Fluvial Geomorphology

Progress in Physical Geography 28,3 (2004) pp. 405 – 450

Progress report

Fluvial geomorphology Evan S.J. Dollar Centre for Water in the Environment, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa

I

Introduction

Rivers are complex systems. The breadth and scope of research into fluvial geomorphology for the two-year period between July 2001 and July 2003 is evidence of this. It is also evident that river form, process and behaviour can be understood in a scalesensitive, hierarchical manner. This requires that the spatial and temporal complexities of fluvial systems be given due recognition. Thus, while smallscale process studies are vital, these need to be nested within the context of broadscale, long-term studies (cf. Cammeraat, 2002; Fukuoka, 2002; Goudie, 2002; Thorne, 2002; Vandenberghe, 2002; Beckedahl et al., 2002; Kjeldsen et al., 2002; Phillips, 2003a). Smith et al. (2002) in fact argue that much of the accumulated process knowledge should be used to bring longer-term and broader-scale perspectives of landscape change back to prominence. Fluvial geomorphology is also in a stronger position now than it ever has been. Research has broadened and strengthened, and the contribution of fluvial geomorphology to resolving complex interdisciplinary problems is now widely recognized (Conacher, 2002; Benda et al., 2002; Frei et al., 2002). This represents both an opportunity and a challenge, as too many policy decisions are made without adequate consideration of the spatial and temporal complexity of systems; this is an area in which fluvial geomorphologists can offer crucial insight (Knuepfer and Petersen, 2002).

II Palaeofluvial geomorphology Most geomorphologists consider that current environmental conditions are strongly contingent on past processes. Palaeofluvial investigations continue to provide important clues about the evolution of fluvial systems and the imprint of the past C W

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on present-day forms (Magny, 2001; Moore and Larkin, 2001; Saito et al., 2001; Zaleha et al., 2001; Bullard, 2002; Garcia-Castellanos, 2002; Hereford, 2002; Kraus, 2002; Latrubesse, 2002; Lewis, 2002; Liu, 2002; Erskine and Peacock, 2002; Heine and Heine, 2002; Latrubesse and Kalicki, 2002; Lorenz and Nadon, 2002; Maas and Macklin, 2002; Moore and Blenkinsop, 2002; Pope and Millington, 2002; Rogers and Li, 2002; Ardies et al., 2002; Guccione et al., 2002; Lauriol et al., 2002; Reheis et al., 2002; Ringrose et al., 2002; Sander et al., 2002; Schildgen et al., 2002; Thomas, D.S. et al., 2002; Jiongxin, 2003a; Kukulak, 2003; Colman and Bratton, 2003; Manville and White, 2003; Meisina and Piccio, 2003; Nash and Smith, 2003; Prange and Lohmann, 2003; Brandt et al., 2003; Candy et al., 2003; Goodbred et al., 2003; Hou et al., 2003; Srivastava et al., 2003). Common threads that run through much of the palaeofluvial research is that fluvial evolution is effected by multicausal drivers of varying spatial and temporal dominance and complexity. These drivers include sea-level and climate changes, tectonic activity, variable sediment supply and transport (Schulte, 2002; Gibbard and Lewin, 2002; Johnson and Warburton, 2002a; Novak and Bjo¨rck, 2002; Wegmann and Pazzaglia, 2002; Wisniewski and Pazzaglia, 2002; Andres et al., 2002; Ben-David et al., 2002; Formento-Trigilio et al., 2002; Nott et al., 2002; Polyak et al., 2002; Snyder et al., 2002, 2003; Brooks, 2003; Forsyth and Nott, 2003; Allison et al., 2003; Benito et al., 2003; Kumar et al., 2003; Mayer et al., 2003; Peka´rova´ et al., 2003; Rigsby et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2003; Weber et al., 2003) and hydrological changes (Pisˇu´t, 2002; Magny et al., 2002; O’Sullivan et al., 2002; Viles and Goudie, 2003; Noon et al., 2003). A variety of morphological, lithological, palaeohydrological, pedogenetical, sedimentological and dating techniques are applied to help elucidate the evolution of fluvial systems (Dambeck and Thiemeyer, 2002; Latrubesse and Franzinelli, 2002; Sa´ez and Cabrera, 2002; Stanistreet and Stallhofen, 2002; Bourke et al., 2003; Rittenour et al., 2003; Sanderson et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2003). While palaeofluvial research provides valuable insight into the evolution of fluvial systems, the imprint of the past on present fluvial behaviour needs to be made explicit to better understand present-day forms and processes. An example of how this might be achieved is the River Styles approach (Fryirs, 2002; Brierley et al., 2002). The River Styles approach demonstrates how antecedent controls such as different valley forms (River Styles) operate under a set of boundary conditions that constrain form and processes at lower spatial (and temporal) scales. Central to the concept of River Styles is that geomorphic diversity needs to be recognized in order to compare like with like, thereby recognizing that different basins/ecosystems have different levels of resilience and cannot be managed in a homogenous manner. Fryirs (2003) provides guiding principles for assessing geomorphic river condition through the application of the River Styles framework. III Sediment transfer The transfer of sediment from hillslopes to rivers, flood plains, lakes and transitional and coastal waters is, in part, a function of sediment delivery. The assessment of basin sediment budgets (Wasson, 2002; Fuller et al., 2002; Van Rompaey et al., 2002), sediment delivery (Golosov, 2002) and sediment flux (Jiongxin, 2002; Jones and Frostick, 2002; Nelson and Booth, 2002; Owens and Walling, 2002; Verstraeten and Poesen, 2002; Xu and Cheng, 2002; Gangyan et al., 2002; Fontana and March,

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2003; Phippen and Wohl, 2003; Donohue et al., 2003; Vanacker et al., 2003) are critical for fluvial system understanding. Delivery is spatially and temporally highly variable (Macaire et al., 2002) and requires hillslope – channel/flood plain coupling (Michaelides and Wainwright, 2002; Slattery et al., 2002). Consequently, the interpretation of the stratigraphic record for determining sediment delivery is complicated by buffering, especially in larger basins (see Castelltort and Van Den Driessche, 2003), as is the application of techniques for estimating sediment yield (cf. Hancock and Anderson, 2002; Meadows and Hoffman, 2002; Symader and Roth, 2002; Fuller et al., 2003). Sourcing sediment is also critical for understanding transfer and for targeted management (Wasson et al., 2002; Cawood et al., 2003). Recent advances in the techniques for discriminating sediment sources provide valuable tools in this regard (Stefani, 2002; Collins and Walling, 2002; Foster et al., 2002; Jenns et al., 2002; Yeager et al., 2002; van der Perk and Sla´vak 2003; Di Giulio et al., 2003) and may aid in distinguishing between human-induced and natural, dynamic changes in storage (Klimek, 2002; Larue, 2002). Valuable lessons have been learnt, as evidence has shown that there is no simple relationship between event magnitude and sediment yield in basins, nor is there a simple relationship between river and flood plain sedimentation rates and event magnitude, duration, frequency or timing. What is clear is that sediment transfer may be asynchronous with disturbance drivers and therefore requires a longterm perspective. Trimble (1999) provides an excellent example of this. In the Coon Creek catchment, USA, basin sediment yield has not changed since the mid1850s, despite major land use changes. Storage change has provided a buffer that has decoupled basin sediment yield from land use change. Similarly, Fryirs and Brierly (2001) have shown that for many of the catchments of southeastern Australia, alluvial stores are the primary sources of fluvial clastic sediment since European settlement. In the Bega catchment, however, only 16% of the delivered sediment has reached the estuary. They argue that this is due to antecedent controls on valley width that have resulted in the lowland plain acting as sediment sink. Numerous studies have focused on quantifying sediment loads and rates of sedimentation in modern systems (Panin et al., 2001; Franzinelli and Igreja, 2002; Orfeo and Stevaux, 2002; Kothyari et al., 2002; Warne et al., 2002; White et al., 2002). Examples include estimating the total sediment load delivered from the Yangtze River (Higgitt and Lu, 2001) to the Three Gorges Project (TGP) in China (Lu and Higgitt, 2001). It is estimated that 84% of the eroded soil from the catchments is delivered to the reservoir; the remainder is deposited in valley floor paddy fields. Cao, S. et al. (2002) estimate the average annual sediment load entering the TGP is 523 million tons. Of this, 47% is sourced from the Jinsha River, one of the main tributaries of the Yangtze. Reductions in sediment load are reported for various fluvial systems worldwide (Chen et al., 2001; Xu, 2002a; Ta et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2002). Jiongxin (2003b) has shown, for example, that since the 1970s, the sediment flux into the Yellow River has declined as a result of effective soil control measures in upstream basins. Similarly, the reforestation of basins in Slovenia has reduced sediment loads, resulting in bed incision and reduced flood plain deposition (Keesstra, 2002). Similar incision (and associated consequences) has been reported for the Rhone River in France in response to decreased sediment yields (Kondolf et al., 2002; Arnaud-Fassetta, 2003). Increased sediment delivery to channels results in the opposite effect: increases in

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channel width, bank collapse, increased flood risk, lowering of water tables and the undermining of bridges and embankments (Kondolf et al., 2002). IV Channel pattern and morphology The growth of fluvial geomorphology as a science has led to the description and analysis of previously unreported channel patterns. For example, Bartholdy and Billi (2002) report on a river planform ‘type’ in Tuscany, Italy, that is neither straight nor meandering. These rivers are typically almost straight, with a slightly incised main channel eroded into a former flood plain. They suggest the term ‘pseudomeandering’ to describe this channel pattern. Discrimination of channel pattern and channel pattern change based on planform and process, however, remains an important area of research (Simpson and Smith, 2001; Zimmerman and Church, 2001; Hudson, P.F., 2002; Xu, 2002b; Lancaster and Bras, 2002; Mosselman and Sloff, 2002; Shafieefar and Husseini, 2002; Buhman et al., 2002; Ramonell et al., 2002). Numerical procedures for predicting pattern are common (Termini, 2002; Vignoli and Tubino, 2002; Kurabayashi et al., 2002; Watanabe et al., 2002; Yokoyama et al., 2002), less common are semi-empirical predictive methods (Richardson and Thorne, 2001; Young et al., 2002). The prediction of channel morphology has been a pursuit of river practitioners since the late nineteenth century. Two broad approaches are common: an engineering approach that favours a numerical, hydrodynamic perspective (Neary et al., 2001; Ma et al., 2002; Chitale, 2003; Olsen, 2003; Nicklow et al., 2003) and a qualitative, semiempirical approach that favours field observation and data collection (Halwas and Church, 2002). Most numerical models are based on asynchronous solution of simplified governing equations. This, however, ignores to some extent the strong relationship between discharge, sediment transport and morphological evolution of fluvial systems. Cao, Z. et al. (2002) recommend that in order to refine the modelling of alluvial rivers, the coupled system of complete governing equations needs to be synchronously solved. Investigations into downstream changes in channel morphology continue to provide important insights into the relationship between discharge descriptors and channel form parameters (Griffiths, 2002; Radecki-Pawlick, 2002; Molnar and Ramirez, 2002; Moody and Troutman, 2002; Pitlick and Cress, 2002; Merritt and Wohl, 2003), and remain critical to modelling and understanding river behaviour. Amsler and Ramonell (2002), for example, were able to show that increases in thalweg sinuosity, channel width and bank erosion were related to high dominant discharges. Heritage et al. (2001), however, reject the notion of a channel-forming ‘dominant’ or ‘bankfull’ discharge for the Sabie River in South Africa. Results from 23 monitoring sites show that the sections are related to the entire flow regime, not a single-channel forming discharge. Similarly, Lewin and Brewer (2001) reject the assumption that it is possible to distinguish between meandering and braided channels on the basis of bankfull specific stream power and bed material size alone. They suggest that it is useful to consider the patterning processes that underlie the pattern scatter on the bankfull stream power/bed material size plots. They argue that largescale bedform development and stability is important for meandering and braiding. Field-based investigations provide valuable empirical data on channel morphology (Wohl and Legleiter, 2003). Thompson and Hoffman (2001), for example,

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characterised 145 pools in New England to better understand pool geometry and sorting characteristics. Pool dimensions were related to drainage area and channel slope through stream power at larger scales and local hydraulic conditions at finer scales. Similarly, Jackson and Sturm (2002) found that stream power and unit stream power were the dominant channel shaping factors in small first- and second-order forested channels in Washington’s coast ranges in the USA. Buffington et al. (2003) demonstrate that pools in coarse-grained forest rivers in the USA were formed mainly by flow obstruction and that their geometry and frequency of occurrence depended on flow obstruction characteristics. These controls, in turn depended on a variety of factors, with their relative influence depending on channel type and location within the drainage basin. V Channel change Predicting channel pattern and morphology is, of course, contingent on understanding channel change. The drivers of channel change are widely known (Manville, 2002; Marchetti, 2002; Lach and Wyz´ga, 2002; Lie´bault and Pie´gay, 2002; Maingi and Marsh, 2002; Talbot and Lapointe, 2002a, b; Lie´bault et al., 2002; Perona et al., 2002; Thomas, R. et al., 2002; Warburton et al., 2002; Surian and Rinaldi, 2003; Heroy et al., 2003; Skelly et al., 2003), and predicting morphological change in rivers and flood plains using numerical methods and GIS/DEM technology is common (Rosatti, 2002; Basson and Beck, 2002; Cellino and Essyad, 2002; Kassem and Chaudhry, 2002; Olesen and Tjerry, 2002; Vetsch and Faeh, 2002; Langendoen et al., 2002; Willems et al., 2002). However, all these methods are influenced by various degrees of uncertainty, assumptions and choices of model schematization (van Vuren et al., 2002). Cao and Carling (2002: 470) in fact state that many computational river models remain ‘. . . at best imperfectly constructed, and worst invalid’. This is due to the fact that model calibration is often subjective, verification is impossible and validation does not necessarily establish model truth. They therefore suggest that high-level expertise, physical insight and experience are critical for meaningful solutions to be acquired and model limitations properly assessed. It is important to be aware of the limitations of computational/numerical modelling, as ‘Model performance is overstated by using the affirmative terms verification and validation, which can mislead the public and decision-making’. Despite these cautions, predicting change in response to changing drivers remains an important goal in fluvial research (Gautier and Peters, 2002). Examples of empirical studies of channel change reported in the literature are numerous. A few are mentioned here. Magilligan et al. (2002) report on geomorphic changes in response to the 1996 jo¨ kulhlaup on Skeioara´rsandur, southeastern Iceland. The impacts of the jo¨kulhlaup are explained in relation to antecedent conditions, particularly the asymmetric decoupling of the ice front from the sandur during the recent recession. Channel narrowing following impoundments are also well known. The style and degree of change, however, depend on the geomorphic context, type of streamflow regulation and post-impoundment sediment transport regime (Phillips, 2002). Grams and Schmidt (2002), working in the Green River in Colorado and Utah, USA, for example, determined that the degree of channel narrowing below the Flaming Gorge Dam in reaches with abundant sediment supply

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was proportional to specific stream power. Reaches with the greatest reductions in specific stream power showed the greatest reductions in bankfull channel width and vice versa. Hassan and Klein (2002) report on the channel changes of the Lower Jordan River associated with a drop in the Dead Sea level of 22 m in the last 70 years. Rapid drops in sea level since the late 1980s have resulted in major morphological changes and channel incision. Channel widths have narrowed by almost a factor of four and sinuosity has dropped by 25%. Incision is coincidental with sea level reductions, with the incision having moved upstream by 11 km by 1993. Holistic interpretations of channel changes in the context of past climate changes, shorter-term human impacts and potential future climate change, however, remain elusive (cf. Franks, 2002). Effort is being made in this regard, with some success (Stouthamer and Berendsen, 2001; Clague et al., 2003). This is of significance, as Brooks et al. (2003) have shown that sound and realistic management programmes cannot be achieved in rivers and basins without an understanding of long-term channel and flood plain evolutionary history. From a study of paired catchments in southeastern Australia, they demonstrated that the removal of riparian vegetation and woody debris from the Cann River resulted in orders of magnitude changes in various channel parameters (e.g., depth, slope and capacity). Importantly, they point out that management intervention through reintroducing pre-existing riparian vegetation and woody debris will simply not result in channel recovery, as numerous thresholds were crossed as a result of historical changes. Clearly, channel change needs to be understood in a historical, evolutionary context, otherwise the ultimate controls on and changes to river form and process will not be fully appreciated. VI Fluvial features The international literature is replete with descriptions and explanations of diverse fluvial features (Blair, 2001; Leclair and Bridge, 2001; Prent and Hickin, 2001; Smith and Pearce, 2001; Yang et al., 2001; Bourke, 2002, 2003; Bridgland, 2002; Gupta, 2002; Harvey, 2002a; Inbar, 2002; Lowey, 2002; Miall, 2002; Nin˜ o, 2002; Purkait, 2002; Surian, 2002; Wittenberg, 2002; Knighton and Nanson, 2002; Latrubesse and Stevaux, 2002; Walsh and Hicks, 2002; Bendjoudi et al., 2002; Davis et al., 2002; De Souza et al., 2002; Hirayama et al., 2002; Kleinhans et al., 2002; Kostic et al., 2002; Loncke et al., 2002; Makaske et al., 2002; Strasser et al., 2002; Sun et al., 2002; Tooth et al., 2002a, b; Weissmann et al., 2002; Defina, 2003; Ferguson, 2003; Stock and Dietrich, 2003; Villard and Church, 2003; Willis and Griggs, 2003; Constantine et al., 2003; Fielding et al., 2003; Montgomery et al., 2003a; Ra˜doane et al., 2003; Samuel et al., 2003). Some examples are described below. Outburst floods produce impressive and dramatic fluvial features. Quaternary International has devoted an entire edition to this topic – (Volume 90, 2002). Their role in modifying landscapes has generated considerable interest and debate (Cutler et al., 2002; Fisher et al., 2002). Since description of the Lake Missoula flood (Baker, 1973), research has demonstrated that these outburst floods were more common than first thought. For example, Rudoy (2002) reports on Late Pleistocene superfloods following glacier-dam breaks in southern Siberia. These cataclysmic floods

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transformed the landscape and resulted in morphological associations of mountainous scablands, similar to those reported in North America. In some locations, discharges of up to 18 000 000 m3 s21 created features such as giant current ripple marks, giant diluvial ramparts and terrace bars. Maximum unit stream powers of 10 000 000 W m22 are estimated to have occurred, greater than those estimated for Lake Missoula. Drylands cover around half the world’s surface, but there is limited information on dryland rivers (Nanson et al., 2002). A timely book fills this gap (Bull and Kirkby, 2002) and provides a broad overview with a few case studies that will be of interest to geomorphologists interested in dryland environments. Bullard and Livingstone (2002) call for greater recognition of the interaction between aeolian and fluvial systems in dryland areas. They argue that aeolian and fluvial systems do not operate independently as commonly perceived, and that their interaction has important implications for understanding the geomorphology of dryland environments. A number of innovative techniques have also been developed to aid in the understanding of river behaviour. Many of these techniques allows us to address geomorphic questions that have not been addressed before (Lane et al., 2002; Lane and Chandler, 2003; Brasington et al., 2003). Table 1 presents an incomplete list of some of these techniques. VII

Flood plains

Flood plains are an integral part of the fluvial system. Much of the work on flood plains is directed towards understanding present (Brunke, 2002; Middelkoop, 2002; Asselman and van Wijngaarden, 2002; Nicholas and Mitchell, 2003; Lusk et al., 2003) and past sedimentation rates (Walling and Owens, 2002; Foster, I.D.L. et al., 2002; Paine et al., 2002; Page, K.J. et al., 2003) and their relationship to the transportation of nutrients, organics (Morozova and Smith, 2003), contaminants (Rowan and Franks, 2002; Maurice-Bourgoin et al., 2002; Middelkoop et al., 2002), vegetation (Sims and Thoms, 2002; Webb et al., 2002) and to hydrology (Dyer, 2002; Aalto et al., 2002). Again, a variety of approaches are adopted in an attempt to understand flood plain behaviour; from laboratory experiments (Bathurst et al., 2002) to the longer-term interpretation of flood plain histories (Wasson, 2002). Nanson and Croke (2002) argue that flood plain research is critical for understanding material fluxes, contaminant storage, longitudinal and lateral connectivity and riverine ecology. They suggest that the following research directions are fundamental to moving the research field forward: flood plain formation processes, flood plain instability and changes in flood plain state, scale, the role of vegetation in flood plain systems and flood plains in interdisciplinary research. VIII Vegetation Vegetation plays an important role as an agent in fluvial geomorphology. At finer scales, this is effected through its influence on local hydraulics that determines sediment transport. At this scale, vegetation reduces bed shear through absorbing momentum by drag on the stems (Wilson and Horritt, 2002; Samuels et al., 2002;

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Table 1

List of recent techniques applied to understand fluvial system behaviour

Technique

Author(s)

Use of World Wide Web Physical models

Schroder et al. (2002) De Boer and Ali (2002); Milana and Tietze (2002); Moreton et al. (2002); Davies et al. (2003) Al Bakri (2002) Chang et al. (2003) Dinehart (2002); Antonelli and Provansal (2002); Gupta and Cvetkovic (2002); Rakoczi and Szekeres (2002); Sterling and Church (2002); De Bonis et al. (2002); Mu¨ller et al. (2002); Puertas et al. (2002); Rennie et al. (2002); Shteinman et al. (2002) Thomas and Nicholas (2002); Lee et al. (2002) Lane et al. (2001); Adriaensen et al. (2002); Asselman et al. (2002); Hicks et al. (2002); Whited et al. (2002); Baily et al. (2003); Mason et al. (2003) Ba´rdossy and Schmidt (2002); Puech and Raclot (2002); Dawson et al. (2002); Sinha et al. (2002); Finlayson and Montgomery (2003); Khan and Islam (2003); Vogt et al. (2003) Gupta and Ping (2002); Toro and Mayerle (2002); Gupta et al. (2002) French (2003); Charlton et al. (2003) Brasington and Smart (2003); Chappell et al. (2003); Lane et al. (2003); Rippin et al. (2003) Baines et al. (2002) Steiger et al. (2003) Go¨lz (2002); Ferguson and Hoey (2002); Blade et al. (2002); Ferguson et al. (2002); Milan et al. (2002) Bierman and Caffee (2002); Singh and FranceLanard (2002); Clapp et al. (2002); Nichols et al. (2002); Schaller et al. (2002); Small et al. (2002); Terry et al. (2002); van Wijngaarden et al. (2002a, b, c); Wallbrink et al. (2002); He and Walling (2003); Brocard et al. (2003); Vance et al. (2003) Tinkler (2001); Auler et al. (2002) Jiongxin (2003a) Valle´ and Pasternack (2002) Le Roux (2001); Bartley and Rutherfurd (2002); Lindsay and Ashmore (2002) Marren et al. (2002); McKee et al. (2002); Navratil et al. (2002); Rushmer et al. (2002); Heritage et al. (2003)

Landscape-genesis (LG) models GPS and sonar Measuring sediment transport

Hydrodynamic models High resolution survey data

GIS

Remote sensing Laser Induced Direction and Ranging (LiDAR) Digital Elevation Models (DEM) Electrical Resistivity Ground Imaging (ERGI) Artificial turf maps Tracers Cosmogenic nuclides and sediment fingerprinting

Magnetostratigraphic techniques Documentary evidence and oral records Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) River measurement techniques Magnitude frequency techniques

Jordanova and James, 2003). This enhances deposition and reduces sediment transport capacity (Helmio¨, 2002; Righetti and Armanini, 2002). Complexity is introduced through large spatial and temporal variations between different vegetation types, growth stages, densities and locations (Ja¨rvela¨, 2002a, b; Sellin and van Beesten, 2002; Yoshida and Dittrich, 2002). Flexible vegetation also behaves differently with stage changes and, as a consequence, roughness becomes variable and dynamic (Shi

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and Hughes, 2002; Stephan and Gutknecht, 2002). Consideration of the hydraulics of flow through and over vegetation therefore remains an important field of study, both experimentally (Rowin´ski and Kubrak, 2002a, b; Bennett et al., 2002; Carollo et al., 2002; James et al., 2002) and in the field (Baptist and Mosselman, 2002; Goodson et al., 2003). The important question remains the prediction of velocity profiles in open channels. At larger scales vegetation is also of importance (Steiger and Gurnell, 2002; Huisink et al., 2002). At the flood plain scale for example, the importance of vegetation in reducing the risk of flooding in the Waal River, the Netherlands, is recognized (van Vuren et al., 2002). At the channel-type scale, Gradzin´ski et al. (2003) have shown how in-channel vegetation enhances channel aggradation and contributes to avulsion by blocking channels in the anastomosing upper Narew River in Poland. Similarly, Gumbricht et al. (2001) have demonstrated that local topographic features and channel flanking vegetation exert an important influence on the distribution of water in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. At the reach scale, it is also generally accepted that riparian vegetation increases bank stability and reduces stream bank erosion through enhancing resistance to erosion (Micheli and Kirchner, 2002a; Murray and Paola, 2003; Hession et al., 2003; McKergow et al., 2003). Birkeland (2002) quantified changes in flood power and riparian vegetation on the Escalante River, Utah, USA. Increased growth in riparian vegetation (86%), channel widening and flood plain narrowing resulted in an increase in flood power of between 11 and 53% in the active channel between 1922 and 1988, and a decrease in flood plain flood power of between 44 and 97% for the same period. At least 20– 45% of this decrease was attributed to increased resistance resulting from vegetation growth. Similarly, Micheli and Kirchner (2002b) report on a study that demonstrated that for the Kern River in California’s Sierra Nevada, riparian banks with dry meadow vegetation are ten times more susceptible to erosion than banks with wet meadow vegetation. Simon and Collinson (2002), however, argue that many studies that consider the stabilizing effects of riparian vegetation under-represent the importance of hydrological processes, some of which may be detrimental to bank stability. They report that in some instances, the hydrological effects (pore-water pressure, soil moisture modification) of trees may in fact reduce bank stability, although the stabilizing mechanical effects usually offset this. This would suggest that hydrological, mechanical and ecological criteria should be jointly considered in determining the potential stabilizing and destabilizing effects of riparian vegetation on bank stability. Integrated research between ecology and geomorphology is gaining momentum (Viles and Naylor, 2002; Steiger et al., 2003). This endeavour will continue to provide new insights into both ecosystem behaviour and Earth surface processes (Naylor et al., 2002). However, as with most integrative endeavours, the issue of dealing with scale in an appropriate manner is critical to its success. A number of examples are evidence of this in the recent literature. Brooks and Brierley (2002) have shown, for example, that over thousands of years, channel capacity, hydraulics, bed load transport rates and bank erosion are influenced substantially by vegetation and wood, both within the channel and on the flood plain. Cowell and Dyer (2002) have shown how impoundments have affected the natural flooding dynamics along the Allegheny River in Pennsylvania, USA, which in turn has resulted in a functional change from floods acting as a disturbance (that generates early successional habitat) to a stressor. Changes in hydrological regime (lower peak discharges,

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longer duration) have favoured non-native species resulting in altered composition and vegetation dynamics. Jeffries et al. (2003) argue that given the importance of vegetation in fluvial form and process, its pigeon-holing as a dependent variable (e.g., Schumm and Lichty, 1965) should no longer be accepted.

IX Bank erosion Bank erosion and its associated consequence, channel migration, has received considerable attention in the literature (Duan, 2001; Darby and Delbano, 2002), and remains a significant engineering (Shimizu, 2002; Schmautz and Aufleger, 2002) and environmental concern (Simon and Thomas, 2002; Simon et al., 2002). The prediction of bank erosion remains a priority, but many existing models fail to simulate this process adequately. Wright et al. (2002) suggest that this is due to the fact that most models can only simulate one or two components of the bank erosion process (erosion by water flow; bank collapse under gravity and removal of failed debris) and cannot account for the influence of secondary currents. Darby et al. (2002) make a similar point and suggest that these models tend to be limited to steady state conditions, utilize idealized and nonmechanistic relationships to link bank erosion rates and near-bank velocities through an erodibility coefficient determined by calibration rather than via the characteristics of the sedimentary environment. Recent interventions have encouraged the use of vegetative-based approaches in dealing with the problems associated with bank erosion that offer ecological advantages and long-term sustainability (Environment Agency, 1999). Not all problems associated with bank erosion are, however, unidirectional. Couper et al. (2002), for example, report on negative erosion-pin recordings for some rivers in the UK.

X

Woody debris

The role of Coarse and Large Woody Debris (CWD and LWD) across a range of spatial and temporal scales has been recognized as being significant in channel form and process studies for nearly two decades. The effect of centuries of ‘riparian gardening’ in Europe (Montgomery and Pie´gay, 2003) and widespread riparian vegetation clearing in North America (Collins et al., 2002) and Australia (Erskine and Webb, 2003) is startling. Regional differences in wood size, density, shape, availability, recruitment, character, geomorphic context, river size and pattern exist, however, that complicate understanding and the modelling of woody debris distribution and effects (Gurnell et al., 2002; Kraft et al., 2002; Kraft and Warren, 2003). Montgomery and Pie´gay (2003) argue that the key uncertainties related to woody debris are its influence on pristine rivers and how it controls hydraulics and geomorphological features in channels of different sizes and regional locations. The geomorphic impact of woody debris depends on how the wood acts as an obstruction (distribution and function) and the consequent impact of the obstruction on local hydraulics and sediment processes (Bocchiola et al., 2002; Wallerstein, 2003; Daniels and Rhoads, 2003; Hygelund and Manga, 2003), as well as the additional material that it obstructs and collects (Curran and Wohl, 2003; Webb and Erskine,

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2003; O’Connor et al., 2003). This impact can operate at a number of scales, from affecting local hydraulics and sediment transport at local scales to affecting channel geometry and morphological features at reach scales (Hughes and Thoms, 2002; Abbe and Montgomery, 2003; Montgomery et al., 2003b). For example, Marcus et al. (2002) suggest that for the Snake River, Soda Butte Creek and Cache Creek in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, USA, the movement of woody debris is perhaps the opposite of most sediment transport systems in mountains. In first- and second-order streams, the wood is too large to be moved so that the system is transport-limited, with floods introducing new material but not removing wood by downstream transport. In third- and fourth-order streams, the system displays a form of dynamic equilibrium in that the channel is able to move woody debris at the same rate it is introduced. In fifth-order and larger channels, the system can be considered to be supply-limited. Faustini and Jones (2003) have shown how sediment-limited streams in Oregon may, when deprived of woody debris, exhibit less morphological variation at the channel unit scale, store less sediment and release it more rapidly than those with woody debris. Similarly, Kail (2003) has shown from work on six central European rivers that structural diversity is greater in woody debris sections at almost all scales. At the reach scale, woody debris also creates greater variability in the longitudinal water profile of a river than a similar river without woody debris. Woody debris is therefore also critical in influencing the diversity and availability of aquatic habitat (Zika and Peter, 2002; Haga et al., 2002; Lehane et al., 2002). Montgomery and Pie´gay (2003) conclude that it is time that wood and vegetation assume their place beside sediment regime (supply and calibre for example) and discharge as a primary control on the dynamics and morphology of fluvial systems. XI Sediment transport The prediction of sediment transport (Cheng, 2002a; Yen, 2002; Abril and Knight, 2002; Cerda` and Garcı´a-Fayos, 2002; Huang and Nanson, 2002; Kleinhans and van Rijn, 2002; Ogawa and Watanabe, 2002; Wilcock and Kenworthy, 2002; Di Cristo et al., 2002; Hairsine et al., 2002; Link et al., 2002; Nikora et al., 2002; Nin˜o et al., 2002; Delleur, 2003; Metivier and Meunier, 2003; Schmeeckle and Nelson, 2003; De Sutter et al., 2003), particle entrainment, settling velocity and deposition (Papanicolaou et al., 2001; Malmaeus and Hassan, 2002; Milburn and Prowse, 2002; Wu and Lin, 2002; Dancey et al., 2002; Paphitis et al., 2002; Seminara et al., 2002; Strom et al., 2002; Smith and Cheung, 2003; Wu and Chous, 2003; Aguirre-Pe et al., 2003; Haralampides et al., 2003; Nin˜o et al., 2003; Papanicolaou et al., 2003) is of great interest to fluvial geomorphologists, but tends to be the domain of river engineers. The limitations of sediment and bed load equations are widely known and predictions of all transport formulae show large uncertainties. Difficulties introduced by sediment packing, variability of the near-bed turbulent velocity field, modification of the velocity field by upstream protruding grains and variable supply mean that a universal transport equation has not been developed. Field measurements of sediment transport confirm the limits of applying transport equations for prediction (Pearce et al., 2003). Obtaining reliable field data are almost impossible, particularly when evidence of extreme events does not survive (Coppus and Imeson, 2002; Sheets

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et al., 2002). Despite these challenges, researchers continue to develop new models for prediction (Cheng, 2002b; Le Roux, 2002; Richardson, 2002; Hunziker and Jaeggi, 2002; Monteith and Pender, 2002; Nagy et al., 2002; Pen˜a et al., 2002; Ribberink et al., 2002; Wongsa et al., 2002; Wilcock and Crowe, 2003; Yang and Lim, 2003). Lisle and Church (2002) suggest that a better understanding of transport – storage relations may improve predictive model capacity in the future. Studies that emphasize the collection of field data are rare, but important (Eaton and Lapointe, 2001; Habersack and Laronne, 2002; Hayes et al., 2002; Julien et al., 2002; Rodr´iguez et al., 2002; Ryan et al., 2002). These studies add much to our understanding of river behaviour. Some examples are presented below. Martin (2003) presents results from a study in which bed load transport formulae are evaluated against field data collected over a 10-year period along an 8-km-long study reach on the Vedder River, British Columbia, Canada. Martin (2003) found that the Bagnold stream power formula and the Meyer – Peter and Muller formula underpredicted gravel transport for the period of record. Interestingly, however, the simple stream power correlation captured the downstream pattern of deposition best. Bagnold’s formula was found to most realistically predict bed load transport, although Martin (2003) indicates that no one formula predicts best under all conditions. Johnson and Warburton (2002b) measured the annual sediment budget of a UK mountain torrent. They found that over the period of 1 year, 184 tonnes of sediment was removed from a 2.4 ha study area. Channel (70%) and bank (25%) sources dominated the supply, with surface processes and rockfall on hillslopes accounting for only 5% of the total budget. Konrad et al. (2002) report on spatial patterns of bed material entrainment by floods using bed tags. They showed that although the probability of bed material entrainment was approximately uniform over a gravel bar during individual floods and independent from flood to flood, regions of stability and instability occurred at some bars over the course of a season. XII

River and flood plain hydraulics

Knowledge of the hydraulics of open channel flow including flow resistance (Bathurst, 2002; Katul et al., 2002), flow types (Crowley, 2002; Ferro and Carollo, 2002; Biron et al., 2002; Jordanova et al., 2002), velocity and turbulence (DeVries, 2002; Lee and Ferguson, 2002; Babaeyan-Koopaei et al., 2002; Chen and Chiew, 2003) and the role of flood plains in open channel flow (Carling et al., 2002) is of obvious importance to the fluvial geomorphologist. A recent two-volume proceedings from the River flow 2002 conference in Belgium (Bousmar and Zech, 2002a, b) covers three major topics in this regard. These are the hydrodynamics of river flow (overbank flows and flood propagation, resistance determination and interactions with vegetation, river engineering, rapid transients and dam-break hydraulics and interactions between river hydraulics and ecology), sediment transport in rivers (river morphology and morphodynamics, scour and techniques of sediment transport modelling) and methods and techniques (laboratory techniques and application of remote sensing and GIS technology to river modelling). The main message that emerges from the proceedings is that current river management requires practitioners and managers both to protect human lives and properties, while at the same time main-

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taining river function for a variety of purposes (including ecological). There is also recognition that there is a need to manage rivers in sympathy with their natural operation, rather than focusing on traditional river engineering approaches (cf. de Vriend, 2002). An additional focus of the proceedings related to ecohydraulics, a field of study that seeks to integrate water resource development with the sustainable utilization of aquatic ecosystems (Caruso, 2001; Leclerc, 2002; Clifford et al., 2002; Franks et al., 2002). However, the tools that are available to convert habitat time series (habitat regime) into meaningful operating rules require considerable validation and refinement. Of particular importance is the development of a conceptual framework to create a common understanding of the relationship between ecological and physical subsystems (Franzin et al., 2002).

XIII River management and remediation Human activities have influenced rivers for millennia (World Commission on Dams, 2000; Taylor and Kesterton, 2002; Asmal, 2002; Doyle et al., 2003; Thomas, D.S., et al., 2004). As a result, widespread changes to fluvial systems have taken place (Bonacci and Roje-Bonacci, 2003; Landwehr and Rhoads, 2003; Dennis et al., 2003; Ellery et al., 2003). Recognition of these impacts, and the need for management intervention has led to fluvial geomorphologists applying their skills to a variety of river management and remediation efforts. This importance is reflected in the literature [Dorn (2002), for example, makes the point that the most cited geomorphological literature in the 1990s related to river research with a biological emphasis]. Four recent books on this topic (Anthony et al., 2001; Kondolf and Pie´gay, 2003; Sear et al., 2003; Gordon et al., 2004) also reflect this interest. Management and remediation of rivers requires decision-makers to intervene in a manner that is beneficial to people and the environment (Goodwin, 2001; Feng et al., 2001; Gregory, 2002; Kurashige, 2002; Thompson, 2002a, 2003; Archer and Newson, 2002; Bhuiyan and Hey, 2002; Falkenmark and Folke, 2002; Larsen and Greco, 2002; Sato and Watanabe, 2002; Simon and Darby, 2002; Williams and Archer, 2002; Islam et al., 2002; Mount et al., 2002; Newson et al., 2002; Pedroli et al., 2002; Poole et al., 2002; Ward et al., 2002; Spaliviero, 2003; Cioffi and Gallerana, 2003; Amos et al., 2003). This means managing ecosystem functionality (Frothingham et al., 2002) and the integration of physical, chemical and biological characteristics of a river at appropriate scales (Dovciak and Perry, 2002; Graf et al., 2002; Poudevigne et al., 2002; Cadenasso et al., 2003; Sauvage et al., 2003). The management of rivers as ‘integrated ecosystems’ (Rodda, 2001) comprises at least four interacting subsystems: the active channel, flood plain (or, where absent, macro-channel), alluvial aquifer and riparian vegetation (Poole et al., 2002). Together these comprise the integrated fluvial system, emphasizing the importance of lateral and longitudinal connectivity and interdependence. Four broad themes are considered under river management and remediation. These are: river landscape and classification, ecological water requirements, the European Water Framework Directive and river restoration and remediation. Each of these will be discussed in turn.

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River and landscape classification

It is common knowledge that hierarchical landscape classification is a useful means to organize, interpret and understand complex systems such as fluvial landscapes (Vannote et al., 1980; Ward and Stanford, 1995; Wu and Loucks, 1995; Tockner et al., 2000; Berman, 2002; Poole, 2002; Wright and Li, 2002; Pess et al., 2002; Ralph and Poole, 2003). Two broad types of classification system are evident: structure-based classification systems (cf. Jensen et al., 2001; Berman, 2002) and process-based classification systems (cf. Montgomery, 1999; Winter, 2001; Berman, 2002; Church, 2002). Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses (see Berman, 2002 for a full description). Both approaches, however, recognize that a hierarchical system helps deal with the complexity and variability of river systems and the importance of spatial and temporal scale. Hierarchical classification systems recognize that river channels and flood plains are inextricably linked to the landscape and that basin features and scale-specific disturbance processes influence ecosystems at multiple scales and influence response and recovery times. Importantly, connectivity vector strength (longitudinal, lateral, vertical and temporal) between system components drives system heterogeneity and hence biotic distribution and pattern (Montgomery, 1999; Berman, 2002). These discontinuities (Rice et al., 2001) at multiple scales generate ‘patches’ that represent distinct structural and process units and result in the heterogeneous distribution in space and time of biotic and abiotic environmental resources. These influence the flow of materials through the system. For a river system, structural and process patches at different scales form a nested, interactive hierarchy (Berman, 2002). Patch dynamics and geometry play a critical role in the distribution of biota (Crook et al., 2001). River and landscape classification methods must attempt to capture this complexity through partitioning ecosystem variability and determining patch response to disturbance at multiple scales. Identifying and delineating unique landscape classes therefore needs to account for the following (Berman, 2002): 1 catchment influences on river structure and resource dynamics; 2 disturbance and recovery processes influencing the strength of connectivity vectors, resource dynamics and biotic pattern; and 3 hierarchy, scale and patch dynamics influence on energy and materials flow through the system. Furthermore, classification systems need to capture that fact that large-scale factors constrain the structure and function of patches at smaller-scales and that small-scale factors shape the structure and function of patches at larger scales. This is needed to predict biotic pattern and distribution and to diagnose system impairment (Fausch et al., 2002). Classification must also allow for the prediction of human impacts on natural disturbance processes that alter the relationships between patches and the resource dynamics including the availability, delivery, transport and processing of materials fundamental to biotic communities (Berman, 2002). Berman (2002) considers that at the core of classification is the ability to categorize across scales those ecosystem processes driving the discontinuous distribution of biotic and abiotic resources. These concepts are not new to the fluvial geomorphologist (cf. Schumm and Lichty, 1965). The challenge remains developing a hierarchi-

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cal, scale-based classification system that can meet the requirements of ecological and geomorphological theory and the operational requirements of management intervention. 2

Ecological water requirements

An important tool in river management and remediation is the determination of Ecological Water Requirements (EWR) or Environmental Flow Allocations (EFA) for rivers. Demands placed on a variety of specialists, including fluvial geomorphologists to predict these EWRs are reflected in the amount of ‘air-time’ given to this topic in the literature (cf. Rood et al., 2003; Special issue of Rivers Research and Application (Volume 19, 2003)). Naiman et al. (2002) argue that the ecosystem is a legitimate user of water and that one of the challenges to river science is forecasting the consequences of changing water regimes, especially as environmental issues related to water escalate over the next two to three decades. The determination of these requirements has progressed to the point where the information requirements need to be nested within the context of adaptive management, integrated ecosystem-based perspectives and increasing public participation (and scrutiny) (Hillman and Brierley, 2002; Thoms and Sheldon, 2002). (Some have questioned whether EWRs of rivers can be effectively integrated with management objectives, socioeconomic demands or a water market system (cf. Doupe´ and Pettit, 2002; Ladson and Finlayson, 2002).) This requires information about changes from a ‘natural condition’ or ‘virgin state’. While numerous indices are available to characterize hydrological changes from a reference condition (Indicators of Hydrological Alteration) (cf. Olden and Poff, 2003) these are lacking from a geomorphological and ecological perspective. 3

European Water Framework Directive

A third important focus in river management and remediation is the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (European Union, 2000). The main objective of the WFD is the achievement of a ‘good water status’ (Chave, 2001) through preventing further deterioration of water bodies and protecting and enhancing the status of aquatic ecosystems and associated wetlands. Fluvial geomorphology is central both to the design and implementation of the WFD (Newson, 2002; Raven et al., 2002; BSI, 2003; Sear et al., 2003). This requires the description, monitoring and prediction of river channel conditions and behaviour; a major challenge, as discussed earlier. In Europe, the WFD recognizes the importance of considering hydromorphology in river management and protection. This includes consideration of: . the extent of modification of the flow regime; . the extent to which water flow, sediment transport and the migration of biota are impacted by artificial barriers; and . the extent to which the morphology of the river has been modified; including the constraints to the free movement of a river across its flood plain. Chave (2001) makes the point that the WFD implicitly recognizes that certain common hydromorphic features will emerge that will enable the ecosystem to flourish where there is no human intervention. The WFD therefore provides both an oppor-

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tunity to entrench the position of fluvial geomorphology in applied studies, but also offers a challenge to ensure that the ‘science’ is appropriate, transparent and accountable. Monitoring and auditing are critical in measuring the success (and learning) of the WFD (cf. Osterkamp, 2002; Thorne, 2002; Bash and Ryan, 2002; Downs and Kondolf, 2002; Walker, J. et al., 2002). 4

River restoration and remediation

It has been recognized that while whole river training methods have brought many advantages (e.g., flood control), many disadvantages have also resulted, for example, continuous degradation of the bed, impacted aquatic ecosystems (Marti, 2002), groundwater recharge and social concerns (Ono, 2002). As a consequence, ecologically acceptable remediation has gained momentum as an approach (cf. River Restoration Centre, 2002). However, there is also a pragmatic realization that complete ‘restoration’ of fluvial systems is seldom attainable, nor desirable. The real questions are what is an acceptable rate of change and how sustainable is the change? The fourth broad theme therefore considers the recent contribution of fluvial geomorphology to river remediation efforts (Hudson, H.H., 2002; Lenzi, 2002; Logan and Furse, 2002; Parsons and Gilvear, 2002; Boon et al., 2002; Filipe et al., 2002; Walker et al., 2002; Williams et al., 2002; Environment Agency, 2003; Zimmerman et al., 2003). Examples of river remediation approaches that consider the importance of ecosystem functionality and the contribution of fluvial geomorphology in resolving these issues comes from five continents (cf. Meyer, 2001; Thompson, 2002b; Florsheim and Mount, 2002; Steveaux and Takeda, 2002; Jonker et al., 2002; McGinness et al., 2002; Rowntree and du Plessis, 2003; Walters et al., 2003). A limitation of many river remediation projects, however, has been that they have tended to be small-scale in nature, without adequate consideration of the drainage basin linkages that provide the template for remediation and rehabilitation (Gregory and Chin, 2002). An example of a basin-scale perspective to river management and remediation is the River Styles approach (as described earlier). The approach provides a typology upon which spatial and temporal linkages of biophysical processes are assessed within a drainage basin (Brierley et al., 2002). River character and behaviour are recorded and the capacity for each river reach to adjust varies with each Style. This is important, as different rivers will respond differently to imposed changes. For example, despite the fact that the Toledo Bend Reservoir impounds 74% of the Sabine basin in the USA, minimal geomorphic impacts were experienced below the impoundment (Phillips, 2003b). This would suggest that the reach was transport-limited before impoundment; thus reduced sediment supply after impoundment had a limited effect on the channel boundary. Impacts therefore need to be interpreted within a broader geomorphic context. This illustrates the value of the River Styles framework in that it assesses geomorphic river condition and recovery potential in the context of the evolutionary pathways of the systems. The approach is also one of few that successfully manages to cross scale boundaries and provide a reasoned, integrated and implementable scale-based approach for river management and remediation. The aforementioned discussion illustrates the point that there is a need to recognize that predictions in geomorphology tend to be qualitative and imprecise. Furthermore, the ability of the discipline to apply experimental and laboratory data

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are limited, and repeatable observations and falsifying hypotheses are few because each geomorphic situation is unique (cf. Schumm, 1991; Benda et al., 2002). Even where quantitative approaches are applied (particularly in the field of sediment transport and hazard forecasting), these are only appropriate at limited scales and domains. Benda et al. (2002) point out, for example, that sediment transport is difficult to predict accurately (even though it may be done with precision) because of the problems mentioned earlier. Furthermore, accurate predictions are unlikely because larger-scale processes constrain smaller-scale processes. For example, hydrodynamic and hydromorphological models that seek to predict changes in the physical dimensions of channels rely on sediment input information from the contributing basins, another unresolved issue. Similar problems exist in predicting the effects of land use changes on fluvial systems. It could be argued that, a rigorous, defensible scale-based conceptual approach to prediction (and management) is preferable to a precise, yet conceptually flawed scale-less numerical approach.

XIV Ecohydrology It is widely acknowledged that hydrology plays a critical role in present-day fluvial systems and associated ecosystems (Arscott et al., 2001; Bonnel, 2002; Caruso, 2002; Collier, 2002; Alfredsen and Tesaker, 2002; Bovee and Scott, 2002; Brown and Ford, 2002; Bunn and Arthington, 2002; Prowse and Conly, 2002; Wu and Wang, 2002; Annear et al., 2002; Bond et al., 2002; Cortes et al., 2002; Dugger et al., 2002; Gibbins et al., 2002; McIntosh et al., 2002; Parkinson et al., 2002; Peel et al., 2002; Prowse et al., 2002; Rech et al., 2002; Smolders et al., 2002; Wanner et al., 2002; Hughes and Rood, 2003). This recognition has evolved into the field of ecohydrology. Evidence derived from palaeohydrological studies (Runge, 2002; Barker et al., 2002; Uliana et al., 2002; St George and Nielson, 2003; Keefer et al., 2003; Russell et al., 2003) can also help contextualize present-day problems through reconstructing past processes; shifts, for example, in ecotonal zones (cf. Starkel, 2002). There has also been recognition that there is a linkage between streamflow variability, precipitation and climate forcing (e.g., ENSO) (Chiew and McMahon, 2002; Jones and Woo, 2002; Woo and Thorne, 2003) that should be of considerable interest to geomorphologists, hydrologists and ecologists alike. Models are being developed, for example, to assist in providing rapid estimates of the ecological instream flow requirements of rivers (Hughes and Hannart, 2003). Ecohydrology has close links with fluvial geomorphology (cf. Marani et al., 2001) and hydraulics (cf. Walker et al., 2002; Booker, 2003; Odeh, 2003; Rowland et al., 2003). In fact, the concept of ecogeomorphology has also been mooted (Thoms and Parsons, 2002). While there is some debate as to exactly what ecohydrology is, there is consensus that there is a need for research into the interface between ecology and hydrology (Black et al., 2002). This is reflected in the recent launching of the International Journal on Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology and a special edition in the Hydrological Sciences Journal dedicated to ecohydrology. The special edition contains five broad discussion papers (Kundzewicz, 2002; Nuttle, 2002; Moir et al., 2002; Porporato and Rodriguez-Iturbe, 2002; Zalewski, 2002) that may be of interest to fluvial geomorphologists.

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Conclusions

Fluvial geomorphology has much to offer both as a science, and as input into managing complex river systems. One of its strengths is that it views the world as a nested hierarchical system, in which consideration of spatial and temporal scale provides the context for understanding system behaviour. This presents a useful perspective that adds considerable value and offers much insight into interpreting a natural world characterized by complex multiscale and multidimensional problems. The breadth of research considered in this review demonstrates that within this broad systems umbrella, there is space for the continuum of spatial and temporal scales of research that, considered together, offers a potentially holistic understanding of river behaviour. Much of the future progress in fluvial geomorphology will rest on its ability to understand and interpret the links within and connectivity between patches of fluvial forms and processes at different spatial and temporal scales. Acknowledgements Many thanks to my wife Lynette who has helped with sourcing much of the reviewed material and helping in the laborious task of editing and checking the manuscript.

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