purpose of verification. 9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is r eadily approachable. 10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study. 11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law, facts, assumption and postulate.

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Good Hypotheses Tips The question comes first. Before you make a hypothesis, you have to clearly identify the question you are interested in studying. A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Your hypothesis is not the scientific question in your project. The hypothesis is an educat ed, testable prediction about what will happen. Make it clear. A good hypothesis is written in clear and simple language. Reading your hypothesis should tell a teacher or judge exactly what you thought was going to happen when you started your project. Keep the variables in mind. A good hypothesis defines the variables in easy-tomeasure terms, like who the participants ar e, what changes during the testing, and what the effect of the changes will be. (For more information a bout identifying variables, see: Variables in Your Science Fair Project.) Make sure your hypothesis is "testable." To prove or disprove your hypothesis, you need to be able to do an experiment and take measurements or make observations to see how two things (your variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your  experiment over and over again, if necessary. To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these things: 1. Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do the test. 2. Identified the variables in the project. 3. Included the independent and dependent variables in the hypothesis statement. (This helps ensure that your statement is specific enough. Do your research. You may find many studies similar to yours have already been conducted. What you learn from available research and data can help you shape your   project and hypothesis. Don't bite off more than you can chew! Answering some scientific questions can involve more than one experiment, each with its own hypothesis. Make sure your  hypothesis is a specific statement relating to a single experiment.

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To help demonstrate the above principles and techniques for developing and writing solid, specific, and testable hypotheses, we offer the following good and bad examples.

Good Hypothesis

Poor

When there is less oxygen in the water, rainbow  trout suffer more lice. Kristin says: "This hypothesis is good because it is testable, simple, written as a statement, and establishes the participants (trout ), variables (oxygen in water, and  numbers of lice), and predicts effect (as oxygen levels go down, the numbers of lice g o up)."

Our universe is surrounded by another, larger universe, with which we c an have absolutely no contact. Kristin says: "This statement may or may not be true, but it is not a scientific hypothesis. By its very nature,it is not testable. There are no observations that a scientist can make to tell whether or not the hypothesis is correct. This statement is speculation, not a hypothesis."

 Aphid-infected  plants that are ex   posed to ladybugs will have fewer a phids after a week than a phidinfected  plants which are left untreated. Sandra says: "This hypothesis gives a clear indication of  what is to be tested (the ability of ladybugs to curb an aphid infestation), is a manageable size for a single experiment, mentions the independent v ariable (ladybugs) and the dependent variable (number of  aphids), and predicts the effect (exposure to ladybugs reduces the number of aphids)."

Ladybugs

Foundation of Hypothesis

Hypothesis

are a good natural  pesticide for  treating a phid infected  plants. Sandra says: "This statement is n ot 'bite size.' Whether or not something is a 'good natural pesticide' is too vague for a science fair project. There is no clear indication of what will be measured to evaluate the pr ediction.

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Variables in a Hypothesis A hypothesis is made testable by providing operational definitions for the terms or variables of the hypothesis. For a testable hypothesis there are two i mportant things : Variables, and Operational definitions. There are five types of variables.

(i) The Independent Variable: The independent variable which is a stimulus variable or input operates either within a person or within environment to affect his behaviour. It is that factor  which is measured, manipulated. or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an observed phenomena. If a researcher is studying the relationship between two variables X and Y. If X is independent variable, then it affects another variable Y: So the characteristics of independent variables are: (a) It is the cause for change in other variables. (b) Independent variables are always interested only it affects another variable, not in what affects it. (ii) The Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is response variable or output. It is a n observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated. The dependent variable is that factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variables. It is the variable that will change a s a result of variations in the independent variable. It is considered dependent because its value depends upon the value of  the independent variable. It represents the consequence of change in the parson or situation studied.

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 Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables: Most experiments involve many variables when two continuous variables ar e compared, as in correlation studies, deciding which variable to call independent and which dependent is sometimes arbitrary. In

such cases variables are often not labelled as independent or dependent since there is no real distinction. Independent variables may be called factor and their variation may be called levels. (iii) The Moderator Variable: The term moderator variable describes a special type of  independent variable a secondary independent variable select ed for study to determine if it affects the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable. The moderator variable is defined as that factor which is measured, manipulated or selected  by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of independent variable to an observed phenomena. The sex and rural ur ban generally function as moderator variables. (iv) Control Variable: All the variables in a situation can not be studied at the same time, some must be neutralized to guarantee that they will not have a differential or moderating effect on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. T hese variables whose effects must be neutralized or controlled ar e known as control variables. They are defined as those factors which are controlled by experimenter t o cancel out or neutralize any effect they might otherwise have on the observed phenomena. While the effects of the control variables are neutralized, the effect of moderator variables are studied. Certain variables appear repeatedly as control variables, although they occasionally serve as moderator  variables. For example sex, intelligence and socio-economic status are three subject variables that ar e commonly controlled, noise, task order and task content are common control variables in the situation. (v) Intervening Variable: Each independent, moderator, and control variable can be manipulated by the experimenter and each variation can be observed by him as it affects the dependent variable. Often these variables are not concrete but hypothetical, the relationship  between a hypothetical underlying or intervening variable and dependent variable. An intervening variable is that factor which affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen and measured or manipulated, Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the Independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomena. The attitude, learning process, habit and interest function as Intervening variables. In addition, the extraneous variables have an impact upon this Intervening variable. Such extraneous variables are not under the researcher¶s control, their presence weakens a study. One of the goals of a researcher is to remove as many significant factors as possible from the extraneous variables category by bringing them into the categories of moderator and control variables. Such a process of removing extraneous variables strengthens a study.

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Kinds of Hypotheses The following kinds of hypotheses represent an attempt to order the more commonly observed varieties as well as to provide some general guidelines for hypothesis, development and statement. There are four kinds of hypotheses: (a) Question (b) Declaration Statement (c) Directional Statement and (d) Null form or Non-Directional. a. Question form of Hypotheses: Some writers assert that a hypothesis may be stated as a question, however, there is no general consensus on this view. At best, it represents the simplest level of empirical observation. The following example of a question is used to illustrate the various hypothesis forms: H: Is there a significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes?  b.  Declarative Statement : A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative which provide an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. The following is an example of this form of hypothesis H : There is significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes. c.  Directional Hypothesis : A hypothesis may be directional which connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference between variables. The above hypothesis has  been written in directional statement for m as follows: H : Extrovert learns better through intermittent schedule of reinforcement whereas introvert learns through continuous schedule of reinforcement. d.  N on-Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables. The following are the examples of null form of hypothesis H0 : There is no significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on learning outcomes. H0 : There is no significant relationship between intelligence and achievement of students.

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Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null  hypothesis [8]. Sometimes we use a notation like H A or H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your   prediction, and H O or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In some studies, your prediction might very well be that there will be no difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are opposed to the alternative. If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-t ailed hy pothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of the company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested a gainst the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of the company employee training program, there will be a significant decrease in employee absenteeism. In the figure on the left, we see this situation illustrated graphically. The alternative hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will decrease absenteeism -- is shown there. The null must account for the other two  possible conditions: no difference, or an increase in absent eeism. The figure shows a hypothetical distribution of absenteeism differences. We ca n see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable. When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-t ailed hy pothesis. For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans.

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You believe (based on theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression (after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side effects t hat actually worsened symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be no significant difference in depression. which is tested a gainst the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be a significant difference in depression. The figure on the right illustrates this t wotailed prediction for this case. Again, notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of  the distribution for your outcome variable. The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you formulate your   prediction (directional or not), and then you formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first a nd incorporates all  possible alternative outcomes for that case. When your study analysis is completed, the idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then you would (usually) reject t he null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If your original  prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles: y

the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all possible outcomes

y

the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected

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Scientific Hypothesis Requirements What makes a statement a scientific hypothesis, rather than just an interesting speculation? A scientific hypothesis must meet 2 requirements: 1. A scientific hypothesis must be testable, Science proceeds by making observations of nature (experiments). If a hypothesis does not generate any observational tests, there is nothing that a scientist can do with it. Arguing backand-forth about what should happen, or what ought to happen, is not the way science makes  progress [3] 2. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable. According to the 20th-century philosopher Karl Popper, hypotheses must be falsifiable (Popper, 1963). In other words, the researcher must be able to demonstrate that the hypothesis is wrong. If a hypothesis is not falsifiable, then science cannot be used to test the hypothesis. For example, hypotheses based on religious beliefs are not falsifiable. Therefore, because we can never prove that faith-based hypotheses are wrong, there would be no point in conducting research to test them. Another way of saying this is that the researcher  must be able to reject the proposed explanation (i.e., hypothesis) of the phenomenon being studied. [6]  Notice: Most Scientific Hypotheses Can't Be Proven Correct! Hypothesis C: "Any two objects dropped from the same height above the surface of the earth will hit the ground at the same time, as long as air resistance is not a factor." Hypothesis C is a scientific hypothesis because: + It is testable - pick 2 objects, and drop them. Of course, you may have to provide a vacuum for them to fall in, in order to remove air resistance from consideration. + It is falsifiable - If anyone finds 2 objects that don't hit the ground at the same time and can show that it is not due to air resistance, then she has proven the hypothesis wrong. This hypothesis "sticks its neck out" for every test. In theory and in practice, if Hypothesis C were wrong, it would be very easy and straightforward to show it.  Note that it is very easy to prove Hypothesis C wrong, but it is impossible to prove it correct! Since Hypothesis C states that any pair of objects behaves in a certain way, in order to prove it correct, all possible combinations of objects that exist (or have ever, or will ever exist) must  be tested. This is clearly not possible. As we test Hypothesis C more and more, we can get more and more confident in its truth, but we can never be absolutely sure. Someone could always come up with 2 objects tomorrow which don't behave exactly as Hypothesis C says they should, and this would make Hypothesis C incorrect. Actually, this almost happened. Just a few years ago a group of physicists published a paper  claiming that careful reanalysis of some experimental data published at the turn of the centur y (which confirmed Hypothesis C) actually showed that t hings made of large, heavy atoms fall very slightly faster than things made of small, light atoms. This "fifth (antigravity) force" idea caused quite a stir for a short while, but no one has (so far) been able to confirm this effect. If  other physicists had been able to observe it, Hypothesis C would have been proven wrong.

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Conclusion

According to L. R. Gay and Peter Airasian, a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain  behaviors, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur. "A good hypothesis states as clearly and concisely as possible the expected relationship (or differencce) between two variables and defines those variables in operational, measurable terms." (Gay 1996, page 62). A well-stated and defined hypothesis must be testable. It should be possible to support or not support the hypothesis by collecting and ana lyzing data. To formulate a research hypothesis we start with a research question and generate operational definitions for all variables. A hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Hypothesis can also be classified in terms of  how they were derived inductive hypothesis which is a generalization based on observation and deductive hypothesses derived fr om theory.

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References

[1] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/pro ject_scientific_method.shtml [2] Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics Y.K. Singh, NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS [3] http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/phynet/aboutscience/hypotheses.html [4] http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.php [5] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_sample_variables.shtml [6] Essentials of Behavioral Science Series Founding Editors, Alan S. Kaufman a nd Nadeen L. Kaufman [7] Methods in social research, William J. Goode and Paul K. Hatt [8] http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php [9] Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application, Seventh E dition by L. R. Gay and Peter Airasian (2003, Merrill/Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-099463-4)

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