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FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY CUSSONS TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY RECOMMENDATION Fluids are a key element of study for many engineering disciplines. Cussons fluids fluids equipment supports different disciplines whilst its modular design enables additions to be made to an initial purchase at a later date. Clear visual appreciation of the principles of fluid mechanics is the objective of our designs combined with instrumentation which allows a full range of experimental work to be completed. Software packages a re also available. A basic hydraulics bench service unit provides the self self contained water supply and facilities to mount a wide range of experiments. Our suggested laboratory includes a number of workstations for teaching different principles. However the user is free to choose units for hydrostatics, hydraulic machinery and various water pump test sets for use with the Hydraulics bench. Please visit www.cussons.co.uk for additional information on any product, or contact us at
[email protected] for any o ther enquiry.
Workstation 1—Basic 1—Basic Flow Experiments Bench P6100 Hydraulics Bench Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench and the various ancillary modules available form a comprehensive laboratory facility which enables a detailed Mechanics of Fluids Experimental Course to be followed. The equipment is designed to provide a clear clear visual appreciation of hydraulic principles, principles, and has been featured by BBC Television on the Open University Mechanics of Fluids course. The experimental topics covered include: ¨
Centrifugal pump characteristics
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Flow in pipes and pipe fittings
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Hydrostatics
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Flow through orifices and over weirs
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Hydraulic machines
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Flow in channels
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Reynolds number
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Bernoulli's experiment
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Free and forced vortices
P6100 Hydraulics Bench Bench (See technical file for complete info.)
Pipe Flow Studies P6220 – 2 : The flow of fluids in closed conduits or pipes is a major topic in Mechanics of Fluids due to its practical importance in so many fields of study. It is also of significant interest to Mechanical, Civil and Chemical Engineering, and Biology and Medicine. Whilst Computational Fluid Dynamics software packages have developed over the years they do not provide a complete solution and every engineer should have the practical experience of testing and understanding fluid flows. Cussons offer three products. Experiments are mounted between P6103, P6104 and need P6106.
P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus Comprises of a specially manufactured small bore tube with coned entrance to establish laminar flow and allow confirmation of upper and lower critical values of Re number, confirmation of Poiseuilles and Darcy-Weisbach equations. P6221 Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings Comprises of a set of pipes with a range of diameters, bends and valves, allowing the following experiments to be conducted. *Determination of Pressure Drop across various pipes and fittings at differing flow rates. *Estimation of Loss Coefficient (K) for various pipes, pipe fittings and valve settings. *Flow rate/diameter relationship determination for fluid flow in pipes. *'Friction Factor' determination for fluid flow in smooth pipes.
P6222 Entry Exit & Expansion Losses Comprises of two test sections each with of an enlargement in diameter. One of the test sections has a sudden or stepped transition between the two diameters, whilst the other test section has a 30° included angle gradual transition between the two sections. A range of entry and exit fittings are provided to provide a wide range of experiments.
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Orifice Experiments P6223 - 4 The analysis of the quantity of water which can be discharged through an orifice is arrived at in a simple, straightforward manner by the application of Bernoulli's equation.However, experimental tests typically produce a result which is only some 65% of the solution indicated by the simple analysis. The study of water flow through an orifice is therefore a classic topic to illustrate the need for a semi-empirical approach which is so often required in Mechanics of Fluids. The design of the equipment allows the orifice to be mounted for horizontal outlet (shown) or for vertical outlet. In each case the purchase of the experiment provides the orifices described, a threaded orifice holder, a pair of callipers and an orientation tool, all of which are supplied in a plastic case. The orifices are designed to fit in the outlet of the P6103 Inlet Header Tank . The P6107 Hook and Gauge is used to measure the vertical displacement displacement of the water stream at varying distances from the orifice.
P6223 Orifice Experiments—Basic The basic orifice experiment provides three square edged o rifices, of varying diameter and thickness. These orifices allow a range of experiments experiments to be conducted such as ¨
Demonstration for a given head that the flow through the orifice is proportional to the cross s ectional area
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That flow is proportional to the square root of the head
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Determination of the discharge coefficient
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Comparison of time for emptying a vessel
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Jet profile and velocity determination to obtain the Coefficient of Velocity
P6224 Orifice experiments– Advanced An additional four orifices are provided to provide different shapes (square and triangular) and different entry profiles to round orifices (Borda Mouthpiece and Bell mouthed) In addition to the experiments above experiments can be conducted to demonstrate the Coefficient of Contraction
Weir Experiments P6225 & 6 Understanding the use of weirs to regulate or measure the flow of water is both useful and interesting. interesting. Cussons offer two products comprising of sets of weirs. weirs. The Weirs are mounted on the location studs provided at the end of the flow channel in the P6100 bench, and depth of water is measure with the P6107 hook gauge.
P6225 Weir Experiments—Basic The Cussons P6225 Elementary Weirs comprises a set of three stainless steel weirs. The three weirs comprise of one weir with a rectangular notch, and two with triangular or V notches notches of different angles. angles. The Coefficient of Discharge can be determined for each weir.
P6226 Advanced Weirs Cussons P6226 Advanced Weirs comprises two stainless steel weirs: one a trapezoidal or Cippoletti weir, and the other a weir with a special profile notch which produces a liner head-flow characteristic. A further weir, manufactured from upvc, is also supplied. This weir is a full width notch or suppressed weir, which enables both conditions of clinging and free nappes to be studied.
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Flow Measurement Experiments P6227—30 There are a number of ways of measuring the rate of flow of water, and each system has its advantages and and disadvantages. Cussons offer four different experiments to allow the capability of each type of device to be tested and compared. Each measuring device is standardised for use between the P6103 or P6105 inlet and P6104 outlet devices, and three require the P6100 pressure measurement. The measured flow can be compared compared either to the optional Rotameter P6108 (see below) a vertical variable area flowmeter that is mounted mounted on the P6100 bench, bench, or by measuring the time taken to collect a known amount of water in the measuring tank, which is an integral part of the P6100 bench.
P6229 Turbine Meter Cussons P6229 Turbine Meter which uses a small turbine mounted in the flow, the driving of the turbine operating a transducer to count the revolutions. The experiment is supplied with the electronics required to convert the transducer into either a meter or a data acquisition voltage.
P6227 Venturi Meter Cussons P6227 Venturi Meter is an accurately made venturi, with pressure tapping points. The type of meter uses the head loss principle and its low losses provide many benefits, but slightly lower accuracy
P6230 Pitot Tube Cussons P6230 Pitot Static Tube which uses the velocity principle, comprises an acrylic tube with a 2.3 mm diameter pitot static tube with a modified NPL elliptical nose. The pitot static tube is mounted in a central tee piece, and is arranged so that it can be traversed across a single diameter of the tube to allow the velocity profile across the tube to be determined. The whole assembly can be rotated by an angle to allow traverses to be conducted across other diametric planes.
P6228 Orifice Place Cussons P6228 Orifice Flow meter which uses the head loss principle, consists of an acrylic tube with two interchangeable sharp edged orifice plates of 8 mm and 12 mm bore. The downstream bore of each orifice is chamfered to provide an effective orifice plate thickness of 0.35 mm. The flanges of the orifice meter have been specially designed designed to incorporate corner tappings immediately adjacent to the orifice plate by the use of piezometer rings machined directly into the face of the flange flanges. s. The design of the orifice plates conform with the British Standard for flow measurement.
P6231 Bernouillis Apparatus The flow of a fluid has to conform with a number of scientific principles in particular the conservation of mass and the conservation of energy. The first of these when applied to a liquid flowing through a conduit requires that for steady flow the velocity will be inversely proportional to the flow area. Cussons P6231 Bernoulli's Apparatus consists essentially of a two dimensional rectangular section convergent divergent duct designed to fit between Cussons P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. An eleven tube static pressure manometer bank is attached to the convergent divergent duct. A dye injection system is provided which allows for a single filament of dye to be introduced into the entrance to the convergent section to enable laminar and turbulent flow regimes to be demonstrated .
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Essential Accessories The basic P6100 unit can be augmented by the addition of the following accessories. The accessories may be factory fitted, where applicable, ordered by the Customer at a later date if desired. However certain of these accessories are required for the experiments described above.
P6101 AUXILIARY PUMP & SPEED CONTROL UNIT A second variable speed centrifugal pump with associated pipe work is available to increase the water flow capacity enabling the bench unit to service a series of larger scale experiments. The valving arrangement also enables the two pumps to be run in either series or parallel configuration as in the Series and Parallel Pump Test detailed later. The speed control unit allows continuously variable speed control of the auxiliary pump, which in tandem with the main pump and controller allows pump characteristic curves to be obtained at different speeds.
P6102 PUMP SPEED DISPLAY This unit displays centrifugal pump speed enabling pump characteristics to be determined at different known speeds. A switch enables the speeds of both the bench pump and the auxiliary pump (if fitted) to be selected and displayed.
P6103 CONSTANT HEAD INLET TANK This unit provides a constant head of water for experiments requiring it, a two position overflow is arranged so that either a 250mm or 500mm head can be provided to suit experimental requirements. The tank is fitted with two connection points, one in the base and one in the side, for the attachment of a wide range of experiments. It is an essential purchase for many experiments.
P6104 VARIABLE HEAD OUTLET TANK The outlet tank is used in conjunction with the inlet tank to mount various experiments and to provide a regulated total head across the experiment. The outlet head can be controlled at any value between 50 and 300mm above the experiment centre line height.
P6105 FEED BLOCK This item is provided for use instead of the constant head inlet tank for those experiments which need an inlet head of more than 500mm. The feed block can supply the full head available from the pump(s).
P6106 MANOMETER This item is necessary for those experiments where determination of pressure drop or head loss is required. The unit consists of four open vertical manometer tubes enabling measurements to be undertaken at four points simultaneously, and a water on mercury ‘U’ tube for the measure of higher values of differential pressure.
P6107 HOOK GAUGE AND SCALE This item enables vertical measurement to be undertaken with a linear scale at a series of points along the horizontal. For use with P6223/4 Orifice Experiments for plotting trajectory of jets, and with P6225/6 Weir Experiments for determining the water height above the weir.
P6108 ROTAMETER A variable area flow meter mounted adjacent to the front panel affords direct readings of the total flow rate from the pump or pumps, rates from 0.4 - 4.0 m³/h can be measured.
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Workstation 2— Advanced Experiments Bench P6100 Hydraulics Bench—see page 1 This workstation also requires a P6100 Hydraulics bench
P6238 Free & Forced Vortex Vorte x Apparatus When water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base, a free vortex is formed, the degree of rotation being dependent on initial disturbance. If, while the mass of water is rotating, the central exit hole is plugged, the flow of water in the vertical plane ceases and the motion becomes one of simple rotation in the horizontal plane, and is known as a Free Cylindrical Vortex. Vortices are a common engineering phenomena which are worthy of study. Cussons P6238 apparatus allows a wide range of vortex experiments to be conducted.
P6233 Impact of Jets Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus enables experiments to be carried out on the reaction of a jet of water on vanes of various forms. The apparatus is supported on a PVC base into which a vertical water supply pipe is fitted. Surrounding the supply pipe is a transparent plastic shield fitted with a top PVC flanged cover assembly. The force of the jet is balanced by the addition of masses. Different Different vanes are provided.
P6232 Hydraulic Ram The hydraulic ram is a simple hydraulic machine which utilises the kinetic energy of a moving column of water to pump a part of this water flow to a height which is greater than the original supply head. A machine of this type utilises the inertia of the supply water. It is now widely used for obtaining water supplies from natural water courses where no external power supply is available. Cussons P6232 experiment allows experiments to be conducted using this principle.
P6240 Pelton Wheel The Pelton Wheel is the only form of impulse turbine in common industrial use. It is a robust and simple machine which is ideal for the production of power from low volume water flows at a high head with reasonable efficiency. Cussons P6240 Pelton Wheel, although a model, reproduces all the characteristics of full size machines and allows an experimental programme to determine both the performance of the turbine and to verify design theory.
P6248 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus Cussons P6248 Osborne Reynolds Apparatus comprises a re-entrant bell mouthed glass experimental tube of 16 mm bore mounted horizontally in a larger perspex tube. An adjustable height constant head provides a uniform flow with very little turbulence into the bell mouth entry of the experimental tube. Flow control is controlled at the exit from the apparatus. Ink can be injected into the flow to visually determine the onset of turbulence. Osborne Reynolds experiments can be conducted by the students.
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P6235-6 Stability Engineers involved in in fluids should have an understanding of sta bility and metacentric heights. Cussons vessels provide experiments to study this subject. Further stability work can be undertaken with Cussons Educational Hydrodynamic Range
P6235 Flat Bottomed Vessel
P6234-37 Hydrostatic Experiments Experiments
Cussons P6235 Flat Bottomed Vessel is constructed from non-ferrous materials and has a detachable bridge piece and loading system. The bridge piece can be used with other hull sections so that floatation characteristics may be directly compared. Provision is made to alter the keel weight and the mast weight so o btaining a variety of loading conditions. For off balance loadings the degree of list can be directly measured using the plumb-bob line attached to the mast and swinging over a scale mounted on the bridge piece. The floatation experiments can be carried out using the measuring tank of the P6100 Hydraulics Bench.
P6236 Alternative Hulls Two further types of hull section are supplied to be used in conjunction with the bridge piece, keel and mast weights etc. supplied on P6235 "Floatation characteristics of a Flat Bottomed Vessel". One is representative of a typical hull section whilst the other is of semi-circular form.
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The static head at various points in the flow path may be measured on a manometer panel included with the experiment. The water flow through the the apparatus is controlled controlled by the delivery valve of the Hydraulics Bench and the flow rate may be confirmed by using the volumetric measuring tank of the Hydraulics Bench.
Cussons P6239 Water Flow Measuring Apparatus is designed for use on the Cussons Hydraulics Bench P6100, although it could be used as a free-standing apparatus in conjunction with a low pressure water supply controlled by a valve and a discharge to drain. Water enters the apparatus through the the lower left-hand end and flows horizontally through a sudden enlargement into a transparent venturi meter, and followed by an orifice plate. A 90º elbow changes the flow direction to vertical and connects to a variable area flow meter, a second bend passes the flow into a discharge pipe which incorporates an atmospheric break.
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Workstation 3— Series & Parallel Pump Test set Plus Flow Channel P6135 Series and Parallel pump test set The apparatus consists of a P6100 Hydraulics Bench, complete with P6101 Auxiliary Pump and Speed Control Unit and a P6102 Pump Speed Display Unit, enabling each pump to be run ov er its full speed range. The pumps concerned are identical centrifugal units and are mounted on the baseplate of the P6100 Hydraulics Bench and driv en by individual motor s, both of which have their own variable speed controller. The speed of the selected pump can be displayed individually individually on P6102 Pump Speed Speed Display. Suitable associated pipework and valving arrangements are supplied to allow easy operation of both pumps in either series or parallel configurations. This allows the approximate doubling of discharge flow and head when operating in parallel and series modes respectively...
P6245 Flow Channel (2.5 meters) Cussons P6245 Flow Channel equipment allows the student to study water flow in an open channel and also verify the Chézy equation and Mannings Friction Factor. It is designed for use with Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench fitted with P6101 Auxiliary Pump Unit, but can be used as a stand alone unit when connected to a suitable water supply and drain. The channel is supplied with weir, scales and tilt capability. A quotation for a miniature wave maker and other options are available on request
Workstation 4— Modular Pump Test set P6360 Pump Service unit comprising frame AC Pump Modules Detailed work on both rotodynamic and positive displacement pumps can be performed on this multipurpose test bench, which is designed to be self-contained hydraulically, requiring only the provision of an external single phase electrical supply for full utilisation... The test set is to be supplied with the a positive displacement gear pump as a standard and to be able to accept the following range of pumps, which may be ordered as options: 1.
P6362— P6362—rec recipr iproca ocatin ting g piston piston pump pump - posit positive ive disp displa lace cemen ment. t.
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P636 P6364— 4—ax axia iall pump pump - rot rotod odyn ynam amic ic
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P646 P6465— 5—van vanee pump— pump—po posi siti tive ve disp displa lace ceme ment nt
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P636 P6367— 7—Ch Chan anne nell impell impeller er pump— pump—rot rotody odyna nami micc
P6361 Gear Pump Model is included included in P6360; and P6366 Lobe Pump Module Module
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Workstation 5— Friction in Pipes P5160 Friction Loss in Pipes and fittings Cussons P5160 Friction Loss in Pipes apparatus allows the student to study flow through pipes and fittings, investigate the relationship between flow and pressure drop and plot values of friction factor against Reynold’s number. It is designed for use with Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench and P6101 Auxiliary Pump Unit, but can be used as a stand alone unit if connected to a suitable water supply and drain.
P5161 Water Circulating Circulating Unit Unit If a P6100 bench is not available and the water supply is limited the P5161 unit provides a low cost water reservoir and pump.
Workstation 6— Flow visualisation P6246 Two dimensional potential flow apparatus based on the well known Hele Shaw experimental method. This provides a parallel laminar water flow field to allow a full study of the low Reynolds number flow patterns around submerged models representing cylinder, aero foils, bluff bodies, knife edge weirs etc. or through various passages s uch as valve bodies, nozzles etc. Four independently controlled sinks and sources permit the study to be extended to more complex problems involving fluid removal or addition at discrete points in the potential flow. The apparatus is equipped equipped with multiple dye injection to provide flow visualisation. Alternative passage passage and submerged submerged models can be easily cut from the flexible sheet material supplied. A supply of de-aerated water improves the quality of the experiment.
Workstation 7— Hydrostatics P6242 Hydrostatics Bench Cussons Hydrostatics Bench enables the student to appreciate the fundamental concepts of Hydrostatics and Properties of Fluids. It is designed to augment the range of hydrostatic experiments offered above. P6242 experiments include: ¨
Density Measurement — Specific gravity
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Relative Density Measurement — Hydrometer.
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Variation of Pressure with Head—different shaped bodies giving equal pressure
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Manometry and Hare’s Tube
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Demonstration of Pascal’s Law
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Surface Tension—slide glass and soap bubble
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Viscosity—capillary and falling sphere
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Archimedes Principles—volume and mass
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Hydraulic Press
P6243 Barometer This consists of siphon type barometer supplied c/w mounting brackets for attaching to the frame of the Hydrostatics Bench.
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P6234 Calibration of a Pressure Gauge ( see page 6) A Bourdon tube, consisting of a curved tube which is closed at one end, is the most commonly used pressure gauge. The change of shape under pressure is used to drive a mechanical linkage to move a pointer over a scale. The normal industrial practice is therefore to calibrate pressure gauges by applying known pressures to the gauge. Cussons P6234 apparatus apparatus provides a low cost experiment experiment to calibrate pressure gauges. The apparatus comprises of a hydraulic cylinder in which which a piston can be be loaded with masses. masses. A pressure tapping point is provided for connection to a gauge, such as that on the P6100 bench.
P6237 Centre of Pressure Apparatus The apparatus consists of a torroidal quadrant pivoted on its centre line on a balance arm above a water tank. The quadrant is mounted on the balance arm so that its rectangular end face is vertical and the two curved faces are concentric with the line of action of knife edge pivots. Thus, when the quadrant is immersed only the hydrostatic force on the rectangular end face gives rise to a moment about the knife edge axis. In addition to the quadrant clamping screw, the balance arm incorporates a balance pan and an adjustable counter-balance. Thus the centre of pressure can be found.
Workstation 8— Applied Hydrology P6510 Network of Pipes Apparatus The Network of Pipes Apparatus has been designed as an additional experiment for use with Cussons Hydraulics Bench, P6100, which provides the basic service module for the pumping and volumetric measurement of the water supply. The apparatus consists of a network of four coiled pipe elements and a differential manometer bank. The four pipe elements are located between a pair of large bore four branch valved manifolds which allow a number of series, parallel and series/parallel network network configurations to be achieved. The manifolds incorporate pressure tappings which allow the pressure drop across each pipe element to be measured using the four 500-0-500 mm water on mercury differential manometer bank or pressure transducers. The manifolds also incorporate valved discharge points which allow the network to be configured to represent various distribution systems including a ring main and a long distribution system.
P6515 Pipe surge and Water Hammer Apparatus The Pipe surge and water hammer are two related but independent phenomena which arise when fluid flowing in a pipe is accelerated or decelerated. The associated pressure transients can be damaging to pipe work or components and systems must be designed to avoid or withstand them. P6515 apparatus clearly demonstrates the different effects resulting from gradual or instantaneous changes in fluid velocity (created by slow and fast valve closure). Effect of initial fluid velocity can also be investigated. The apparatus can be switched easily from surge to hammer experiments and back again. Pipe surge resulting from a gradual change in fluid velocity is clearly seen as fluctuating changes in head in a surge s haft. Water hammer resulting from a rapid change in fluid velocity is clearly seen as large changes in pressure monitored using a pair of transducers and indicated using an oscilloscope.
Accessories : P6516 Oscilloscope for P6515 P6517 Printer for P6515
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Additional Hydrology Experiments P6520 Permeability Tank Cussons P6520 Permeability Apparatus consists of a framed glass tank. The tank is mounted on a fabricated steel frame fitted with castors and levelling feet. The front, back and ends of the tank are of clear toughened glass giving scratch free visibility without the risk of abrasion of the inner surfaces by the permeable medium. A wide range of baffles, tools, tapping points and dye points are included. The supply and drain header are independently adjustable. A variety of experiments experiments can be conducted conducted such as Darcy’s Law, Coefficient of Permeability, drawdown in 2D flow, seepage, stability of slopes, piping in quick-sands, distribution of uplift and pressure on walls etc.
P6530 Hydrology Apparatus The Cussons P6530 Hydrology Apparatus is a self contained unit which has been designed to allow students to study a range of hydrology phenomena. The apparatus includes a number of rain nozzles, to simulate passing storms, two wells, permeable end baffles, calibrated weirs, and 24 pressure tapping points. The main tank is made from stainless steel for long life. It allows the study of basin hydrology cycles, flood and run off hydrographs, simulations of effects on civil constructions (bridges and dams), to simulate multiple multiple and moving storms, to examine the interaction of adjacent wells and to study elementary fluvial processes, such as erosion on hillsides and river meander.
P6531 Sand to use with P6530 The same specification as P6521 only 400kg is supplied.
P6540 Sedimentation Transport Apparatus This improved version of the sediment transport teaching facility allows demonstration of the full range of bed forms that arise in a mobile bed as the flow and/or slope are increased. The apparatus includes its own reservoir and pump, and is adjustable for angle of slope. The apparatus allows experiments to be conducted on flow over sand and gravel, to examine how sediment moves and is deposited (e.g. as it builds into ripple patterns). Movement of sediment around structures can be examined, for scouring and blockage, A range of weirs and depth indicators are included within the scope of supply. 15kg of sand is supplied.
102 Great Clowes Street, Manchester M7 1RH, England
Cussons Technology Ltd.
Tel. +(44)161 833 0036 Fax. +(44)161 834 4688
[email protected] [email protected] Web: www.cussons.co.uk www.cussons.co.uk
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The Company may alter detail specifications at its discretion and without notice, in line with its policy of continuous development.
