Folkman1980 Analysis of Coping in a Middle Aged Community Sample

An Analysis of Coping in a Middle-Aged Community Sample Author(s): Susan Folkman and Richard S. Lazarus Source: Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 21, No. 3 (Sep., 1980), pp. 219-239 Published by: American Sociological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2136617 . Accessed: 30/09/2014 05:29 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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An AnalysisofCopingin a Middle-Aged Community Sample SUSAN FOLKMAN

RIcHARDS. LAZARUS Universityof California,Berkeley

of Healthand Social Behavior1980,Vol. 21 (September):219-239 Journal Thisstudyanalyzes the ways 100 community-residing menand womenaged 45 to 64 coped with the stressfulevents of daily living during one year. Lazarus's cognitive-phenomenological analysis ofpsychologicalstressprovidesthetheoreticalframework. Informationabout recently experiencedstressfulencounterswas elicitedthroughmonthlyinterviewsand self-report questionnairescompletedbetween interviews.At the end of each interviewand questionnaire,the participantindicatedon a 68-itemWays of Coping checklistthose coping thoughtsand actions used in the specificencounter.A mean of 13.3 episodes was reportedby each participant.Two functionsof coping, problem-focusedand emotion-focused,are analyzed withseparate measures. Bothproblem-and emotion-focusedcoping wereused in 98% ofthe1,332episodes, emphasizing thatcopingconceptualizedin eitherdefensiveorproblem-solving termsis incomplete-both functionsare usually involved. Intraindividualanalyses show that people are more variable than consistentin theircoping patterns. The contextof an event,who is involved,how it is appraised, age, and genderare examined as potentialinfluenceson coping. Contextand how the eventis appraised are the mostpotent factors. Work contextsfavor problem-focusedcoping, and health contextsfavor emotionfocused coping. Situations in whichtheperson thinkssomethingconstructivecan be done or thatare appraised as requiringmoreinformation favorproblem-focusedcoping, whereas those havingto be acceptedfavor emotion-focusedcoping. Thereare no effectsassociated withage, and genderdifferencesemergeonlyinproblem-focusedcoping: Men use moreproblem-focused coping than women at work and in situations having to be accepted and requiringmore information.Contraryto the culturalstereotype,thereare no gender differencesin emotionfocused coping.

There is a growingconvictionthatthe ways people cope withstressaffecttheirpsychological, physical,and social well-being(forreviews see Antonovsky, 1979; Coelho et al., 1974; Cohen and Lazarus, 1979; Janis and Mann, 1977; Moos, 1977). Despite the groundswell of interestin coping, littleis knownabout how it plays this mediatingrole. A major reason is thatmost coping research has been concerned with unusual populations (for example, those exhibitingsome formof pathologyor, less frequently, exceptionally good adjustment) or submitted Thisarticleis basedon a dissertation by BerkofCalifornia, authorto theUniversity thefirst ofthedissereley.The secondauthorwas chairman thestudy.The invesanddirected tationcommittee tigationwas supportedby a researchgrantto the on Aging secondauthorfromtheNationalInstitute comments andextensive (AG 00799).Thethoughtful revieweron an earlierversionof of an anonymous thisarticlewereverymuchappreciated. to: Susan Folkman, Address communications of PsycholStressand CopingProject,Department of California, ogy,University Berkeley,CA 94720.

withunusualor special events(such as tornadoes, parachutejumps, doctoral examinations,and spinalinjuries).Withtheexceptionofa studybyPearlinand Schooler(1978), has notbeengivento thewaysmost attention people-those who do not exhibiteitherpacharacteristics-cope thologyor superperson with the ordinarystressfulevents of their lives. Measuresdevisedto assess day-to-day copinghavebeen inadequateor inappropriate forthislattertask. Withoutsuitableassesslittleprogresscan be madein mentstrategies, how copingmediatesthe reunderstanding lationshipbetweenthe stressesof everyday physical,and social livingand psychological, well-being. Our purposehere is twofold:to reporta men studyoftheways100community-residing and womenaged45-64 coped withthestressfuleventsofdailylivingduringthecourseofa topresentan approachtothe year,andthereby assessmentof coping that we thinkholds promiseforcopingresearch.

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In this studywe soughtto answer two basic questions about the coping process. First, to what extent are people consistent in coping with the diverse stressfulevents of ordinary living? If coping is determinedprimarilyby person variables, intraindividualcoping patterns should be highly consistent across stressfulencounters. On the other hand, if situationvariables are the majordeterminants, and coping patternswill be situation-specific, there will be low consistency. Second, what are the actual factorsthatinfluencethe coping process? Five were considered: certain situational factors, includingwhat the event was about, who was involved, and how the event was appraised, and two demographic variables, age and gender. This reportdoes not examine the relationships between coping processes and adaptational outcomes, such as morale, social functioning,and somatic illness. Before this can be done, it is necessaryto have a workable approach to the measurementof coping,and to have at least a preliminary understanding ofthe consistencyof the copingprocess across stressof coping. ors and of some of the determinants This reportshould, therefore,be regardedas a necessary firststep in programmaticresearch on coping and adaptationaloutcome.

Approaches to the Measurementof Coping

Current approaches to measurement are based on three broad perspectives, namely, coping conceptualized in terms of ego processes (e.g., Haan, 1977; Vaillant, 1977), coping conceptualized as traits(e.g., Lazarus et al., 1974), and coping conceptualized in terms of the special demandsof specifickindsof situations, such as illness (e.g., Moos, 1977),natural disasters (e.g., Lucas, 1969), and bereavement(e.g., Parkes, 1972). A briefdiscussion of each of these perspectiveswill make clear why the measures of coping that have evolved are unsatisfactory. Conceptualizingcopingin termsofdefensive or ego processes poses several difficulties for our understandingof the relationshipbetween the coping process and the adaptational outcome. Usually defenses are hierarchicallyorganized on an evaluative dimension. Vaillant

(1977), forexample, orders defense processes from primitiveto mature according to their "relative theoreticalmaturityand pathological import" (p. 80). Menninger(1963) speaks of five orders of regulatorydevices representing levels of disorganization, and Haan (1977) ranks ego processes as indicatingego-failure, defense, or coping according to their adherence to an objective reality.The placementof an ego process on an evaluative dimensionis oftenmade on the basis of informationabout how well the person functions.This leads to the firstmajor difficulty, namely,a confounding between the process and the adaptational outcome. Two examples are the studiesof Wolffet al. (1964) concerning"well-defended" parentsof children with terminalillness, and the more recentwork of Vaillant(1977). In the studyby Wolffet al., the parents' degree of defense ("well-defendedness") was used to predict theirstresshormonelevel. However, the measure of well-defendednesswas based partially on evidence of lack of distress. It is no great surprise,therefore,thatthe outcome measure of stress level, corticosteroidsecretion, was also correlatedwith well-defendedness. Vaillant's procedure for assigning defense level scores to behaviors in his longitudinal studyof the adaptive processes of male graduates of an Eastern universityalso illustrates thisproblemof theconfoundingofprocess and outcome. Behaviors at timesof crisis and conflict in each man's life were described, and these behaviorswere assigned a defenserating according to their relative maturity.Raters were given a life-stylesummaryto assist them in ratingthe behavior-in other words, a defense was rated in the context of the man's overall functioning.Level of defense (i.e., maturityof defense) was subsequentlyused to distinguishoutcome groups. However, when there is interdependencebetween the process and the adaptationaloutcome, as in the case of Vaillant's study,the process cannot be used to explain the outcome. is thatadequate interrater Anotherdifficulty reliabilityin assigninglabels to ego processes is difficultto attain. This problem is noted by Vaillant (1971) and by Morrissey(1977) in his review of studies employingHaan's tripartite arrangementof ego processes. Raters' disagreementsstemin largepartfromthe amount

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of inference thatis oftenrequiredto label an and Ihilevich(1969)are examplesof defenseego process.For example,Vaillant(1977)de- orientedmeasuresalso based on a traitapfinesreactionformation as proach.(For a comprehensive reviewof trait measures of coping, see Moos, 1974.)Traits behaviorin a fashiondiametrically opposed fromdefensiveprocesses,however,in to an unacceptedinstinctual impulse.This differ responseper mechanismincludes overtly caring for thattheyrefernotto a defensive someoneelse whenone wishesto be cared se, but to the dispositional ator personality foroneself,"hating"someoneor something tributes thatlead to theresponse(cf. Lazarus one reallylikes,or "loving"a hatedrivalor et al., 1974). unpleasantduty.(p. 385) Overall,traitmeasuresare poor predictors ofcopingprocesses(CohenandLazarus,1973; Altruism, on theotherhand,is definedas vicariousbutconstructive and instinctuallyLazaruset al., 1974).Traitmeasuresarebased thatpeoplearebehaviorally gratifying serviceto others.It includesbe- on theassumption consistent nignand constructive and cognitively) reactionformation,(also attitudinally philanthropy, and well-repaidservice to across situations.However,substantialconothers. Altruismdiffersfrom . . . reaction sistencyhas seldombeenfoundin personality formation in thatit leaves thepersonusing research. There are argumentsthat most thedefensepartlygratified. (p. 386) undercertainsituational peopleare consistent Gratification seemsto be thekeyto knowing conditions,but even the use of person-bywhena behaviorrepresents does notgreatly interactions improve one ortheotherof situation thedefenses, buthowwouldan observerknow theextentto whichtraitspredictbehavior(cf. whetherthe personwas reallygratified 1974;Magnusson (al- Bowers,1973;Ekehammar, truism)or merelypretendinggratificationand Endler, 1977; Pervinand Lewis, 1978). (reactionformation)? To reducetheamountof The consistencyof the copingprocess has inferencerequiredto answerthis question, never been addressedsystematically in reVaillantlooksforinformation abouttheconse- search,buthas been,in themain,assumed. quencesoftheeventinsubsequent lifehistory. Further, theunidimensional qualityof most This, of course, leads to the problemmen- traitmeasuresdoes notadequatelyreflect the tionedearlier,namely,confounding of out- multidimensional qualityof actualcopingprocomewithprocess. cesses. Naturalisticobservation(e.g., MeFinally,bytreating copingas a defensesys- chanic,1962;Murphy,1974;Visotskyet al., temwhose purposeis to reducetensionand 1961)indicatesthatcopingis a complexamalrestoreequilibrium, attentionis focusedon gamofthoughts andbehaviors(cf.Lazarus,in tensionreduction rather thanproblem-solving.press). Moos and Tsu (1977), for example, Although maintaining emotionalequilibrium is pointoutthatin copingwithphysicalillnessa an important function of coping(Cohen and patientmustdeal withmanysourcesofstress, Lazarus, 1979; White,1974),so is problem- including painand incapacitation, hospitalensolving(see Janisand Mann,1977;Mechanic, vironments, and thedemandsimposedby the 1962;Murphy,1974).A comprehensive defini- professional staffand spepialtreatment procetionof copingneedsto includebothemotion- dures.Atthesametime,thepatientmustalso regulating and problem-solving functions. preserveemotionalbalance, a satisfactory A secondwaytoconceptualize and good relationships withfamily copingis as a self-image, trait.Thisoverlapsthefirst personality typeof and friends.These multipletasks requirean conceptualization wheneverthetraitsare de- arrayof copingstrategies, the complexity of rivedfromdefensetheory, as, forexample,in whichsimplycannotbe capturedin a unidithecase ofrepression-isolation (cf.Gardneret mensionalmeasure. al., 1959;LevineandSpivack,1964;Luborsky Coping is also a shiftingprocess (cf. et al., 1965; Schafer, 1954), repression- Lazarus,in press)in whicha personmust,at sensitization (cf. Byrne,1964;Welsh, 1956), certaintimes,relymoreheavilyon oneformof and coping-avoidance and at other (Goldstein,1959,1973). coping,say,defensivestrategies, Byrne's(1964) repression-sensitization scale, timeson problem-solving strategies,as the Goldstein's(1959) sentence-completion changes.It is difficult to test, statusofthesituation anda defensemechanisms inventory natureofmoststressful byGleser see howtheunfolding

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developing test-taking skills,andalso regulated feelingstatesthroughthe use of comforting cognitions,favorable social comparisons, humor,beinga member ofa supportive group, fromotherstudents, Situation-orientedresearchersapproach the andthesearchforsupport the spouse,faculty,the investigator, studyofcopingfroma thirdperspective. They friends, usuallydescribethe ways people cope with "and sometimes anyonepresent"(p. 140). specificsituations, forexample,withcancer There are problemswith this approach, (e.g., Weismanand Worden,1976-77),polio however.Becausethesestudiesareusuallyde(Visotskyet al., 1961),burns(e.g., Andreasen signedto identify copingstrategies thatmediand Norris,1972), spinal cord injury(e.g., ate adaptationaloutcomesin unusual situaBulman and Wortman, 1977), parachute tions, and not to analyze coping crossjumping(Epstein,1962),and changesin in- situationally, findings tendnotto be generalizstitutional residence(Aldrichand Mendkoff,able to other contexts. In other words, 1963).In thesestudies,copingstrategies are situation-oriented researchon coping tends oftengroupedintofunctional categories,for also to be situation-specific. formaintaining example,strategies orrestoring In thisconnection, a recentstudybyPearlin interpersonal relationships, seekinginforma- and Schooler(1978)differs in important ways tion,feelingbetter,maintaining self-esteem,fromothersituation-oriented research.Rather and makinggood decisions. Althoughthe than focusingon unusualevents,these reoftenincludedefenses,they searcherswere concernedwiththe ordinary copingstrategies are notorganizedarounddefensetheory.In- stressespeopleencounter. rather than Further, stead,defensesare describedin termsof the studying a singleevent,theyaskedtheirsubfunction particular theyserveina specificsitu- jects aboutthewaystheycoped withstresses ation.The "comforting cognitions"described associated with four social roles: marriage by Mechanic(1962) in his studyof doctoral partner, householdeconomicmanager, parent, fortheirqualifying studentspreparing exami- and worker.Pearlinand Schoolerfoundthat nationsrepresenta good example.They in- peopleused a broadrangeofstrategies incopclude self-statements suchas: ing withthe demandsassociatedwiththese 17 copingfactors,each I'm as brightand knowledgeable as other roles.Theyidentified of at made least three up specificstrategies. studentswho have passed these examiin nations;I've handledtestsituationsin the Certaincopingresponses,suchas engaging and makingpositivecompast-there'snogoodreasonwhynotnow;I selectiveperception amdoingall I can to prepare-therestis not parisons,were foundin all fourrole areas, up to me; I wouldn'thave gottenthisfar suggesting thattheyhave fairlyuniversalapunlessI knewsomething; I'm well likedin plication, whereasothersappearedonlyinone thisdepartment; I've alreadydemonstratedarea. Such differences are important because on pastwork,theywillpass theyimplythattheremaybe bothconsistency mycompetence me; You can'treallyfailtheseexaminations and variability whencopingis viewedacross unlessyou reallymessup. (p. 121) situations(see also Moos, 1974;Sidle et al., Thesestatements are specificto theexamsitu- 1969). to thePearlinand Thereare twolimitations ationandaregroupedbyfunction, inthiscase, Schooler (1978) study. First, most of the of anxiety. thereduction The situation-oriented approachhas certain analyseswere based on questionsthatasked usuallycoped withgenvirtues.By notlimiting thedefinition ofcoping how therespondents todefensive ortrait-relevant processes,a more eral sourcesof stress,and nothowtheyactuinclusiveand comprehensive descriptionof ally coped in specificsituations.Questions copingis possible.Thisis particularly evident about sourcesof stressand copingare illusin Mechanic's (1962) study,in which de- trative.One questionasked: are givenabouthow studentsmanscriptions How strongly do youagreeor disagreethat: agedthesourceofstress,i.e., theexamination, 1. I cannotcompletely be myself aroundmy spouse? 2. My marriagedoesn't give me by allocatingtime,choosingtest areas, and encounters, and the concomitant changesin coping,could be adequatelydescribedby a presumably staticmeasureofa generaltraitor personality disposition.

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present study falls within the cognitivephenomenologicaltheoryof psychological stressdevelopedbyLazarusandhiscolleagues (e.g., Lazarus,1966;Lazarus,inpress;Coyne and Lazarus, in press; Folkmanet al., 1979; How oftendo you: 1. Tell yourselfthat Lazarus et al., 1980; Lazarus and Launier, marital difficulties arenotimportant? 2. Try 1978). The overall theoreticalframework is to overlookyourspouse'sfaultsandpayat- transactional in thatthepersonand theenvitention onlyto goodpoints?3. Tryto ignore ronment are seeninan ongoingrelationship of difficulties by lookingonlyat good things? reciprocalaction,each affecting and in turn (p. 20) beingaffectedby theother.Lazarus has deWhena situational sourceofstressis defined finedtwoprocessesthatmediatethisrelationin termsof a generalquality,such as social ship:appraisaland coping. we learnaboutan enduring atmosphere, aspect Appraisalis the cognitiveprocessthrough of a clusterof specificsituationsthatin this whichan eventis evaluatedwithrespectto case includesopportunity forself-expression,whatis at stake(primary appraisal)and what or thelack thereof. coping resourcesand optionsare available and spousalappreciation These are general,abstractqualitiesof situa- (secondaryappraisal).Thereare threemajor which appraisals:harm-loss, us of thespecificde- typesof stressful tionsand do notinform mandswithwhichthepersonis coping.Simi- refersto damagethathas alreadyoccurred; toharmorlossthathasnot whichrefers larly,whena personis askedabouthowhe or threat, she usually copes, information is being so- yetoccurredbutis anticipated; andchallenge, licitedabouta personality disposition. At this whichrefersto an anticipated for opportunity or gain.The degreeto whicha person level of abstraction, measurement poses the mastery stress,thatis, feels same problemsencounteredin the traitap- experiencespsychological or challenged,is deterproach to measurementdiscussed above. harmed,threatened, betweentheperson Overall,thereis usuallya poor relationship minedby therelationship inthatspecificencounter betweenwhatpeoplesay theyusuallydo and andtheenvironment bothbytheevaluation ofwhatis whattheyactuallydo inspecificinstances. The as itis defined ofcopingresources bestway to learnaboutthedemandsof situa- at stakeand theevaluation or a man- and options. tions(such as a personalcriticism ifestation ofinterpersonal coolnessorhostility) Copingis definedas thecognitiveand bemade to master,tolerate,or and how people cope with them(e.g., by havioralefforts andinternal of reduceexternal demandsandconcounterhostility, avoidance,or withdrawal serve interest)is to describehow people actually flictsamongthem.Such copingefforts twomainfunctions: or alteraencounters. themanagement cope in specific stressful relationship The second limitation of Pearlin and tion of the person-environment Schooler'sstudyis itsconcernwithpersistent thatis the sourceof stress(problem-focused ofstressful emotions thatis, enduring and henceunre- coping)andtheregulation life-strains, solvedproblems"thathave thepotentialfor (emotion-focused of coping).These functions arousingthreat. . ." (p. 3). Subjects were not copingare also recognizedby George(1974), askedaboutstressestheyhadresolvedorwere Kahn et al. (1964), Murphyand Moriarty As a result,a large (1976),Murphy (1974),White(1974),Mechanic successfulin overcoming. in (1962),and Pearlinand Schooler(1978). domainofcopingresponses,thoseeffective aremadeinresponseto stress Copingefforts changingthe situation out of which the strainful experiencearose, was ignored.This appraisals. However, appraisal and coping orientation towardenduringproblemsmight continuously influence each otherthroughout thesitu- an encounter.For example,an appraisalof helpexplainwhyresponsesto modify threat,or challengestimulates ationrepresented coponly3 of the 17 copingre- harm/loss, thatseemedto sur- ingefforts thatchangetheperson-environment sponseselicited,a finding itself relationship by alteringthe relationship prisetheauthors. ofcopingused in the (problem-focused The conceptualization coping)and/or by regulating enoughopportunity to become the sortof personI'd liketo be? 3. My spouseappreciatesmejust as I am? (p. 19) And anotherasked:

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emotionaldistress(emotion-focused coping). and social health in Alameda County Thechangedrelationship leadsto newapprais- (Hochstim,1970). The samplingframeconals or reappraisals,whichin turnengender sistedofall (over7,000)adultsaged20 orover samplearea of 4,735 further copingefforts, and so on. The identifi-livingin a probability was resurveyed cationofappraisalas a determinant ofcoping, housingunits.Thispopulation or copingas a determinant ofappraisal,is thus byHPL in 1974,anditwas fromthe1974panel were provisionaldependingupon whereone inter- sample(N = 4,864)thatourparticipants ruptsthe ongoing,dynamicrelationship be- drawn.A total of 216 people were initially contactedbyphone,109ofwhomagreedto be tweenthetwo. Thetermcopingprocessesrefers towhatthe inthestudy.Overthecourseofthestudy,nine ofthe109 personactuallythinksand does in a particular ofthesedroppedout.A comparison encounter andtochangesintheseefforts as the in theoriginalsamplewiththosewho refused encounterunfoldsduringa singleepisodeor to participateon income,religion,physical acrossepisodesthatareinsomesensepartofa status,and educationrevealedthatthoserewerelesseducated(X2 = 11.21,df= 3, p commonstressfulencounter,as in bereave- fusing withintheeducation ment.Thisstudyfocusesonjust one aspectof < .02),withmorefalling these processes, namely,what the person levelof 8-12 years.Of theninewhodropped thinks and does to cope withthedemandsofa out,fourwerewomen,andtheycamefromthe specificstressful encounter.Shortlywe shall youngestthreeage groups(threefromeach). explainhow we combinea person'scomplex to providea summary copingefforts descriptionof copingprocessesin thatparticular en- The Response Measure: The Ways of counter.Whatwe do nothaveis a description Coping2 ofhowthecopingefforts areorderedintimeor The "Ways of Coping"is a checklistof 68 how theychangein relationto shiftsin the a broadrangeof behavioral itemsdescribing person-environment We are currelationship. thatan individandcognitive copingstrategies rently analyzing open-ended interview material ual episode. mightuse in a specificstressful witha view to studying thesecomplextimeThe strategies were derivedfromthe framerelated changes in coping processes. The by Lazarusandhiscolleagues worksuggested analysiswe reporthereshouldbe regardedas (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus and Launier,1978) an effort to set the stageforthismoreambiin thecopinglitoffered andfromsuggestions tiousundertaking. erature(Mechanic,1962; Sidle et al., 1969; WeismanandWorden,1976-77).Theyinclude itemsfromthe domainsof defensivecoping METHODS isolation, (e.g., avoidance,intellectualization, problemsuppression),information-seeking, Sample of action,direct solving,palliation,inhibition The sampleconsistedof 100respondents (52 The checklistis action,and magicalthinking. women,48 men),aged45-64,whoparticipated orno,andis alwaysansweredwith binary, yes in a 12-month studyof stress,coping,and eventin mind. a specificstressful emotions.The participants were whiteand The itemson theWaysof Copingchecklist Protestant(93; 6 Catholic and 1 primarily were classifiedintotwo categories:problemhadat leasta ninth-grade levelofeduJewish), The problemfocusedand emotion-focused. cation(mean= 13.7years)and at least "adefocusedcategoryincludesitemsthatdescribe quate" income($7,000or abovein 1974;mean efforts and behav= $11,313),and were not severelydisabled. cognitiveproblem-solving ioral strategiesfor alteringor managingthe stratified intofour5-yearpeAge was further sourceof theproblem.Examplesare: = = riods: 45-49 (N 27), 50-54 (N 25), 55-59 (N = 24), and 60-64 (N = 24). These persons

were selectedfroma populationpreviously surveyedby the Alameda County Human PopulationLaboratory(HPL).1 In 1965,the HPL completeda surveyof physical,mental,

to changehis Got thepersonresponsible or hermind. Made a plan of actionand followedit. Stood yourgroundand foughtforwhat you wanted.

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The emotion-focused categoryincludesitems andusinga varimax rotation, alsolentempirical thatdescribecognitiveand behavioralefforts support fortherationally derivedscales.Ofthe directedat reducingor managingemotional 27 itemsclassifiedas problem-focused, 21, or distress.Examplesare: 78%, correlatedmorestrongly withthe first Looked for the "silver lining,"so to empiricalfactor.Of the41 itemsclassifiedas emotion-focused, 28, or 68%, werecorrelated speak;triedtolookon thebright sideof morestrongly withthesecondempirical factor. things. Thus, while the empirically constructed factors Accepted sympathyand understanding werenotpurelyproblemor emotion-focused, fromsomeone. indicating that certain items might be sensitive Triedto forgetthewholething. tothesituational contextas notedabove,there The internal consistency oftheclassificationwas clearsupportfora problem-focused scale of itemswas evaluatedby severalmethods. (P-scale) and an emotion-focused scale (EFirst,an interdisciplinary groupconsisting of scale). 10 people familiarwiththe projectand its Fourth,the internalconsistencyof the Ptheory,includingundergraduatestudents, andE-scaleswas examined,usingCronbach's graduate students,and facultymembers, (1951)alpha,byrandomly twoadminselecting classifiedeach itemas problem-or emotion- istrations andtreating eachindependently. The focused.Therewas 91% agreement forthe two adminisamongthe mean alpha coefficient raters.Of the 68 items,27 wereclassifiedas trations of theP-scalewas .80 and fortheEproblem-focused(P) and 41 as emotion- scale, .81. focused(E). The item-total correlations generated bythe Second,additionalsupportforthe internal internalconsistency programwere examined consistencyof the P- and E-scales was ob- to see iftherewereitemsthatcorrelated espetainedin an experimental studywithunder- ciallyweakly(r < .25) withtheirrespective graduatepsychologystudents(Leigh, 1979). scales. If an itemcorrelatedweakly,its reSubjectswere presentedthreevignettesde- lationship to otheritemsand to theempirical picting stressful situations. Thedirections indi- factorswas examined.The frequencywith cated two aspects of the predicament that whichtheitemwas used andtheevaluationof could be addressed:theproblemitselfor the theitembyraterswerealso considered.Ifsevemotionalresponseto the problem.Subjects eralof thedata sourcesindicatedthatan item wereaskedto markeach itemon theWaysof was weak, thatitembecamea candidatefor to theaspectofthe deletion.It was decidedtomoveoneitemfrom Copingchecklist according predicament to whichhe or she wouldapply the P-scale to the E-scale, and to drop two thatstrategy. Overthethreetests,an average itemsfromeach scale.The revisedP-scalehad of 78% of theitemswereidentified as having 24 itemsand therevisedE-scale had 40. thefunction thatagreedwiththeirscale mem- Revisionsofthescalesweremadeveryconbership(.05 levelofsignificance). Fivepercent servatively becauseofthedangerofartificially of the itemswere significant in the opposite creatingrelationships scales on by modifying direction-that is, a problem-focused itemwas the basis of data to whichtheywere to be used for regulation of emotion, or an applied.These scales ultimately mustbe used emotion-focused itemwas used to managea withotherpopulationsin similarresearchso problem.These itemsapparently reflecteda that theirfactorstructure,internalconsisto the situationalcontextof the tency,and the frequency sensitivity of itemuse can be vignette.For example,the item"you went comparedwiththeresultsofthisstudy.Modovertheproblemagainandagaininyourmind ifications can thenbe madeina mannerwhich to try to understandit" was seen in a willminimize thedangerofdeleting itemsthat sensewhenthevignette problem-focused dealt appearvaluelessin one populationor context withan upcomingharm(threat),but in an butare in factvaluablein another. sensewhentheharmhad alemotion-focused Finally,thecorrelation betweentheP- and readyoccurred(as in a failedexamination). E-scales was examined,usingthreeadminisThird,a principal factoranalysisoftheWays trations of theWaysof CopingchecklistranofCopingchecklist data,callingfortwofactors domlyselectedfromthe groupof adminis-

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trations notusedin thescale revisionprocess. wereused in theanalysisforreasonsgivenin The correlations betweentheP- and E-scales thenextsection. intheseadministrations were.35(N = 81), .52 (N

=

63), and .44 (N = 83). The mean correla-

tion was .44. Because both scales measure processesbelievedto be used together in normalcoping,a relationship betweenthetwowas expected.However,sincethemeanr2was .19, thereis enoughvariancenotsharedbythetwo scales to supporttheirindependent use, along withthe theoreticalor rationalreasons for doingso.

Classificationof Coping Episodes

Each copingepisode was classifiedas to whatitwas about,whowas involved,andhow it was appraised. Fourbroadcategorieswereusedto describe about: whateachcopingepisodewas primarily health,work,family matters, andother.These categoriesdescribethe"context"ofan event. Four categorieswere also establishedto describewho was involved:selfonly,person(s) Reportingof StressfulEvents at work,familymember(s), andothers.These Participants wereinterviewed seventimesat categoriesdescribethe"personinvolved." The classification of episodes as to their 4-weekintervalsabout stressfuleventsthat had occurredduringthepreviousmonthand contextandthepersoninvolvedwas madebya (SF), were perhaps still going on. Details were teamofthreecoders-one ofthewriters stuand an undergraduate soughtaboutwhathadledup totheevent,who a graduatestudent, was involved,whatit was about,whathap- dent.In theearlystagesofcoding,agreement pened,whatwas at stake,and the ways the amongthecodersrangedfrom.85 to .96. Any participant coped. At theconclusionoftheac- episodethatwas notcodedthesamewaybyall on theWaysof threecoders was discussedand a code was count,theparticipant indicated check was made thosestrategies thathadbeen agreedupon. A reliability Copingchecklist 600 episodes had been or were beingused in the event.In thefirst afterapproximately was .87 to interview, participants wereaskedto describe coded,and therangeof agreement checkwas made after threeevents. In subsequentsessions, they .97. A thirdreliability 1,200had beencoded; therangeofagreement wereaskedto describeone event. In addition,participants filledout a Coping was .90 to .97. Questionnaire duringthethirdweekfollowing Episodeswereclassifiedas to "appraisal" whoindicatedon thefinal each interview.The Coping Questionnaire bytheparticipants, whichof askedthepersonto thinkofthemoststressful pageoftheWaysofCopingchecklist eventexperienced duringthemonth,to givea four statementsdescribedthe situationfor written of it, and thento indicate whichtheyhadjust completedthechecklist: description on theWaysof Copingchecklistthosestrate- In general,is thissituation one gies thatwere used in the episode. Initially 1. thatyou could changeor do something participants were asked to fillout two quesabout? 2. thatmustbe acceptedor gottenused to? tionnaireseach month.However,aftertwo 3. thatyouneededto knowmoreaboutbemonthsthenumberwas reducedto one. foreyou could act? Most participants did not report the 4. in whichyou had to holdyourselfback maximumnumberof stressfulincidentsour from doingwhatyou wantedto do? interviewand questionnaire proceduresperchecked mitted.Sometimes a participant woulddiscuss In manyinstancesthe participants in whichcase they inan interview thesameincident thathe or she morethanone statement, theone thatbestdehad reported on a questionnaire, and at other wereaskedto underline wouldreportthatnothing scribedthe situation. timesa participant had happenedin thepreviousmonth. Onlythoseepisodesthatcouldbe codedfor stressful thepersoninvolved, As a consequence,thenumber ofepisodesre- allthreefactors-context, variedfrom4 to 18. and appraisal-wereincludedin theanalysis. portedbytheparticipants because In all, 1,524episodeswerecollected,an aver- In all, 192,or 13%, wereeliminated age of 15.2 foreach person,althoughnot all theycould notbe coded forall threefactors;

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1,332remained,an averageof 13.3 foreach studyoffer strongsupport forthispositionand person. demonstrate its usefulnessin understanding thecopingprocess.The degreeofconsistency ofcopingpatterns is a keyfeature ofthisissue, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION thegreater sincethehighersuchconsistency, The Dual Functions of Coping theroleindependent personfactorsmusthave One ofthemajortheoretical tenetsunderly- as determinants. ingthisinvestigation is thatthecopingprocess A copingpatternwas definedhere as the involvesbothproblem-focused and emotion- combined proportion of problem- and focusedfunctions. that emotion-focused Therefore, thefinding coping used in a specific both problem-and emotion-focused coping episode. Scores on the P-scale (24 items) were used in virtuallyevery stressfulen- rangedfrom0 to 23, witha meanof 8.6, a counteris important.Of the 1,332 coping medianof8.4, anda standard deviation of4.4. episodesanalyzed,therewereless than2% in Scoreson theE-scale(40 items)rangedfrom0 whichonlyone typeofcopingwas used. This to 37, witha meanof 13.4,a medianof 13.2, pointsup dramatically the earlierthemethat and a standarddeviationof6.1. Sincethetwo conceptualizing copingsolelyin termsof de- distributions werenormal,each withan N of fensiveprocesses or problem-solving pro- 1,332 episodes, they were dividedinto apcessesis inadequate.Defensiveprocessesrefer proximately equal thirds.The operational defiprimarily to the emotion-focused function of nitionofpattern thusinvolvedclassifying each coping,butinthestressful encounters reported P-scoreand E-scoreas high,medium,or low here,problem-focused copingwas also usedin andcombining therankings to formninepossinearlyeveryinstance.Similarly, researchers blepatterns ranging fromhighon bothscalesto whoemphasizetheproblem-solving aspectof low on bothscales. copingare dealingwitha limitedaspectofthe Consistency scoreswerecalculatedthrough copingprocessas itpresentsitselfin ordinary a combinatorial analysisin whichthenumber living.Forexample,inJanisandMann's(1977) of patternrepetitions was calculatedintraindecision-making model,althoughemotionis dividually as a proportion ofmaximum possible seen as a source of interference withgood repetitions. Perfectconsistency (a scoreof 1) littleattention decision-making, is givento the was definedas the repetition of one pattern strategies peopleuse to regulateit. Snyderet acrossall episodes.Perfect variability (a score al. (1962)andGeorge(1974)havecalledatten- of 0) was definedas theabsenceof anyrepetionto theneedto lookat copingdevicesthat titions.This methodof analysistookintoacdecision-makers can use to minimize thepsy- countthe varyingnumbersof episodes that chologicaltensionsaccompanying decision- individuals reported byusingthatfigure as the makingunderemergency or under denominator conditions in theratio.For example,foran conditions ofuncertainty or ambiguity. Thisis individual 16episodes,theincreased reporting notto saythatthereis no placeforresearchon likelihoodof patternrepetitions owingto the defensive processesordecision-making. How- largenumberof episodesis controlled forby ever,whencopingis thesubjectof investiga- the increasednumberof possiblerepetitions tion,it is best seen as a complexprocessin- thelargenumberof episodeswouldcontain. volving both the problem-solving and The distribution of consistencyscores deemotion-regulating as Lazarus (in rivedthrough functions, thisanalysisis shownin Figure press;Note 1) has argued. 1. Scoresrangedfrom.073to 1.00,witha mean of .265, indicating thatalthougha degreeof consistency was thispopulationwas present, Consistencyof Coping Patterns characterized by morevariability thanconsisA second major theoreticaltenet is that tencyin its patternsof coping.3 copingis bestunderstood as beingdetermined As is evidentin Figure1, a smallnumberof bytherelationship betweenthepersonandthe participants werehighly intheiruse consistent ratherthanby independent environment, per- of coping patterns.A closer look at the son or situationfactors.The findings of this episodesreported bythe5% ofthesamplewith

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FIGURE 1. Distributionof consistencyscores describingthe extentto which people were consistentor variable in the

19 18 17 16 15 14

13 tO 4-)

12 11

N =100

>

10

Mean = .256

?

9

Standard

48

Range

z>

=

deviation .073 -1.00

6 5

4 3 20 1> .00

.07

.110.150.190.230.270.310.350.390.430.470.510.550.590.630.670.710.750.790.830.870.910.9 Consistency

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Scores

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copingstylesthat the highestconsistencyscores (rangingfrom It maybe thatto identify we mustlookat contexts, situational .714 to 1.00) revealedthatfor each person transcend forways people therewas greatvarietyamongepisodeswith anotherlevel of abstraction or relateto othersofa respectto whattheywereabout,whowas in- thinkaboutthemselves or sort,forexample,the powerful volved,and how theywere appraised.This particular or or hostile,controlling ofa powerless,friendly is a function thathighconsistency suggests existence the sense we Intuitively, permissive. thantheresult factorortraitrather personality thesame situation of suchstyles.For example,mostofus know of thepersonexperiencing overandoveragain.However,theconsistency peoplewho seemto be assaultiveyetsimultascoresof mostof thesamplesuggestthat,on neouslyvulnerable,a patternof copingthat and at thesame are notgreatlyde- allowsthemto be demanding thewhole,copingpatterns by implying termined by personfactors,norare theyde- timewardsoffcounterdemands would "do them factors. that such counterdemands by situation termined entirely withrespectto coping in." We are persuadedthatsuchcomplexand Thesegeneralizations forwe haveex- subtlecopingstylesdo exist,butitmaynotbe mustbe tentative, consistency theWaysof themthrough aminedonly one of severalpossiblecoping possibleto identify patterns."Pattern"hererefersto therelative Copingchecklist. and emotion-focused In thepresentdata set, such stylesare not proportionsof problemis definedsimin a episode.As such,it readilyapparent.Whenpattern particular copingused of problem-and ignoresthe specificproblem-and emotion- ply in termsof proportions than rather coping,variability focusedstrategies broughtto bear in a given emotion-focused and as thefindings predominates, encounter.For example,withintheemotion- consistency morespecific will show, problem-and emotion-focused focusedcategoryare numerous, by situainfluenced to see humor copingare differentially suchas trying copingstrategies, as- tionalfactors-i.e.,who was involvedin the in the situation,avoidance,detachment, ofblame(to selfor others),fatalism, copingepisode,whatitscontextwas,andhow signment projection,and fantasy.Specific strategies theepisodewas appraised-andbytheage and categoryinclude genderof theparticipant. withinthe problem-focused tryingto get help, inseekinginformation, hibitingaction, and takingdirect action. The Influenceof Situational Factors on Furtheranalysisof these or otherspecific Coping strategieswould providethe possibilityfor numerous reported all participants in patterns Although testingconsistencyor variability redid not necessarily they episodes, coping here. employed otherthanthose For category. Similarly, the problem-focused and portepisodesineverysituational of thesamone-third functionsof coping were example,approximately emotion-focused selectedforstudybecauseoftheirtheoretical ple did notworkoutsidethehomeand thereindepen- fore had no episodes in work-related in relatively as reflected importance nohealthepisodes. Othersreported dent major research literatures, e.g., categories. 80% ofthesamplehad at least industrial-socialpsychology(Kahn et al., Approximately 1964),sociology(Mechanic,1962),and devel- one categoryforwhichtheydid notreportan dataforso manycellswould opmentalpsychology(Murphy,1974). How- event.Estimating ever,theyare onlytwo of severalfunctions have distortedwhatwas actuallyhappening. thatcould have been considered.Otherpos- On theotherhand,ifonlythosesubjectswho copingis directedat had episodesin everycategorywereused in sibilities includewhether oneselfor another,whetherit is active or the analysis,80% of the samplewouldhave passive (cf. Rothbaumet al., 1979), and been lost. The solutionto theproblemcaused by unwhetherit producesa solution(an "exit," to to examine use thetermofMilleret al., 1960)or merelya equalcellswas to use pairedt-tests deferralof solution.Examinationof these differencesin the use of problem- and eachsituational copingwithin functions mightincreasethelikelihoodof ob- emotion-focused of factor. The paired t-test preserves the serving copingstyles,whichcan be thought maximumnumberof cases by includingall or profiles. as clustersof patterns

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pairs forwhichthereare no missingvalues.It episodesinvolving people at workgenerated is also an appropriate testfordependentdata increasedproblem-focused copingcompared generatedby assessingthe same personre- withepisodesinvolving theselfonlyor family peatedlyand permitswithin-person compari- members.There was no effecton emotionsonsacrosscategories.Whena participant had focusedcoping. morethanone episodein a category, meanPThecontext.Thecontextoftheepisode,that and E-scoreswerecalculatedandenteredinto is,whether itwas work-related, family-related, thepairedt-test. or health-related,differentially influenced Threesets of analyseswereperformed on problem-and emotion-focused coping. As problemand emotion-focused copingscores. shownin Table 2, workwas associatedwith The firstset examinedtheeffects ofwhowas higherlevelsof problem-focused coping,and involvedin theepisode(personinvolved),the health was associated with increased second examinedthe effectsof what it was emotion-focused coping. about (context),and the thirdexaminedthe The increasein problem-focused copingaseffects ofhowitwas appraised(appraisal).The sociatedwiththeworkcontextis particularly category"other"within thefactorsofcontext interesting when the findings about workin and personinvolvedwas not includedin this PearlinandSchooler's(1978)studyareconsidanalysis,sincethemeaningof anydifferencesered.PearlinandSchoolerwerepuzzledbythe forthiscategorywouldnot have been clear. infrequent use of strategies directedat changWithineveryset of analyses,each category ing the situation,and by the resistanceof was enteredintomultiplecomparisons-e.g., problemsat work to ameliorationthrough episodesthathadto do withhealthwerecom- copingefforts. thatthismight Theysuggested pared withepisodes thatwere work-relatedbe due to theimpersonal andchronicnatureof and withepisodes thatwere family-related.problemsin theworkarena.As notedearlier, Because of the multiple testing, the another reasonmight be thata domainofintersignificance levelforrejecting thenullhypoth- personalwork-related inwhichthere problems esis of no difference betweenthemeanswas existedthepotential or at forproblem-solving, set conservatively at .02 to reduce the in- least problem-managing, was not tapped in creasedchanceof a Type I error. theirresearch. Theperson involved. Of the threesituational Of the 310 workepisodesin the studyrefactorsconsidered, thepersoninvolvedin the portedhere, 184 (59o) involveda specific copingepisodewas thefactorhavingtheleast otherperson.In addition, 32% oftheproblems influenceon coping.As shownin Table 1, at workwere appraisedas permitting someTABLE 1. Differencesin Coping Due to Person Involved

Category

Mean df Mean Difference Coping Problem-focused

T-value

2-tailed Probabilitya

Weofrk

9.780

-1.05

56

-2.61

.012

Self

8.15

-.08

85

-.25

.805

1.52

45

2.75

.009

-.83

.409

-.49

.623

Family Work

Family

Self Work Self

Family Work Family a

8.23 9.65

8.13 Emotion-focused Coping 12.69 57 -.44 13.13-.340 12.95

13.13 12.87 12.28

-.18

5469632 59

86

46

of T s.02. ifprobability Decisionrule:rejectnullhypothesis

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.96

.342

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SAMPLE

thingto be done to changethem.Pearlinand groupedwithinthiscategory.Family-related Schoolermaybe correctin sayingthatimper- episodes rangedfromminorconcernsabout celebrations to major at work,suchas noise holidaymealsandfamily sonal,chronicproblems security andthewelmay be resistantto concernsaboutfinancial and depersonalization, amelioration,and may thereforegenerate fareof agingparents.These diverseexperiof ences shouldeach be consideredseparately; forms emotionrather thanproblem-focused can also be however,therewerenotenoughinstancesin problems coping.Butwork-related interpersonal, andcan be appraisedas holding each categoryto permittheirseparationfor the potential for amelioration through purposesof analysis.In any futureinvestigation withlargersamples,such a breakdown problem-focused coping. copingas- shouldbe made. The increasein emotion-focused sociatedwithhealthproblemsis consonant Appraisal. Lazarus and his colleagues withfindings fromsituation-oriented studiesof (Folkmanet al., 1979;Lazarus,1966,in press; (for Lazarus et al., 1970, 1974; Lazarus and copingwithphysicalillnessanddisabilities reviews see Cohen and Lazarus, 1979; Launier,1978)ascribegreatimportance to apLipowski,1970; Moos, 1977).These studies praisaland considerit thecriticaldeterminant to appraisal have shown that much coping is directed of thecopingprocess.According or harmful situation ofanxiety, towardmanaging feelings fear,and theory,in a threatening fewpossibilities for of self-esteemthatis appraisedas holding dread,and towardrestoration To a largeex- beneficialchange, the person will employ and interpersonal relationships. modes of coping. On the fallundertherubric emotion-focused tent,thesecopingefforts of emotion-focused coping. However,even otherhand,whena situationis appraisedas foramelioration byaction, copingwas particu- havingthepotential thoughemotion-focused copingto larly frequentin health-relatedstressful thepersonwilluse problem-focused thatproduced episodes,we mustnotlose sightofthefactthat alterthe troubledrelationship problem-focused copingwas also usedinthese theemotionaldistress. situations episodes. Studies of illness and disability Preciselyas thisanalysispredicts, shouldinvestigate bothformsof coping. inwhichsomething constructive couldbe done was needed The familycontext,that is, stressfulen- and in whichmore information countersinvolvingfamilyconcerns,did not generatedhigherlevels of problem-focused have a clear impacton eitherproblem-or copingthansituations thathadtobe accepted. emotion-focused thathadtobe accepted,on theother coping(see Table 2). This Situations of episodes hand,andinwhichthepersonhadtoholdback maybe due to the heterogeneity TABLE 2. Differencesin Coping Due to Context Category

Mean Difference

Mean

df

T-value

2-tailed Probabilitya

Problem-focusedCoping Health

7957

-2.02

51

-4.12

.000

-.59

71

-1.49

.141

FHealilh

8.5

Work Family

9.54 8.48

Health Work Health

14.09 12.94

FWaomkly

1.06

62

2.89

.005

.5518608 1.15

51

1.86

.068

134.04

1.47

71

2.65

.010

12.69

.14

63

.27

.787

Emotion-focusedCoping

a

Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T:.02.

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from acting, generated higher levels of turnedout to be the mostpotentsituational emotion-focused copingthanthose in which factorsin accountingfor copingvariability. somethingconstructive could be done (see However,thewayan eventis appraisedmight Table 3). Thesefindings offer clearsupport in a confor be relatedto its context,resulting thetheoryofcognitive appraisalas a determi- founding. Health-related episodes,forexamnantof coping. ple,might mostoftenbe appraisedas havingto Not onlyare ourfieldstudyfindings on ap- be accepted,and work-related episodesmight praisal and copingnicelyin accord witha mostoftenbe appraisedas permitting onetodo cognitive-phenomenological model of stress something constructive. Indeed,examination process,buttheyare also consistent withthe of the relationship betweencontextand apfindings ofa number oflaboratory (x2= 34.3,df= 9, studies.For praisalindicated a significant example,giventhechance,mostsubjectswill p = .03) but weak (Cramer's V = .09) relationto controlan aversivestimulus attempt as long ship.4Because thelargesamplesize (number as itdoes notcause conflict insomeotherarea ofepisodes= 1,332)influences thesignificance (e.g., Averillet al., 1977;Averilland Rosenn, of thechi-squarestatistic(Marascuilo,1971), 1972);on theotherhand,underconditions was giventotheestimated of attention strength of no control,palliative(emotion-focused) as opposed to the level of forms the relationship of copingincreaseand appear successfulin significance. The strength oftherelationship as loweringdistressand somatic disturbance estimated by Cramer'sV statistic (.09) was so weak thatit is reasonableto considerthetwo (Folkins,1970;Monatet al., 1972). How an eventwas appraisedanditscontext factorsvirtually unrelated. Thusthecontextof TABLE 3. Differencesin Coping Due to Appraisal Mean Difference

df

Category

Mean

Could do something Must accept Could do something Needed more information Could do something Had to hold back Must accept Needed more information Must accept Had to hold back Needed more information Had to hold back

9.08 7.93 9.28 9.82 9.46 9.32 8.11 9.82 8.51 9.22 10.05 9.05

Could do something Must accept Could do something Needed more information

12.13 13.34 12.65 12.70

-1.21

91

-.05

54

Could do something Had to hold back Must accept Needed more information Must accept Had to hold back Needed more information Had to hold back

12.82 14.40 13.85 12.82 14.34 14.91 12.76 14.16

-1.58

51

T-value

2-tailed Probabilitya

Problem-focusedCoping 1.15

90

_ 54

55

.14

51

4.31

.000

-1.26

.213

.34

.735

-1.71

60

-4.32

.000

-.71

58

-1.76

.083

1.00

36

1.76

.088

Emotion-focusedCoping

a

1.03

-3.74 - .09 -2.43

59

1.97

.000 .926 .019 .053

-.57

58

-1.08

.284

-1.40

36

-1.82

.077

Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof Ts.02.

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an eventand how it is appraisedseem rela- betterunderstood as a function of changesin tivelyindependent in affecting thecopingpro- sourcesof stressor of changesin personality. cess. The Influence of Gender on Coping wisdomhas it thatmen are Conventional taughtto emphasizeinstrumental, analytic, The participants in thisstudywerebetween problem-solving skills,andthatwomenare sotheagesof45 and64. Two one-wayanalysesof cializedto be moreemotionally sensitive,exvariance,usinga meanP- andE-scoreforeach pressive,and dependent thanmen(cf.Bakan, person as dependentvariables,were per- 1966;Bem, 1974;Parsonsand Bales, 1955).In formedto examinethe relationship between thelanguageofcoping,mencanbe expectedto age andcoping.Whenwe usedfour5-yearage use moreproblem-focused copingand women groups,no effect was foundineitherproblem- moreemotion-focused coping. or emotion-focused In thisstudy,womenreported coping.Sinceitwas possimorestressful ble that5-yearperiodsofage stratification are episodeshavingto do withhealth(61%ofsuch too smallto reflectage effects, analyseswere episodes were reportedby women,39M by also performed withtwo10-year groups.There men) and more familyepisodes (68% by was stillno relationship betweenage and cop- women,32% by men)thanmen.Men,on the ing. moreworkepisodesthan otherhand,reported Such negativeresultsabout age mustbe women(69.5% by men,30.5% by women).A taken as suggestiveat best because of the chi-squareanalysis6indicatedthatthesedifhighly restricted age rangeofthesample.Had ferencesweresignificant (X2= 101.76,df= 3, our sampleincludeda widerage distribution,p = .000)andreflected a moderate relationship extendedbothat the olderand youngerage (Cramer's V = .28). levels,theremight wellhavebeenage effects. In contrast,menand womendiffered very For example, even though a chi-square littlein the way theyappraisedevents.For analysisindicatedtherewas very littlere- example,374 episodeswereappraisedas perlationship betweenwhatan episodewas about mitting to be doneto alterthesituasomething by (x2= 19.7,df= 9, p= .02,Cramer'sV= .07)or tion.Of these,176,or 47%, werereported howitwas appraised(x2= 17.4,df= 9, p= .04, men.Similarly, 681 situations wereappraised Cramer'sV = .07) and age,5therewas a trend as havingtobe accepted,ofwhich301,or44%, in which older participantsreportedmore werereportedby men.A chi-squareanalysis health-related episodesand fewerfamilyand confirmed theweakrelationship (X2= 8.79,df workepisodesthanyoungerones. This sug- = 3, p = .03, Cramer's V = .08) between geststhatas sourcesofstressbeginto change genderandappraisal.Nevertheless, becauseof with advancingage, differencesin coping thegenderdifferences inthefactorofcontext, mightemergeas a functionof changes in genderdifferences in copingwere examined sources of stress.That is, emotion-focusedwithin eachofthesituational toprevent factors copingmightincreaseand problem-focusedconfounding in sourcesof genderdifferences coping decrease because of more concern stresswithdifferences in coping. abouthealthand less concernaboutwork. T-testswereused to comparemalesand fethatchangesin copingmay be maleswithrespectto problemSuggesting and emotionassociatedwithage-related changesin sources focusedcopingwithineach of the situational of stressis different fromsuggesting thatcop- factors.Since thesedid not involvemultiple ingchangesas a directfunction thesignificance ofage, thatis, testswiththesamecategories, as a function of no of personality development (cf. level forrejectingthe null hypothesis Clark and Anderson,1967; Gutmann,1974; difference betweenthemeanswas set at .05. Jung,1933). Comparisonswithmoreelderly The resultsare shownin Tables4, 5, and 6. Theresultsoffer samplesare neededto determine littleconfirmation ifthereare relatively indeed changes in coping associated with forthe genderdifferences thatconventional aging,and if so, whetherthese changesare wisdomleads us to expect.Men diduse more The Influence of Age on Coping

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TABLE 4. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Person Involved Category

Number of Cases

Mean

2-tailed Probabilitya

df

T-value

97

1.74

.085

.81

.421

Problem-focusedCoping Self Only Male Female People at Work Male Female Family Members Male Female

47 52

8.83 7.81

35 23

10.06 9.17

56

37 49

8.08 8.34

84

-.34

9 98

-.56

.574

56

-.22

.824

85

-1.31

.194

.734

Emotion-focusedCoping Self Only Male 48 12.83 52 Female 13.40 People at Work Male 42 13.00 Female 29 13.35 Family Members Male 42 12.37 Female 51 13.73 a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T--.05.

.6.7

copin theuse ofemotion-focused problem-focused copingthanwomen,butonly differences toourstereotypic at work(Table 5) and in situations (appraised ing(Tables4, 5, 6). Contrary as) requiring acceptanceandmoreinformationbeliefs,menandwomencopedquitesimilarly. (Table 6). Furthermore, therewereno gender Moreover,gender differencesin problemTABLE 5. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Context Category

Number of Cases

Mean

df

T-value

2-tailed Probabilitya

Problem-focusedCoping Health Male Female Work Male Female Family Male Female

34 43

7.82 7.95

75

-.16

.874

42 29

10.19 8.44

69

2.08

.041

41 51

8.39 8.37

90

.02

.981

75-

.18

.859

69

.13

.897

Emotion-focusedCoping Health 34 14.38 Male Female 43 14.60 Work Male 42 13.00 Female 29 12.82 Family Male 42 12.14 Female 51 13.67 a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T--.05.

91

-1.47

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TABLE 6. Gender Differencesin Coping for the Factor of Appraisal Number of Cases

Category

Mean

df

T-value

2-tailed Probabilitya

Problem-focusedCoping Could do something: Male Female Must accept: Male Female Needed more information: Male Female Had to hold back: Male Female

42 50

9.07 8.98

901297 90

.12

.907

47 52

8.76 7.31

97

.51

.014

31 30

10.90 8.70

59

2.51

.015

30 29

8.87 9.59

57

-.88

.383

-.8.8

Emotion-focusedCoping Could do something: Memale Must accept: Male Female Needed more information:

540

11.59

90

-.86

.394

48 52

13.31 13.73

98

-.47

.636

30 Female 12.30 Had to hold back: 30 13.90 Male 29 15.96 Female a Decision rule: reject null hypothesisif probabilityof T--K05.

58 57

.69 -1.41

.496 .165

morethan focusedcopingin theworkcontextprobably disposedto thinkabouttheproblem reflect genderdifferences injobs ratherthana women.The dataanalyzedhereofferno clues generaldisposition on thepartofmalesto use aboutthesealternative possibilities. more problem-focused copingthanfemales. The important pointis thatto addressthe Womenmoreoftenthanmenholdlower-level issue of genderdifferences in coping, difjobs wherethereare feweropportunities to ferencesin sourcesof stressmustbe distinengageinproblem-solving processes(cf.Colli- guishedfromthose in coping.If one looked ganandMurphy,1979;Kreps,1976).To prop- onlyat coping,it would appeartherewas a in copingat difference erlyexaminegenderdifferences due to genderin emotion-focused workwouldrequirehavinga sampleof males coping.Actually,thesedifference are attributand femalesdrawnfromsimilarjobs and set- ableto sourcesofstressrather thangenderper in coping are a se. For example, women reportedmore tings.Whetherdifferences episodesthanmen,and health, function of genderper se (throughsocializa- health-related tion)or thepressuresoftheworksetting could as was noted,was associatedwithelevated thenbe determined morerigorously. emotion-focused health-related coping.Within Themostpuzzlinggenderdifference was the episodes,however,therewereno genderdiffinding thatmenused moreproblem-focusedferencesin emotion-focused coping.In other copingthanwomenin situations thathadto be words,womenand mendo notdiffer in their accepted. Perhaps men persevere in use of emotion-focused copingwithinsimilar problem-focused copinglongerthan women contextsof living,but theydo differin the beforedecidingthatnothing can be done; and contextsin whichtheirstressfulencounters evenwhennothing can be done,menmaybe occur.

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in press).The largerstudyfromwhichthepresent findings come also containsinformation frominterviews inwhichtherewas theopporAs we have noted,the measurement to makesuchinferences. At somepoint ap- tunity proachusedinthisstudyneedsto be extended it shouldtherefore be possibleto comparethe inseveralways.Verysimplepatterns ofcoping self-report materialwithclinicalobservation. and onlytwo of manycopingfunctions Whateverits shortcomings, were and thereare analyzed.Different, possiblymore complex many,themeasurement approachdescribedin patterningsmust be examined,and other thisresearchis offeredas an alternative for functionsshould be considered,perhapsin studying the copingprocess.We believethe combination withthetwowe havedefined.In adoptionofthisapproach,and thetheoretical have to be made to capture framework addition,efforts withinwhich it was developed, thewaysthatcopingefforts changethroughoutcould greatlyfacilitateobtaininganswersto an encounter.Until the dynamicqualityof manyoftheperplexing questionsaboutstress, copingis described,our assessmentproce- coping,and adaptationaloutcomethathave dureswillremainincomplete. hitherto been difficult to address. Despiteitspresentlimitations, however,the approachto measurement adoptedhere,the NOTES Ways of Copingchecklist,offerscertainadWe appreciate the generosityof the Alameda vantagespresently unavailableto thosewho 1. County Human Population Laboratory staff, wishto studycoping.First,it is designedto who made their archives available to us and assess copingin a specificencounter, helped facilitatethis research. and can be used for both intraindividual and com- 2. The assessmenttools used in thisresearchwere developed during 1976-77 as a group effortin parativeanalyses.Second,itallowstheperson which Patricia Benner, Judith Cohen, Susan to characterize hisor hercopingthoughts and Folkman, Allen Kanner, Richard S. Lazarus, actionscomplexly,since for any given enCatherine Schaefer, JudithWrubel, and others participated.However, the major responsibility counterthepersoncan indicateas manysuch for collectingand formulating the items on the thoughts andactionsas arerelevant.Third,as Ways of Coping checklist was borne by a checklist,the measureis easy to use and CatherineSchaefer. requireslittletraining. 3. Because therewere only 9 patterns,people who reported more than 9 episodes had to repeat Assessingcopingconfronts us withthedifficopingpatterns.For example, with13 episodes a culties of gettinginformation frompeople personwould have to repeatpatternsa minimum abouthowtheycope. It is probably notfruitful of fourtimes. Since thereare 78 possible repeto ask themto tell us this directly,forwe titionswith13episodes(v), thelowestpossible cannotexpectpeopleto knowwhatwe mean consistency score would thereforebe 4/78 or .051. For 18 episodes, the maximum number by coping,or to tellus, forexample,whether reported by an individual,the lowest possible theyused intellectualization, avoidance,deconsistencyscore is .059. However, all scores nial,or directaction.The approachused here were greater than .072; therefore,even with is a bitmoreindirect, butnotgreatlyso. We these limitationstaken intoaccount, no one had the minimumconsistency (or maximumvariaaskedparticipants whattheythought anddidin bility)possible. recentencounters, and thenappliedthe con4. These tests of independencewere performedon ceptsof copingto thesestatements. copingepisodes, and noton persons. As a result, Thefindings ofthisstudydepend,therefore, thereis some degree of dependence in the data. on self-reports. By usingrecentencounters we That is, thereare 100 independentsets of data, each set representinga person, but withina set minimizedthe problemof memoryand retare dependentdata due to person,whichviolates rospective falsification in thesereports.Also, the assumptionof independencerequiredforthe byrepeatedly theperson'sdomainof sampling chi-square test. However, because (1) the copingstrategies (an averageof 13 times),we analyses were performedto gatherinformation and notto testhypotheses,(2) therewere a large increasedthe reliability of our theoretically numberof independentsets ofdata, and (3) there findings (cf. Epstein,1977, 1979). However, was variabilitywithineach set, the best alternatheassessmentof copingwillalwayshave to tivewas to use thechi-squareprocedurein order face the issue of self-report versusobservanot to lose a major portion of the data. tionaland inferential techniques(cf. Lazarus, Moreover, in the cases of age and gender,these FINAL COMMENTS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF COPING

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