Facilitating Human Learning

Module1 Metacognition I have learned from this module are the following: The four (4) A’s of facilitating 1. Activity 2. Analysis 3. Abstraction 4. Application The theorist of metacogntition is John Flavell Flavell (1979, 1987) Metacognition is “thinking about thinking” or learning how to learn. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engage in learning. Metacognitive of knowledge it refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive process, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive process. Flavell divided metacognitive into three:  Person variables: How one views himself as a learner. It refers also knowledge about how human beings learn and process information as well as individual knowledge of ones own learning process.  Task variables: Includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of the processing demands that it will place upon the individual.  Strategy variables: Involves the awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. o Meta-attention – is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. o Metamemory – is the awareness of memory strategies that work best for you. MODULE 2 Learner- Centerded Psychological Principles (LCP) The 14 principles are divided into those referring to 1. cognitive and metacognitive a. Nature of the Learning Process - learner learns when the environment is conducive to learning. b. Goals of the Learning Process - learning is always goaloriented. c. Construction of Knowledge – the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. d. Strategic thinking – the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. e. Thinking about thinking – higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. f. Context Learning – learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instruction practices. 2. motivational and affective

a. Motivational and emotional influences on learning – motivation to learn in turn are influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interest and goals, and habits of thinking. b. Intrinsic Motivation to learn – learning by oneself or internally. c. Effects of motivation on effort. 3. developmental and social factors a. Development influences on learning b. Social Influences – learning is influence by social interactions, interpersonal relation and communication with others. 4. Individual factors influencing learners and learning a. Individual Differences in learning b. Learning Diversity c. Standards and Assessment Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into 5 areas: 1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new information make associations and filters new experiences. 2. Strategic processing and control. Learner can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn more effectively (metacognition) 3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn personal goals and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process. 4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him. 5. Situation or Context. Learning happens at the context of a society as well as within an individual. The principal goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things not simply repeating what other generation have done men who are creative, essential and discovers.

MODULE 3 Piaget’s Stages of Development Piaget, Jean cognitive Theory it focus is on how individuals construct knowledge. Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1:

Sensory Motor stage – It focuses on the prominence of his senses and muscles movement through which the infant were to learn about himself and the world.

Stage 2:

Pre-operational stage – The pre-operational stage covers from about two to seven years old. Intelligence is intuitive in nature. The child is closer to the use of symbols. He is egocentric.

Centration – tendency to focus on one aspect of a thing or event, and exclude other aspects. Reversibility – ability to reverse their thinking Animism – tendency to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. Transductive reasoning – reasoning from particular to particular(deductive nor inductive.) Stage 3:

Concrete-Operational Stage- The child think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.

Decentering – Ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. Conservation – ability to know the properties of objects like volume, masses, etc. Seriation – Ability to order, arrange things in series based on love dimension such as volume etc. Stage 4: Formal Operation Stage – age 12 and 15 Hypothetical Reasoning – about a problem

Analogical Reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and the use that relationship to narrow down possible answer in another similar situations or problem. Deductive Reasoning – ability to think logically by applying a spherical rule to a particular instance or situation.

MODULE 4 Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development Erickson’s Theory on maladaptation and malignancy Malignancy – too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task such as a person who can’t trust others. Maladaptation – too much of the positive, too little of the negative such as a person who trust too much. His theory of Psycho – social crisis from the stage of infancy, young adult, adult, old age, etc. The epigenetic principles – As Boeree explains “The principle say that we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personality in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is part determined by our success or luck of success, in all the previous stage. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time in a certain order, which nature through its genetics has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower.

MODULE 5 Vigotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory Scaffolding term use by Vigotsky appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. Vygotsky Socio – Cultural theory – He’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development. He believe that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context within which development happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning crucial.

MODULE 6 Kohlberg’s’ Stages of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of the moral reasoning. Moral Development occurs in six (6) stages 1. Punishment/ Obedience – one is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid punishment. 2. Mutual Benefit – one is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain later. “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”. 3. Social approval – one is motivated by what others expect in behavior good boy, good girl. The person act because he/she gives importance on what people will think or say. 4. Law and Order – one acts in order to upholds law and order. The person will follow the law, because it is the law. 5. Social contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the common good. 6. Universal Principle. This is associated with the development of ones conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to possess in order responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequences to oneself. Examples are Mother Theresa and Martin Luther. The levels of moral development are the following: 1. Pre-conventional level – Moral reasoning is based on the consequences/ result of the act itself is good or bad. 2. Conventional – Moral reasoning is based on the convention are “norms” of society. These may include approval of others law and orders. 3. Post – conventional – Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law. MODULE 7

Individual Differences Diversity Factors that affect diversity, 1 Socio economic Status 2 Thinking, Learning style 3 Exceptionalities Student Diversity enriches the learning of environment because student’s self awareness is enhanced, it also contributes to cognitive development, it also prepare the learner for their role as responsible members of society, it also can promote harmony. Module 8 Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences This refer to the preffered way an individual process an information. Clyde Kluckholn an American anthropologist has commented. “Every human is at the same time like all other humans, like same humans, and like no other human”, His observation is a paradox in the human experience, namely; We are all the same in different ways. Learning Styles by Silver 1. Visual a. Visual-iconic – learner are more interested in visual imagery such a film, graphic display, or pictures in order to solidify leasrning. b. Visual-symbolic – learner are comfortable in abstract symbolism. 2. Auditory a. Listener – a learner is comfortable if he/she is listening. b. Talkers – learner who preferred to talk and discuss. 3. Kinesthetic a. Analytic – tend toward the linear, step-by-step process of learning. b. Global – linear thought tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. Multiple Intelligence by Howard Gardner. There are nine (9) Intelligence like, 1. Spatial Ability – to “see things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve problem. 2. Verbal Linguistic – learning through the spoken and written word. 3. Mathematical/Logical – learning through reasoning and problem solving. 4. Bodily Kinesthetic – learning through interaction with one’s environment. This intelligence is not the domain of “overly” active learners. It promotes understanding through concrete experience. 5. Musical – learning through patterns rhythm and music.

6. Intrapersonal – learning through feelings, values and attitudes. 7. Interpersonal – learning through interaction with other. This intelligence promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others. 8. Naturalist – learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. All areas of study not only in nature. 9. Existentialist – learning through by seeing the “big picture” . What is my place in my family, school and community? This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and application of new learning.

MODULE 9 Learner’s with Exceptionalities Disability – measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with persons ability Handicap – is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability. Categories of Exceptionalities  Learning Disabilities – involves difficulties in specific cognitive processes.  Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent and impulsive disorder.  Emotional/Conduct Disorder – the presence of emotional state like depression and aggression.  Autism – manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests.  Mental Retardation – refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. MODULE 10 Behaviorim: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner Behaviorist Perspective Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning, reinforcement Edward L. Thorndike – Connectionism theory- S – R, Stimulus Response. Learning has taken place when a strong connection or band between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with primary laws of learning: 1. law of readiness 2. law of affect 3. law of exercise

John Watson – considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus response association through conditioning. Burrhus Frederick Skinner - he believed in the stimulus response pattern of conditioned behavior operant conditioning – this based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior.

MODULE 11 Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura Tolman’s Purposive Behavior – learning is always purposive and goal directed. He found out that organisms will select the shortest way or easiest path to achieve a goal. Latent Learnin – is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory – Social learning focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. People learn from one another including such concept as observational learning imitation and modeling a conditioning necessary to occur for effective modeling; 1. attention 2. retention 3. motor reproduction 4. Motivation MODULE 12 Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. Gestalt means form or configuration. Psychologist Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers or learners were not passive but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect his perception. Gestalt Principles: 1. Law of Proximity – Elements that are closes together will be perceived as a coherent object. 2. Law of Similarity – Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form. We link similar elements together.

3. Law of Closure – We tend to fill the gap of “close” the figure we perceive. We enclose a space of completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure. 4. Law of Good Continuation – tendency to continue contour whenever the elements of the patterns establish as implied direction - people tend to draw a good continuous line. 5. Law of Good Progranz - The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. For this example good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity. Wolfgang Kohler – insight theory of learning or discovery learning. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory - His theory is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon the current/past knowledge.

MODULE 13 Information Processing Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and stored and retrieved from our memory. Internal Process – quality of learning on inherent intelligence. Types of Knowledge a. General vs. Specific – involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks or only one. b. Declarative – refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. c. Procedural – include knowledge on how to do things. d. Episodic – includes memories of life events. e. Conditional – knowing when why to apply declarative or procedural strategies. Three Primary Stages in Information and Processing Theory  Encoding – information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.  Storage – information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.  Retrieval - Information that brought back at the appropriate time. Sensory Register – learning through the use of senses. Short term Memory – maintain information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to the information. Long Term Memory – is the final storing house for memory information. The capacity is unlimited. Forgetting – is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. Two main which Forgetting occurs.  Decay – information’s is not attended and eventually fades away.  Interference – new or old information blocks access to the information in the question.

Methods for increasing retrieval information is done by rehearsal, meaningful learning, organization, elaboration, visual imagery, generation, context and personalization, serial position effect, part learning distributed practice and mnemonic aids.

MODULE 14

Pioneer is Jerome Bruner his theory states that learning is an active process which learner construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. Representation – is the ability to represent knowledge.  Enactive representation learn through action on physical objects and the outcomes of these action.  Iconic representation learning can obtained through using models and pictures.  Symbolic Representation the learner has developed the ability to think in abstract terms. Spiral Curriculum teacher must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on student’s development levels. Four Major Aspect of Theory of Instruction  Predisposition to learn  Structure of Knowledge  Effective sequencing  Reinforcement Categorization rules that specify four things of about objects.

MODULE 15 Ausebel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Ausubel’s meaningful Verbal Learning Subsumption Theory - He suggest the use of advance organizers. Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized, that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal / textual presentation in or school setting. He prepared the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning. There are type of advanced organizer such as expository, narrative. Skimming, graphic organizer.

MODULE 16 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning His theory specified several different types or level of learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for sequencing of instructions. His theory deals with all aspects of learning. His principles – different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. His theory asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. The theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of instructions. Gagne named five categories of learning: 1. verbal information 2. intellectual skills 3. cognitive strategies 4. motor skills 5. attitudes MODULE 17 COGNITIVE PROCESSES Constructivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept of Learning Two views of Constructivism o Individual Constructivism it also called cognitive constructivism it emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. o Social Constructivism emphasize that knowledge exists in social contextand initially shared with others.

MODULE 18 TRANSFER OF LEARNING Transfer of Learning applying to another situation what was previously learned. It is also done like when you are teaching you younger brother or sister you are alredy transferring your knowledge to his/her.

MODULE 19 FACILITATING LEARNING AND BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy 1. Knowledge: ask question with who, what, where, when. 2. Comprehension: this taxonomy needs to have the student to comprehend use their higher thinking skills. 3. Application – student need to apply what they have learned. 4. Analysis- need also a higher thinking skills 5. Synthesis – this taxonomy needs a student to have a unique idea. 6. Evaluation – this taxonomy needs the student to be judge of their idea. To develop higher order thinking skills, ask questions on Blooms cognitive domain of objectives that represent the different levels of Bloom’s cognitive domain of objectives in your field of specialization Formulate questions that correspond to each learning objectives. Module 21 MOTIVATION MEANING & TYPES OF MOTIVATION Motivation it is an inner drives that causes you to do something and persevere, urge to do at something. There are types of motivation one is intrinsic motivation is motivation on your own free will while extrinsic motivation is you are motivated because of external thing like school facility and money. MODULE 22 THEORIES ON FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION

I have learned in this module is that there are theories that can affect ones motivation one of these motivation is attribution theory which state that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors or we blame it to a certain object. Self-efficacy states that a person should have a high sense of competence or in another word never say never. Self-determined theory for me is when you are determined to yourself so that we can be successful. Self-Regulation state that it is the ability of the person to master himself. Choice Theory states that we have the right to choice what we want to do in our own life. Maslow Hierarchy of needs states that we should be satisfied to with our basic needs, safety needs, love and belongingness needs and esteem needs in order to be self-actualized . Lastly goal theory in order to succeed we need to have goals in life.