Final Draft Bridge Design Guidline LLM

LLM/GP/T5-08 (DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)

GUIDELINES FOR MALAYSIA TOLL EXPRESSWAY SYSTEM - DESIGN STANDARDS

Chapter 6

BRIDGES

Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards(DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)

LLM/GP/T5-08(DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)

CHAPTER 6 DETAILED CONTENTS 6

BRIDGES ..................................................................................................................................... 6-1 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6-1 6.1.1 Overview of Bridges ....................................................................................................... 6-1 6.1.2 Government Requirement .............................................................................................. 6-2 6.1.2.1 Required as in Contract Agreement ........................................................................ 6-2 6.1.2.2 Approved Suppliers of Materials and Specialist Contractors ................................. 6-2 6.2 Bridges DesignProcedure ..................................................................................................... 6-2 6.2.1 General Arrangement of Bridge .............................................................................. 6-4 6.2.1.1 River Bridges& Marine Bridges ............................................................................. 6-5 6.2.1.1.1 General.......................................................................................................... 6-6 6.2.1.1.2 River Bridges................................................................................................. 6-6 6.2.1.1.3 Marine Bridges ............................................................................................. 6-6 6.2.1.1.4 Materials ..................................................................................................... 6-10 6.2.1.2 Road Bridges& Urban Bridges ............................................................................. 6-10 6.2.1.2.1 Design Consideration ................................................................................. 6-10 6.2.1.2.2 Details of Carriageway ............................................................................... 6-12 6.2.1.2.3 National Lanes ............................................................................................ 6-12 6.2.1.2.4 Loadings ...................................................................................................... 6-12 6.2.1.2.5 Parapet ........................................................................................................ 6-12 6.2.1.2.6 Bridge Supports........................................................................................... 6-12 6.2.1.2.7 Expention Joints .......................................................................................... 6-12 6.2.1.3 Railway Overbridges (ROB) ................................................................................. 6-13 6.2.1.3.1 General Requirements................................................................................. 6-14 6.2.1.3.2 Consultation Items ...................................................................................... 6-14 6.2.1.3.3 Other Associated Items ............................................................................... 6-19 6.2.1.3.4 Sample View of Bridge ................................................................................ 6-21 6.2.2 Selection of Bridge Superstucture......................................................................... 6-22 6.2.1.1 Short to Medium Spans Bridges ........................................................................... 6-22 6.2.1.2 Short to Medium Spans Curved bridges ............................................................... 6-23 6.2.1.3 Medium Spans Bridges ......................................................................................... 6-23 6.2.1.3 Long Spans Bridges .............................................................................................. 6-25 6.3 Bridges Substructure ........................................................................................................... 6-25 6.3.1 Abutments .................................................................................................................... 6-25 6.3.2 Piers.............................................................................................................................. 6-26 6.3.3 Foundations .................................................................................................................. 6-27 6.4 Bridge Accessories .............................................................................................................. 6-29 6.4.1 Expansion Joints .......................................................................................................... 6-29 6.4.1.1 General ................................................................................................................. 6-29 6.4.1.2 Types of Expansion Joints ................................................................................... 6-29 6.4.1.3 Design of Expension Joints .................................................................................. 6-31 6.4.1.4 Maintenance of Expansion Joints ........................................................................ 6-31 6.4.2 Bridge Bearings ............................................................................................................ 6-31 6.4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................. 6-31 6.4.2.2 Bearing Types ...................................................................................................... 6-31 6.4.2.3 Detailing of Bearings ........................................................................................... 6-32 6-i

Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.4.3 Bridge Waterproofing .................................................................................................. 6-34 6.4.4 Parapets ........................................................................................................................ 6-34 6.4.4.1 Pedestrian Parapets .............................................................................................. 6-34 6.4.4.2 Restraint Systems On Motorway Bridges ............................................................ 6-34 6.4.5 Bridge Drainage ........................................................................................................... 6-36 6.5 Bridge Design ...................................................................................................................... 6-37 6.5.1 Bridge Loadings ........................................................................................................... 6-37 6.5.2.1 Dead Load ............................................................................................................ 6-38 6.5.2.2 Superimposed Dead Load .................................................................................... 6-38 6.5.2.3 Live Load ............................................................................................................. 6-38 6.5.2.4 Pedestrian Loading .............................................................................................. 6-39 6.5.2.5 Construction Loading .......................................................................................... 6-39 6.5.2.6 Wind Loading ....................................................................................................... 6-39 6.5.2.7 Temperature Loading........................................................................................... 6-39 6.5.2.8 Creep and Shrinkage............................................................................................ 6-39 6.5.2.9 Differential Settlements ........................................................................................ 6-40 6.5.2.10 Earth Pressure on Retaining Structure ................................................................ 6-40 6.5.2.11 Seismic Load ........................................................................................................ 6-40 6.5.2.12 Vehicle & Vessel Collision ................................................................................... 6-40 6.5.2 Materials ...................................................................................................................... 6-43 6.5.2.1 Concrete ............................................................................................................... 6-44 6.5.2.2 Reinforcement ...................................................................................................... 6-41 6.5.2.3 Prestressing Strand .............................................................................................. 6-41 6.5.3 Structural Analysis ....................................................................................................... 6-41 6.5.3.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations ................................................................ 6-41 6.5.3.2 Stability againt Overturning and Check on Bearing Decompressing .................. 6-44 6.5.3.3 Cover to Reinforcement ....................................................................................... 6-44 6.5.3.4 Design Crack Widths ........................................................................................... 6-43 6.5.4 Design Life and Durability .......................................................................................... 6-43 6.5.5 Bridge Deck Analysis ................................................................................................... 6-43 6.5.5.1 Grillage Method ................................................................................................... 6-43 6.5.5.2 Three Dimensional Structure ............................................................................... 6-44 6.5.5.3 Finite Element Method ......................................................................................... 6-44 6.5.6 Joint Free Construction using Precast Prestressed Concrete Beams: ........................ 6-45 6.5.6.1 General ................................................................................................................ 6-45 6.5.6.2 Narrow Insitu Integral Crosshead ....................................................................... 6-45 6.5.6.3 Continuous Separated Deck Slab ......................................................................... 6-45 6.5.7 Integral Crosshead....................................................................................................... 6-46 6.5.7.1 Integral Pier Type-1 ............................................................................................. 6-46 6.5.7.2 Integral Pier Type-2 ............................................................................................. 6-48 6.5.8 Integral Abutment ........................................................................................................ 6-49 6.5.9 Bridge Design Codes ................................................................................................... 6-51 6.5.9.1 British Codes ........................................................................................................ 6-51 6.5.9.2 Eurocodes ............................................................................................................ 6-52 6.6 Seismic Effects .................................................................................................................... 6-53 6.6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 6-53 6.6.2 Tectonic and Seismic Activity ...................................................................................... 6-54 6.6.3 Seismic Loading ........................................................................................................... 6-54 6-ii Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.6.3.1 Earthquake Events ............................................................................................... 6-55 6.6.3.2 Seismic Response Spectra .................................................................................... 6-56 6.6.3.3 Response Modification Factor-R ......................................................................... 6-56 6.6.3.4 Combination of Seismic Force Effects ................................................................. 6-57 6.6.3.5 Non-Linear Time History Analysis ...................................................................... 6-57 6.6.3.6 Likehood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Soil Liquefaction Phenomena........... 6-57 6.7 Bridge Aesthetics................................................................................................................. 6-57 6.8 Bridge Maintenance............................................................................................................. 6-60 6.8.1 Maintenance Bridges and Viaducts.............................................................................. 6-60 6.8.2 Inspection and Assessment of Bridge ........................................................................... 6-60 6.8.2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 6-61 6.8.2.2 Inspection Equipment ........................................................................................... 6-61 6.8.2.3 Inspection and Assessment ................................................................................... 6-62 6.8.2.4 Reporting.............................................................................................................. 6-63

FIGURES Figure 6-1 Figure 6-2 Figure 6-3 Figure 6-4 Figure 6-5 Figure 6-6 Figure 6-7 Figure 6-8 Figure 6-9 Figure 6-10 Figure 6-11 Figure 6-12 Figure 6-13 Figure 6-14 Figure 6-15 Figure 6-16 Figure 6-17 Figure 6-18 Figure 6-19 Figure 6-20 Figure 6-21 Figure 6-22 Figure 6-23 Figure 6-24 Figure 6-25 Figure 6-26 Figure 6-27 Figure 6-28 Figure 6-29 Figure 6-30 Figure 6-31 Figure 6-32 Figure 6-33

Type Of Bridges Bridges………………………………………………………… 6-1 Typical Design Procedure for Bridges…………………………………………… 6-3 General Arrangement of A Bridge ………………………………………………. 6-5 JPS Requirement For Bridge Design ……………………………………………. 6-7 Suggested Horizontal Clearance…………………………………………… 6-8 Protection Island ……………………………………………………………….6-9 Fender Protection …………………………………………………………………6-9 Dolphin Protection ………………………………………………………………. 6-9 Insufficient Sight Distance ………………………………………………………..6-12 Sufficient Sight Distance ....................................................................................... 6-12 Standard Structure Gauge and Kinematic Envelope from KTM Berhad…........... 6-16 Typical envelope of vertical clearance and horizontal span…………….……… 6-17 Typical ballast configuration and position of railway tracks……………………...6-18 Typical Section Of Parapet……………………………………………………….6-19 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s non- electrified railway track……………….6-21 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s electrified railway track……………………...6-21 Typical Span Range for Different Deck Types ....................................................6-22 Bridge Deck Types ...............................................................................................6-23 Precast Segmental Bridges .....................................................................................6-23 Papar Bridge – Steel Trusses .................................................................................6-24 Malaysia – Singapore 2nd Crossing – Insitu Box Girder Bridge ...........................6-24 Penang Bridge – Cable Stay ..................................................................................6-24 Clifton Suspension Bridge .....................................................................................6-25 Bank Seat Abutment ..............................................................................................6-26 Wall Abutment ......................................................................................................6-26 Typical Pier Shapes ................................................................................................6-27 Driven Pile ..............................................................................................................6-28 Asphaltic Plug Joint ................................................................................................6-29 Elastomer Reinforced Joint .....................................................................................6-30 Mechanical Joint .....................................................................................................6-30 Modular Joints …… ...............................................................................................6-30 Elastometric Bearings …………………………………………………………….6-32 Mechanical Bearings ...............................................................................................6-32 6-iii

Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Figure 6-34 Figure 6-35 Figure 6-36 Figure 6-37 Figure 6-38 Figure 6-39 Figure 6-40 Figure 6-41 Figure 6-42 Figure 6-43 Figure 6-44 Figure 6-45 Figure 6-46 Figure 6-47 Figure 6-48 Figure 6-49 Figure 6-50 Figure 6-51 Figure 6-52 Figure 6-53 Figure 6-54 Figure 6-55 Figure 6-56 Figure 6-57 Figure 6-58 Figure 6-59 Figure 6-60 Figure 6-61 Figure 6-62 Figure 6-63 Figure 6-64 Figure 6-65 Figure 6-66 Figure 6-67 Figure 6-68

Bearings on Steep Gradients ..................................................................................6-33 Uplifts of Bearings .................................................................................................6-33 Methods of Preventing Uplift .................................................................................6-33 Orientation of Bearings ..........................................................................................6-33 Concrete Bridge Parapets .......................................................................................6-35 Guard Rails at Bridge Approach ......................................................................... . 6-35 Typical End Treatment of Parapet .........................................................................6-35 Typical Ducting in Parapets .................................................................................. 6-36 Typical Bridge Drainage ........................................................................................6-37 Properties For Bridge Design…………………………………………………….6-41 Grillage Analysis.................................................................................................... 6-44 3-D Model ............................................................................................................. 6-44 Finite Element Method ..........................................................................................6-44 Typical pier ends embedded in narrow integral cross-head…………………..….6-45 Typical Beam Supported On Elastometric Bearings……………………..………6-46 Contuinity Beams Arrangement………………………………………………….6-47 Continuity Precast Beam Supported On A Widened Pier Cap Withou Support..…6-48 Integral Pier Type-2 ............................................................................................. 6-49 Typical Integral Abutment Bridge With A Single Span……………………..… 6-50 Integral Frame Model ……………………………………………………..…... 6-51 Load Consideration For SStructure Analysis ……………………………..…… 6-51 Eurocodes……………………………………………………………………… 6-53 Microzonation Map of Peninsular Malaysia & Sabah Sarawak ......................... 6-54 Damage Performance Level For Bridges ……..………………………………. 6-55 Response Spectra ................................................................................................ 6-56 The Forth Bridge, Scotland .................................................................................. 6-58 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco ..................................................................... 6-58 Millau Viaduct, France ......................................................................................... 6-58 Slender Deck and Deeper Upstands .................................................................... 6-59 On the Selection of Span Lengths ....................................................................... 6-59 Types Of Bridge Inspection……........................................................................ 6-61 Recording Equipment …………………………………………………………. .6-62 Measurement Equipment …………………………………………………….… 6-62 Photograph of Two Bridges With A Number Of Bridge Elements Labelled…... 6-63 Photograph of Two Bridges With A Number Of Bridge Elements Labelled…..… 6-63

REFERENCES Reference 6-1 Reference 6-2 Reference 6-3 Reference 6-4 Reference 6-5 Reference 6-6 Reference 6-7 Reference 6-8 Reference 6-9 Reference 6-10

BA. 42/96, Design of Integral Bridges Prestressed Beam Integral Bridges; Hambly, E.C. and Nicholson, B.A. Concrete Box-Girder Bridges; Jorg Schlaich & Harmut Scheef. Manual Of Bridge Engineering; Ryall, Parke and Harding Prestressed Concrete Bridges – Design and Construction;Nigel R.Hewson Bridge Deck Analysis; Eugene O‟Brien & Damien Keog Bridge Engineering – A Global Perspective; Troyano Seismic Hazard And Risk Management of Malaysia; Dr. Azlan bin Adnan, Ir. P.N. Selvanayagam and Others IEM Seminar on “Use of Eurocodes for The Design Of Bridges”; Chris Hendy, Head of Bridge Design And Technology, Atkins Urban Drainage Design Standards and Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia, 1994

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Reference 6-11 Reference 6-12

Piglet – Pile Group Analysis Software; Dr. M F Randolph, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Western Australia Expressway Maintenance System – Maintenance Manual And Guideline (Civil Works)

APPENDIX A List of Bridge related Codes ABBREVIATIONS AASHTO JKR KTMB SIM MHA MASMA

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Jabatan Kerja Raya Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad Standards Institute of Malaysia Malaysian Highway Authority Urban Stormwater Management Manual of Malaysia

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6 6.1

BRIDGES Introduction

6.1.1 Overview of Bridges Bridges are an integral part of the road network, which serves as the lifeline of any state. Bridges provide the continuity to the Highway when it traverses obstructions.Obstructions can be Natural:     

River Crossing Soft – Ground Ponds Expanse of Water (Straits) Ravine / Valleys

Or Man-made :  

Railway Crossing Road Crossing Built-Environment

In other words, bridge is a structure for carrying the road traffic or other moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as channel, road or railway. The variety of forms of bridges demonstrates the combination of art and technology.Design of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material used to make it and the funds available to build it. There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, arch bridges, truss bridges, suspension bridges, cantilever bridges and cable-stayed bridges.

Figure 6-1

Type of Bridges

The major consideration for bridge type selection were sustainability, functionality, value engineering, aesthetic, work cost, maintenance friendly, construction time, and location. Selecting an appropriate superstructure type is a critical factor in the planning and design process. 6-1 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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In order to function as a Bridge, it must be:   

Designable Buildable Cost-Effective Provides comfort and safety to users

The following sub-sections will deal with the above functions of the bridge and how it can be achieved in the planning, design, construction phases and subsequent maintenance.

6.1.2 Government Requirement Refer to JKR, JKSB and LLM requirement. 6.1.2.1 Required as in Contract Agreement Concessions company or main contractors need to submit design brief, detail design, design calculation and etc as in Contract Agreement.

6.1.2.2 Approved Suppliers of Materials and Specialist Contractors Main contractors engaged on projects involving the supply of special materials or specialist works on highway structures shall either themselves be registered as approved suppliers , or shall be required to engage one of the approved suppliers or specialist contractors registered in the category to supply the special materials or to carry out the specialist works on highway structures.

6.2

Bridges Design Procedure

The design of bridges is a voluminous subject to be dealt in a General Manual. Suffice to say that each individual designer or organisations have established practices based on knowledge and experience. Generally the procedure to be adopted for the design of bridges can be divided into two main sections. (A) Planning and Preliminary Design Stage (B) Final Design and Contract Stage The steps in the various stages are given in Figure 6.2.

6-2 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

LLM/GP/T5-08(DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)

Site Investigation And Location

EEstablish : (1) Clients requirements (2) Design criteria (3) Appropriate Authorities requirements

Road Alignment ------------------Preliminary Soil Investigation

Establish :

Prepare :

Submit :

(1) Bridge Type (2) Skew (3) Length (4) Span Lengths (5) Foundations

(1) General Arrangements

Proposals to Clients and appropriate Authorities for approval

(2) Preliminary Estimate

Preliminary Survey

Stage 1 - Planning And Preliminary Design Complete Survey

Superstructure design

ICE Review and Certification

Prepare :

Substructure design

Complete Foundation Investigation

Construction drawings and estimates

Final submission for approval

Supervision and construction

Preparation of B of Q and Contract Documents

Stage 2 - Final Design And Contract Documents

Figure 6-2 (A)

Typical Design Procedure For Bridges

Planning and Preliminary Design Stage

In this stage, the type of bridge, the span, the skew, the widths, the clearances and the loadings to be carried have to be established and a General Arrangement (GA) drawing prepared for submission to the appropriate Authorities and Client for approval. At this stage generally all survey and soil investigation work should be carried out so that a proper assessment of the bridge type and spans can be made. Investigations should also be undertaken into the cost of various alternatives. The purpose of the GA drawing is to indicate the intended design of the bridge, the basic dimensions of the bridge. Guidelines for the developments of different bridge crossings are given below. On completion of this stage, the output would be:  

Layout of the bridge General Arrangement Selection of bridge Substructure and Superstructure 6-3

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(B)

Final Design Stage

After approval of the proposals the preparation of the final design and working drawings can commence. The stage comprises the following:    

Analysis of the selected bridge type Design of the bridge elements and the overall bridge Detailing of the bridge for construction Supervision to ensure that the designers intent and specifications are complied with.

A list of drawings required is drawn up by the engineer responsible for the design and the designer of the bridge is held responsible for the accuracy of the drawings and thoroughly checks all details contained in these drawings. ICE review and certification.

6.2.1 General Arrangement of Bridge In deriving the General Arrangement of the Bridge the following components of bridge need consideration:The bridge structure comprises of the following parts (refer to Figure 6-3): 

Substructure This comprises piers and abutments, wing walls or returns and their foundation. 1. Piers and Abutments These are vertical structures supporting deck/bearing provided for transmitting the load down to the bed/earth through foundation. 2. Wing walls and Returns These are provided as extension of the abutments to retain the earth of approach bank which otherwise has a natural angle of repose. 3. Foundation This is provided to transmit the load from the piers or abutments and wings or returns to and evenly distribute the load on to the strata. This is to be provided sufficiently deep so that it is not affected by the scour caused by the flow in the river and does not get undermined.



Bearings The bearings transmit the load received from the decking on to the substructure and are provided for distribution of the load evenly over the substructure material which may not have sufficient bearing strength to bear the superstructure load directly.



Superstructure or Decking This includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load passing over it and transmits the forces caused by the same to the substructures. 6-4

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While the above mentioned are structurally operational parts, for safety hand rails or parapets, guard rails or curbs are provided over the decking in order to prevent vehicle or user from falling into the stream or for the separation of traffic streams.

Figure 6-3

General Arrangement of A Bridge 6-5

Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.2.1.1 River Bridges & Marine Bridges 6.2.1.1.1 General Hydrological and hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of the preliminary design of a bridge. Appropriate investigations shall be carried out to determine the best design. The investigation shall include:a)

Hydraulic and hydrology data: as required to determine the soffit levels and deck finished levels of the bridges, river training, scour depth estimation, sedimentation, etc.

b)

Navigational requirements for navigable bridge: as required to determine soffit levels, minimum navigational spans, protection against ship impact, navigational lighting, etc.

c)

Reference is made to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (JPS) Malaysia “Urban Stormwater Management Manual of Malaysia” or MASMA.

d)

Headwater depth (HW) at relevant return period (normally 5 years minor storm and 100 years major storm is considered) based on various bridge opening / cross sections.

e)

Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges;

Design of Bridges for Hydraulic action should be in accordance with BA 59/94.The reference shall also be made to REAM guidelines. 6.2.1.1.2 River Bridges. Hydrological and hydraulic analysis should be elaborated in accordance with the Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran requirements. Hydrological Procedures (refer Section 9.1.3 – Estimation of Design Flood) and Design Standards and other local authorities requirements. Design shall take into consideration of any sedimentation occurs during and after construction. The sediment control shall refer to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia of Sediment Control Guideline and Erosion Control in Malaysia. However, the designer should obtain the approval from Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran for any bridge crossing river.

6.2.1.1.2.1 Site Data The following data have to be taken in account as a minimum when conducting these studies and analyses:     

topographic maps and/or aerial photographs with geomorphologic features of surrounding land, landuse, river pattern, sand deposits, bank level and others; detail survey for stream bed invert levels and cross sections; complete data on existing bridges including dates of construction and performances during past floods; The historical of flood level/record shall be considered in the design. The designer should review with Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) or JPS requirement pertaining to the merge river at the surrounding area. 6-6

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   

The consideration on the environment shall also refer to LLM‟s guideline in Section 2 Environmental Consideration. available high water marks with dates of occurrence; information on navigation, debris and channel stability, flow pattern and constriction of flow; factors affecting water stages such as high water from other streams, reservoirs, flood control projects and tides.

6.2.1.1.2.2 Bridge Clearances For bridge over river the freeboard shall be in accordance to Garispanduan Pembangunan Melibatkan Sungai dan Rezab Sungai by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia such as below but not limited to:  The minimum vertical clearance from bridge soffit shall be 1.0m from 100yrs return period flood level of existing river or flood plain area.  Access for maintenance vehicle shall be provided.  Riverbank stability shall be analyzed.  The abutment wall shall be 2.0m away from edge of river berm.  Pier shall be out off the deepest river bed and shall be protected from any scour. Especially for river width more than 30m  Pier pilecaps shall be 1.5m below river bed level.  Detail of any proposed river protection works shall be submitted to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia for approval. The river waterway for ship/boat shall be considered in the design. However, the data of the frequency ship/boat using waterway, speed and direction shall be obtain with relevant authorities. Generally the Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia requirement as per Figure 6-4 below.

1.0m (min) above water level Q100

Protection Works at 10m Upstream and Downstream

Existing River Profile

Design River Profile

If Piers on berm

Figure 6-4

JPS Requirement For Bridge Design. 6-7

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6.2.1.1.3 Marine Bridges. 6.2.1.1.3.1 Navigational Waterways There are two topography level systems used in Malaysia; the Admiralty Chart Datum (ACD) and Land Survey Datum (LSD). Admiralty Chart Datum (ACD) is generally used for the marine and port facilities while Land Survey Datum is used for the inland facilities. The difference between the two systems shall be verified with the respective Marine Department AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges (1991) states, “Bridges with main span less than 2 or 3 times the Design vessel length are vulnerable to vessel collision”. The suggested horizontal clearance to be used in planning stage for important bridges crossing open deep waters is given below: Vessel Traffic One – way Two – way

Free Navigation 3.2L 6.7L to 8.2L

Restricted navigation 1.6L 3.5L to 5L

*Where L is the length of the vessel. Figure 6-5 Suggested Horizontal Clearance 6.2.1.1.3.2 Aviation Limit The actual height restriction over the Main Navigation Span could be obtained from the "Aeronautical Information Publication, Malaysia" by the Aeronautical Information Service Department of Civil Aviation. The designer shall check with the relevant Department of Civil Aviation for the height restriction and shall obtain the approval of the relevant Department of Civil Aviation for any deviation or waiver. 6.2.1.1.3.3 Ship Collision Impact Load For determining vessel collision loads, consideration should be given to Waterway geometry, available water depth, size, type, loading condition and frequency of vessels using waterway, vessel speed, direction and structural response of the bridge to collision. It must be noted that in addition to above, necessary information pertaining to navigation should be obtained from the authorities, such as Marine Department. However proper judgement, experience and detailed analysis are required to satisfy navigational requirements. The basic design case for ship collision impact shall consider Dead weight Tonnage (DWT) of the vessel at certain cruising speed. Consideration shall include the distance of piers from the navigation span as well as the depth of water in assessing the risk of ship collision. Further Information on navigational requirements can be obtained from:  AASHTO Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges (1991).  AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification.

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In navigable waterways, the two basic protection options available are designing bridge structures to resist vessel collision force and/or protecting by fenders, dolphins, berms or island.

Figure 6-6

Protection Island

Figure 6-7

Fender Protection

Figure 6-8

Dolphins Protection

6.2.1.1.3.4 Bridge Clearances The bridge over the main navigation channel shall be to satisfy with horizontal and vertical navigation clearances and requirements by the relevant port authority and maritime department. The height clearance shall be measured above from the MHWS (Mean High Water Sprint), while the required draft shall be measured below the MLWS (Mean Lowest Water Sprint ). 6-9 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.2.1.1.4 Materials. Consideration should be given to the aggressive marine environment and the appropriate concrete mix. The cover to reinforcement should be determined by consideration of durability under the envisaged condition of exposure. The design of concrete bridges on issues of durability, cover to reinforcement and crack width requirements shall follow as per Clause 6.5 Bridge Design. Provision of more than minimum concrete cover over the reinforcement is encouraged in elements such as piers and pile caps located in the sea to provide a level of robustness and durability design life in excess of the minimum. Materials shall be durable and adequate protection shall be provided against environmental deterioration. Minimum grade of concrete allowable is Grade 40 (C40/20). Where the bridge is exposed to chlorides, high performance concrete or equivalent shall be used. Anti-corrosion protective system: The steel materials used for the bridge structures shall follow BS 5400: Part 6 and shall be protected by a comprehensive anti-corrosion protective system in accordance with BS 5493 or equivalent. The minimum effective life of such protective system shall be in excess of 20 years.

6.2.1.2 Road Bridges& Urban Bridges A highway structure is a structure intended to carry highway vehicles, and/or bicycles and pedestrians over, under or through a physical obstruction or hazard, and may be abridge (which may be in the form of a culvert exceeding 2 meter in diameter or span), a flyover, a viaduct, and underpass, a subway, a walkway cover, a cantilever noise barrier, a noise enclosure or a sign gantry. Road bridges and urban bridges are those bridges carriageway highway vehicles such as private cars, bus, lorries and motorcycles. The difference between road bridges and urban bridges is the localities where these bridges are constructed. Road bridges are generally located in open areas where constraints and restrictions are much lesser. For urban bridges, due to their locations certain constraints and restrictions must be taken into account during planning and design stages of the project. 6.2.1.2.1

Design Consideration

The design of Road Crossing Bridges must take into the consideration of the following factors. a. Minimum Headroom Clearance – The headroom to be provided is the effective headroom after compensation for vertical curvature and deflection. The headroom specified for new construction includes and allowance of 100mm for subsequent resurfacing. The general practice of 5.4 metre clearance minimum must be adopted. However, under certain circumstances higher headroom clearance will have to be considered. Headroom shall be measured from the lowest point of the overhead structure. The lowest point shall be taken as the lowest lighting fixture, sign, signal or similar protrusion rather than the lowest part of the overhead structure itself. b. Minimum side clearance – In the absence of raised kerbs, it is the width between concrete and/or metal parapets, less the amount of set-back required for these parapets. This set-back measured from the traffic face of each parapet shall be taken as 0.6 meter on the off-side fast lane. On the near-side slow lane, the set back shall be taken as 0.6 meter or the width of the marginal strip whichever is the greater subject to a maximum set-back of 1.0 meter. 6-10 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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c. Impact of pier from accidental vehicles – The overall structural integrity of the bridge shall be maintained following an impact due to collision of heavy goods vehicles with bridge superstructures, but local damage to a part of the bridge deck can be accepted. The nominal loads shall be considered as acting horizontally on bridge supports. Supports shall be capable of resisting the main and residual load components acting simultaneously. Loads normal to the carriageway shall be considered separately from loads parallel to the carriageway. d. Impact of Bridge Deck from „over height‟ vehicles – Impact damage due to „over-height‟ vehicle can lead to structure collapse, reinforcement damage, girder misalignment, steel yielding, reinforcement exposure, connection failure, concrete spalling and concrete cracking. After a collision has occurred in which an emergency repair is required, a fast, inexpensive, effective and easy to repair. e. Minimum sighting distance – Sight distances are measured from a minimum driver‟s eye height of between 1.05m and 2.0m to an object height of between 0.26m and 2.0m, both above the road surface. A possibility therefore exists that the provision of shorter sight distances could sometimes be justified on the grounds that motorists can see through certain types of parapets. However, visibility through a parapet is liable to be obscured and distorted, and thus cannot be relied upon. A parapet of any kind shall accordingly always be treated as opaque for purposes of sight distance design. For bridges in built-up areas (Urban Bridges), the design must take into the consideration of the following factors other than those mentioned above. a. Existing Services – Existing services include electric cables, telco cables, sewer lines etc. The design and locations of bridge structures should avoid these services as much as possible so that least disruption to these services can be avoided. b. Land Constraints – The design of the bridge must consider the availability of the space for the type of structure to be constructed. The new structure must ensure that all the safety aspect of the existing roadway has been taken into consideration in the design. c. Buildability to minimise the impact to existing traffic flow – Under no circumstances the existing traffic flow (both vehicle and human movement) must be least disrupted during construction. The design and the chosen construction method must be able to accommodate these impact. d. Existing structures, drains etc. – The effect of existing structures, drains etc must be considered. Minimum disruption to these structures must be exercised and the design must be able to accommodate the existence of these structures. e. Environmental Constraints – The effect of noise, vibration etc during construction and post construction must be considered during the design and construction of the bridges. The chosen design and construction must avoid the discomfort to the people in the surrounding area. Noise barrier must be considered in the design. For bridges more than 5km in length, special consideration must be given in providing layby in the event of emergency. The location of the layby must be away from the middle of span and must also avoid the crest of the bridge alignment. The type of bridges chosen must be able to blend into the surrounding structures. Skyline clearance must be considered in the design. 6-11 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Figure 6-9

Figure 6-10

Insufficient Sight Distance

Sufficient Sight Distance

6.2.1.2.2 Details of Carriageway Liaison with highway engineer is required to confirm the function cross section of the bridge in order that the following details are confirmed prior to the design of bridges.  Number of traffic lane  Width of each traffic lane  Presence of hard shoulder  Presence of marginal or set back  Any other 6-12 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.2.1.2.3 National Lanes Notional lanes shall be defined in accordance with BD37/01. 6.2.1.2.4 Loadings The loadings acting on the bridge shall be generally determined in accordance with BD37/01. Supports exposed in such a way that they may be subject to the collision by vehicle shall be protected by metal or concrete barriers. And those supports shall be designed to resist the vehicle collision loads. 6.2.1.2.5 Parapet A parapet is a structural component installed along the edge of the bridges to contain vehicles only on the bridges. The design of bridge parapet shall refer to Section 6.4.4 of this guideline. Loads transmitted by vehicle collision with parapet to structural elements supports parapet shall be dealt with in accordance with Clause 6.7 of BD37/01. Suitable level of containment shall be determined with due considerations of the following aspects.  Vehicle type  Approach angle and speed  Road conditions.  

Height of parapet shall be determined with due considerations of the following aspects. Level of containment Structures or features underneath the bridges

Sight distances are measured from a minimum driver‟s eye height of between 1.05 m and 2.0 m to an object height of between 0.26 m and 2.0 m, both above the road surface. A possibility therefore exists that the provision of shorter sight distances could sometimes be justified on the grounds that motorists can see through certain types of parapets. However, visibility through a parapet is liable to be obscured and distorted, and thus cannot be relied upon. A parapet of any kind shall accordingly always be treated as opaque for purposes of sight distance design. 6.2.1.2.6 Bridge Supports The arrangement of bridge supports including the piers, column and abutment shall take account of the sight distance of the road under the overbridges. 6.2.1.2.7 Expansion Joints The design of expansion joints shall refer section 6.4.1 of this guideline.

6.2.1.3 Railway Over Bridges (ROB) The purposes of this chapter are to highlight the general requirements, guideline and technical considerations for the new bridges and elevated structures crossing the railway tracks. In general, the railway tracks in Malaysia are under the care of the Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) Berhad. Concurrently, KTM Berhad is the nodal authority representing the Government overseeing the needs that imperative to be considered in the project involving the railway track. KTM Berhad has set forth the criteria essential to be considered in the design and similar requirement shall be adopted in other railway lines in the country. 6-13 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Similar reference can also be considered in proposing a bridge crossing other than KTM Berhad‟s railway track namely the LRT, ERL, Monorail and also MRT (Similar consideration also can be adopted to bridge crossing over high speed train railway in the future, however it requires further comments and inputs from the relevant authority). Due to recent development, the Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (SPAD) has been established by the Government to regulate and enforce all matters relating to land public transport including the implementation process of project involving railway lines in the country. Designer shall refer to the said agency prior to commence design works. Salient consideration shall be taken into account amongst others, basing on the following items; 6.2.1.3.1

General Requirements

Basic information of bridges and elevated structures crossing railway track are similar to the road crossing, therefore the following items are required to be reviewed beforehand ; i.

About existing railway :  Class and grade,  Rail gauge and cross sectional profile,  Right of way (railway reserve),  Clearance limit,  Electrified or conventional track.

ii.

About future plan :  Electrification plan,  Double tracking plan,  Elevating plan., if any.

6.2.1.3.2

Consultation Items

The following items are to be consulted with the overseeing authority of railway tracks ; i.

Bridge structural configuration

Geometric standard of the carriageway including the type & configuration of superstructures to conform with Malaysia Highway Authority (MHA), Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (SPAD) and other recognized publications requirement such as Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM) in tandem with Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) standard girders. ii.

Bridge length and span

Geometric design of the horizontal and vertical profile of the bridges crossing railway track shall be in accordance with the present JKR Arahan Teknik (Jalan), Malaysia Highway Authority (MHA) or other governing authority requirement. iii.

Clearance limit

The clearance limits of railway are different depending on the type and kind of railways. The railway in Malaysia has been developed based on the British gauge and is now in progress of electrification. Figure in the following items no. 6.2.1.3.4.(a) and 6.2.1.3.4.(b) shown the clearance 6-14 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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below the bridge crossing both the KTM Berhad‟s electrified and non- electrified railway tracks respectively. However, the new commuter railway system is going to be/has been constructed in the urban areas. To cross with such new system, clearance limit should be consulted with the associated authorities and shall then be continued by individual consultation. a) Vertical Clearance It is the designer‟s responsibility of obtaining latest requirement for vertical clearance limit envelope from the KTM Berhad & other governing authorities prior to design. Approval of all clearances below the bridge shall be obtained from the said authority. In general, KTM Berhad guidelines specified minimum vertical clearance of 7.0m shall be maintained over top of existing & new electrified railway track with „catenary facilities‟ to the lowest soffit of bridge superstructure girders. Similarly, for new bridges crossing existing & new non-electrified railway track, KTM Berhad guidelines specified a minimum vertical clearance of 6.1m should generally be provided to the lowest soffit of bridge superstructure girders. b) Horizontal Clearance It is the designer‟s responsibility of obtaining latest requirement for horizontal clearance limit envelope from the KTM Berhad & other governing authorities prior to design. Approval of all clearances below the bridge shall be obtained from the said authority In general, KTM Berhad guidelines specified the horizontal clear span for the bridges shall be minimum 25m measured perpendicular or no less than 80 degree to railway track for accommodating future tracks. Minimum 3.5m horizontal clearance shall be maintained between edge of pier cap/abutments and centre line of track nearest to these structures.

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Figure 6-11 Standard Structure Gauge and Kinematic Envelope from KTM Berhad Reference to the standard structure gauge and kinematic envelope from the KTM Berhad‟s as illustrated above is necessary prior to the design of bridge crossing railway. The above information are generally govern the minimum vertical headroom and horizontal clearance below the lowest soffit of bridge to the top of rail levels and from the front face of bridge supports to the center line of rails respectively. Also, a minimum of 3.5m from the front face of bridge‟s pier & abutment to the center line of tracks shall be provided by the designer.

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Figure 6-12 Typical envelope of vertical clearance (from soffit of bridge) and horizontal span (from either side of pier supports) to the non-electrified railway track.

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Figure 6-13 Typical ballast configuration and position of railway tracks. Designer shall be responsible to liaise with the KTM Berhad and other governing authorities on the above ballast formation requirement prior to the bridge foundation design.

iv.

Location of abutments and piers

Abutment walls shall be parallel next to the railway lines after the 25.0 horizontal clearance envelope. If the restraining walls need to be constructed in the vicinity of abutment wall, the restraining wall shall be vertical containing the earth up to the bridge top surface level. Restraining wall shall be of reinforced earth soil wall type or other approved equivalent wall that aesthetically pleasing. For the bridge requires intermediate pier supports, the location of pier caps shall be minimum 3.5m perpendicular the to centre line of nearest track. v.

Bridge pile / foundation

Low displacement/bored piles are favorable for bridge in close proximity to the existing railway lines. However, other type of foundations requires proper submission to the KTM Berhad & other authorities for approval / conditional approval. vi.

Embedding depth of foundations

The whole structure shall be supported by piled foundations or spread footings depending on the soil conditions. In general, all top of foundations and pile caps shall be placed 1.5m below the finished ground level (i.e. below rail‟s cess level) unless otherwise constrained by site conditions. Finished ground level at the top of pile cap location shall follow the 1:20 gradient from rail cess levels (edge of ballast at bottom) for future earthworks. vii.

Existing rail levels

Information of existing rail levels shall be provided by the rail operator for reference prior to the design of bridge. Under certain circumstances, additional surveys are necessary to be carried out. viii.

Impact from Collision

Designer shall confirm with KTM Berhad & other railway authorities on the requirement of additional impact loads due to trains collision that needs to be considered for pier supports design of the bridge. Main primary loads to the bridge shall be referred to the present standards and codes of practice as listed in the appendices. 6-18 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.2.1.2.3

Other Associated Items

i. Engineering submission : Relevant documents require proper submission to the railway authorities are as follows; a) Application forms b) Conceptual plans including survey data c) Preliminary and Detailed engineering design plans d) As built plans ii. Material : Utilize materials for the bridge structures that are highly resistant to aggressive agents (e.g. climate and traffic generate harmful impacts and vibrations). Protect the more degradable materials with suitable products which are generally customary on all metal structures, shall also be applied to concrete structures especially on those that most exposed. iii. Parapet : Bridge parapet shall be of concrete structures. Two (2) types of Parapet – Type A and Type B to be provided as per KTM Berhad‟s and JKR‟s guidelines. Minimum 1.8m high (measured from top of walkway) Parapet Type B will be extended up to 10.0m on both side from the KTM Berhad reserve area / above 25.0m horizontal clear span / corridor whichever is more. Designer shall ensure that the parapet meets the requirement of high containment wall TL 5 as per Malaysia Highway Authority (MHA) specification. Parapet Type A will be continued with sufficient distance covering the approaches / departures to & from the bridge. The provision of the extended parapet is necessary as to avert the skidded vehicle from dashing along and jump onto the railway traffic. All parapets shall be designed to resist the vehicle impact load as per the codes of practice.

Figure 6-14 Typical Section Of Parapet iv. Deck drainage : Drainage facility for the bridge deck shall be suitably provided with UPVC pipe at designed interval or required minimum number per sq.m. whichever is applicable, either on both side or on lower side of deck depending upon the cross-fall of deck, except for the 25.0m stretch (envelope) over the railway tracks, not required. Drainage facility for the bridge deck shall be provided in such a way that the drainage collection system will be properly connected to the nearest drain/sump. 6-19 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Deck drainage shall be designed for a „n‟ year of return period and appropriate hydraulic calculation. All pipes diameter shall be based on the basis of the slope (%) and the capacity (litres/second) where UPVC pipes are used. In any case the pipe diameters cannot be less than 150mm. Devices, consists of gullies and collector pipes, shall be provided for collection and disposal of rainwater and surface run-off. Similarly, the maintenance of the drainage facilities & systems shall be executed by the relevant authority. v. Deck Waterproofing : All top deck slabs are to be waterproofed. Surface run-off from top deck slab will be discharged through the outlets drained out to the nearest sump outside the KTM Berhad‟s and other governing authorities‟ R.O.W. The provision of waterproofing shall only applicable for bridge crossing railway line. Resurfacing of waterproofing shall be included in the standard operation procedures (SOP) acceptable to the governing authorities. vi. Expansion Joint : In the event of the need of expansion centers at deck level at mid pier (i.e. pier support that closes to electrified railway track), the designers are advised to adopt expansion joint composed of two parts that (i) the upper layer able to maintain the continuity of the road surface and (ii) the second lower part designed to prevent infiltration of water into the underlying structures. vii. Bracket for utility services : In principle, there will be no bracket allowed to be attached to the outer side of bridge parapet / edge of deck for utility and power cables including water mains, sewer line etc. All utility ducting shall be embedded into the concrete parapet or deck depending on the design requirement. Proper consultations for these items are necessary with the relevant authorities. viii. Frontage & service road : Provision of frontage road shall be outside of the railway line R.O.W. No encroachment of access roads shall be permitted into the track right of way. ix. Street light The light pole shall be mounted at median of the bridge. No lighting pole to be erected at the edge of bridge within/above the KTM Berhad‟s R.O.W. and other governing authorities. x. Signage No pedestal for the signage board shall be provided at the outer edge & top surface of parapet wall as to avoid falling onto the railway tracks. ix.

Construction requirements (including relocation and protection of existing railway facilities) : All launching of superstructure girders shall obtain approval from the authority. All proper method statement (with Professional Engineer endorsement) for launching procedures including temporary bracing between installed girders, etc. shall be submitted to the KTM Berhad and other governing authorities for approval. Time block to be given by the rail authority basing on the method of girder launching submitted by the Contractor. Limit of construction can be highlighted in the design document/drawing as to ensure the safety aspect has been taken into account and protection of existing railway facilities/assets and services are necessary to be considered prior to the construction like providing the sheet piling, safety 6-20 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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net, etc. A minimum distance of 10.0m, or, subject to the present requirement, from the railway centre line shall be provided for the construction equipment. A minimum acceptable height and approximately 50m long temporary hording shall be provided before and after the proposed bridge location during the construction period. x. Permits to enter railway line : All permits shall be applied timely to the relevant authorities before entering the railway track vicinity (R.O.W.). 6.2.1.3.4

Sample View of Bridge

Figure 6-15 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s nonelectrified railway track

Figure 6-16 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s electrified railway track

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6.2.2 Selection of Bridge Superstructure The selection of the Bridges Superstructure (Deck) depends on:  

Curvature / Skew / Span / Width / Depth constraints Materials availability / suitability eg masonary / concrete / steel composites Construction constraints eg Heavily trafficked / ravine / waterways

6.2.2.1 Short to Medium Spans Bridges    

The deck system available for short to medium span bridges are :Cast-insitu concrete Precast Beams plus in-situ concrete deck Steel Beam plus in-situ concrete deck

CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

INSTU SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (VARIABLE DEPTH) PRECAST SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (VARIABLE DEPTH)

INSITU OR PRECAST SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (CONSTANT DEPTH)

PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS

INSITU CONCRETE SLAB

20

40

60

80

100

200

1000

SPAN LENGTH / METRE

Figure 6-17

Typical Span Range for Different Deck Types

1.

Pre-Tensioned Precast U-Beams

30

Min Radius (meters) 200

2.

Post-Tensioned Precast I-Beams

30

200

3.

Post-Tensioned T-Beams

40

300

4.

Insitu Voided Slab

25 (Reinforced) 30 (Prestressed)

80

5.

Insitu Box

30 (Reinforced)

80

No

Type

Max Span (meters)

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6.

Precast Segmental

50 (No Haunch) 70 (Haunch)

100

7.

Steel Beams

200

8.

Steel U-Beams

30 (Standard Beams) 50 (Plate Girders) 70

Figure 6-18

100

Bridge Deck Types

6.2.2.2 Short to Medium Spans Curved Bridges For curved bridges, particularly in urban areas the options available are :On gentle curves, straight beams can be used provided the spans are kept short. Curved insitu voided slab box bridges if the curvature of the road is less 100 metre For longer spans, bridge over, heavy traffic precast segmental bridges can be used using the balanced cantilever method. This type can extend to spans of 70 metres

Figure 6-19

Precast Segmental Bridges

6.2.2.3 Medium Spans Bridges The bridge deck system available for Medium span bridges:-

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Figure 6-20

Figure 6-21

Papar Bridge – Steel Trusses

Malaysia – Singapore 2nd Crossing – Insitu Box Girder Bridge

Figure 6-22

Penang Bridge – Cable Stay

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6.2.2.4 Long Spans Bridges Long span bridges are generally cable stayed bridges or suspension bridges.

Figure 6-23

Clifton Suspension Bridge

There are however hybrid suspension cable stay bridges that can span even longer then suspension bridges.

6.3

Bridges Substructure Bridge Substructure comprises of:Abutments Piers

-

End Supports. Intermediate Supports

6.3.1 Abutments The selection of Abutments depends on:  

Embankment Height Foundation Condition

There are as number of Abutment Types The most common are:  

Bank Seat Wall Abutments

-

Resting on top of embankment slope Resting at the bottom of slope

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Figure 6-24

Figure 6-25

Bank Seat Abutment

Wall Abutment

The selection of abutment depends on the availability of space under the bridge and soil condition. In weak soil conditions, bank seat abutments are not to be used, as it is unstable due to embankment movements. Wall abutments with retained sidewalls on a piled base are preferred. If the ground cannot support the embankment, a piled raft to support the embankment adjacent to the bridge is required.

6.3.2 Piers There are a variety of Pier Types depending on: 

Support points required for the bridge Heights of bridge

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Figure 6-26

Typical Pier Shapes

Piers tend to add elegance to the bridge and a variety of Pier shapes are available.

6.3.3 Foundations The foundation of bridges will depend on ground conditions. Foundation must be able to support the loads coming from the superstructure and substructure viz. Direct vertical loads, horizontal loads and moments. Considerations must also be given to loads due to seismic activities and ship impact forces where applicable. Where the grounds can sustain the applied loading (i.e. sand, gravel, rock) within an acceptable tolerance, then pad footings can be considered provided all the loads mentioned above have been designed for. Where the ground is weak, pile foundations are required. The design of pile foundation must take into consideration of all the possible loading conditions as mentioned above.

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Generally, pile foundation can be divided into driven piles, jack-in piles and cast-in-place piles. Driven piles can be of H-steel pile, prestressed spun pile, reinforced concrete square piles. Driven piles shall not be considered in built-up area due to noise pollution. Jack-in pile shall be considered as an alternative to driven pile in built-up area. Cast-in pile can be in the form of micro piles or bored piles. In area where space constraint is a concern, hand-dug caisson could be an option. However, caisson shall have the minimum diameter of 1.2m due to safety consideration.

Figure 6-27

Driven Pile

Pile Group Analysis using „Piglet‟ or similar software has to be carried out to determine the loads on individual piles. The structural and soil carrying capacity of the pile must be checked against the maximum loaded pile in the group.

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6.4

Bridge Accessories

6.4.1 Expansion Joints 6.4.1.1 General Expansion joints are provided to seal the gap between two parts of the bridge deck, which is subject to movement due to temperature, creep, shrinkage and other forces. Expansion joints, by virtue of their function, are usually a weak part of the bridge, thus requiring frequent repair and disruption to traffic. In view of the above, there is currently or tendency to design bridges without expansion joints where feasible. This may be achieved by providing:  

Deck Continuity Integral Bridges

Reference is to be made to UK Highway Agency BA 42/96-The Design of Integral Bridges (Incorporating Amendment No. 1 dated May 2003). Deck continuity involves design of the superstructure as continuous for superimposed dead load and live loads. This will enable joint free deck for as much as 200 metres for a multi-span bridge. Apart from doing away with joints, this improves the riding quality of the bridge deck. It is now a JKR and MHA requirement for bridge less than 60m and skew less than 30º to be designed as an integral bridge i.e. the abutment is cast-in with the deck. The design of an Integral Bridge involves considering the forces due to the whole bridge as a single structure usually a portal with soil springs representing the soil / structure interaction.

6.4.1.2 Types of Expansion Joints There are a variety of expansion joints in the market based on the expansion gap to be sealed. Types of expansion joints are:i)

Asphaltic plug joints 20mm

-

Asphaltic plug joints are suitable for movements up to +

Figure 6-28

Asphaltic Plug Joint

This type of joint is not suitable where standing traffic is common due to the possibility of diesel leakage from vehicles which then attacks the hydrocarbon compounds within the joint. 6-29 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Designer should also consider another situation where the longitudinal gradient of the carriageway is steep and the diesel leakage flows back towards joint during thunderstorm. ii) TransflexElastomeric Joints An elastomer reinforced with metal plates fixed on both sides of the gap suitable for expansions up to +100m

Figure 6-29

Elastomer Reinforced Joint

iii) Mechanical Joints - A prefabricated joint with metal comb or tooth with plates that slide back and forth between each other suitable for movements as much as + 300mm. . This type of joint is also called cantilever type joint because of the metal comb or tooth plates‟ cantilever action in bridging the gap.

Figure 6-30 iv) Modular Joints -

Mechanical Joint

Also called elastomeric in metal runners (as defined in BD 33/94) or lamella joints this type of joint can accommodate large movements in all three directions and rotations about all three axes.

Figure 6-31 Modular Joint 6-30 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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v) Seismic Joints -

Modified modular joints to accommodate large longitudinal, transverse and vertical displacements, as well as vertical rotations. These joints will be required where seismic isolation bearings are used.

6.4.1.3 Design Of Expansion Joints Design of expansion joints shall be carried out as per BD 33/94 and BD 26/94 (UK Highway Agency). The expansion joints must be capable of sustaining loads and movements. It might be prudent in the design of all joints (to be judged by the designer) to increase the point load or axle load as specified in BD 33/94 where there could be cases of overloading by lorries or trucks. Movements of the structure can be longitudinal (predominant), transverse, vertical and rotational. Designer must take into consideration the bridge geometric layout (curve and skew) on all possible movements and rotation. Another consideration is the rotation of the superstructure and the inclination of the carriageway.

6.4.1.4 Maintenance of Expansion Joints The Concessionaire Company must ensure there is no build-up of grit and other noncompressible matter, vegetation growth near the parapet.

6.4.2 Bridge Bearings Bridge bearings provide the necessary articulation of the bridge due to applied loads and movements. Bridge bearings have similar maintenance problems as for joints. Therefore, there is a general trend to avoid bearings, the problem of dealing with movements is real and has to be dealt with in the total structural solution rather than treating the superstructure separate from the substructure. 6.4.2.1 General Bridge bearings usually allow free rotation but may or may not allow horizontal translation. Bearings can be categorized as follows:

Fixed

-

no horizontal translation allowed



Free sliding

-

fully free to move horizontally



Guided sliding

-

free to move horizontally in one direction only

In many bridges, a combination of the three types of bearings is provided.

6.4.2.2 Bearing Types There are many type of bearings and the choice of which type to use depends on the forces and movements to be accommodated. Only the more commonly used bearings are described below: -

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

Elastomeric Bearings

-

Suitable where loads and rotations are low eg. Precast beam or steel beams of composite construction where a bearing is placed under each beam. They are made from rubber and can be in single layer (plain) or multiple layer separated by steel plates (laminated). Elastomeric bearings accommodate rotation (by deflecting more on one side than the other) and translation by shearing action.

Figure 6.32 Elastomeric Bearings

Elastomeric bearings are also suitable as seismic isolation bearings. Designers must endeavour to use products that utilised our country‟s natural resources as much as possible. 

Mechanical Bearings Mechanical bearings are either pot bearings or cylindrical bearings designed to accommodate a specific function i.e. fixed, free or guided. Pot bearings contain elastomers to which a force is applied by means of a metal piston. The elastomer effectively acts as a retained fluid and facilitates some rotation whilst preventing translation. They are also used in combination with plane sliding surfaces to provide free sliding bearings.

Figure 6.33 Mechanical Bearings 6.4.2.3 Detailing Of Bearings Bearings provide the articulation for a bridge. Therefore in the design and installation of the bearings, care hasto be taken so that the intended function is achieved. Some of the important aspects are: 6-32 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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

Bearings on bridges with steep gradients to be placed so that the contact surfaces are horizontal. Failure to do this may result in „walking‟ bearings.

Plinth, to keep bearing horizontal

Figure 6.34 – Bearings On Steep Gradients 

Ensure that there is no uplift on the bearings especially in skew and curved bridges.

Pier

Abutment

Pier

Abutment

Figure 6.35 - Uplifts Of Bearings

Tied Down Wider Spacing

Figure 6.36 Methods Of Preventing Uplift 

On curved bridges the direction for movement of sliding bearings to be outwards from the fixed bearing.

Principal Direction of Movement

Figure 6.37 Orientation Of Bearings 

The life of bearings is never as long as the bridge structure with an intended design life of 100 years. Provision shall be provided for the replacement of bearings. This may involve providing jacking points on the supporting sub-structure near the bearings to allow for easy removal and replacement. The superstructure shall also be checked for the effects of this jacking force especially the effects due to forced upward movement. These jacking points together with the proposed jack up force must be indicated in the drawings and attached together with the O & M manual. 6-33

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

When designing widening of existing bridges care must be taken so that most of the creep and shrinkage have occurred before stitching the old and new superstructures. Bridge bearings should be designed in accordance with British Standard BS 5400: Part 9: 1983 and BD 20/92 (UK Highway Agency).

6.4.3 Bridge Waterproofing Waterproofing of bridges are generally of two types:

Waterproofing of the deck by the application of a bituminous coating



Waterproofing of abutment faces in contact with earth. This also done by an approved waterproofing coating.

BD 47/99 and BA 47/99 should be referred for Bridge waterproofing. Designers shall refer to section on durability for more extensive treatment on elements of bridges (example pile caps and/or columns for piers) in continuous or periodic contact with water (whether fresh or saline) or in aggressive soil conditions.

6.4.4 Parapets Bridge parapets and safety barriers must comply with BS6779 or DMRB TD 19/06 issued by UK Highways Agency.

6.4.4.1 Pedestrian Parapets Pedestrians must be protected by parapets not less than 1.0 metre in height. These should not possess footholds or projections to permit climbing over them. The motorway should be protected from all falling or thrown objects by means of screen.

6.4.4.2 Restraint Systems On Motorway Bridges The safety barrier shall cover the length of the motorway bridge and the approach zones. As mentioned previously wherever the motorway passes over a railway or high risk situation, containment concrete parapets should be provided. The safety barrier shall comply to minimum Test Level 4 as per AASHTO or high containment level (H2) as per TD19/06.

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Figure 6.39 Guard Rails At Bridge Approach

Figure 6.38 Concrete Bridge Parapets

Anti-glare screens shall be provided if so required by Road Safety Auditor.

Figure 6.40 Typical End Treatment Of Parapet

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Bridge parapets should have ducting provisions for services and supporting arrangements for lighting poles, signages and signals, CCTV masts etc.,

Figure 6.41 Typical Ducting In Parapets

The following Design manuals shall be referred for Design of services: 

BD26/04

(Part 1)

-

Design of Lighting Columns,



BD 83/01 (Part11)

–

Design of CCTV Masts,



BD 88/03 (Part 13)

–

Design of Cantilever Masts for Traffic Signals and/or Speed Cameras

6.4.3 Bridge Drainage Devices have to be provided for collection and disposal of rainwater. These devices may consist of gullies, main and secondary pipes and troughs. The number, size and location of the gullies, troughs and the diameters of pipes shall be determined on the basis of appropriate hydraulic calculations. (Refer to Section 9.3 - Surface Drain Design Philosophy and Parameters). ). All pipe runs shall be capable of being rodded. An accessible rodding eye must be provided at each turning point in the drain pipe run. In all cases, pipe diameters cannot be less than 150mm in order to facilitate maintenance. Secondary pipes connect the gullies to the main pipes, which in turn conduct and discharge water to discharge points located at the ends of bridges. In case of very long structures, it is desirable to provide intermediate discharge points through the piers. However detailing must be such that maintenance of discharge pipes can be easily maintained (refer Figure 6.42).

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Figure 6-42

Typical Bridge Drainage

Cleaning and maintenance of water disposal systems are of great importance in guaranteeing both traffic safety and the protection of the surrounding soil from possible erosion. For the cleaning operations it is possible to make provision for appropriate flushing wells connected to the main pipes by means of suitably sized ducts.

6.5

Bridge Design

6.5.1 Bridge Loadings Bridges are subjects to loading from:1) Dead Load 2) Superimposed Dead Load 3) Live Load 4) Pedestrian Load 5) Construction/Erection Load 6) Wind Load 7) Temperature Load 8) Creep & Shrinkage 6-37 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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9) Differential Settlement 10) Earth Pressure on retaining Structures 11) Seismic Load 12) Vehicle & Vessel Collision 13) Debris and timber log Collision

6.5.1.1 Dead Load The weight of the materials and parts of the structure that are structural elements but excluding superimposed materials. Reinforced concrete

:

24.5 kN/m3

Reinforced concrete with

:

25.0 kN/m3

:

78.5 kN/m3

GGBS/ PFA or Silica Fume Steel

6.5.1.2 Superimposed Dead Load Weight of materials that are not structural elements shall be considered in the design a) Asphalt wearing course b) Nominal thickness of regulating course c) Parapet / Handrail d) Noise Barrier, billboard signboard gantry mounted on the parapet e) Utilities services

6.5.1.3 Live Load Normal highway loading shall be HA type loading in accordance with BD 37/01. Abnormal highway loading shall be 45 units of HB type loading in accordance with BD 37/01. Load combinations for live loading shall be applied in accordance with BD37/01, as modified by BS5400 : Part 4 : 1990 and BD24/92 as follows:

- SLS Load combination 1

: Type HA loadings only

- SLS Load combination 2 to 5 : Type HA in combination with HB45

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- ULS Load combination 1 to 5 : Type HA; or Type HA in combination with HB45;

For transverse analysis, as stated in BS 5400: Part 4 : 1990 clause 4.2.2 and amended by BD24/92, only 30 units of HB in combination with another 30 units of HB shall be considered at the serviceability limit state.

6.5.1.4 Pedestrian Loading Pedestrian loading shall be required whenever there are raised verges or dedicated walkways in addition to Highway loadings. Pedestrian loading shall be in accordance with BD37/01.

6.5.1.5 Construction Loading Temporary construction loads during construction shall be allowed in the design of bridge. Assumption of temporary construction load in the design shall be shown in the drawings.

6.5.1.6 Wind Loading Wind load shall be in accordance with BD 37/01. Basic hourly wind speed, Vb shall refer to xxxx. Noise barrier or billboard mounted on the parapet shall be taken account to solid area in normal projected elevation, A1 for wind load calculation.

6.5.1.7 Temperature Loading Forces and movements due to temperature shall be determined from the following:Temperature Range

= 20oC - 40oC

Mean Temperature

= 30oC

Assumed temperature range at

= 28oC - 32oC

time of deck erection Differential temperature calculations shall be in accordance with BD37/01.

6.5.1.8 Creep and Shrinkage

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The design shall make suitable allowance for the effects of creep, shrinkage including differential creep and shrinkage in accordance with the provisions of BS5400: Part 4: 1990. The design of all approach viaduct modules shall allow for the vertical profile of the bridge, after 30-years of creep and shrinkage, to match the design profile. The calculated maximum vertical deflection of the bridge superstructure, due to the effects of creep and shrinkage alone, shall not exceed span/1000. Shrinkage deformation, cs shall be in accordance with BS5400: Part 4: 1990, Appendix C.3 The value of cs calculated shall be multiplied by 2.0 for design purpose due to different of Malaysia and UK environment factors. The relative humidity for Malaysia shall be in range of 70% to 90%.

6.5.1.9 Differential Settlements The maximum allowable long term differential settlement between two successive piers shall be 15mm. The differential settlement shall be imposed on the deck at each pier location in turn as a separate load case. The envelope of the most severe combination of these load cases shall be derived and used in design. As differential settlement occurs over a relatively long period the long term Young’s Modulus will be used in the analysis.

6.5.1.10 Earth Pressure on Retaining Structure Earth Pressure on retaining structure shall be inaccordance with BD37/01: Clause 5.8

6.5.1.11 Seismic Load For Seismic Effect to bridge and design, Clause 6.6 shall be referred.

6.5.1.12 Vehicle & Vessel Collision Vehicle collision load on bridge support shall be designed to BD 60/94. Vehicle collision load for parapet design shall be in accordance with BS 6779, BD 52/93 and TD 19/06. 6-40 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Vessel collision load shall refer to AASHTO’s Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design for Highway Bridges.

6.5.2 MATERIALS 6.5.2.1 Concrete The concrete strength shall be determined by the designer considering capacity of structure and durability required for the structure. The minimum concrete properties for bridge design shall be as shown below.

Minimum Strength (N/mm2)

Element

Pilecap / Abutment 40 Pier 40 Precast Pre-tensioned/ Post-Tensioned Beam/ 40 Segmental Girder Cast In-Situ Slab / R.C. Beam 40 Parapet 40 Figure 6-43 Properties for Bridge Design

Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) 20 20 20 20 20

6.5.2.2 Reinforcement The following type of reinforcement shall be adopted, High Yield Steel Type 2 Deformed to BS 4449 or BS 4461

fy

= 460 N/mm2

Mild Stee to BS 4449 or BS 4461

fy

= 250 N/mm2

6.5.2.3 Prestressing Strand Design shall be based on seven wire stress relieved, low relaxation strand to BS 5896 or ASTM A416-90 in accordance with the supplier. The wedge draw-in, coefficient of friction and wobble factor shall be confirmed and agreed with the prestressing specialist and shown in the drawings.

6.5.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 6.5.3.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations Load factors and load combinations shall be in accordance with BS 5400: Part 2 as implemented by BD 37/01. 6-41 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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6.5.3.2 Stability against Overturning and Check on Bearing Decompression The stability of the superstructure against overturning shall be considered in accordance with BD37/01: Clause 4.6. Adverse effect of Noise barrier, billboard mounted on the parapet shall be considered in the stability calculation. Reactions on the bearings under all permanent load combinations shall be positive.

6.5.3.3 Cover to Reinforcement Cover to reinforcement shall be determined in accordance with BS 8500-1: 2006 for durability. Concrete cover shall be determined by considering exposure class and grade of concrete in Table A.5 BS 8500-1: 2006.

Allowance in design for deviation, c shall be 5mm for precast elements and 10mm for the cast in-situ elements. For precast segmental girder, with criteria below a) Concrete grade = C40/50 b) Exposure class (Corrosion Induced by carbonation) = XC3 (moderate humidity and cyclic wet and dry) c) Exposure Class (Corrosion Induced by Chlorides other than from sea water) = XD1 (Concrete surface exposed to airborne chlorides) d) c = 5mm (Precast) Nominal concrete cover to reinforcement shall be 40mm (i.e. larger value of 35mm + c

and 30mm + c)

For piers with criteria below a)

Concrete grade = C28/35

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b) Exposure class (Corrosion Induced by carbonation) = XC3 (moderate humidity and cyclic wet and dry) c)

Exposure Class (Corrosion Induced by Chlorides other than from sea water) = XD1 (Concrete surface exposed to airborne chlorides)

d) c = 10mm (cast in-situ) Nominal concrete cover to reinforcement shall be 60mm (i.e. 50mm + c)

6.5.3.4 Design Crack Widths Design crack width shall be in accordance with BS 5400: Part 4: 1990: Table 1. The design crack width for bridge element shall be 0.25mm.

6.5.4 DESIGN LIFE AND DURABILITY The design life for the bridge shall be 120 years, which is in accordance with the basic principles of BS 5400. The durability of concrete structures shall be based on BS 5400 as amended by BD57/01 and BA 57/01 and Concrete Society, Technical Report No 47 “Durable Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge”. BD 57/01: Clause 2.10 and BA57/01: Clause 4.8 which states “For the time being segmental post-tensioned concrete bridges with an internal grouted system shall not be used.” shall be ignored. This type of segment construction is prohibited in UK due to seepage of de-icing salts to tendons through segment joints. BD 57/01: Clause 3.3 and BA57/01: Clause 5.12 which states “Downpipes cast into piers shall not be used” shall be ignored. The pier with cast-in downpipe is prohibited in UK due to water with de-icing salts may cause corrosion of reinforcement in substructure. Since de-icing salt is not used in Malaysia, construction of segmental post-tensioned bridge with internal grouted system and piers with cast-in downpipe are allowed in the design. For dry-joint segmental post-tensioned concrete bridge, segment joints at top slab shall be detailed with recess for epoxy sealing to prevent water seepage into segments.

6.5.5 Bridge Deck Analysis There are number of methods analysis for bridge deck design: -

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6.5.5.1 Grillage Method Most common method of bridge deck analysis is the Grillage method. The deck is idealised to a grillage of longitudinal and transverse beams. The grillage method can be used for single span, multi-span, skew and even curved bridges. It is especially popular for bridge deck made of a slab and beam.

Figure 6-44

Grillage Analysis

6.5.5.2 Three Dimensional Structure The 3-dimensional frame analysis is most use for structure where the bridges are integral with the Piers / Abutments.

Figure 6-45

3-D Model

6.5.5.3 Finite Element Method Finite Element method is more suited for box-type structure especially when detail knowledge of the bridge behavior is required.

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Figure 6-46

Finite Element Method

Line beam can be used to analyse the global longitudinal behaviour of bridge deck in particular the box girder

6.5.6 Joint Free Construction using Precast Prestressed Concrete Beams: 6.5.6.1 General A primary reason for using continuity with precast, prestressed beams is the elimination of maintenance costs associated with bridge deck joints and deck drainage onto the substructure. Continuity also improves the appearance and riding qualities of this type of bridge. Due to structural economy of continuous design and the elimination of deck joints, some initial economic advantage may also be obtained. Continuous highway bridges with precast, prestressed concrete beams have been built all over Malaysia over the past few years. The types of deck continuity that have been used commonly can be categorized as follows:   

Integral in-situ crosshead Continuous separated deck slab Integral pier

6.5.6.2 Narrow Insitu Integral Crosshead In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on twin rows of permanent elastomeric bearings seated on the pier / pier cap and their ends are embedded in a narrow integral cross-head.

Figure 6.47 : Typical pier ends embedded in narrow integral cross-head

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A Brief Design Philosophy:   

The precast beam is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for dead load of beam and deck slab The composite section is analysed / designed as a continuous structure for superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into picture after deck continuity Shrinkage of concrete and creep effect on concrete and prestress (secondary effect) are also taken into account in the design

6.5.6.3 Continuous Separated Deck Slab In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on twin rows of permanent elastomeric bearings seated on the nibs of the portal crossbeam and their ends are embedded into two separate end diaphragms. The superstructure is made continuous by deck slab with no reinforcement continuity. Galvanised steel wrapped with debonding tape 400mm wide

Figure 6.48 : Typical beam supported on elastomeric bearings Design Philosophy:   

The precast beam is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for dead load of beam and deck slab. The composite section is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into picture after the completion of deck construction Creep and Shrinkage of concrete is also taken into account in the simply supported structure design. No secondary effect due to creep on concrete and prestress

6.5.7 Integral Crosshead 6.5.7.1 Integral Pier Type-1 In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on two sets of temporary supports. Then the diaphragm and deck cast integrally with the pier top.

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Figure 6-49 Continuity beams arrangement

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Integral Pier Type-2 In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on a widened Pier cap without any temporary support. Then the diaphragm and deck cast integrally with the pier cap top. For this kind of monolithic connection, temperature effect must be taken into consideration because the bridge deck is restrained by the piers. It means that internal forces will be induced in the deck when there is temperature variation.

Figure 6-50 Continuity precast beam supported on a widened Pier cap without support

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Figure 6-51

Integral Pier Type-2

A Brief Design Philosophy:   

The precast beam is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for dead load of beam and deck slab. The composite section monolithic to pier is analysed / designed as a continuous frame structure for superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into picture after deck continuity Shrinkage of concrete and creep effect on concrete and prestress (secondary effect) are also taken into account in the design.

6.5.8 Integral Abutment The type of continuity described earlier is at the piers only. However, a variety of continuity can be achieved at the abutments, thus making it a joint less bridge. Recently, in a number of projects, integral abutment bridges have been proposed by JKR.

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Figure 6.52 Typical Integral abutment bridge with a single span

A Brief Design Philosophy:

Superstructure The analysis is in 3 stages.

Stage-1 The structure is analysed as a simply supported structure. Sectional properties of the precast beams are only considered in the analysis.    

Loads Considered: Self weight of PSC beam Weight of deck slab Continuity / integral diaphragm

Stage-2 The structure is analysed as a grillage model with simply supported condition at abutments. The composite action of precast beam+deck slab is considered in the analysis. Loads Considered:   

Wearing Coat Parapet Live Load 6-50

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Stage-3

Figure 6-53 Integral Frame Model Structure analysed as a rigid frame comprising of : 1. 2. 3. 4.

Deck as composite member for the full width of deck. Abutment as rectangular member for full width. Piles as circular members. Point of fixity of pile at the depth Lf . Springs to represent soil. Spring stiffness obtained from horizontal sub-grade reaction ks (for compacted granular backfill.)

Loads Considered for the Analysis:      

SIDL Live Load Temperature change Earth Pressure Differential Settlement Braking

Figure 6-54 Load consideration for structure analysis The Abutment-Deck Junction and Piling system are analyzed and designed based on the load combinations and appropriate factors in accordance with BA.42/96.

6.5.9 Bridge Design Codes 6.5.9.1 British Codes Generally the design of Bridges must comply to BS 5400 as follows :6-51 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Part 7 Part 8 Part 9 Part 10

General Statement Specification for Loads as amended by Ministry of Transport, UK BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges Codes of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges Codes of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges Codes of Practice for Design of Composite Bridges Specifications for Materials and Workmanship, Steel Specifications for Materials and Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And Prestressing Tendons Recommendations for Materials and Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement and Prestressing Tendons Codes of Practice for Bearings Codes of Practice for Fatigue

6.5.9.2 Eurocodes By 2010, the British Codes will be withdrawn and be replaced by Eurocodes for the design of buildings and civil engineering structures (bridges) in the UK. Malaysia, being a current user of British Codes, will have to follow suit by converting gradually to Eurocodes. EQUIVALENT BS 5400

EUROCODE

EN 1990

Basis of structural design

BS5400 Part 1 and 2

ACTIONS

EN 1991-1-1

Densities, self-weight and imposed loads

EN 1991-1-2

Actions on structures exposed to fire

EN 1991-1-3

Snow loads

EN 1991-1-4

Wind loads

EN 1991-1-5

Thermal loads

EN 1991-1-6

Actions during execution

EN 1991-1-7

Accidental action

EN 1991-2

Traffic loads on bridges

BS5400 Part 2

CONCRETE

EN 1992-1-1

General rules and rules for buildings

EN 1992-2

Bridges

BS 5400 Part 4

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EUROCODE

EQUIVALENT BS5400

STEEL

EN 1993-1-1

General rules and rules for buildings

EN 1993-1-5

Plated Structural Elements

EN 1993-1-8

Design of Joints

EN 1993-1-9

Fatigue

EN 1993-1-10

Brittle fracture

EN 1993-2

Bridges

BS 5400 : Part 3

STEEL– CONCRETE COMPOSITE EN 1994-2

General rules and rules for bridges

BS 5400 : Part 5

Figure 6-55 Eurocodes

National Annex Eurocodes part will be read in conjunction with a National Annex (by SIM). National Annex gives Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) e.g. material factors, temperature, loadings, etc.

6.6

Seismic Effects

6.6.1 Introduction Peninsular Malaysia is not considered an earthquake prone area but it is some 350 km away from the active fault lines in Sumatra as well as the plate subduction zone off west Sumatra. Tremors due to the Sumatras earthquakes have been felt in Peninsular Malaysia resulting in high-rise buildings shaking in Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johore. This has caused panic among occupants and even minor cracks were reported. Sabah is classified as moderately active in seismicity. The area has experienced earthquakes of up to 5.8 on the Richter Scale. Besides experiencing earthquakes of local origin, Sabah is also affected by the neighbouring earthquake zones in the Phillippines. The frequency and intensity of tremors felt in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah is on the increase. This is a cause of concern for the safety of existing and future structures. In response, in 2005, the Ministry of Works (Jabatan Kerja Raya and IKRAM Bhd) had undertaken a seismic vulnerability assessment of selected public buildings in the country. In late 2005, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation appointed the Academy of Sciences 6-53 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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Malaysia to lead, manage and coordinate the “Seismic and Tsunami Hazards and Risk Study in Malaysia”. The JKR/CIDB Study had come out with Seismic Macrozonation Maps for Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah. Draft Guildelines for Seismic Design for Concrete Buildings in Malaysia was also produced The ASM Study will, among other deliverables, also come out with updated editions of the Macrozonation Maps for Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah as well as Microzonation Maps of a number of cities and towns in Malaysia.

Figure 6-56

Microzonation Map of Peninsular Malaysia & Sabah Sarawak

6.6.2 Tectonic and Seismic Activity The tectonic and seismic activity of the Project site shall be based on the interpretative report. The report should review and endorsed by Malaysian Meteorological Department. In generally, the tectonic and seismic activity event in Malaysia can be summarized as follows: i)

At present the whole of peninsular Malaysia is tectonically stable;

ii)

There are no active volcanoes on peninsular Malaysia and no active fault movements have been recorded since the Cretaceous period;

iii)

Peninsular Malaysia is in a seismically stable region; however secondary effects can be felt from neighbouring seismic regions;

iv)

Sabah is classified as moderately active in seismicity.

v)

The low permeability of marine clays is likely to inhibit the development of liquefaction during an earthquake. 6-54

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Notwithstanding the above, site seismic hazard appraisal and seismic design criteria assessment shall be carried out for the detailed design of the new bridge. These shall be adopted for design unless agreed otherwise by the Employer.

6.6.3

Seismic Loadings A study with due consideration of the dynamic behavior of the bridge and evaluation of recent seismic activity in particular project should be conducted. The design requirement shall referred to Eurocode 8 or AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 3rd Edition 2004 with 2005 and 2006 Interims, could be used to determine the necessary design forces due to seismic activity.

6.6.3.1

Earthquake Events Two events of earthquake shall be considered with the following performance criteria which set out in Table 6-41 below.

Damage Performance Level Bridge Name

Bridge Structures

475 years return period (Serviceability Limit State)

2500 years return period (Ultimate Limit State)

Minimal or Repairable Damage

No Collapse

Figure 6-57 Damage Performance Level for Bridges

The damage performance levels are defined as follow: Minimal Damage: Essentially elastic performance. Minor inelastic response may occur and post-earthquake damage is limited to cracking of concrete and minor yielding of steel components. Permanent offsets associated with plastic hinging or with non-linear foundation behavior are not apparent. Full access to normal traffic is available almost immediately following the earthquake.

Repairable Damage: Damage that can be repaired without compromising the required service level. Inelastic response is acceptable, including concrete cracking, reinforcement yielding, local minor spalling of cover concrete. The extent of damage is to be sufficiently limited such the structure can be restored essentially to its pre-earthquake condition without replacement of reinforcing bars of primary 6-55 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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structural members. Repairs will not require structure closure to traffic. No Collapse

6.6.3.2

: Damage that does not cause collapse of any span or part of the structure, non lead to the loss of the ability of primary support members to sustain gravity loads. Permanent offsets may occur and damage consisting of cracking, reinforcement yielding and major spalling of concrete may require bridge closure. Reinstatement of the structure may require extensive repairs and potentially the reconstruction of bridge.

Seismic Response Spectra i.

The site-specific ground response spectra of ground surface acceleration shall be analyzed in the bridge structure for 475 and 2500 years return period (Figure 6-41).

Figure 6-58

Response Spectra

ii.

The Seismic Hazard Assessment shall be carried out to determine the peak bedrock accelerations (PBA) of design earthquake. However the zone of earthquake shall be referring to the AASHTO guideline.

iii.

Spectral Analysis Design earthquake: the multimode elastic method shall be adopted for seismic force effects to the bridge structure. Maximum Credible Earthquake (No Collapse): Multimode spectral analysis is used to identify if the components are in elastic range. If yes, no further analysis is required: if no, the linear time history analysis is required. 6-56

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A modal damping ration for spectral analysis should be considered in the analysis by incorporating in the absolute acceleration spectra. The spectra for vertical accelerations shall be taken as the horizontal spectra multiplied by a factor of 2/3.

6.6.3.3

Response Modification Factor-R The response modification factor, R, shall be taken with references to table 3.10.7.1-1 and 3.10.7.1-2 of AASTO LRFD depends on the Damage Performance Level for Bridges. The design seismic forces of substructure and connections shall be obtained by dividing the force outcomes of spectral analysis by R.

6.6.3.4

Combination of Seismic Force Effects For spectral analysis, SRSS method shall be adopted for the combination of Earthquake force effects in different directions.

6.6.3.5

Nonlinear Time History Analysis The Study of Time History shall be carried out to determine the Artificial Accelerograms. This report should review and endorsed by government.

6.6.3.6

Likelihood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Soil Liquefaction Phenomena The soil liquefaction and the effects of tsunami shall be taken in the design. The study of likelihood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Liquefaction Phenomena shall be carried out if necessary.

6.7

Bridge Aesthetics

Bridge aesthetics shall be referred to guideline of Road Engineering Association of Malaysia, REAM – GL1/1999 – “Guidelines on Bridge Aesthetics” and BA 41/98 A bridge is aesthetic when the structural form it takes reflects the flow of forces, harmonises with the environment, suitable for the function it serves, is made of the right material and has a sense of proportions. Examples of bridges that have received accolades for excellence and have stood the test of time include Sydney Harbour Bridge, The Forth Bridge, Scotland , Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco (ref. Figure 6.60) , Salgina Gorge Bridge and many more. Recently the tallest bridge – MillauViaduct is an effort between an Architect – Sir Norman Foster and a leading team of French Engineers. Another bridge, which is a combined effort between Architects and Engineers, is the Gateshead Bridge.

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Figure 6-59

Figure 6-60

The Forth Bridge, Scotland

Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco

Figure 6-61

Millau Viaduct, France

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Aesthetics can be achieved in the simplest of the bridges by discreet choice of proportions. Examples are in a single span bridge, the bridge can be made with a slender deck and deeper upstands. (Figure 6.62)

Figure 6-62

Slender Deck and Deeper Upstands

In multi span bridges, an odd number of spans which decrease in length in the direction of the abutments are found to be pleasing (a, e and f). Very irregular span lengths produce a feeling of uneasiness (b). Many spans of equal length produce a boring effect, and the valley appears to be walled in (c and d), although a design in the form of (d) with very slender individual piers can be a viable solution.

Figure 6-63

On the Selection of Span Lengths

An effort to detail bridge parapets, piers and abutments, pleasing bridges can be created. We must not forget that a bridge will last for almost a century at least, and therefore it is the duty of engineers that it remains attractive for generations to come. Further, BA 41/98 shall be referred for Design and appearance of Bridges.

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6.8

Bridge Maintenance

6.8.1 Maintenance Bridges and Viaducts The maintenance of bridges often has been a reactive activity, initiated only when deterioration threatens the safety or tolerance of the public. Now, influenced by BMSs, costeffective proactive strategies are need to plan from the start, when the bridge is new. One future focus will be preventive maintenance. In order to preserve bridges over time, a programme of inspections is required. For this to yield significant and positive results, and to allow inspection to be conducted regularly and without disruption to traffic, it is essential to facilitate easy access to the critical points of bridges (expansion joints, insides of box girders, water disposal devices, cable anchors, bearings, etc.) This requirement must be kept in mind right from the design stage. Typical plan for bridges and viaducts maintenance are:

Overall

To maintain bridges, viaducts and other highway structures generally in accordance with the new Bridge Management Code of Practice.

Quality Assurance

All bridge maintenance activities are covered by a registered QA scheme and are regularly audited both internally and externally

Documentation

Hold summary information including photographs of all structures on a dedicated documentation. This documentation must be easily traceable in order to analyse bridge/viaduct related information including repair history, assessments and condition indicators.

Inspections

Inspect all structures by history, to detect any abnormal deterioration. Further and more detailed inspections are carried out as required.

Assessments

The majority of structures have now been formally assessed for their suitability to carry current highway loading. Assessments are to be reviewed for those structures found to be weak in some respect and take the appropriate action, which may include strengthening, closure, re-building, further testing or monitoring.

Instrumentation

Continue consideration (monitoring)

A separate Guideline for Expressway Maintenance System is provided in Reference 6-12

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6.8.2.1 Introduction Bridge Inspection and Assessment is to conduct a field investigation, getting findings and prepare a report. Sketches and photographs attached will make the report more effective. In advance, prioritized repair works bridges can be suggested. Based on overseas Economic Congress Development (OECD) Bridge Inspection by REAM, three types of bridge inspection have been identified; Type Of Inspection Superficial Inspection

Description Would be carried out as opportunity arises by highway maintenance personnel who have a good practical knowledge of road structures, but not necessarily trained in bridge inspection.

Principal Inspection

Will usually be made by trained inspectors at regular intervals.

Special Inspection

Will usually be made by experts in connection with unusual circumstance, such as exceptional loading, with occurrence, such as exceptional loading, with reassessment of the structure against revised specifications and regulations.

Figure 6-64 Types of Bridge Inspection

The inspecting Engineer should familiarise himself with the details of the structure and as to how it is intended to function. The earlier inspection and assessment reports should be studied so that the condition of the defects earlier noticed could be checked. If any previously noted defects have been rectified the same should be noted and recorded. The activities scheduled during the inspections and assessment of the bridge should be planned in detail including sequence of inspection. Advantage should be taken of any situation which will facilitate inspection such as erection of scaffolding for repair work, closure of traffic lanes of road works etc. Where mobile bridge inspection unit is decided to be used the inspection should be carefully planned before hand so as to minimise the period of use of such equipment as the hourly cost of use of mobile inspection unit is quite high, and it obstructs one lane of traffic on the bridge. A preliminary visit to the bridge site to locate the positions of bridge inspection unit is desirable.

6.2.9.2 Inspection Equipment In order to carry out the inspection/assessment properly, Bridge Inspectors must be properly equipped with inspection equipment. This equipment is needed for measurement, recording, safety and access. A set of recommended list of equipment is given below: 6-61 Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)

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No. Equipment 1 Camera 2 3 4 5

Purposes To take photographs of defects or damages to the structures, and for bridge identification Blackboard To record bridge number/name while taking photographs for bridge identification; should be supplied with chalks and duster Clipboard As a hard surface to write on when filling forms Writing paper For drawing sketches Markers, pens For marking and writing and pencils Figure 6-65 Recording Equipment

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Equipment 5m measuring tapes 50m measuring tapes Plumbob Vernier calipers Cracks scale Deep sounding apparatus Spirit levels Ranging roads

Purposes For measuring short dimensions For measuring span length, width and other longer dimension For measuring degree of tilting at pier For measuring steel thickness For measuringcrack width For measuring river depth and to check scoured depth For measuring perpendicular distance to any structural member and titling of pier For probing measuring scour under culvert, piers and abutments Figure 6-66 Measurement Equipment

6.8.2.3 Inspection and Assessment The inspection and assessment should follow a pre-determined pattern to ensure that no component is overlooked. A typical pattern of inspection may be on the following basis: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)

Foundations Abutments Wing walls Piers (pier cap, pier shaft) Column and bearings Soffits of the deck including beams Details under the deck Condition of road (wearing surface), drainage, parapet/barrier Expansion joints Condition of approaches Condition of protective works

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Figure 6-67 and 6-68 : Photograph of two bridges with a number of bridge elements labelled For underwater inspection, visual examination of the surface maybe done by minimum cleaning to remove marine growth like coral deposits, algae, etc. Detailed inspection for obtaining more information of deteriorated areas should be done, after clearing the surface growth, so as to enable closer inspection. Where underwater damages are reported or are expected, special inspection shall be carried out which shall utilise selected non-destructive testing methods or even destructive sampling procedures. The purpose of this inspection should be to detect hidden damages or loss of cross section area and to assess the integrity of the material. Underwater inspection is a highly specialised activity and as such should be entrusted only to competent agencies experienced in underwater inspection. Such agencies should be fully briefed on the components to be inspected and the nature of defects to be inspected. Close circuit television may be used where the water is reasonably clear. Where visibility is poor, portable echo sounding equipment can be used to provide a reasonably accurate profile.

6.8.2.4 Reporting The results of an inspection/assessment must be reported so that the necessary action can be decided and taken. The format of reporting depends on the types of inspection and largely the qualification of the inspectors. Very often checklists and standards forms are used. Format of the report to be adopted depend more on the intended readers of the report. There are a few basic information which must be included in the report: a) b) c) d) e)

Name of inspectors Date of inspection Objectives of inspection Observations & photographs Recommendations

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Please refer REAM – GL 5/2004, “A Guide For Bridge Inspection” for detail guideline of Bridge Inspection.

Proper maintenance on the bridge structure can ensure the design life of the structure can be achieved For this to yield significant and positive results, and to allow inspection to be conducted regularly and without disruption to traffic, it is essential to facilitate easy access to the critical points of bridges (expansion joints, insides of box girders, water disposal devices, cable anchors, bearings, etc.) This requirement must be kept in mind right from the design stage. A Guide For Expressway Maintenance System is provided in Reference 6-12

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APPENDIX A List of Codes: British Standards on Bridges: BS 5400: Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Part 6 Part 7 Part 8 Part 9

Part 10

Steel, Concrete And Composite Bridges. Specification For Loads. Code Of Practice For Design Of Steel Bridges. Code Of Practice For Design Of Concrete Bridges. Code Of Practice For Design Of Composite Bridges. Specification For Materials And Workmanship, Steel. Specification For Materials And Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And Prestressing Tendons. Recommendations For Materials And Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And Prestressing Tendons. Bridge Bearings Section 9.1 Code Of Practice For Design Of Bridge Bearings. Section 9.2 Specification For Materials, Manufacture And Installation Of Bridge Bearings. Code Of Practice For Fatigue.

UK HIGHWAY AGENCY – DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES: BD 15/92 General Principles for the Design and Construction of Bridges: Use of BS 5400 : Pt 1 : 1988 BD 28/87 Early Thermal Cracking of Concrete [and amendment No. 1 (1989)] BD 30/87 Backfilled Retaining Walls and Bridge Abutments BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges BD 20/92 Bridge Bearings. Use of BS 5400: Part 9:1983 BD 33/94 Expansion Joints for Use in Highway Bridge Decks BD 24/92 The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structures BD 47/99 Waterproofing and Surfacing of Concrete Bridge Decks BD 52/93 The Design of Highway Bridge Parapets BD 57/01 Design for Durability BD 58/94 The Design of Bridges and Concrete Structures with External and Unbonded Prestressing BD 60/04 Design of Highway Bridges for Vehicle Collision Loads BD 74/00 Foundations TD 19/06 Requirements for Road Restraint Systems The recommendations given in the following Advice Notes shall also be considered: BA 24/87 BA 26/94 BA 41/98 BA 42/96

Early Thermal Cracking Expansion Joints for Use in Highway Bridge Decks The Design and Appearance of Bridges The Design of Integral Bridges 6-65

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BA 47/99 BA 57/01 BA 58/94 BA 59/94 BA 82/00

Waterproofing and Surfacing Concrete Bridge Decks Design for Durability The Design of Bridges and Concrete Structures with External and Unbonded Prestressing Design of Highway Bridges for Hydraulic Action Formation of Continuity Joints in Bridge Decks

EUROCODES: ACTIONS: EN 1990 EN 1991-1-1 EN 1991-1-2 EN 1991-1-3 EN 1991-1-4 EN 1991-1-5 EN 1991-1-7 EN 1991-2

Basis of Structural Design Densities, self-weight and imposed load Actions on structures exposed to fire Snow Loads Wind Loads Thermal Loads Accidental action Traffic loads on Bridges

CONCRETE: EN 1992-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings EN 1992-2 Bridges STEEL EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-5 EN 1993-1-8 EN 1993-1-9 EN 1993-1-10 EN 1993-2

General rules and rules for buildings Plated Structural Elements Design of Joints Fatigue Brittle fracture Bridges

STELL – CONCRETE COMPOSITE EN 1994-2 General rules and rules for bridges SEISMIC Eurocode 8

Design of structures for earthquake resistance – Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings Part 2: Bridges

AMERICAN STANDARDS: AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification AASHTO Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges (1991)

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