Fossils - A Golden Nature Guide

GOLDEN NATURE GUIDES Bl RD S

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FISHES

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FOSSILS

WEATHER

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FLOWERS

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

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INSECTS

STARS

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TREES

MAMMALS •

GAMEBIRDS

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BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS INSECT PESTS

ZOO ANIMALS

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POND LIFE

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/ 481 ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR

OSSILS A GUIDE TO PREHISTORIC LIFE by FRANK H. T. RHODES Professor of Geology, University College of Swansea, Wales

HERBERT S. ZIM PAUL R. SHAFFER

ILLUSTRATED BY RAYMOND PERLMAN Professor of Art, University of Illinois

NA.NI A GOLDEN NATURE GUIDE

GOLDEN PRESS

�) NEW

YORK

FO R E W O R D

This g u i d e to l ife of the past d iffers from oth e r G o l den Natu re G u i des. In stead of d ea l i n g w ith a s i n g l e g ro u p of p l ants or a n i ma l s , it d ea l s w ith them all. In stead of b e i n g c o n ce r n ed o n ly w ith t h e i m med iate p rese nt, i t s scope covers over half a b i l l ion years. In stead of d ea l i n g w ith l ife first h a n d , t h i s g u i de m ust rely on o n l y scant c l u es­ b its of s h e l l , b o n e, or s u n d ry fos s i l i m p ress i o n s . S u c h c l u es a re scarce, so each m u st b e stu d ied m i n utely. De­ ta i l s a re i m porta nt and th ey h ave been stres sed i n the systematic s u rvey of fos s i l fo rms. M ost fos s i l s have o n l y scientific n a m es a n d these often refer t o g ro u ps rather than to species. We h ave many i n stitut i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s to t h a n k for aid w ith th i s book. D i o ramas and m u ra l s of the C h i cago N at. H i st. M u se u m are the basis for many of o u r resto ra­ t i o n s. T h e Un i ve rsity of Il l i n o i s , the Il l i n o i s G e o l o g ical S u rvey, the U.S. N at i o n a l M u seu m , the Un ivers ity C o l lege of Swa n sea, the Ward 's Natu ral H i sto ry Esta b l i s h m ent, Inc. l o a n ed us spec i m e n s . So d i d M . W. Sanderso n , A . F. Hag ner, W. W. Hay and F. J. Koen i g . A n gela H eath and S h i rley O s b o r n e have assisted the s e n i o r author, and many m o re of our co l l eag ues have g iven u s p h otog rap h s , s peci­ mens, c o m m e nts, a n d s u g g esti o n s . F . H .T.R. H . S .Z. P . R.S . ©Copyright 1962 by Western Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved, including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, in­ cluding the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietor. Pro­ duced in the U.S.A. by Western Publishing Company, Inc. Published by Golden Press, New York, N.Y. library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 62-21640

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CONTENTS LIFE, PAST AND PRESENT..

4

T h e eart h , its l ife and how l i v i n g t h i n g s h a v e evolved. INTRODUCTION TO FOSSILS 10

W hat foss i l s are. How they are formed. D ifferent types of fossi l s . FOSSILS F O R AMATEURS . . .

19

Eq u i p ment needed. W h ere, when and how to c o l l ect. M u seums and other exh ibits. LIFE O F THE PAST......

27

A s u rvey of l ife era by era. Paleozoic E ra . . . . . . . . . .. . Mesozoic Era . . . Cenozoic Era . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34 49 61

IN VERTEBRATE FOSSILS . . .

A systematic s u rvey of g ro u p s . P rotozoa n s . . . . . . . . . . . S p o n g es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coele nte rates ; cora l s . . B ryozoans . . . . . . . . . . . . Brac h iopods . . . . . . . . .. A n n e l i d s ; worms . . . . . . A rthropod s ; tril obites . E c h i noderms . . . . . . . . . . M o l l u s ks . . . . . . . . . . . . G raptol ites . . . . . . . . . . .

72

typical ... ... . . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

...

75 76 77 81 82 92 93 1 04 110 1 31

VERTEBRATE FOSSILS . . . . . . 132

A look at some c o m m o n g r o u p s . F i s h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 32 A m p h ibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 39 Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 1 41 B i rd s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 46 Mammals . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 1 47 PLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . 150 A brief s u rvey of some c o m m o n fo ssil p la nts, their evo l ution and th e i r i d entificati o n .

INDEX . . . . .

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.............

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. . . 157

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LIFE, PAST AND PRESENT T h e earth teems with l ife. M o u nta i n s , p rai ries, deserts, beach es, l a kes, rivers and seas - every part of l a n d , sea and air is i n ha b ited by l i v i n g t h i n g s . The n u m b er of d ifferent s p e c i es of l i v i n g t h i n g s i s e n o rm o u s . M o re than 350,000 s pe­ cies of p l a n ts and 1, 120,000 species of a n i ma l s are kn own . H ow d i d th ese m a n y species o ri g i nate? Has l ife always been the same as it i s n ow? Men h ave asked th ese q u es­ t i o n s fo r t h o u sa n d s of years. To a n swe r them we m u st tu rn to foss i l s a n d to a knowledge of l i v i n g o rg a n i s m s a n d t h e i r structu re. O n ly a n u n de rsta n d i n g o f l i vi n g an i ma l s c a n p ut l ife i n the frag m e nts o f b o n es a n d s he l l s m i l l i o n s of yea rs o l d . T h e e l e p hant i s t h e larg est l i v i n g l a n d a n i m a l . B u t the stu dy of fo s s i l s s h ows not o n l y that e l e p hants a re a recent g ro u p in the l o n g h i sto ry of l iv i n g th i n gs but a l s o that early e l e p h ants l o o ked m o re l i ke hogs. As g eo l o g i sts t race e l e p h ant fos s i l s from o l d e r to you n g e r rocks t h ey p i ece tog ether the h i sto ry of e l e p h ant evo l ut i o n . Fo ss i l b o n es a n d teeth reveal the stru ct u re of early e l e p h a nts, but by stu d y i n g t h ese fo s s i l s i n the l i g ht of the a nato my of l i vi ng e l e p h ants, com p lete recon structio n s of exti n ct e l e p h ants can be made w ith reaso n a b l e acc u racy. S o m e u n u s ua l occ u r rences of m astodon fos s i l s w ith c r u d e fl i nt wea p o n s p rove that t h e s e e l e p h ants were h u nted b y o u r a n cestors. 4

EVOLUT I O N O F E LE P H A N T S

T R I LO P H O D O N U . M iocene-L. P l iocene 1 0-20 m i l l i o n years ago

L i v i n g ele p h a nts are s u rvivors of a n an­ cient, m o re w i d e s p read and varied gro u p , w h i c h evolved f r o m p i g - s ized ancestors of the Upper Eocene. (See the g e o l o g ic clock, p p . 30-31 .) O n l y a few of the m a n y ext i nct elephants and their kin a r e s h own.

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OVER 1,000,000 ANIMAL SPECIES

1. 2. 3. ·�·...--... 4 . 5. 6.

A rth ropods-900 ,000 M o l l u sks-45,000 C h o rdates-45,000 P rotozo a n s - 30,000 Worm- l i ke p h y l a - 38,000 Other i n v e rteb rates - 2 1 ,000 A pproxi mately 1 ,000,000

A L L FO R M S OF L I FE have evo l ved from early beg i n ­ n i n g s, s o m e th ree b i l l io n yea rs ago. F r o m rel atively few p ri m itive forms, the maj o r g ro u ps of p l ants a n d a n i m a l s deve l o p e d . L i v i n g th i n g s b e c a m e m o re c o m p l i cated a n d ada pted t o many d i ffe rent ways of l i v i n g . T h e n u m be r of d ifferent s pe c i es g rad u a l ly i n creased u nt i l t h ey rea c h ed the trem e n d o u s d i vers ity of today. The stu d y of fos s i l s (paleonto l o g y) t races the vari o u s paths by w h i c h a n i mals and p lants evo l ved to t h e i r present fo rms. S o m e , l i ke e l e­ p ha nts a n d h o rses, have c h a n ged g reatly ·th ro u gh the ages. Oth e rs, l i ke the h o rsesh oe c rab a n d cockroach, have not c h a n g ed i n h u n d reds of m i l l i o n s of yea rs . Sti l l ot h e r foss i l s s h ow l i n es o f develo pment that c a m e to a d ead e n d . G ia nt S l oth s, o n ce p l entif u l , are k n o w n o n l y as fos s i l s . GL YPTODONT, 9ft., an armo red mam­

mal from the late Cenozoic, is a fossil that s h ows spectac u l a r and obvious ada ptat i o n . T h i s relative of the armadillos was protected a g a i n st carnivores and other e n e m i es by a th i c k , solid, d o m ed armor, w h i c h reached 5 ft. in len gth i n s o m e forms. T he h ead a n d ta i l were a l so armored, and in some species the tail te r m i nated i n a s p i ked, mace- l i ke c l u b . Yet despite, o r because o f , t h e s e u n u sual adaptions g l y ptodo nts became exti n ct.

ABOUT 350,000 PLANT SPECIES

1. 2. 3. 4.

Floweri n g P lan ts-250,000 Ferns, C o n ifers, etc. -10 ,000 M o s ses and Liverwo rts-23,000 A l gae, F u n g i , etc.-60,000 A bo u t 350,000 plant species

M o st p l ants a n d a n i m a l s ex i st o n l y be­ cause t h ey a re s u ccessfu l l y adapted to t h e i r e n v i ro n m ent s. Eac h d i sti n ct e n v i ro n ment s u c h as a desert, pond o r m o u n ­ ta i n t o p s u p p o rts a m o re o r less d i sti n ct p o p u lati o n o f a n i­ m a l s a n d p l a nts. T h ose w h i c h , over l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e , h a v e beco m e fitted t o c o p e w i t h local c o n d it i o n s h a v e s u r­ v i v e d . A l l t h e rest have become exti n ct. M a n y l i v i n g th i n g s a re u n i q u e l y adapted to parti c u l a r e n v i ro n m e nts. T h e strea m l i n e d s hape of a fis h a n d the struct u re a n d f u n ct i o n o f its fi n s a n d ta i l a re adaptat i o n s t o l ife i n t h e water. T h e fl e s h y ste m s o f a cact u s are adaptat i o n s that c o n serve water i n t h e desert. Such ada ptati o n s s u cceeded, b u t the fo s s i l record i s strew n with the rem a i n s of those t h at fa i l e d . T h e s l o g a n o f l ife m a y wel l be - a d a pt o r per i s h . A D A PT A T I O N

S u rvival i n a n i m a l s depends o n a d a pta­ t i o n s as varied and as i ntri cate as t h e a n i m a l s t h e msel ves. V i rt u a l l y every struc­ t u re of a plant o r a n i ma l may be regarded as a d a ptive. M a n y a n i ma l s have p rotec­ tive c o l o r i n g and a few forms, s u c h as the bottom-l i v i n g flo u n der, a re a b l e to c h a n ge t h e i r color t o c o n f o r m to their back­ g ro u n d . S u c h an i ntri cate adaptat i o n is rarely d i s cern i b l e in foss i l s. However, if the adaptati on affects b o ne or s h e l l , it may s h ow u p c l early i n the foss i l record.

EVOLUTION OF TH VERTEBRATES

A dapted from W. K. Gregory

ENT OF M O D E R N A N I M A L L I FE is d if­ fi c u lt to trace b ecause the fos s i l reco rd is i n c o m p l ete. E n o u g h i s known to s u g g est the g e n e ral pattern of evo l u ­ t i o n a n d t o reco n struct i n some d etai l h i story of g ro u p s i n 8

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