Forensic Ballistic Notes

FORENSIC BALLIST IC BALLISTICS – is the science of the motion of projectile. ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC – The word “BALLIST ICS” originated from the Greek word “Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word “Ballista” which is machine to hurl a stone. -From those words the modern term for Forensic Ballistics was derived to indicate the science of moving projectile. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS a. ) INTERIOR BALLIST ICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles while still in the firearm, namely the studies of combustion of the powder, pressure developed and velocity. b. ) EXT ERIOR BALLIST ICS – traits of the motion of the projectiles after leaving the muzzle namely trajector y, velocit y, range penetration, etc. c. ) T ERMINAL BALLISTICS – traits of the effects of the projectile on impact on the target. d. ) FORENSIC BALLISTIC – the science of firearms identification by means of the ammunition fired through them. DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLIST ICS: a. ) FIELD NVEST IGATION – refers to the work of an investigation in the field. It concerns mostly with the collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of firearms evidences. It include the study of class characteristics of firearms and bullets. b. ) T ECHNICAL EXAMINATION – refers to the examiners who examine bullets/ or shells, whether fired from also whether or not cartridges were loaded and ejected made by the suspected firearms submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and testif y in court regarding their reports. LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – “Firearms” or “Arms” are herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may discharge off by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal Revenue Code). T ECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM – instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by means of expansive force of gases from burning powder. AMMUNITION (defined) – under the National Internal Revenue Code the wor d “Ammunition” shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which bullets, ball shot, shell or other missile may be ammunition for air rifles. PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLET S)

1.

No t wo barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possesses individual characteristics markings of their own.

2.

W hen a bullet is fired from rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving on the bullets fired from one barrel will be different from another bullet fired from another barrel.

3.

Ever y barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on ver y single bullet fired through it just as every breech face leaves its thumb mark on the base of ever y fired cartridges case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS) 1.

T he breech face and striker of ever y single firearm leave microscopical individualities of their own.

2.

T he firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb mark” on ever cartridges case which it fires.

3.

T he whole principles of identification is based on the fact that since the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridges cases which it fires are imprinted with this individualit y. The imprints on all cartridges cases fired from the same weapon are always the same; those on cartridges cases fired from different weapons are different.

T YPES OF PROBLEMS: T here Forensic ballistic, namely:

are

six

(6)

types

of

problems

in

Type 1Given bullets, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired. Type 2Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and type of firearm from which it was fired. Type 3Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the bullet was fired from the suspected firearm. Type 4Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearms, to determine whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the suspected firearm. Type 5Given t wo or more bullets, to determine whether or not they wer e fired from only one firearm. Type 6Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether or not they wer e fired from only one firearm. CLASS CHARACT ERISTICS – Those which are determine prior to the manufacturer of the firearm and are within control of man. These serve as basis to identify a certain class or group of firearm. a b c d

) ) ) )

Caliber (Bore Diameter) Number of lands Number of grooves W idth of lands

e ) W idth of grooves f ) Direction of twist g ) Pitch of rifling h ) Depth of grooves

INDIVIDUAL CHARACT ERISTICS – Those which are determinable only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose

existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse, militilations, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes. SMALL ARMS – firearms which propel projectiles of less than one inch in diameter. T YPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL: a )

Smooth-bore – firearm which do not have rifling Ex: shotguns, muskets

b )

Rifled- bore – firearm which contain rifling marks. Ex: pistols, revolvers, rifles

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION – small arms ammunition consists of cartridges used in rifles, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns and shell used in shotgun. EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMET ERS: a ) Caliber .22 b ) Caliber c ) Caliber .32 d ) Caliber .30 e ) Caliber .38 f ) Caliber .45 g ) Caliber .30

– About .25 – – About – About – About – About – About

5.59 mm. About 6.35 mm. 7.65 mm. 7.63 mm. (mouser) 9 mm. 11 mm. 7.56 mm. (Luger)

RIFLING – consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore. The rifling in firearms may be divided into the following types: a ) Small type – four grooves, right hand t wist, grooves and lands of equal width. (4R G-L) b ) Smith and W esson type – five grooves, right hand t wist, grooves and lands of equal width (5R G-L) c ) Browning type – six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6R G2X) d ) Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6L G2X) e ) W ebley type – seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (7R G3X) f ) Arm y type – four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R G3X) PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of rotation to a bullet during its passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the flight, and so that it will travel nose-on towards the target. PARTS OF CARTRIDGES a) Bullet b ) Shell T YPES OF CARTRIDGES:

c ) Gunpowder d ) Primer

a ) Pin- fire – the pin extends radically through the need of the cartridges case into the primer. b ) Rim- fire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of the head of the cartridges case. The flame produced is in direct communication wit h the powder charge. Used in the calibers .22, .25 and .45 Derringer pistols. c ) Center-fire – the primer sup is forced into the middle portion of the head of the cartridges case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin. The flame is communicated to the powder charge through the vents leading into the powder charge.

T YPES OF CENT ER-FIRE CARTRIDGES: a ) Rimmed type – the rim of the cartridges case is greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22 b ) Semi rimmed type – the rim of the cartridge case is slightly greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal. Super .38 auto, Pistol, .32 and .25 c ) Rimmed less type – the rim of the cartridges case is equal to the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30 carbine .223 PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOT ING CASES W hen an officer arrives upon the scene of a shooting case, he is usually confronted by a condition of utter confusion. Neighbors and onlookers are crowded around the place; relatives are weeping and hysterical. In his career as an officer he will meet with other situations which require as much as much poises tact and common sense when he appears upon the scene of homicide. His first dut y is to clear the premises of all persons so that an intelligent investigation is not a matter of five or ten minutes, but it requires that a definite routine shall be followed, if mistakes are to be avoided. Things should be done, which may appear wholly unnecessar y at the time, but only to become vitally important later. One can never forces the angels that will develop and it is far better to do a hundred things unnecessarily than to miss doing one that might mean the solution of the case. T he victim is dead and will stay dead. The officer may be important by reporters or other to do things which he is not yet ready to do – to give statement to the press or to draw conclusion. In spite of all persuasions, he should bear in mind that there is one purpose and one purpose only, and that is to carry out an intelligent investigation. Upon receiving a cell to the sense of a shooting case, the officer should always take along with him a loose- leaf notebook and fountain pen to make notes at the time and on the place and not trust to his memory to reconstruct the situation at his convenience.

W hen the officer is should follow a writing at the references and as follows:

summoned on such an errand, his procedure logical pattern. His observation should be put in time of his investigation to keep for future to produce in court if necessary. These steps are

1. Note accurately in wr iting the time he received the call and by whom it was sent. 2. Note accurately the time he arrive at the scene and the correct address. T hese first t wo items seem to be trivial, but it is amazing how often in court they become of vital importance. It is not uncommon that the officer is unable to fix the time accurately within an hour to the satisfaction of a jur y. 3. He should ascertain if the victim is dead, and if not non-medical aid or remove the body to a hospital, other wise the body should not be disturbed. 4. Immediately clear the premises of all bystanders and under no circumstances allow anyone to touch or remove anything in the vicinit y. 5. Use ever y effort and means to identify the deceased. 6. Does the body lie where the shooting took place? Often, before the officer arrives the body will be moved by a bystander. Frequently it will be picked up off the floor and put a bed or taken from one room to another. 7. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take wr itten notes on the statement of as many persons as practicable. 8. Photograph the body from all angels to show its relationship to doors, windows, furniture’s and other objects in the room. 9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relation to the previously mentioned fixtures of the premises. 10.

Note in writing the exact position where he found the body whether he found it lying on the side, back or abdomen that objects if any, were in the hands; reports what was the conditions of the clothing and the amount of bleeding.

11. Examine the ceiling, floor and furniture for bullet holes, blood stains, fired bullets, fired shell or shotgun wadding. 12.

If there is a firearm at the scene, he should mote in writing the following observations: a. Exactly where found. b. Type of weapon – automatic pistol, revolvers, rifle, or shot gun, caliber or gauge designation. c. Make and serial numbers and at that time he should mark his initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future identification. d. Other distinct features.

13.

At the crime scene note down where the empt y shells, bullets and/ or firearms where found and make a diagram to

illustrates the same, to show their relatives distances from the body of the victims, Photograph if possible. 14.

Be careful in handling a firearm found at the scene of the crime for they may have latent fingerprint on the parts of the firearm. Note down the type, kind, make caliber and serial number. If there are fingerprints, submit said firearm to a fingerprint technician but be sure that the firearm should not be disturbed. 15. Mark the empty cartridges cases inside or near the mouth by scratching the initials to the investigation or the initials of the victims. 16.

Mark the bullets at the give (or nose) by scratching the investigation’s initials of the victim but definitely NOT at the rifling marks (landmarks and groove marks).

17.

Mark the empty shotgun shells with indelible ink at the body.

18.

T he barrel of the firearms must be marked too.

19.

After marking the empt y shells and bullets, wr ap them separately and individually with soft tissue paper and note down on the wrapper where each was found the time and date. The purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being scratched.

20.

W hen a lead bullet is found at the scene of the crime the body of the victim, the presumption is that a Revolver was used.

21.

W hen a jacketed bullets is found at the scene of the crime or in the body of the victim, it can be measured that a presumed that a Automatic Pistol or Automatic W eapon was used.

22.

W hen an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is an Automatic Pistol or W eapon was used.

23.

W hen one empty shell is found at the scene of the crime, the presumption is a Revolver was used.

24.

In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the grooves, and the raised are the lands.

25.

On a fired bullet, it is the reverse. The landmarks are the depressed portions, and the groove marks are the raised portions.

26.

To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a rifled barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land or groove in inclines to the right, then it has a right t wist and if it inclines to the left, then the rifling t wist is left.

27.

To determine the direction of the twist of a bullet, look on the bullets in an elongated position. If the landmarks and groove marks incline to the right, then it has a right t wist and if it is inclines to the left, then the rifling twist is right. If the inclination is left then it is a left twist.

28.

A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the bore of the barrel from which it was fired. So therefore if a bore has class characteristics of .45 caliber, .6 lands, .6 grooves,

right twist, groove wider than the land, each characteristics will be marked on the bullet it fires. 29.

It is the rifling of the bore that marked a fired bullet.

30.

So if a fatal will have the same class characteristics as the bore of the suspected gun, then it is possible that the bullets could have been fired from the suspected gun.

31.

To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not from a suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a Forensic Ballistics Experts who will conduct the proper examinations.

32.

If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics, definitely and conclusively they were NOT fired from the same barrels.

33.

If a fatal bullets does not have the same characteristics as the suspected firearm (barrel), conclusively the bullets was not fired from said barrel.

class then

T he following are suggestions for the investigator to observe in testifying in courts of justice: 1. Be prepared. 2. Be calm and well poised. 3. Tell the truth, nothing but the truth. 4. Be courteous. 5. Be natural and sit straight forward. 6. Do not volunteer. 7. Keep your temper. 8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer. 9. Speak loud enough to be heard. 10. Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the courtroom. 11. Answer only what you are asked, no more. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS 1.

PERCUSSION – Action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hit or struck by firing in would ignite.

2.

JUXTAPOSITION – Two objects is evidence bullet and test bullet are examined and compared under the bullet comparison microscope. Includes also the examination of fired shells.

3.

BALLO or BALLEIN – Greek wor ds where Ballistics was derived from which means “to throw”.

4.

BALLISTA – The early Roman was Machine – a gigantic bow or Catapult.

5.

BALLISTICS – Science of the motion of projectiles.

6.

FORUM – A Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in relation to the court of justice.

7.

FORENSIC BALLIASTICS- The study of firearms identification by means of ammunition fired from them.

8.

BALLISTICIAN – Person whose knowledge in identification is accepted by the courts and other investigation agencies.

9.

ABRASSION – (in the cleaning materials, or abrasive material was and wear ing away of bullets.

wor ld) Scratches cause by using improper by firing ammunition with bullets to which adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore lands due to the abrasive action of the

10.

BLACK POW DER – A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and salt paper. Burned wit h considerable white smoke.

11.

CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.

12.

AMMUNITION (legal) – SEC. 877 of the RAC – shall mean “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols which a ball, bullet shot shell or other missile maybe discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term includes ammunition for a rifles as mentioned else where in the code.

Ammunition (technical) – refers to a group of cartridge or to a single unit cartridge, meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullets, cartridge case, gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a single round. 13.

BALL BULLET S – Bullets have soft lead course inside a jacket.

14.

ROUND – one single complete cartridge.

15.

BULLET ENERGY – the powder possessed by a moving bullet, or in other wor ds its abilit y to keep going meets an obstacle of immense importance, for obviously, the more powder a bullet has and the harder it is to stop the, more effective it can be as a weapon.

16.

BULLET RECOVERY BOX – consist of a wooden box, 12” x 12” x 96”, with the hinged to cover and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into section by card board partitions.

17.

CALIBER – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.

18.

DUMDUM BULLET – “Dumdum” is an out molded and generally misused term. It was an unofficial name first applied hallow point bullets maid at the British arsenal at Dumdum, India.

19.

EROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to the mechanical abrasion or gliding.

20.

CORROSION – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical action of the by products of combustion after firing.

21.

CANNELURE (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet inside the bore.

22.

CALIPER – an instrument used for making measurement such as bullet diameter and bore diameter.

23.

CHILLED SHOT – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amount of antimony.

24.

CLASS CHARACT ERISTICS – are those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into caliber or gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and grooves, twist of rifling, patch of rifling and depth of grooves.

25.

RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target.

26.

POINT BLANK RANGE – popularity used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A shot fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessar y for effective aiming.

27.

MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled form a firearm.

28.

GALLERY RANGE – the indoor targets range on properly constructed indoor ranges, firing maybe conducted with center fire pistols and revolvers at range of 25 years and 50 years. Such installation are generally referred to as indoor ranges the term gallery being applied usually only to short range 22 caliber installation.

29.

EXT REME RANGE – the greatest distance the bullet will travel the cartridge is fire.

30.

EFFECTIVE RANGE – the maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonable be expected types of live target.

31.

ACCURATE RANGE – the distance with in which he shoots has control of his shots.

32.

FOULING - the accumulation of a deposit wit in the bore of a firearm caused by solid by products remaining a cartridge is fired.

33.

GUM COTTON – a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerine which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or nay other kind of cellulose.

34.

LANDS – the raised portion between the grooves in the interior surface of the gun barrel.

35.

LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.

36.

MACHINE REST – a machine used for testing the accuracy of a firearm.

37.

KNOCKING POW ER – power of the bullet which believer of a ver y paralyzing blow that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.

38.

STOPPING POW ER – power of the bullet which put the victim out of the action instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the location of the shot.

39.

PRIMER – the complete assembly of cup, priming composition, paper discs and anvil.

40.

CARTOUCHE OF PAPER.

41.

CHARTA – Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER.

– French wor d of cartridge which means ROOL

ORIGIN OF FIREARM 13 t h Centur y – development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in W estern Europe. Berthold Schwartz – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk are both credited with gunpowder invention. -Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and Scientist with the invention of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold Schwartz, with application of gunpowder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s. This powder was that we now call “Black Powder”. 1245 – Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used artiller y in Liegnits when he defeated the poles Hungarians, and Russians. - It is also often stated that the gunpowder was first invented by Chinese, were of gunpowder and its use as propellant long before its advantages became recognized in Europe. - It may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistr y at that time. 1247 – One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in war far was that of an attack on Seville, Spain. 1346 – Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy. 1335

-

Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople. -First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carried by an individual soldier; hence, the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Man never satisfies to himself. He is always trying to improve himself and his surrounding. He created some rule crude or primitive weapons which wer e subsequently developed into sophisticated firearms of modern times. T he following are the stages of development of man’s weapon: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Stones Cubs Knives Spears and Darts Sling shots to hurl objects Bows and arrows Cross – bows Guns Missiles

1.

Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army – Father of Modern Ballistics.

2.

Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith and Weapon and pioneered the making of breech – loading regales.

3.

Daniel B. W esson – An associate or partner of smith in revel verb making.

4.

John M. Browning – W izard of modern firearms and pandered breech loading single shot rifle.

5.

John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson subMachine.

6.

David “Carbine” W illiams – maker of first know carbine.

7.

Alexander John Forsythe – Father of the percussion system.

8.

Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making colt firearms.

9.

Eliphalet Remington – One of the first rifle makers.

10.

John Malon Martin – Founder of martin Firearms Company.

11.

James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the model 1855 riffled – musket.

12.

Samuel Colt revolver.

13.

Henr y Derringer – He gave his name to a whole classes of firearms.

14.

John C. Garand – Designed the semi-automatic US Rifle, Cal. 30

15.

Oliver F. W ichester – One of the earliest rifles and pistol makers.

–

(1814-1862)

–

Produced

the

first

practical

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY 1313 ---Gunpowder as a propellant. Te age of gunpowder began with outs first use as a propellant for a projective. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313. 1350 ---Small arms, Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14 t h century that portable hand, F.A was introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held wire or lighted match. 1498 ---Riffling, The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although its important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it was many years after before rifling was generally used. 1575 ---Cartridges, Paper cartridges combining both powder and ball were developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carr ying loose powder. 1807 ---Percussion system, the discover y of Forsythe in 1807 the that certain compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the

charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridges development. 1835 ---Samuel Colt-patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder was rotated by cooking the hammer. 1836 ---Pin fire. Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was probably the first self really the first rim fire cartridge. 1858 ---Center fire Cartridge. The Morse Cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge. 1884 ---Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim built the first fully Automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next charge. 1885 ---Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Veille, Developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke characteristics of black powder, but also more powerful. 1845 ---Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Florbert develop a “bullet” “breech cap” which was in really the first rimterfire Cartridge. I.

II.

TW O GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun Barrel Internal Construction) A.

Smooth-bore firearms – fire arms the have no rifling (land and grooves) inside their gun barrel. Ex. Shot guns and muskets

B.

Rifled- the bore Firearms – Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel. Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rifles MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Caliber of Projectiles Propelled)

A. Artillery – Those types of firearm that propel projectiles more than one inch in diameter. Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas B. Small Arms – Propel Projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter, Can be operated by one man. Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms III.

T YPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construction A. Single Shot F.A – t ype of firearms designed to fire only one shot for ever y loading. Ex. Pistols, Rifles, Shot guns – single shots B. Repeating Arms – Fire several shots in one loading Ex. Rifles, Shot guns C. Bolt Action Type – Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Ex. Rifles, Shot guns, Machine guns D. Automatic Loading Type –After the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place. Ex. Rifles, Shot guns

E. Slide Action Type (Trombone) –Loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm of the gun. Ex. Rifles, Shot guns F. Lever Type (Break Type) –Loading takes place by lever action of the Firearm. Ex. Rifles, Shot guns IV.T YPES OF FIREARMS according to USE A. Militar y Firearms Ex. 1. Pistols 2. Revolvers

3. Rifles 4. Machine Guns

B. Pocket and Home Defense F.A Ex. 1. Pistols 3. Rifles 2. Revolvers IV.

UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE --Those types of fire arm that is unique in mechanism and construction 1. 2. 3. 4.

Paltik Pistols Paltik Revolvers PaltikRifles Paltik Shot Guns THE THREE MAIN PARTS

REVOLVERS – Cal .38

PISTOL –Cal .45

1. Barrel assembly 2. Cylinder Assembly 3. Frame or Receiver

1. Barrel Assembly 2. Slide Assembly 3. Frame or Receiver

RIFLE – Cal .30 12

SHOT GUN – Gauge

1. Barrel Assembly 2. Magazine Assembly Assembly 3. Stock Group

1. Barrel Assembly 2. Magazine 3. Stock Group DETAILED PARTS

REVOLVER .38 1. Barrel Assembly a. Breech end b. Muzzle end c. Bore d. Rifling (lands and grooves)

AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45 1. Barrel Assembly a. Breech end b. Muzzle end c. Bore d. Rifling (land grooves) e. Chamber f. Interlocking ribs g. Barrel lug h. Barrel link i. Barrel link pin j. Barrel lead (lead)

2. Cylinder Assembly a. Chambers b. Extractor c. Extractor rod d. Racket e. Cylinder groove f. Yoke g. Cylinder locking Notches

3. Frame or Receiver a. Top strap b. Rear sight c. Breech Face d. Hammer e. Spur f. Thumb latch g. Side plate h. Back i. Firing pin j. Butt k. Front strap l. Trigger guard m. Trigger n. Cylinder lock o. Right side stock p. Left side stock q. Trade mark (monogram) r. Serial number

2. Slide Assembly a. Front sight b. Top strap c. Ejection port d. Rear sight e. Breech block f. Breech Face g. Extractor h. Firing pin i. Firing pin top j. Serrations k. Trade mark l. Model m. Interlocking lugs 3. Frame or Receiver a. Ejector b. Hammer c. Spur d. Grip safety e. Thumb safety f. Disconnector g. Back strap h. Butt i. Lanyard loop j. Front strap k. Magazine well l. Right side stock m. Left side stock n. Trigger o. Trigger guard p. Model q. Plunger r. Serial number

T he automatic Pistol- Caliber .45 besides having the main parts and detailed it has also the so called auxiliar y parts (accessories) which must all be removed before disassembly of the weapon can be accomplished. 1. Recoil Plug 2. Barrel Bushing 3. Slide stop pin

4. Recoil Spring 5. Recoil Spring ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER

1.

It is an old standard weapon, ever y one is used to it, and almost ever y one knows something about to handle it.

2.

T he revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and carry then an automatic pistol.

3.

T he mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better then that of the average automatic weapon.

4.

A misfire does not put revolvers out of action.

5.

It will handle satisfactorily old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which gives a reduced velocit y that would jam an average automatic pistols.

DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER 1.

It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol.

2.

Its grip on handle is generally not as good as that of pistol.

3.

It is hard to clean after firing.

4.

It is slower to load.

5.

It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is factory job.

6.

W orn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper up of cylinder. ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1.

It as a better grip fits the hand points naturally.

2.

It is more compact for the same fire power.

3.

It is easier to load than a revolver.

4.

In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at little expense wit hout sending the gun to the factory.

5.

It gives a greater number of shots than revolvers.

6.

It is easier to clean than revolvers.

7.

It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing.

8.

T here is no gas leakage in its operation. DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1.

Ammunition must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunition will cause a jam.

2.

A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.

3.

W hen the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the magazine spring is under tension and may deteriorate and cause trouble.

4.

T he automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads.

5.

It has a poor trigger pull than the revolver.

6.

T he magazines require a jacketed bullet which is not as good for practical use as that of lead bullet.

7.

T he automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire especially for inexperienced people due to the fact that after one shot it is always cooked and loaded.

8.

It is not adapted to reloading. It throws away empt y shell at each shot.

9.

Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at each shot.

10.

Its throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence.

11.

It can not be fired from the pocket without jamming.

EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for: 1.

Obstruction in the barrel.

2.

Bulging or swollen barrel.

3.

Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position.

4.

On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the firing pin hole (to insure blow in center of the primer).

5.

Evidence of “spitting lead” around breech complaints of fellow shooters in the firing line.

6.

Tightness of all side plate screws.

7.

Tightness of ejector if the weapon is a Smith and W esson revolvers.

8.

Cleanliness and projective film of oil to prevent rust.

of

barrel

for

NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCT ION BARREL – initiates the path of the bullet. FRAME – Houses the internal parts. YOKE – Connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder. EXT RACTOR – Pulls the empty shells from the cylinder simultaneously. EXT RACTOR ROAD – Activates the extractor and is a locking device. CENT ER PIN – Serves as a looking device for the cylinder. CENT ER PIN SRPING – Holes the center pin in a locked position. SIDE PLATES – Provides access to the internal parts. SIDE PLATE SCREW – Hold the side plate and yoke in place. HAMMER BLOCK – Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer. DOUBLE ACTION SEAR – Built into the weapon to allow double action fire. HAMMER – Strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer. BOLT – Disengage center prim to allow opening of cylinder and blocks hammer. T HUMBLATCH – Actuates bolt to release the cylinder. HAND (pawl) – Rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked.

CYLINDER STOP – Stops and holds the cylinder alignment for firing. T RIGGER – Actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon. T RIGGER GUARD – Guards the trigger from unnecessar y action to avoid accidental firing. REBOUND SLIDE – Returns trigger, actuates hammer block and locks hammer. T RIGGER SPRING – Provides energy for return movement or rebound slide. T RIGGER LEVEL – Contacts rebound slide to return trigger for ward. MAIN SPRING – Provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism. STRAIN SCREW – Controls tension of the mainspring. T RIGGER STOP – Prevents hammer the release.

excessive

rearward

movement

after

RACKET – Helps in the wit hdrawal of the Cartridges or shells from the chambers of the cylinder. CYLINDER NOTCH – It helps hold the cylinder in place and aligned ready for firing. NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE 1.

Bullet – A projectile propelled from a firearm by means of explosive force of gases coming from burning powder.

2.

Cartridge Case – A tubular metallic container for the gunpowder sometimes called shell.

3.

Gun Powder – Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on the target.

4.

Primer – The metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite, such action is called “PERCUSSION”. CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A.

According to the type of firearms asked 1. 2. 3. 4.

B.

Revolver cartridges Pistol cartridges Rifles cartridges Shot Cartridges

Used in revolver Used automatic pistol Used in rifles Used in shot gun

According to location of primer 1. Pin fire cartridges no longer used (absolute) 2. Rim fire – the primer is located at the rim or the base portion -- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and rifles

3. Canter fire – Priming powder is located at the center -- Economical can be repealed a. Rimmed type – Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35 b. Semi- Rimmed – Used in super .38 c. Rimless – Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine gun A.

T YPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES

B.

A – Case B – Priming mixture C – Propellant powder/ gun powder D – Bullet E – Sensitive Area According to Caliber 1. cal .22 – used in revolvers, pistols and rifles 2. cal .25 – used in pistols and rifles 3. cal .30 – used in carbine and other rifles 4. cal .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers 5. cal .380 – used in pistols 6. cal .38 – used in revolvers 7. cal .357 – used in .357 revolvers (magnum) 8. cal .44 – used in magnum revolvers 9. cal .44 – used in automatic pistols 10. cal .50 – used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in crimes)

Cal .30 bullet is replaceable by the bullet of cal .44 Shot gun Shell Single unit of ammo. for shot gun It is usually larger used in smooth bores capable withstanding for less pressure. Paper Tube Metal base Base rod Battery cap Priming cap Anvil Priming Powder Propellant Over powder wad Filler wad Shot Closing wad 45-70 Cartridge Contains 70 grains of gunpowder Cartridge Life – a well made cartridges have a life of 10 years some have only 5 -6 years. 45 years or more – depend upon the surrounding of the cartridge and climate, damp, warn, condition. Bullet / slugs Is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning gun powder.

Slugs – laymen’s term – use in court during proceedings Projectiles propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or pellets. Iced Bullet – Super cooled water made as a projectile of solidified bullets have a life of 3 minutes maximum Histor y – Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small ball In Government parlance a cartridges containing bullet is called Ball- Bullet Ball – Comes from terminology of bullet -- The core of the slugs is an alloy of lead, antimony and sometimes tin. Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel with continues to penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the filler have been striped away by contract with the resistance surface. CLASSIFICATION A. According to mechanical construction 1. Lead Bullet – Those which are made of lead alloys of this mental – lead, tin, antonym—which is slightly harder than pure lead. 2. Jacketed Bullets – Those which core of lead covered by jacket of harder metal -- The primary function of the “jacket” in a bullet is to prevent adherent of metal (lead) to the inside of the gun barrel. B.

According to shape Flat Base

Boat Tailed

Square Base

Hollow Base

C. According to type/ common bullet type Solid Lead

Solid Hollow point Solid Paper Metal Case point Patched

Soft slug

Metal

Metal point Rifled Bullet

case

Hollow point Metal point rifled Gaypely Bullet

Quadraximun Slug

KEY HOLE SHOT – The tumbling of a bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a results of spinning on its axis. (due to destroyed barrel or loose barrel) In generally .0002 sec. explosion of a bullet by means of a tremendous explosion of burning gases. RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/pound CONTACT W OUND – 4,8 inches – distance of the fire with gunpowder without the burning of the tissue means firer is more than 24 inches Copper nickel ----- 60% ----- 40% Gliding metal ------ 90%

----- 10% 8-4 inches

1-3 inches

Gun powder

Gun

Powder Tattooing Ta

Priming powder powder

PURPOSE OF BULLET S .38 Bullet --- disability purpose – used by police officers to get confession .45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purpose M16 --- Fatal effect Garand and Carbine --- penetration, long range shooting .45 Bullet --- Knowing Subdue Purposes Rifled Bullets (5 Principal Parts) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ball Bullets Armored Piercing Tracer Bullet Incendiar y Explosive (fragmentation)

B. All Bullets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only. Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a fired against vehicle and other armored target is general. Tracer Bullets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar barium nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. --- The flash of the smoke from the burning permits the light of the bullet to be seen In Cendiar y --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials that can be set on fire by impact. ---T hey are used against target tat will readily burn such as air crafts or gasoline depot. Explosive (Fragmentary) --- contains a high changed explosive, because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small size ammunition. For the reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20 mm. and above. Pointed Bullet --- is more effective ballistically than the round ball of the same weight Soft Point or Mushroom Bullet --- will expand on striking an object and there for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding greater stopping power. Hollow Point Bullet --- a bullet wit h a cavit y in the nose design to increase the expansion when it hits the forget. Metal Cased Bullet --- colonially use to indicate either a metal patched or full patched bullet.

Metal patched --- any metal patched bullet Bullet having soft steal jacket often clog or plated wit h gilding metal to prevent rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore. CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL -- Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which old together the bullet, gunpowder and primer. -- The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridges that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is a firearm evidence than can help trace particular firearms use. FUNCTION: 1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into a unit. 2. It serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder. 3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridges cases are forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as the “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel. PARTS 1. RIM – Serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of the cartridges into their chambers and this also limit the clearance. If any between the heads and the supporting surface of the bolt or breech block. 2. PRIMER POCKET – Performs tipple function: a. Holding primer securely in control position b. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the rear of the cartridges. c. Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which the latter could not be fired. 3. VENT S OR FLASH HOLE – Is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket thought which the primer “flash” impart ignition to the primer charges. T he “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder. 4. T HE HEAD – THE BODY – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas. 5. NECK – That part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bullet. 6. CANNELURES – are the separate grooves that are sometimes found “rolled” into the neck and bodies of the cases at the location of the bullets bases to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened. 7. CRIMP – Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in upon the bullet. a. if aid in holding the bullet in place b. if after resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which effects the burning of the powder. 8. BASE – The portion of case which contains: a. T he primer which contains the priming mixture

b. T he shell head which contains the head stamp caliber and the year of manufacture. 9. SHOULDER – That portion which support the neck. 10.

EXT RACTION GROOVE – The circular grooves near the base of the case of shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

mouth neck shoulder shell cannelure body gun powder vent extracting grooves rim primer shell head CLASSIFICATION SHAPES)

ACCORDING

TO

CASE

SHAPE

(3

GEN.

A.

--- straight --- all rim fire shell and most center fire revolver cartridges that are new manufactured have straight cases.

B.

--- Tampered --- is very rare but presently being used in the so called “magnum jet” cartridges cal .22

C.

--- Bottle neck --- most modern center fire rifle cartridges case are of bottle neck types. Since this case form provided the greatest powder capacit y commensurate with over all case length. STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE:

A. RIMMED – designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the base of the cartridges is ver y much bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartridges. -- straight type cartridges -- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35 B. SEMI- RIMMED – designed to be used in automatic weapons like pistols and sub-inactive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm. -- normally found at the crime scene because they are automatically ejected for easy firing of the firearm. C. RIMLESS – case within the diameter of the body of the cartridges is the same as the diameter of the cartridges case. -- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45 thompson Submachine gun and cal .45 grease gun. -- Automatically ejected like semi-rimmed t ype. PRIMERS

-- Is that portions of the cartridge which consist of the brass gilding metal-cup containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is called Percussion. -- Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the composition to detonate on explodes. This detonating on explosion produces “flame” which passes through the “event” on “flash hole” in the cartridges case and this ignites the gunpowder. ORIGIN -- 1807 – Alexander John Forsyth -- First one to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in small arms by percussion. -- A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist and hunter. -- A well known authorit y on firearms -- First successful priming mixture was one composed of Potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form. PARTS:

In a typical center fire cartridges have four parts

1. PRIMER CUP – container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gliding metal or copper. 2. PRIMING MIXT URE – highly contained in the primer cups.

sensitive

chemical

mixture

3. ANVIL – that portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin. To provide the resistance necessar y to fire the priming mixture. 4. DISC – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foil which is pressed over the priming mixture. Two fold purposes a. to help hold the priming mixture in place b. to exclude moisture 1. primer cup

2. priming mixture 3. anvil

4. disc

PRIMING COMPOUNDS: Classes 1.

Corrosive primers – e.g Potassium chlorate – if ignited produce potassium chloride, draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrel. Advances in chemistry produce new composition which potassium chlorate has been eliminated.

2.

Non- corrosive – ever y manufacture has his own formula mixture of the mercuric primers of 25 years ago. Ingredients: -

Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel 45%) Antimony Sulfide (elements and fuel 23%) Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford Arsenal known as FH-24 had the following composition:

- sulfur - 21.97% - Potassium chlorate - 47.20% - Antimony Sulfide - 30.33%

-

-

German have their own composition barium nitrate in the place of Potassium chlorate together wit h some Picric Acid to strengthen mixture. T his formula: Fulmirate of mercur y - 39% Barrium nitrate - 41% Antimony Sulfide - 9% Picric Acid - 5% Ground glass - 6% Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss formula. Fulmirate of mercur y Barrium nitrate Antimony sulfide Barrium carbonate Ground glass

-40% -25% -25% - 8% - 4%

GUN POW DER Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes through the barrel and on the target. Class or Composition: 1. BLACK Powder – although if features loss important still manufactured by the Europeans. In recent time has completely superseded by smokeless powder. Ingredients: Potassium nitrate -75% Sulfur -10% Charcoal -15% Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel. Burns with reasonable great rapidit y when ignited. Block Powder – relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities which are typical of all explosives FIRST – when ignited it will burn by it self without aid from the outside air. SECOND – in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas. T HIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved. 2. SMOKELESS POW DER – terms smokeless powder is misnomer for the are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters terms term being applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of whit e smoke like the black powder. Two main Classes of smokeless powder 1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE -- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatoriged with nitrocellulose 2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT -- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as their major ingredients according by one more ingredients such as: a. Centralize

b. Vaseline Phthalate esters c. Inorganic salt Purpose of minor ingredients a: Insure stability b. Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both) Double – base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in size and shape to the single – base propellants. Almost all smokeless powder grains have perfectly definite shape such as a. small squares b. disc c. flakes

d. strips e. pellets f. perforated cylindrical grains

T he powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of burning. SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT S GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS IDENT IFICATION 1. Bullet Comparison Microscope A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms identification expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with camera attachment. 2. Stereoscopic Microscope No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court tampered serial number. 3. Shadowgraph A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification use to determine class characteristics of fired bullets and shells. Also for orientation purposes. It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons made in the circulation ground glass. 4. CD- 6 Comparison Projector Ver y much similar with the bullet comparison microscope No eyestrain because the magnified image appears on the large screen. W hat can be seen in the screen can be photographed by any kind of camera. 5. Bullet Recovery Box Long box (12” x 12” x 96”) filled with ordinar y cotton and separated into sections by and board partitions. 6. Helixometer Used in measuring “pitch of rifling”. Distance traveled by the bullet in one complete rotation. 7. Micrometer Similar in use as caliper 8. Caliper Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel length. 9. Analyt ical or torsion balance Use to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible determination of type, caliber and make from which fired.

10.

On scope Small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp the terminal portion and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.

11. Taper Gauge Use primarily for determining bore diameter. 12.

Electrical Gun Maker Used in the laboratory for making fired bullets fired shells and firearms submitted for examination. T ECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

PHYSICAL: Evidence bullets, cartridges cases and suspected firearms once submitted by the requesting part y will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the investigators for identification purposes. T EST FIRING: T he firearms is test fired from a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridges cases for comparison with evidence bullets and cartridge cases, but before firing the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case on the nose portion of the bullet with letter T (test) followed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the recover y of the test bullets and test cartridges cases, they will be compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence cartridges cases, under the bullet comparison microscope to determine whether or not they have the congruency of striations or the same individual characteristics. Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired shells are examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the t wo objectevidence and the test bullet are examined and compared: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

at at at at at

the the the the the

same same same same same

time place or level direction magnification image

For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets that should be compared First 1 for Comparison/ preliminary Second 1 for confirmation T hird 1 for conclusion PERIPHERY T hese are the sides of the bullet are in contact with the inner surface of the barrel. STRIATIONS A individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base portion and of the side of the bullet come in contact with the inner surface of the barrel. T EST BULLET S Are those recovered from bullet recover y box for a comparison with the evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.

A fired or evidenced bullets or cartridges cases are those recovered from the crime scene. Interconnected or intermarriages 8 or more striations can be accepted by the court. 3 Points of basic positive identification the markings must be: 1. Prominent 2. Significant; and are 3. Consistent Means of –test firing, other than the recover y box. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Water tank Saw dust wit h oil Sand Waste threads

5. Darak 6. Banana trunk 7. Rubber trips

PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENT IFICATION Two things mark by one and same tool will bear the same markings, likewise t wo or more things mark by different tools will have the same markings. DEFINITIONS PISTOL – a hand firearm usually applied to simple sot and automatic loading. REVOLVER – a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively -- places cartridges into position for firing. SHOTGUN – a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge. RIFLE – a type of weapon designed to be fired from the shoulder. CARTRIDGE – term used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of the bullets, primer cartridges case and powder charge. BULLET – is a projectile propelled from a charge. AUTOMATIC – a weapon is automatic when its mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed. DOUBLE ACT ION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and release the hammer. SINGLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure upon the trigger release the hammer that must be manually cocked. CALIBER – term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured bet ween two opposite lands. GAUGE or GAGE – as applied to shotguns, it indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is equal to the reciprocal gauge index. Ex. bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of a pound.

BORE – the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the projectile travels. PITCH OF RIFLING – the distance that the rifling advances to make one complete turn. EXPERT – as used in, court includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience. BREECHBLOCK – the steel block which closes the rear of the bore against the force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that locks the action against the firing of the cartridges; the face of this block is known as the breech face. CHAMBER – that part of the weapon in which the cartridge is placed into position for firing. EJECTOR – that mechanism in a firearm which causes the empt y shell or ammunition to be thrown out from the gun. EXT RACTOR – that mechanism in a firearm by which the empty shell or ammunition is withdrawn from the chamber. GROOVES – the depressed channels cut in the interior of a rifled gun barrel. LANDS – that raised portion bet ween the grooves inside a rifled gun barrel. VELOCITY – is the for ward speed at which the bullet travels measured in feet per second. PRESSURE – the out ward thrust of the burning powder gases against the breechblock, chamber and bore normally measured one inch from the breech and recorded in pounds per square inch. Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for caliber .45 automatic pistol. RANGE – the straight distance bet ween the muzzle of the gun and the target. PENET RATION – the depth to which a projectile sinks in the tar get. Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood. T RAJECTORY – in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in flight. FIRING PIN – that part of that firearm which strikes the primer causing the firing of the cartridge. HAMMER – that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger which causes the firing pin to strike the primer striking the gun. CORROSION – the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to rusting or the action of salts deposited from they cap or powder. EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to sliding friction when the bullet passes through it. BERDAN PRIMER – a primer with t wo flash holes or vents.

BOXER PRIMER – a primer with only one flash hole or vents. RIM – the projection edge of the base or head of a certain cartridge. OGIVE – is the technical name of the cylindrical head critic of the bullets. BREECH end – the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartridges is inserted.

PANGASINAN COLLEGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OFCRIMINOLOGY Urdaneta Cit y NOTES IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION BRIEF HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING In tracing the origin of the fingerprint science we must draw a distinction bet ween the realization that the tips of the finger bear diversified ridged and the application of the knowledge to the problem of personal identification. Unquestionable, men’s consciousness of the patterned ridges on his fingers and palms predates the Christian era by many centuries and has been evidenced in var ying degrees by successive civilizations. On the face of a cliff in Nova Scotia , for instance, has been found prehistoric India “picture writing” of a hand wit h ridge patterns crudely marked. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals of Ancient Chinese origin bearing thumb prints. Apostles Paul concludes one of his epistles with the words. “The Salvation a Paul wit h mine own hand which is the token in ver y epistle; so I wr ite.” Some have inferred from these words that Paul used his finger impression as a distinctive signature . Chinese documents identified with the eight century (A.D) T’ and Dynasty refers to fingerprints being increased upon business contracts, and the Chinese Monarchs termed fingerprint as Hua Chi It is conjectural to what extent these earlier instance of fingerprints were intended for actual identification of the persons impressing the prints. Certainly in some cases the object was simple to add more or less superstitious solemnity to business contracts trough the personal contact of the contracting parties fingerprints wit h the written record. T heir evidence, however that fact of the individualit y of fingerprints though not put to practical use drowned recurrently through the ages. In fourteenth centur y in Persia , various official government papers were reportedly impressed either fingerprints, and the observation was made by a government official who was also a physician that no fingerprints of two persons were exactly alike. In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew , a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, in the course of a lecture commented upon the ridge patterns appearing on the fingers. But if any of these early adventures in fingerprints observation had any direct influence on the men who are the fathers of the modern science of fingerprints identification, the known record does not reflect it. A scientific approach to fingerprint was essential before it could be put practical use on any extensive scale. The outline which follows begin with what are believed to be the first scientific observations which may reasonably be supposed to have contributed to the inception of modern fingerprint identification. These observations wer e in: 1686 – by Marcello Malpighi , Professor of Anatomy at the Universit y of Bologna, Malpigi, making use of a newly discovered, microscope, noted and discussed in his treaties “certain elevated ridges” describing “diverse figures” on the palm surfaces. He perceived them to be “drawn into 1686 and spiral” at the end of the fingers.

Apparently the significance of his observation escaped him, however, for he purposed them to further. More than a century elapsed, and it was not until, 1823 that John Evangelist Purkinje , Professor of Anatom y at the University of Breslau, published a thesis in which he commented upon the diversit y of ridged patterns “especially on the last phalange of each finger and evolved a vague differentiation of these patterns into nine varieties. Purkinje’s paper was intended only as a scholarly treaties and had no practical application to the problem of personal identification, but thirty years later, in 1858 Sir William Herschel, the British Chief Administrative officer for the Hooghly district, Bengal, India, began the first known official used of fingerprints on large scale. He required natives to affix their fingerprints as well as their signature to contracts. Apparently he had no idea originally that the marks were individual but adopted the practice with the thought that this ver y personal type of contract with official papers would be impressed to the native mind and would discourage, dishonest y and default. A familiarit y with finger impressions grew; however, their individual must have become evidence to him, for in 1877 Herschel introduced the use of fingerprints in general departments at Hall and also submitted report asking permission to extend the practice as a means of identification of prisoners as well as parties to civil contracts. The permission was not forthcoming but Herschel, wit hin his own province, applied the system extensively. He did not, however, evolve a method of classification suitable for general use. At about this same time, Dr. Henry Faulds , of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, began his observation of fingerprints. The English scientific journal, “Nature” in 1880 published an article by Dr. Faulds, discussing his studies and making suggestions as to the future possibilities of the fingerprints sciences. His ideas are remarkable for their anticipation of present day practice. He recommended the use of a thin film of printer ’s ink as transfer medium just as it generally used today. He discussed quite fully the potentialities of identification of criminals by their fingerprints left at the scene of crimes, just as in the modem science of latent fingerprint identification. As a matter of facts, Faulds, himself, demonstrated the practical application of his theor y establishing through greasy fingerprint marks the identity of a person who had been drinking some spirits from the laboratory supply- -certainly one of the earliest latent fingerprint identification of modem times. 1882 – is the year in which appears the first authenticated record of officials use of fingerprints in the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson of the United States Geological Survey, while in change of a field in New Mexico, used his own fingerprint on commissary orders to prevent their forger y. An interesting sidelight, which had possible effect on the introduction of fingerprint identification into the United States, occurred in 1883 with the publication of Mark Twian Life in the Mississippi. An episode in this book relates to the identification of a murdered by his thumb print. Mark Twian further developed his theme ten years later in 1893 with the publication of “Pudd’n head W ilson”, novel plotted around a dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated during a court trial and including a striking exposition of the infallibility of fingerprint identification, the more remarkable because of the dates its publication.

It was also in the 1880’s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted British Anthropologist and a cousin of scientist, Charles Dar win, began observations which led to the publication, 1892, of is book, “Finger Prints”. Galton’s studies established the individualit y and permanence of fingerprints and he made another important contribution by devising the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns. 1891 – marked the first installation of fingerprint files as an official means of criminal identification . Juan Vucetich , an Argentinean police official, based his system on the patterns typed by Bertillon system of identification by body measurements, which it gradually replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently used in most Spanish speaking countries and a number of the countries as well Vucetich also claimed the first official criminal identification by means of fingerprints left at the scene of a crime. 1892 – At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who murdered her t wo sons and cut her own throat, through not fatally, blamed the attacks on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprint on a door post were identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself and led to her confession. 1901 – marked the official introduction of fingerprint for criminal identification in England and Wales , the system employed was also developed from Galton’s observation and was devised by Sir Edward Richard Henry , the inspector General of police in Bengal. Henry simplified fingerprint classification and made it applicable to police identification, and later on Sir Edward Richard Henr y was credited as the father of fingerprint science. 1902 is the year in which the first known systematic use of fingerprints in the United States was begun with the establishment of the practice of fingerprints by the New York Civil Commission to Prevent applicants from having better qualified persons takes their tests for them. Dr. Henry P. De Forest, an American pioneer in the fingerprint science, installed the system in December 1902. 1903 is claimed by the New York State prison system as the date of the first practical, systematic use of fingerprints in the United State for the identification of criminals. As early as March of this year, fingerprints of prisoners were taken and classified and on June 5, the fingerprint system was officially adopted. 1904 found acceptance of the fingerprints system accelerated when the United States Penitentiar y at Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St. Louise Missouri Police Department both established fingerprint bureaus. The St. Louise bureau was inaugurated wit h the assistance of a Sergeant of London’s Scotland Yard who was on duty at the St. Louise Exposition guarding a British exhibit. The Leavenworth bureau become the first to offer facilities on more than a local basis when it gradually expanded the scope of its operation to include a free fingerprint exchange service among a growing list of contribution peace officers. During the first quarter of the 20 t h Century more and more local police identification bureaus established fingerprint systems and many sent copies of their fingerprint records to the National Bureau of Criminal Identification established by the International Identification, Association of chief of Police. The obvious need and demand by police officials led to an Act of Congress establishing on July.

1924 the identification Division of the FBI. The fingerprint records of both the National Bureau of Criminal Identification and of Leavenworth Penitentiar y, totaling 810, 188 were consolidated to form the nuclear of the FBI files. The national repositor y of criminal investigation date quickly proved its worth to law enforcement officials faced with problems of criminals moving rapidly from cit y to cit y and state to state. Additional services were added in the FBI identification Division as the need became apparent, on March 1, 1932. The International Exchange of fingerprints date was initiated with a number of other nations, on Februar y 15, 1932. 1933 – A Latent fingerprint Section for making technical examination of latent prints or of inked prints on an individual basis, was instituted. On November 10 of the same year the Civil Identification Section was established. A steadily increasing rate of receipts brought the number of fingerprints cards in FBI files to 10 million. In 1939, but it was the exigencies of wor ld II tat brought about the phenomena period of the identification Divisions growth. Drawing the years just before and during the war, the number of civil fingerprints, including of aliens, militar y personnel and civilian employees in defense industries, far outstripped the number of arrest prints. Both types together added to the swelling total until January 31. 1946 – the 100 millionth fingerprint card use was received in the Identification Division of the FBI, the wor ld’s largest repository of fingerprint records. Although new methods of personal identification are constantly being suggested even today, it is hard to conceive of a system being devised, which can improve upon the combination of facilit y, practically, and infallibilit y, which is characteristic of the fingerprint system. As of January 1,1959. The total had grown to over 152,000,000 records as of May 11,1959. 3 BRANCHES OF DACTYLOSCOPY 1. Chiroscopy – It is an allied science of dactyloscopy which deals with the scientific examination of the palm of the hand 2. Podoscopy- A branch of science of dact yloscopy which focused on the scientific examination of the sole of the foot. 3. Poroscopy- Allied branch of dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the sweat pores found in the friction skin. Three (3) fundamentals facts that have made Fingerprint a superlative method of the individualization of person. (Doctrines of fingerprint identification) 1. Perenniality- An individual fingerprint ridges are formed during the fetal life 100- 120 days (3-4 mos) inside the wom b of the mother and remain unchanged for the remainder of person lifetime.(Gods given) 2. Infalliabilit y- It has been shown empirically (based on experienced and observation) with theoretical support, that fingerprint are unique (one of its kind) no two person possess the same ridge characteristics.

3. Immutabilit y – it has been proven that the fingerprint of a person are unchangeable, you cannot change the fingerprint of Any individual.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF DACTYLOSCOPY 1. It is the only infalliable system of identification 2. it is the most convincing proofs to mans individualit y 3. it enable to unmask the real identit y of the law breaker Fingerprint as a science - it is an identification of a person through the used of ridges appearing in the finger of the palm of the hand and sole of the foot Fingerprint as an impression - It is the reproduction of some surface of the pattern formed by the ridges on the first joint of the finger. Two (2) types of fingerprint impression 1. Rolled impression- Rolling the fingers 2. Plane impression- No need to roll the finger you just dent the finger

including the thumb. RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTAS. 1. T he delta may not be located at a bifurcation, which does open toward the core. 2. W hen there is a choice bet ween a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is selected/ chooses. 3. W hen there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to the definition the one nearest the core, is chosen. 4. T he delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running bet ween the type line toward the core, but at the nearer end only. RULES IN THE SELECTION OF CORE OF A LOOP: 1. T he core in placed or within the innermost sufficient re-curves. 2. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve does not contain any ending ridge or rod, the core is placed on the shoulder of a loop further from the delta. 3. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve contains odd number of rod, the core is placed upon the tip of the outer rod. 4. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve contains even number of rod, the core is placed upon the end of one of the t wo center rods further from the delta.

INTERPRETATIO N OF FINGERPRINTS: T hree basic types of pattern are as follows:

Percentage of appearance 1. Arch 2. Loops 3. W horls

5% 60% 35%

T he three basic types of pattern are further subdivided into the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Plain arch Tented arch Radial loop Ulnar loop

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Plain W horl Central pocket loop Lateral pocket loop Double loop/twin loop Accidental Pattern

RIDGE COUNTING: T he number of ridges interviewing the delta and the core is known as the ridge count. Every ridge that crossed or touched by the imaginar y line between the core and the delta, neither the delta/ core is counted red line upon the ridicule of the fingerprint glass is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginar y line would be drawn, two ridges are counted. Fragments and dots are counted as ridges if they appear to be thin and heavy as the ridges in the immediate pattern. Variations inking and pressure must of course be considered. TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS 1. PLAIN ARCH A type of fingerprint pattern where the majority of the ridges came from one side then flow to the other side with the slight rise at the center. It has no delta and core.

2. THE TENTED ARCH In the tented arch, most of the ridges enters in one side of the impression then flow or tend out upon the other side wit h a rise at the center giving 90 degrees more or less and wit h a present of up thrust. It has no delta and core.

T hree types of tented arches:

1. T he type in which ridges at the center form a definite angel: i.e. 90 or less 2. T he type in which one or more ridges at the center form an up thrust is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from the horizontal plain, 450 degree or more. 3. T he type approaching the loop type possessing t wo of the basic or essential characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third. T he arches and some of the loop are often confused. It should be remembered that the mere converging of two ridges does not form a re-curve, without which there can be no loop. In the other hand, there are many patterns which at first sight resemble tented arches but which on abuse inspection are found to be loop, as when one looping ridge will be found in an almost vertical position within the pattern are entirely free from and passing in front of the delta. ULNAR LOOP

A Type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses a delta, core, and one or more ridge forming a sufficient recurve within the pattern area. The slope or downward flow of the innermost sufficient recurve is towards the little finger or to the ulna bone of the hand of origin.

RADIAL LOOP A type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses one delta and one core, and one or more ridges within the pattern area, formed a sufficient recurve. The flow of the innermost ridges is towards the thumb or to the radius bone of the hand of origin. T HE PLAIN W ORL T he plain has t wo deltas and one core and at least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of a circle. And when an imaginar y line drawn between the two deltas it must touch or cross at least one of the re-curving ridges within forming a complete circuit within the pattern area. A re-curving, however, which an appendage connected with it in the line of flow cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected to the points is considered to spin the re-curve on that side.

CENT RAL POCKET LOOP T he central pocket loop type of whorl has t wo deltas and least one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn bet ween the t wo deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected wit hin the line of flow and on the delta side,

cannot be constructed as a circuit. An appendage connected at that point is considered to spoil the re-curve on that side. On lieu of re-curve in front of the delta is the inner pattern area; an obstruction at the right angle to the line of flow will suffice. It is necessar y that the inner line of flow be fixed artificially. The inner line of flow is determined by drawing a line between the inner delta and center of the innermost re-curve or looping ridge.

DOUBLE LOOP T he double loop consists of two separate loop formation with t wo separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas. T he world “separate” as used here, does not mean unconnected. T he t wo loop may be connected by an appending ridge provided aid. It does not turn about at the right angle between the shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for the loop applies also to the double loop. T he fact that there must be two separate loop formation eliminates from consideration as a double loop the “S” t ype core, the interlocking type core, and the formations with one loop inside another. It is essential that both sides of a loop be equal length, nor that the t wo loops be of the same size. Neither is it materials from which side the loop enters.

LATERAL POCKET LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern in which the core ridges of the two loops makes their access or exit on the same side of the fingerprint impression.

ACCIDENTAL W HORL T he accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of t wo different types of pattern with the exception of plain arch, wit h t wo or more deltas; or a pattern, which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different types; or a pattern, which conforms to none of the definitions. It may be a combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and whorl, loop and central

pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop or other combination. T he plain arch is excluded,

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATI ON SYSTEM (Henry system w ith FBI modification and extension) Sir, Edwar d Richard Henr y – Simplified the use of finger print and made it applicable into police works Mr. A.J Renoe- Superintendent of the U.S dept of justice fingerprint bureau (1920), the Bureau was located in the Penitentiar y Leavenworth, Kansas. He devised what was known as the A.J Renoe Extensions and modification. W illiam Burns- Head of U.S secret service (1924) he made division and accumulation of fingerprint record cards into sufficiently small groups. J. Edgar Hoover- Devised further extension, which in turn have been revised from time to time until present. He made an adequate file containing many million of fingerprint. Note: The entire plan or further revision is based on the Henr y System of classification. Division of Classification – the classification formula is divided into six possible divisions under the extension system: a) Primar y classification b) Secondar y classification b.1 Capital letter groups b.2 small letter groups c) Sub- secondary classification d) Major classification e) Key classification f) Final classification Classification- The method of attaining a formula in a set of fingerprint placed in the fingerprint record cards Classification Formula - The numerical description in a set of fingerprints which is composed of letters and figures written above and below the classification line. Classification line- Refers to a long line which is usually placed on the right upper corner of the fingerprint card or chart where classification formula is wr itten. T he positions in the classification line for these divisions when complete applied are as illustrated. K.C

M.C

P.C

S.C

18

L

29

rW 2u

S.S.C

F.C

MO I

5

I

5

Xt

OIO

a. The Primary classification – the primary classification is the numerical value of the whorls in a set print. The arbitrar y value assigned to the fingers for this purpose is as follows: W hy do we have a pre-established fraction of 1/1? a. T o give the numbered value group a place in the file b. Zero over zero might be mistaken as outer over outer in filing Blocking- Is the process of writing below each finger print pattern the corresponding symbol of its name.

Patterns as to numerical value a. Pattern with numerical value – all whorl b. Pattern without numerical value- arches and loops Four stages to obtain primary classification 1. Pairing- 10 fingers are divided in 5 pairs Finger Finger Finger Finger Finger

# 1 and # 2 --------------- 16 # 3 and # 4 --------------- 8 #5 and # 6 --------------- 4 #7 and #8----------------- 2 #9 and #10 -------------- 1

2. Assigning numerical value 3. Knowing the numerator and denominator- The first pattern of every pairs are the denominator (odd fingers; 1,3,5,7,9) while the second pattern of every pair is the numerator (even fingers 2,4,6,8,10) 4. Summing the numerical value or values assigned to whorl plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1 T he sum of numerical value of whorls if any, in fingers 1,3,5,7 and 9 with one added is the denominator of the primar y classification. The sum of the numerical value of the whorls, it any in, 2, 4, 8 and 10, with one added, is the numerator of the primar y classified where no whorl appears in a set of impressions, the primar y, therefore, would be 1/1/. It is noted that 10/24 possible primaries may be obtained 1/1 to 32/32, which is the primar y when whor ls appear in every finger. b. Secondar y Classification - The secondary classification is based on the types of patterns appearing on the index fingers. Each finger is represented by capital and small lettered symbols Secondar y classification by capital lettered group- This is done by exhibiting the capital; letter symbol of the individual type of patterns from the t wo index finger after the primar y classification. Right index finger – Numerator Left index finger – Denominator

A symbol of the following symbol may come out A – Plain arch T – Tented arch R – Radial loop U – Ulnar loop W – Plain whor l C – central pocket loop D – Double loop X – Accidental Pattern Secondar y classification by small lettered groups- the secondar y classification by small lettered refers to the 3 t ypes of fingerprint patterns that can be exhibited by small lettered groups. - It can be applied to all fingers with a said patterns except the two index fingers Radial loop – r Plain arch - a Tented arch- t c. Sub-secondary classification - it is based upon the ridge count or ridge tracing in the index, middle and ring fingers Ridge counting refers to loops pattern while ridge tracing refer to whorl patterns . Ridge count – refers to the total number of ridges intervening bet ween the delta and the core (delta and core are not included in the counting) Tables for symbols of loops as a result of ridge count 1. A ridge count of 1-9 inclusive of the two index finger is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner, while 10 or more O for outer. 2. A ridge count of 1-10 inclusive of inclusive of t wo index fingers is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner while 11 or more O for outer. 3. A ridge count of 1-13 inclusive of two ring fingers is deducted into capital symbol I for inner and O for outer. Ridge tracing- It is the method of tracking or trailing the ridge commencing from the left delta, with the number of ridges intervening bet ween the right delta are accounted for and compared the table for corresponding symbol, capital letter I-M-O. @ Tables for symbols of whorl as a result of ridge tracing 1. W hen the ridge being traced (from the left to the right delta) goes inside or in front of the right delta, and there are 3 or more intervening ridges, the tracing is known as inner and represented by capital letter symbol I. 2. W hen the ridge being traced goes either or inside to the right delta and there are 2 or less ridges intervening the tracing is known as meeting and represented by the capital letter symbol M. 3. W hen the ridge being traced goes outside to the right delta and there are 3 or more intervening ridges the tracing is known as outer and represented by the capital letter symbol O. Note: Arches are represented by a minus sign (-)

d.The Major classification - are created by counting and by tracing ridges of the left and right thumb respectively. These divisions are to be used for the purpose of subdividing large collections of prints. In a large collection of prints where both thumbs are loop they are divided into nine major divisions by counting the ridges of the thumb. T he ridge counts of the left thumb are represented in the denominator by the symbol S, M, and L, which are arrived at as follows: Major division of loops 1. Ridge counts 1 to 11; inclusive are S (small), 12 to 16 inclusive, by M (med), and 17 or over, L (large). 2.The ridge counts of the right thumb are represented in the numerator by the same symbols, M and L. The count in this instance for the small, medium and large is the same as just explained for the denominator when an S or M appears as denominator. 3.W hen there are 17 ridges or more making a “Large” (L) in denominator the combinations changes in the numerator thus, the combinations changes in the numerator, thus: 1 to 17 inclusive S, 18 to 22 inclusive M, and 23 or more L. Left Thumb Denominator

Right Thumb Numerator

1 to 11 inclusive S (small)

1 to 11 inclusive S (small) 12 to 16 inclusive M (medium) 17 or more ridges L (large)

12-16 Inclusive M (medium)

1-11 inclusive S (small) 12-16 Inclusive M (medium) 17 or more ridges L (large)

17 or more ridges L (large)

1-17 inclusive S (small) 18 to 22 inclusive M (medium) 23 or more ridges L (large)

T he following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division.

S M L ------------S S S

S

M L ------------M M M

S

M L ------------L L L

Major division of w horls In a large collection of prints when both thumbs are whorls they are divided into nine major divisions by the result of ridges tracing inner (1), Meet (M) and Outer (O) of both thumbs. The left thumb represents the denominator and the right thumbs the numerator. T he following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine combinations in this division. I M O ------------I I I

T M D ------------M M M

I M O -----------O O O

e. Key Classification - is the ridge count of the first loop is a set of prints beginning with the right thumb, but not including either of the little fingers. -

If there is no such loop, the key is the result of the ridge count of the first whorl being treated as an ulnar loop.

-

W hen arches appear in all fingers, the symbol of the key classification is just a minus sign (-)

-

T he result of the ridge count of the key classification be exhibited or placed at the extreme left of the classification formula in line with the numerator

f. Final classification - this is the ridge count of the loop in the little finger of the right hand, placed in the numerator line -

If there is no loop in the right little finger, then the ridge count of the one appearing in the left little finger/s used, in which case it is placed in the denominator line.

-

If no loop appear in either little finger, the result of the ridge count the whorl is being treated for the final classification

-

W hen arches appear in both little finger the absence of a loop or whorl or either in the right and left little finger the last loop is being used as a final classification, except the loop that is being used in the key classification.

-

Arches are represented classification line.

by

a

minus

sign

(-)

in

the

Classification of scarred patterns (amputated, missing at birth fingers) a. Always indicate the amputated or missing at b birth fingers to the fingerprint record cards. b. If one is absent carry the symbol or counting by the counterpart, or opposite fingers, which is present. C. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given classification of whorls with M for meeting. d. if all fingers were missing or amputated the classification will be; N= D=

M M

32 32

W W

MMM MMM

e. If both hands are amputated or missing at birth the classification will be. Suspect fingerprint sample and data base making Method/ essential of the fingerprint sampling Points of he fingerprint sampling are as follows; 1. Washing the hands before fingerprint sampling 2. Relax

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Position Area to be covered on the fingerprint collection Rolling direction of the rolling method Spreading of ink T hickness of the ink Speed in rolling the fingers Check up after fingerprint recording

Search, preservation and collection of fingerprint evidence Fingerprints are very fragile and may be destroyed by contamination or improper handling T he methods of searching, preservation and collection usually affects both the qualit y and quantity of latent fingerprints. T he primar y concerns are preventing the addition of fingerprints to the evidence and preventing the destruction of ones that are already present. So the first step to be undertaken in a case involving that evidence is to exclude those unauthorized person and to protect the scene. SEARCHING- The search should begin wit h the area surrounding the actual scene. The next logical places to search area points of possible exit and entry. PRESERVATION- when a latent print is located, the first thing to do is to photograph the actual crime scene. A data card should be prepared and it should contain the case number, date, location, name of officer who discovered the print and the name of the photographer. Next is to sketch the objects on which the latent prints was found and indicate the exact location of the print. LATENT IMPRESSIONS Each ridge of the finger, palms and soles bears a row of sweat ports, which in the average person constantly exude perspiration. Also the ridge of the fingers and palms are in intermittent contact with other parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various objects, which may leave a film of grease or moisture on the ridges. In touching an object, the film of moisture and/ or grease may be transferred to the objects, thus leaving an outline of the ridge of the fingers or palm there on. This print is called a latent impression the word “latent” meaning hidden, that is, the print many times is not readily visible. Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present, are of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as identification of them may solve the crime and result in successful prosecution of the subject. Consequently, ever y effort should be made to preserve and identif y them. Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt, or dust are equally important to the investigator but strictly speaking, are not latent impressions. A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical manner. Points of entry and exit should be examined, along wit surface or objects disturbed or likely touched during the commission of the

crime. The examiner should wear a pair of light cloth gloves and handle an object only in so far as is necessar y and then only by edges or surface, which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of the exact location of a print on an objects and of the objects itself should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in any trial resulting from the investigation. NO one should handle and objects other than the examiner him self. Portable articles removed should be labeled or marked so that they may readily identify thereafter. T he beam of a flashlight played over the surface of an objects will frequently show the location of latent impression, although this is not an infallible test their presence. Evidence should be examined as soon as possible after its discover y. Following the location of any latent prints scene of a crime, the prints of all persons whose presence at the place under inspection has been for legitimate purposes must be excluded from further attention. It is advisable, therefore, during the initial stages of an investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints of all members of the household, the employees, and any police or other official who have touched the objects on which the latent impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are referred to as elimination prints. Due to the fragment nature of most latent prints it is not possible to derive a classification which makes a file search practicable, a latent impression may be identified, however by comparison with the prints of a particular suspects. Inked fingerprints taken for comparison with the latent impressions should be illegibly and as complete as possible including the areas not essential to classification, since identification are often made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should likewise be complete and clear and should include impressions of the finger joints. Persons not experienced in latent comparisons should not attempt to evaluate latent fragment, since the area necessar y for identification may be extremely compared to tat of an average inked fingerprint. Articles are which are to be transported by mail or express should be so packed that the surface bearing latent impressions are not in contact with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by mounting the articles on a piece of a fiberboard or plywood. The board should then be secured in a box so that the objects will not touch or be taken against the side in transit. The package should be plainly marked “Evidence”, to prevent inadvertent handling on opining. Cotton or cloth surface never be placed in direct contact with any surface bearing latent prints. Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in a single protective wr apper, since contact with other surface does not harm latent on such objects. Lifts, negatives and photographs are readily enclosed with letters. An explanator y letter should accompany all evidence. If it is necessar y to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should be placed in every package so tat the recipient will know immediately the import of the contents. All items of evidence should be marked and describe exactly in the accompanying letter so that will not be confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a check on what the package should contain.

In addition, the letter should include for the record purposes brief outline of the crime, i.e., date and place of occurrence, and names of victims and subjects. If suspects are named for comparison, sufficient descriptive data should be set out to permit location of their fingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, comprises individual’s complete name, aliases FBI number, date or prior arrest or fingerprinting, fingerprint identification, date and place of birth, and physical description. Evidence is preferable forwarded by registered mail of railway express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt. Elimination or suspect fingerprints are best enclosed with evidence itself, wit h notation as to the type of prints for warded. POW DERING ANF LIFTING LATENT IMPRESSION T he sole purpose in “developing a latent impression is to make it visible so that it may be preserved and compared various powders and chemicals are used for this purpose. W hen a latent prints is plainly visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made to develop it. No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in just, obviously greasy or bloody prints, as this will almost surely destroy them. Objects, which have been wet or immersed in water, may still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination is attempted however, the objects must be dried. Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to grease or moisture in the ridges of a latent prints, making it visible against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which will contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts should also be considered. A gray powder and black powder are adequate for latent print works. Many fingerprint powders of various colors and compositions are available from fingerprint supply houses but none are superior to the gray and black. A ver y small amount of powder is placed on the brush for application to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the brush strokes should conform to the direction of the ridges. All excess powder should be brushed from bet ween the ridges. Too much powder and too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners. Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. It is also used on mirrors and metal surface which have been published to mirror like finish, sense these surfaces will photograph wit h the fingerprint camera. Black powder should be applied to whit e or light-colored surfaces. Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold and red bronze powders, although of a glittering appearance, will photograph dark and should consequently be used on light- colored surfaces. Dragons’ blood powder is a photographically neutral powder and may be dusted on either a light or dark surface. On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be used, it being necessar y only to use a contrasting black or white background when photographing.

Prints should be lifted after photographing both rubber and transparent tapes are available for this purpose. Rubber lifting tape id procurable in black or white 4” x 9” sheets with the adhesive surface protects with a celluloid cover. A black powder print should obviously be lifted on white tape and gray powder print on black tape. Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be lifted on whit e tape, aluminum on block. Dragon’s blood is lifted on either black or white. After cutting a piece of tape sufficiently large to cover the entire latent print, the celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side supplied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and firmly to the surface, taking care not to sift is position. It is then peeled gently from the surface and the piece of celluloid placed over the print to protect it. The operator should handle the lift in such a manner that he will leave no prints to his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper identification tag bearing the initials of the operator, date an objects from lifted should be placed under one corner of the celluloid, or this information may be wr itten on the black of the lift itself if it can belong in a permanent legible manner. If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print, more legible print may sometimes be obtained by lifting a second time (on a new piece of tape, of course). It should be noted that a print lifted on rubber tape is in a reverse position. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print of such a lift, it will be necessary to print the negative from the reverse side in order for the print to appear in its correct position for comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted be persons of inadequate knowledge an experience. Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in 1” to 2” widths for fingerprint work. The common variety of transparent tape is not suitable due to the deterioration (drying) of the adhesive surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct position. Transparent lifts should be affixed to a smooth gain less, opaque background of a black or white color contrasting with the powder used. Ever y effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such lifts. In no instance should a transparent lift ever be folded on itself or struck. To another piece of such tape as a backing. Since it is generally not possible to determine the correct position of such a print. Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent fingers and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, shroud be lifted as units, that is, on single piece of tape, as this may facilitate the task of making comparisons. PREPARATI ON OF FINGERTPRINTS CHARTS FOR COURT TESTIMONY In testif ying to fingerprint identification, the expert often prepares charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the nature of his testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult the layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the full import of an expert’s testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified and rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole responsibility of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to law enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a brief explanation

of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks based on long experience in these matters. To do the work conveniently, it will be necessar y to have available, in addition to the ordinary photographic developing and printing materials, a projection enlarger which will enlarge preferably to at least ten diameters. In the projection method of enlargement, the image is printed directly from the original negative, and the preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary. Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials are: A roll of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to areas of the fingerprints on the negative to be used; cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to prepared charts a tube of rubber cement and a bottle of ink, other than black or white.

outline the some stiff mount the translucent

A light-box on which to view the negative whole blocking, and a lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts, while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box is basically a frosted pane of glass wit a light beneath it to produce soft, even, none glaring illum ination. If no light-box is available, a clear window may be utilized in “blocking” the negatives. If the experts find it necessary to have an outside source prepare is photographs, he should retain personal custody of the evidence during the operation. T he original latent print and inked print with which it is identical can be photographed 25 times the actual size. This procedure eliminates guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. W hatever areas of the t wo prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of identification are then outlined (blocked) on negative wit h the masking tape, so the only those areas will show in the subsequent enlargements. Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small, it is well to show the complete print. If the area is large, however, as in a palm print, an area which will not make the cart too bulky or unwieldy may be selected. On blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or lightbox by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, wit the side to be blocked up. The prevent constant shifting of the negative while it is being prepared. The latent print should be blocked first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Cares should be exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formation shown and the ridge formation in the same upright or horizontal positions. This may be facilitated by fixing a negative, bearing ruled squares bet ween the negative being blocked and the glass to which it is attached. If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print on a dark background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared and blocked in order that both prints may appear as black ridges on light. This is done by placing the original negative adjacent to a new sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative contains the same image as the original except tat the color of the image has been reversed. If the negative is a photograph of an upper lift, the print appears reverse position; tat is, as a mirror image, and the negative will

accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order for it to appear in a position comparable to that of the inked prints. Failure to present the prints in question in the same color and position may confuse the observer and nullify the purpose for which the chart is made. T he degree of enlargement is not important in itself, so long as the ridges of the latent print are readily distinguishable by the eye. Ten diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement from 5 to 30 will serve. It should be remembered however, that small enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and tat background. A white border of at least 1/1/2 inches or a widt h equal to one-third the enlarged area should be left from carting purposes. Any chart prepared must be technically correct; tat is, the corresponding ridge characteristics in the t wo prints must be similarly numbered and indicated. Several ways of pointing out the similar ridge formations have been observed but the one which appears soundest is also simplest and consists or merely marking the characteristics wit h lines and numbers. All the ridge characteristics in the prints need not be charted. Twelve have the ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for identification, but it is neither claimed nor implied that this number is required. All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two impressions have the ridge characteristics of similar shapes which occupy the same relative positions in the patterns. Method involving superimposition of the prints are not recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a ver y few instances, due to the distortion of ridges in most prints through pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not necessarily a test of identif y. Likewise, presenting charts wit h the shapes of the characteristics drawn in the margin is not recommended. Individual ridge characteristics may vary slightly in actual shape or physical position due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking condition of latent print when developed, powder adhering to background, etc. Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a unit relationship and not on the microscopic- appearance of single characteristic. Since the enlarged- photograph appear in black and white, an ink other than black or white should be used to line the chart. Such an ink should be preferably translucent so that it will be possible to see the ridges which it reverses. A translucent carmine drawing ink serves well. In placing the lines the chart should be arranged so that they do not cross or touch. T he chart will present a clearer, hearer and more pleasing appearance if it is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly spaced. It is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around the photograph. Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type of print (latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the

characteristics in an orderly sequence; and, if the situation warrants it, all of the points may be illustrated on a single side of the photograph. A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to draw the line exactly to the characteristics point, not short of it, beyond it or obscuring it. Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in denatured alcohol, without damaging the photograph. If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might be well to draw a small circle around each characteristic and then draw the line from a circle to the number, since the ridge will be much thicker than the illustrating line. All line and numbers should be checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might be called upon to explain. T he chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff cardboard with rubber cement, which maybe purchased in small tubes. After cementing the photograph to the cardboard, it should be placed under a heavy flat object which will cover the entire surface to prevent warping and wrinkling. After drying, trim the two enlargements to the same square size wit h heavy scissor, a pen knife or scalped, and fasten them together, book fashion. Of course, if charts are large, 0 to 36 inches square, mounting is unnecessary and they will have to be supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks or metal rings. Some courts do not permit numbering or lining of the photographs and the enlargements alone in these cases will have to suffice. If there is some question about admissibilit y of the charted enlargements, it is well to prepare an extra-uncharted set.

DEFINITION OF TERMS 1. Bifurcation – is the dividing of ridge into two or more branches. 2. Enclosure, Eye or eyelet – is the splitting of a ridge into t wo but meet at a certain point to continue as a single ridge. 3. Divergence – is the spreading apart of t wo ridges which have been parallel or nearly parallel. 4. Ending ridge – is a ridge that terminates. 5. Dot ridge – is a ridge that resemble a period. 6. Type lines – t wo innermost ridges which start parallel or nearly parallel diverge, and surround the pattern area.

7. Pattern Area – is that part of a loop and whorl in which appears the cores, deltas and ridges. 8. Delta – is that point on a ridge or in front of the near the centers of the divergence of the type lines. It may be a bifurcation, an abrupt ending ridge, a dot, a short ridge, a meeting of two ridges or a point on the first recurring ridge located nearest the center and in front of the divergence of the type lines. 9. Core – is the approximate center of the patterns area. 10 Ridges- Little lines found at the finger/palm of the hand and sole of the foot. 11. Focal point- it is within the pattern area of a loop and whor l, which are enclosed and called delta and core. 12. Friction skin- the epidermal hairless skin found on the lower portion of the hands and feet covered wit h minute ridges and wit hout pigment or coloring matter. 13. Furrows- The canal or depression in between ridges.