Extraccion de Pectina

 

XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM DMAX@UME EH ABHFABMQ MJ[M[BMQ HQAXH@M MAMEÂIBAN S[NDHQBNFM@ EH BFJHFBH[ÉM HF BFEXQU[BMQ M@BIHFUM[BMQ

HWU[MAABÑF EH SHAUBFM

ENAHFUH? Bfj. Zb``bmi Ibfagíf ]ubsph M@XIFN? •

  Ihfenzm Shrhz Oghffhr Bvmf

ABA@N? TBB

AX[QN? Uhafn`njém eh M`bihftns BBB

Amomimram =2/==/;3=7

 

XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

HWU[MAABÑF EH SHAUBFM

B. 

BFU[NEXAABÑF

Duh hf =7;8, aumfen sh anihfzñ m emr h` fnikrh eh phatbfm m `m sustmfabm sn`uk`h quh sh hfanftrmkm hf `ns oujns eh `m drutms y quh tbhfh `m prnpbheme eh hsphsmr n ih`bdbamr aumfen sh hfauhftrm hf uf ihebn maben. Urmebabnfm`ihfth sh gm nkthfben `m phatbfm m pmrtbr eh `ns drutns aétrbans y eh `ms imfzmfms (su anrthzm y sus shib``ms). Hs ufm sustmfabm fhutrm, fn arbstm`bzmk`h, bfan`nrm y sn`uk`h hf h` mjum quh hxbsth hf `ns drutns imeurns, anin rhsu`tmen eh `m trmfsdnrimabñf eh `m phatnsm. Ehkben m quh sh anfvbhrth hf ufm sn`uabñf hsphsm, anin jh`mtbfm, aumfen sh mýmeh hf phquhýms amftbemehs m `ns íabens eh `ms drutms, mzÿamr y mjum, sh usm pmrm gmahr om`hms, anfshrvms y ihrih`mems. Dnrim `m pmrth bfthrfm eh `m anrthzm eh `ns drutns imeurns, prbfabpm`ihfth aétrbans. Ubhfh prnpbhemehs jh`mtbzmfths y sh hip`hm anihrabm`ihfth pmrm h`mknrmr `ms ihrih`mems eh drutms m `ms aum`hs `hs em hsh puftn hsphabm` quh fhahsbtmf. @m phatbfm hs `m sustmfabm kísbam pmrm anfshjubr `m jh`mtbfm. @m phatbfm hs uf gbermtn eh amrknfn (pn`éihrn), quh tbhfh uf phsn in`hau`mr m`tn y hstí prhshfth hf tnems `ms p`mftms, prbfabpm`ihfth hf dnrim eh prntnphatbfm. @m phatbfm tbhfh ufm bfd`uhfabm bipnrtmfth snkrh `ms aâ`u`ms eh `ms p`mftms, ym quh `m prntnphatbfm prntnphat bfm y `m ah`u`nsm anipnfhf `m hstruaturm eh ``ms ms pmrhehs ah`u`mrhs. @m phatbfm anihrabm` sh ehrbvm eh `m aísamrm eh `ns aétrbans (`biñf, `bim y fmrmfom) n eh pu`pm eh imfzmfm. Qh utb`bzmf hstms imthrbms prbims, ym quh prneuahf ufm phatbfm eh am`beme suphrbnr, anftbhfhf jrmf amftbeme y hstíf ebspnfbk`hs hf amftbemehs sudbabhfths pmrm quh shmf anihrabm`ihfth vbmk`hs.

BB. 

NKOHUBTNQ ✑ 

@ms drutms pnr hxah`hfabm anftbhfhf phatbfms, pnr h``n sh hxtrmhrí m pmrtbr eh h``ms.

✑ 

Anfnahr h` prnahsn eh hxtrmaabñf eh phatbfm.

UHAFN@NJÉM EH M@BIHFUNQ BBB

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

BBB. 

DXFEMIHFUN

@ms sustmfabms pâptbams sh hfauhftrmf sbf hxahpabñf hf tnems `ms p`mftms suphrbnrhs, hf `ms rhjbnfhs bfthrah`u`mrhs y hf `ms pmrhehs ah`u`mrhs. Hstms ihikrmfms sh anipnfhf eh ah`u`nsm, ghibah`u`nsms y phatbfm, hfanftrífensh hstms ÿ`tbims hf `m `íibfm ihebm, sbrvbhfen eh imthrbm` eh abihftmabñf hftrh hftrh `ms aâ`u`ms. Hf `ns thobens oñvhfhs, hsphabm`ihfth hf `ns drutns, `ms phatbfms sh hfauhftrmf prhshfths hf amftbemehs tmf mkufemfths quh m ihfuen dnrimf amfm`hs mfagns, mpmrtmfen hftrh sé m `ms aâ`u`ms. M` shr uf an`nbeh gberndb`btn, `m phatbfm tbhfh `m ampmabeme eh mksnrkhr jrmfehs amftbemehs mjum. Snr hstm ampmabeme, `ms sustmfabms pâptbams mpmrhfthihfth ouhjmf uf rn` bipnrtmfth hf `ms prbihrms htmpms eh ehsmrrn``n eh `ns thobens vhjhtm`hs aumfen `ns sñ`bens sh hfauhftrmf m uf shpmrmen y m ufm ebstmfabm rh`mtbvmihfth jrmfeh eh `ns vmsns anfeuatnrhs eh mjum. @ms sustmfabms pâptbams mksnrkhf mjum rípbemihfth y `m trmfsdbhrhf m `ms aâ`u`ms anf imynr dmab`beme quh `m quh pnerém `njrmrsh pnr nsinsbs hf `ms aâ`u`ms ibsims. Anin anfstbtuyhfth fmturm` eh `ns thobens vhjhtm`hs, `ms sustmfabm pâptbams snf rhspnfsmk`hs hf kuhfm ihebem eh `m dbrihzm y thxturm eh `ns drutns y `ms gnrtm`bzms. H` mk`mfemibhftn eh` thoben eh` drutn eurmfth `m imeurmabñf, `m rupturm eh `m hstmkb`beme an`nbem` hf `ns oujns eh drutms, `ns amikbns eh anfsbsthfabm hf `ns purâs y `ns anfahftrmens eh drutms puhehf mtrbkubrsh m ihfuen m inebdbamabnfhs hf `ms sustmfabms pâptbams. Hf tmftn `ms sustmfabms pâptbams sh hfauhftrmf hf `ms pmrhehs ah`u`mrhs hxthrbnrhs, hf `m rhjbñf eh `m `mibfb``m ahftrm` eh `ns vhjhtm`hs, sh `ms anfsbehrm hstrhagmihfth hstrhagmihfth vbfau`mems m `m ah`u`nsm. (K[MTH[IMF, O.< =248) Hf `m imynrém eh `ns thobens vhjhtm`hs y hf `ms drutms bfimeurms jrmf amftbeme eh imthrbm` hstí prhshfth hf dnrim bfsn`uk`h hf mjum ``mimem prntnphatbfm, trmfsdnriífensh trmfsdnriífen sh m su dnrim iís sn`uk`h anf `m im imeurhz. eurhz. Hstm vmrbmabñf eh sn`ukb`beme bfd`uyh hf `ns amikbns eh thxturm mfhxmens m `m imeurhz (J`balsimf, I.< =248). H` anfthfben hf phatbfms eh `ns thobens vhjhtm`hs vmrém shjÿf h` nrbjhf kntífban y mfmtñiban eh `m p`mftm, tm` anin sh iuhstrm hf `m Umk`m =. (Fmvmrrn y Fmvmrrn, =278).

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

Umk`m =? Anfthfben hf sustmfabms pâatbams hf vhjhtm`hs y thobens vhjhtm`hs.

@ms phatbfms snf sukstmfabms an`nbem`hs y anfstbtubems hf su imynrém, pnr amehfms eh eh íabens E-jm`maturñfbans ufbens pnr hf`mahs m(=-5) anf amehfms `mthrm`hs eh @mrmkbfnsm y E-jm`matnsm, y auyns jrupns amrknxé`bans puhehf hstmr pmrabm`ihfth ihtnxb`mens y pmrabm` n tntm`ihfth fhutrm`bzmens pnr kmshs. Xf dmatnr bipnrtmfth quh amrmathrbzm `ms amehfms eh phatbfm hs h` jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf (EH) eh `ns jrupns amrknxb`ns eh `ns rhsbeuns eh íaben urñfban anf m`angn` ihté`ban. @ms phatbfms prnkmk`hihfth sh dnrimf bfbabm`ihfth hf dnrim m`tmihfth hsthrbdbamem, phrn hxphrbihftmf m`jn eh ehshsthrbdbamabñf ehspuâs eh bfshrtmrsh hf `m pmrhe ah`u`mr n `íibfm ihebm. Gmy ufm mip`bm jmim eh jrmens eh hsthrbdbamabñf ehphfebhfen eh hsphabhs, thoben y imeurhz. Hf jhfhrm` `ms phatbfms eh` thoben tbhfhf ufm jmim eh jrmens eh hsthrbdbamabñf quh vm eh` 43 m` 23%. H` jrmen eh ihtb`mabñf tbhfh uf pmph` bipnrtmfth hf `m dbrihzm y anghsbñf eh `ns thobens vhjhtm`hs. @m rheuaabñf eh` jrmen eh ihtb`mabñf tbhfh anin anfshauhfabm uf muihftn eh `m anghsbñf, quh hs pmrtbau`mrihfth hvbehfth hf thobens am`hftmens. H` hdhatn eh dnrtm`habibhftn eh `ns thobens bip`bam ens dhfñihfns shpmrmens. Hf thoben drhsan, `m dnrimabñf eh amrknxb`ns `bkrhs bfarhihftm `ms pnsbkb`bemehs y `m dnrtm`hzm eh `ns ` ns hf`mahs am`abn hftrh pn`éihrns. Hf `ns thobens am`hftmens sh em `m anikbfmabñf eh uf bfarhihftn eh `ns hf`mahs eh am`abn y uf eharhihftn eh `m susahptbkb`beme eh `m p hatbfm m ehspn`bihrbzmrsh ehspn`bihrbzmrsh pnr λ h`bibfmabñf (Tmf Kurhf, O.< =22=). Ubpns eh Shatbfm Qhjÿf h` Jrmen eh Hsthrbdbamabñf. @ms phatbfms hstíf a`msbdbamems anin eh m`tn ihtñxb`n (GI) y kmon ihtñxb`n (@I) phatbfms, ehphfebhfen eh` jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf. @m shpmrmabñf hftrh GI y @I hs mrkbtrmrbm eh` 53 m` 83% eh EH.

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

m. Shatbfms eh M`tn Ihtñxb`n. Snshh uf jrmen ihtnxb` eh m` ihfns :3%, dnrimf jh`hs m` mebabnfmr`hs íabens y mzuamrhs hftrh uf pG eh 1.3 m 1.5 y m thiphrmturms rh`mtbvmihfth h`hvmems. @m amftbeme eh íaben hs prnpnrabnfm` m` pnrahftmoh eh amrknxb`ns. k. Shatbfms eh Kmon Ihtñxb`n. Mquh``ms quh pnshhf uf jrmen ihtnxb` eh m` ihfns eh 83%. Fn dnrimf jh`hs hf prhshfabm eh mzÿamr y íaben phrn sb anf bnfhs eh am`abn y ntrns amtbnfhs pn`bvm`hfth, `m duhrzm eh `ns jh`hs `bjmens eh hsthrbdbamabñf. (Krmvhrimf, =248). @m Tbsansbeme y h` Shsn In`hau`mr eh `m Shatbfm @m vbsansbeme eh `m phatbfm ehphfeh eh` tmimýn eh `m in`âau`m, `m anfdnrimabñf y thiphrmturm. M imynr phsn in`hau`mr, `m vbsansbeme bfarhihftm< `m vbsansbeme tmikbâf hs bfd`uhfabmem pnr `m prhshfabm eh pn`bh`hatrn`btns, puhstn quh mdhatmf `m anfdnrimabñf, h` tmimýn eh `m imarnin`âau`m y m `m fmturm`hzm eh `ns anftrmbnfhs, quh matÿm anin uf drhfn m` d`uon eh `ns pn`éihrns. H` phsn in`hau`mr eh `m phatbfm, rh`mabnfmen anf `m `nfjbtue eh `m amehfm, hs ufm amrmathréstbam iuy bipnrtmfth eh `m quh ehphfehf `m vbsansbeme eh sus ebsn`uabnfhs y su anipnrtmibhftn hf `m jh`bdbamabñf eh `ms om`hms. @m ehthribfmabñf aubemensm aubemensm eh` phsn in`hau`mr hs ebdéab`, pmrabm`ihfth ehkben m `m hxtrhim ghthrnjhfhbeme eh `ms iuhstrms y pmrabm`ihfth ehkben m `m thfehfabm eh `ms phatbfms m mjrhjmrsh, mÿf kmon anfebabnfhs fn dmvnrmk`hs dmvnrmk`hs m `m jh`bdbamabñf. (Mvb`m, O. y Abpbrmf, T.< =224)

@m Jh`bdbamabñf eh `m Shatbfm H` usn iís bipnrtmfth eh `m phatbfm hf `m bfeustrbm eh `ns m`bihftns ehrbvm eh su ampmabeme pmrm dnrimr jh`hs< sh hip`hm pnr hsn mkufemfthihfth hf `m dmkrbamabñf eh ihrih`mems, jh`mtbfms y anfshrvms. Smrm quh ufm phatbfm dnrih uf jh` sh prhabsm uf mjhfth ehsgbermtmfth? m`angn` n mahtnfm snf mjhfths ehsgbermtmfths tépbans utb`bzmens hf `m hxtrmaabñf y imfudmaturm eh `m phatbfm. Hf `m prneuaabñf eh jh`mtbfm y ihrih`mems hsth pmph` hstí ehshiphýmen pnr h` mzÿamr. @ms aum`bemehs eh `m phatbfm quh bfd`uyhf hf `ns amrmathrhs eh` jh` snf? `m `nfjbtue eh `m in`âau`m pâatbam, su jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf y `m prnpnrabñf hftrh `ns jrupns gberndñkbanss h gberndé`bans. gberndñkban @m `nfjbtue  `nfjbtue  eh `m in`âau`m anfebabnfm `m rbjbehz n dbrihzm eh` jh`. M vm`nrhs eh `nfjbtue iuy kmons ufm phatbfm fn em jh`hs, aum`qubhrm quh shm `m ensbs hip`hmem y `ms rhstmfths anfebabnfhs eh` ihebn. H` jrmen eh ihtb`mabñf anftrbkuyh ihtb`mabñf anftrbkuyh pnr uf `men m rhju`mr `m vh`nabeme eh jh`bdbamabñf y tmikbâf hs rhspnfsmk`h eh m`jufms prnpbhemehs nrjmfn`âptbams nrjmfn`âptbams eh `ns jh`hs phatbfmmzÿamr íaben quh dnrimf `ms phatbfms eh m`tn m `tn ihtñxb`n.

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

@m prnpnrabñf hftrh jrupns gberndñkbans h gberndé`bans  gberndé`bans   hf `m in`âau`m eh phatbfm ehthribfm `m sn`ukb`beme eh âstm. H` jrupn âsthr hs ihfns gberndé`ban quh h` jrupn íaben y hf anfshauhfabm ufm phatbfm eh m`tn ihtñxb`n anf uf m`tn jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf jh`bdbam m thiphrmturms iís m`tms quh ntrm anf ihfnr jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf. Hstm ebdhrhfabm sh rhd`hom hf `m a`msbdbamabñf eh `ms phatbfms hf phatbfms eh jh`bdbamabñf rípbem, fnrim` n `hftm. @ns dmatnrhs eh` ihebn iís bipnrtmfth quh bfd`uyhf hf `m dnrimabñf eh` jh` snf? @m thiphrmturm, pG, bnfhs eh am`abn, mzÿamr y ntrns sn`utns. sn `utns. Uhiphrmturm.  Aumfen sh hfdrém ufm sn`uabñf am`bhfth quh anftbhfh phatbfm `ms Uhiphrmturm.  hfhrjéms târibams eh `ms in`âau`ms eharhahf y su thfehfabm m jh`bdbamr muihftm. Aum`qubhr sbsthim quh anfthfjm phatbfm, tbhfh uf `éibth suphrbnr eh thiphrmturm pnr hfabim eh `m aum` `m jh`bdbamabñf fufam naurrbrí. Snr ehkmon eh hstm thiphrmturm arétbam, `ms phatbfms eh kmon ihtñxb`n jh`bdbamf amsb bfstmftífhmihfth b fstmftífhmihfth ibhftrms quh `m jh`bdbamabñf eh `ms eh m`tn m `tn ihtñxb`n ehphfeh eh` tbhipn. Hf anftrmsth anf `ms phatbfms eh kmon ihtñxb`n, `ms eh m`tn fn snf thrinrrhvhrsbk`hs. pG. @m phatbfm hs uf íaben anf pG eh mprnxbimemihfth 1,8. Xf pnrahftmoh m`tn eh pG. jrupns íaben ebsnabmens rhsphatn m fn ebsnabmens gmah `m phatbfm iís gberndé`bam. Snr `n tmftn, `m thfehfabm m jh`bdbamr muihftm anfsbehrmk`hihfth m` kmomr h` pG. Hstn sh gmah hsphabm`ihfth hvbehfth hf phatbfms eh m`tn ihtñxb`n `ms aum`hs rhqubhrhf fnrim`ihfth uf pG pnr ehkmon eh 1,8 pmrm jh`bdbamr. H` mzÿamr y ntrns sn`utns sbib`mrhs. Hstns sbib`mrhs.  Hstns gbermtns eh amrknfn, tbhfehf jhfhrm`ihft jhfhrm`ihfthh m ehsgbermtmr `ms in`âau`ms eh phatbfm hf sn`uabñf. Aumftns iís sñ`bens hf sn`uabñf gmy, ihfns mjum ebspnfbk`h pmrm matumr anin ebsn`vhfth eh `m phatbfm y pnr `n tmftn `m thfehfabm m jh`bdbamr sh dmvnrhah. Hf vm`nrhs eh sñ`bens sn`uk`hs suphrbnrhs m` 78% h` hdhatn ehsgbermtmfth hs tmf duhrth quh `m jh`bdbamabñf eh `m phatbfm hs iuy ebdéab` eh anftrn`mr. @ms phatbfms eh m`tn ihtñxb`n jh`bdbamf m vm`nrhs eh sñ`bens sn`uk`hs pnr hfabim eh` 88%. Smrm amem vm`nr eh sñ`bens sn`uk`hs suphrbnr m` 88% gmy uf vm`nr eh pG hf h` aum` `m jh`bdbamabñf hs ñptbim y uf rmfjn eh pG hf h` quh hf `m príatbam sh puheh jh`bdbamr. @ms phatbfms eh kmon ihtñxb`n puhehf jh`bdbamr m aum`qubhr vm`nr eh sñ`bens sn`uk`hs, `m thiphrmturm eh jh`bdbamabñf ebsibfuyh m` ebsibfubr h` anfthfben hf sñ`bens sn`uk`hs. @ns bnfhs am`abn. M` am`abn. M` anftrmrbn quh `ms phatbfms eh m`tn ihtñxb`n, `ms phatbfms eh kmon ihtñxb`n ehshsthrbdbamems rhqubhrhf kmstmfth am`abn y uf rmfjn hstrhagn eh ebagn amtbñf pmrm ufm ñptbim jh`bdbamabñf. @ms phatbfms eh kmon ihtñxb`n mibemems iuhstrmf iís d`hxbkb`beme m hsth rhsphatn. Smrm mikns tbpns eh phatbfm, uf bfarhihftn hf `m anfahftrmabñf eh am`abn bip`bam uf muihftn eh `m duhrzm eh` jh` y tmikbâf uf muihftn eh `m thiphrmturm eh jh`bdbamabñf.

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

HWU[MAABÑF EH SHAUBFM EH UHOBENQ THJHUM@HQ =.  Imthrbm prbim pmrm `m hxtrmaabñf eh phatbfm. phatbfm . @ms imthrbms Srbim eh bipnrtmfabm pmrm `m prneuaabñf eh phatbfm snf matum`ihfth vmrbns tbpns eh aísamrm eh aétrban, y kmjmzn eh imfzmfm. H` `biñf y `bim ` bim snf `ms duhfths prhdhrbems eh aétrban, y iís phatbfm sh prneuah eh hstns quh eh imfzmfm y `ns aétrbans ihfns prhdhrbens snf `m fmrmfom y tnrnfom. ;.  Srnahsn bfeustrbm` eh hxtrmaabñf eh phatbfm Anihrabm`ihfth `m phatbfm sh hxtrmh trmtmfen `m imthrbm prbim anf íaben ibfhrm`, am`bhfth y eb`uben m pG kmon. H` bfthrvm`n prhabsn eh tbhipn vmrém anf `m imthrbm prbim, h` tbpn eh phatbfm ehshmem y eh ufm dmatnrém m `m ntrm (Imy, A.< =223). 1.  Hxtrmaabñf. @m imthrbm prbim prh trmtmem hs hxtrméem anf mjum m jum `m aum` gm sben mabeu`mem anf íaben í aben a`nrgéerban a`nrgéerba n n fétrban. @ms anfebabnfhs tépbams snf? h` pG = m 1, thiphrmturm 83 m 23³A, eurmfth 1 m =; g. Eurmfth `m hxtrmaabñf, ufm pnsbk`h ehspn`bihrbzmabñf eh `m phatbfm y pnsbk`hihfth eh ntrn kbnpn`éihrns tbhfh `ujmr. H` pG kmon ebsnabm ufbnfhs bñfbams quh snstbhfhf `m phatbfm hf h` thoben eh `m p`mftm. Mehiís gbern`bzm hf`mahs j`uanséebans, `ms anfebabnfhs eh hxtrmaabñf tmikbâf gbern`bzmf hf`mahs âsthr, iís hsphaédbamihfth h` ihtb` âsthr (A-4) y h` mahtmtn m h` aum` `m phatbfm sh puheh hsthrbdbamr pnr su jrupns gbernxb`. H` prnahsn eh hxtrmaabñf amusms ufm rheuaabñf hf h` jrmen eh pn`bihrbzmabñf msé anin hf h` jrmen hsthrbdbamabñf eh` jrupn ihtñxb`n y eh` mahtmtn. H` rhfebibhftn eh phatbfm sh bfarhihftm anf h` pG, `m thiphrmturm, y h` tbhipn, phrn h` prneuatn phrehrí ehimsbmen hf h` jrmen eh pn`bihrbzmabñf sb tnens hstns pmríihtrns hstíf hf su iíxbin. @m anikbfmabñf eh pG kmon y `m thiphrmturm kmom dmvnrhahf `m gberñ`bsbs eh ufbnfhs âsthr snkrh `m gberñ`bsbs eh ufbnfhs j`uanséebans, y sh prhdbhrh msé pmrm `m prneuaabñf eh phatbfm anf uf jrmen rh`mtbvmihfth kmon eh hsthrbdbamabñf. (X``imff‒s, ;33;) ;33;)

5.  Db`trmabñf Db`trmabñf?? @m Db`trmabñf hf ufm n iís htmpms shpmrmf h` hxtrmatn quh anftbhfh `m phatbfm sn`ukb`bzmem eh `m bfsn`uk`h, hstn fn hs díab` ym quh `ns sñ`bens snf k`mfens y `m dmsh `bqubem hs vbsansm. @m db`trmabñf rhqubhrh `m vbsansbeme kmstmfth kmom, y anin ufm anfshauhfabm `m anfahftrmabñf eh `m phatbfm ehkh hstmr ihfns eh 3.4 m =%, ehphfebhfen eh` tbpn eh `m phatbfm. Mehiís, `ns sñ`bens fn ehkhf eh gmkhr sben pu`vhrbzmens pnr uf trmtmibhftn ihaífban hxahsbvn anin ufm mjbtmabñf m jbtmabñf vbjnrnsm. @ns imthrbm`hs bfsn`uk`hs hf mjum anin `m ah`u`nsm eh imehrm n `m tbhrrm ebmtnihms sh puhehf mjrhjmr pmrm ihonrmr `m pnrnsbeme y `m duhrzm ihaífbam eh` quhquh eh db`trmabñf. νMib`msms puheh mjrhjmrsh pmrm ehjrmemr h` m`ibeñf quh pnerémf

prhabpbtmr eh `ns hxtrmatns eh phatbfm eh imfzmfm. Umikbâf sh mýmeh amrkñf matbvmen anf h` dbf eh h`bibfmr h `bibfmr h` an`nr.

UHAFN@NJÉM EH M@BIHFUNQ BBB

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

8. Surbdbamabñf. Ehspuâs eh `m db`trmabñf, h` hxtrmatn sh puheh pmsmr m trmvâs eh ufm an`uifm anf rhsbfm eh bfthramikbn amtbñfban y anfahftrmr npabnfm`ihfth pnr hvmpnrmabñf. @m phatbfm hftnfahs hs prhabpbtmem ihza`mfen h` hxtrmatn anf uf m`angn` mprnpbmen, hohip`n ;-prnpmfn`. ;-prnpmfn`. Dbfm`ihfth, h` prhabpbtmen sh shpmrm eh` m`angn` jmstmen, sh `mvm hf iís m`angn`, sh prhfsm pmrm erhfmr tmftn `équben anin shm pnsbk`h, y ehspuâs sh sham y sh iuh`h. H` pn`vn hstí mgnrm `bstn pmrm `m hstmfemrbzmabñf, hs ehabr, hs ihza`men anf ntrns `nths eh `m phatbfm y/n smamrnsm pmrm mshjurmr `m ufbdnribeme. H` m`angn` sh rhauphrm pnr ehstb`mabñf. Xfm m`thrfmtbvm m `m prhabpbtmabñf eh` m`angn` hs `m prhabpbtmabñf mjrhjmfen mjrhjmfen sm`hs eh ihtm` mprnpbmems m` hxtrmatn. Snr hohip`n, `m phatbfm dnrim sm`hs bfsn`uk`hs anf Au;+ y M`1+. @m prhabpbtmabñf eh M`1+ duh prhvbmihfth usmem bfeustrbm`ihfth (Ons`yf I. M., =28:). 8.  Hstmfemrbzmabñf. Hstmfemrbzmabñf.   @ms amrmathréstbams kntífbams eh `m imthrbm prbim usmens pmrm `m phatbfm d`uatÿmf ehkben pnr hohip`n, m anfebabnfhs anfebabnfhs eh` a`bim n vmrbmabñf eh hsphabhs. @m phatbfm hstí bfd`uhfabmem ebrhatmihfth pnr hstms vmrbmabnfhs. Smrm imfthfhr ufm am`beme anfstmfth, h` dmkrbamfth eh phatbfm puheh ihza`mr `nths ebdhrhfths. Mehiís, `m phatbfm prhvbstm pmrm m`bihftns sh ihza`m anf smamrnsm pmrm `njrmr ufm am`beme ufbdnrih. @m Shatbfm sbf mzÿamr, pnr hohip`n pmrm `n prnpñsbtn dmrimaâutbans, tmikbâf hstí ebspnfbk`h pnr `ns dmkrbamfths. Ehkben m `m iu`tbtue eh imfhrms hf quh `ms phatbfms puhehf vmrbmr, fn hs pnsbk`h mshjurmr nkthfhr `nths hstífemrhs, anf rhsphatn m tnems `ms aum`bemehs pnsbk`hs m `m vhz. @m phatbfm fnrim`ihfth sh hstmfemrbzm anf rhsphatn m m`jufms prnpbhemehs `ms aum`hs snf ehthribfmems pnr iâtnens désbans y quéibans quh sbiu`mf `ms mp`bamabnfhs quh thfjm, pnr hohip`n jrmen eh jh`bdbamabñf, thiphrmturm eh` jh`bdbamabñf, hta. @ns dmkrbamfths eh phatbfm gmf ehsmrrn``men uf jrmf fÿihrn eh iâtnens hsphaédbans quh `hs phribth thfhr sus prnpbns arbthrbns eh hstmfemrbzmabñf (iâtnens eh anftrn`). Eh ghagn, uf tbpn eh `m phatbfm sh ehdbfh pnr ebvhrsns arbthrbns eh hstmfemrbzmabñf. M` usmr `m phatbfm, hs nkvbmihfth bipnrtmfth h`hjbr uf tbpn quh sh gm hstmfemrbzmen eh ufm imfhrm quh anrrhspnfeh anrrhspnf eh rmznfmk`hihfth m` usn prhvbstn. BT. 

IMUH[BM@HQ                

Imrmauyí M`angn` eh 24³ Qn`uabñf eh GA` =F (pG9=.7) Mjum ehstb`mem Uhriñihtrn Kmýn Imrém Smph` db`trn Mjbtmenr   Sbphtms

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

       

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Tmsns Hstudm An`menrhs Srnkhtms

T.  D@XONJ[MIM

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

TB.  [HQX@UMENQ

Aí`au`ns m rhm`bzmr?   Imthrbm Srbim

Íaben Aétrban

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57;j* 79 1784 i`

;33 i`

1784

5j

x

x 9 ::,=;j

  Mabehz

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SG 9 =.8 MJXM 9 ;33i`   Íaben A`nrgéerban

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;33i` 1753

3.8i` ma x x 9 2.4i`

TBB.  EBQAXQBNFHQ ✑ 

@m amftbeme y am`beme eh phatbfm ÿtb` quh prhshftmf `ns drutns ehphfehf eh `m hsphabh y eh` tbpn eh drutn, eh `m amftbeme quh h` drutn d rutn anftbhfh fmturm`ihfth, eh` hstmen eh imeurmabñf hf `m anshagm, eh `ms anfebabnfhs eh imfhon y eh `m matbvbeme hfzbiítbam ehspuâs eh `m rhan`haabñf y ehseh `uhjn, eh` prnahsn eh hxtrmaabñf. Ehphfehf tmikbâf eh `m pmrth eh` drutn quh sh utb`bah y eh `m thafn`njém hip`hmem hf h` prnahsn eh nkthfabñf. Hf drutns sbf imeurmr `m imynr amftbeme eh imthrbm` pâatban hs bfsn`uk`h hf mjum, `m amftbeme y `m sn`ukb`beme muihftmf anf `m imeurhz< hstn jhfhrm amikbns hf `m dbrihzm eh` drutn.

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@m phatbfm hs ufn eh `ns anipuhstns fmturm`hs eh jrmf anfsuin y ehimfem bfeustrbm` pnr su iu`tbdufabnfm`beme, mtrbkubem m sus prnpbhemehs désbams y m `m prhshfabm eh rhjbnfhs pn`mrhs y mpn`mrhs ehftrn eh su in`âau`m (DrmfanAmstb``n ht m`., ;3=3), mehiís hs kbnanipmtbk`h, kbnehjrmemk`h y fn tnxbam (Kh``n-@mrm ht m`., ;3=5). Hstí amtm`njmem anin ufm dbkrm ebhtâtbam sn`uk`h, anf hdhatns dmvnrmk`hs hf `m sm`ue guimfm, mftbamfahréjhfm, hstbiu`mfth eh `m rhspuhstm bfiufh, rheuah h` rbhsjn eh sudrbr hfdhrihemehs amrebnvmsau`mrhs, pnr su hdhatn hf `ns fbvh`hs eh an`hsthrn` y `bpnprnthéfms. UHAFN@NJÉM EH M@BIHFUNQ BBB

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms  ✑ 

Qhjÿf Anftrhrms (;331), `m aísamrm eh imrmauyí anfstbtuyh mprnxbimemihfth h` 8; % eh` phsn eh `m drutm y hs utb`bzmem hf `m h`mknrmabñf eh rmabnfhs m`bihftbabms pmrm mfbim`hs, mknfns, nkthfabñf eh phatbfm y dbkrm ebhtâtbam.

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@m DMN hf h` ;334 bfdnrim quh `m aísamrm n m`khen hs rbam hf phatbfm. @ms shib``ms anftbhfhf uf m`tn jrmen eh mahbth anf kuhf vm`nr futrbabnfm`. H` oujn eh` drutn puheh ``hjmr gmstm uf 53% eh `m drutm y pnr `m prhshfabm eh amrnthfnbehs sh prhshftm anf uf an`nr mimrb``n-nrn y uf mrnim amrmathréstban prneuaben prneuabe n pnr `m ihza`m eh mahbths vn`ítb`hs.

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Qhjÿf GH@HF AGM[@HR hf su puk`bamabñf thafn`nj thafn`njém ém eh `ns m`bihftns ihfabnfm quh? @m anfahftrmabñf ñptbim eh bnf gbernjhfn pmrm `m dnrimabñf eh` jh`, ehphfeh eh `m am`beme eh `m phatbfm, hsphabm`ihfth eh su anfthfben eh ihtnxb`n, tmikbâf eh `ms sm`hs pr prhshfths hshfths hf h` hxtr hxtrmatn matn eh drutm drutm y k eh `m anfahftrmabñf eh mzÿamr hf `m om`hm thribfmem. Qbhfen tmf bipnrtmfth h` pG pmrm `m h`mknrmabñf eh om`hm. Hf `m príatbam eh `mknrmtnrbn sh hip`hñ íaben aétrban pmrm rhju`mr h` pG m 1.;-1.8, m`amfzmfen msb `m phatbfm su jrmen eh jh`bdbamabñf.

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]uéibamihfth, `ms phatbfms tbhfhf aniufbeme anfstbtutbvm dufemihftm`ihfth m` maben jm`maturnfban, `ns aum`hs sh ufhf anin hf`mahs λ -=,5, emfen eh hstm imfhrm amehfms `mrjms fn rmibdbamems< `ns jrupns amrknxé`bans eh hsth íaben pn`bjm`maturñfban pn`bjm`maturñ fban puhehf hstmr pmrabm`ihfth hhsthrbdbamems sthrbdbamems anf m`angn` ihté`ban y eh hstm imfhrm emf ufm mip`bm vmrbheme eh prnpbhemehs quh `n gmahf ÿtb` mjrnbfeustrbm`ihfth. mjrnbfeust rbm`ihfth. M `m phatbfm quh hstí anip`htmihfth sh `h anfnah anin íaben pâatban, ibhftrms quh m `m phatbfm quh tbhfh m`jÿf jrmen eh hsthrbdbamabñf sh `h ehfnibfm íaben phatéfban.

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Bfj. J. [nerbjuhz S. , Ouey Iuýnz Q. ‑ Srnahsns Mjrnbfeustrbm`hs Mjrnbfeustrbm`hs BB? @ms phatbfms matum`ihfth hs uf bfsuin iuy bipnrtmfth bipnrtmfth hf `m bfeustrbm ehkben quh myuem m

anrrhjbr y hstmkb`bzmr `m anfsbsthfabms eh prneuatns vbsansns hs ehabr hsphsmr prneuatns anin `m ihrih`mem, imzminrrm bfeustrbm`bzmems, hta. Hsth anipuhstn sh hfauhftrm hf amsb tnems `ms p`mftms dnrimfen pmrth eh su hstruaturm y hs m pmrtbr oustmihfth eh `m hstruaturm quh nktbhfh bfeustrbm`ihfth. ✑  Eurmfth `m hxtrmaabñf eh phatbfm sh utb`bzñ mjum, m` rhsphatn snkrh `m dufabñf quh âstm ehshiphým? Qhjÿf Agmr`hs Gh`hf hf su puk`bamabñf UHAFN@NJÉM EH @NQ M@BIHFUNQ? @ms in`âau`ms eh phatbfm snf gberndé`bams ehkben m` jrmf fÿihrn eh jrupns pn`mrhs quh anftbhfhf. @m dufabñf eh` mjum hf h` jh` eh phatbfm eh drutms hs ebsn`vhr h` íaben y h` mmzÿamr, zÿamr, mikns bfebsphfsmk`hs pmrm `m dnrimabñf eh` jh` y pmrm ebsphrsmr `m phatbfm. @ms in`âau`ms eh phatbfm sh ebsphrsmf hf h` mjum pmrm dnrimr sm`hs an`nbem`hs hstmkb`bzmems pnr `ms amrjms fhjmtbvms quh rhsu`tmf eh `m bnfbzmabñf eh `ns jrupns amrknxb`n. UHAFN@NJÉM EH M@BIHFUNQ BBB

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XFBTH[QBEME FMABNFM@ EH AMOMIM[AM Bfjhfbhrém hf Bfeustrbms M`bihftmrbms 

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@m Shatbfm hs ufm sustmfabm eh nrbjhf vhjhtm`, prhshfth hf `ms p`mftms, prbfabpm`ihfth hf sus drutns, su amrmathréstbam prbfabpm` hs shr uf jh`bdbamfth fmturm`. ✑ 

H` iâtnen iís anfnaben pmrm nkthfhr phatbfm hs `m gberñ`bsbs íabem, h` aum` anfsbsth hf snihthr m `ms aísamrms m ufm anaabñf hf ihebn íaben, pnsthrbnr db`trmabñf y purbdbamabñf, anf `n aum` sh `njrm shpmrmr `m phatbfm prhshfth eh` rhstn rhs tn eh anipuhstns eh `ms aísamrms, pmrm `uhjn shamr`m y in`hr`m gmstm thfhr uf dbfn pn`vn `bstn pmrm anihrabm`bzmr`n ✑ 

Qnf vmrbms `ms dnrims eh ehthribfmr `ms sustmfabms pâatbams hf h` imthrbm` vhjhtm`, y sh ebvbeh dufemihftm`ihfth `ns iâtnens quh mp`bamf `m hxtrmaabñf eh` imthrbm` pâatban y su pnsthrbnr mfí`bsbs< hs msé, quh ehkben m `m fmturm`hzm ghthrnjâfhm eh `ms sustmfabms pâatbams, `ns rhsu`tmens vmrémf eh uf iâtnen m ntrn ehkben m` hstmen eh `m phatbfm, h` tbpn eh thoben vhjhtm`, hftrh ntrns

BW.  KBK@BNJ[MDÉM ✑ 

SNUUH[, FN[IMF F. @m Abhfabm eh `ns M`bihftns. Iâxban, Gmr`m, =2:1

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ANFU[H[MQ, H. (;331). Ehjrmemkb`beme hfzbiítbam eh phatbfm eh imrmauyí (Smssbd`nrm heu`bs). S`mf hstrmtâjban eh abhfabm, thafn`njém h bffnvmabñf. Mjrnbfeustrbms (amamn, pmsbd`nrms), turbsin, pbsabau`turm, ibfhrém y hfhrjém. Anfsu`tmen Anfsu`tmen h` =; eh imyn eh ;3=5. Dnrimtn SED. Ebspnfbk`h hf? gttp?//gub`m.jnv.an. ✑ 

DMN (Nrjmfbzmabñf eh `ms Fmabnfhs Xfbems pmrm `m Mjrbau`turm y `m M`bihftmabñf, ;334. Dbagms tâafbams amrmathréstbams jhfhrm`hs eh `m imrmauyí. Anfsu`tmen h` =5 eh Oufbn eh ;3=5. Ebspnfbk`h hf? gttp?//dmn.nrj hf? gttp?//dmn.nrj ✑ 

JÑIH_ _, Oumf D. (=227) Dmatbkb`beme tâafbam eh` mbs`mibhftn y `m amrmathrbzmabñf eh phatbfm aétrbam pmrm h` shatnr Mjrnbfeustrbm`. Iheh``éf,. Urmkmon eh jrmen. Xfbvhrsbeme Fmabnfm` Dmau`tme eh Abhfabms Mjréan`ms.

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