Espectrometria de Masa Atomica

 

DWZDGX_A@DX_MF HD @FWF FXA@MGF MBX_AHTGGMAB If Dspd Dspdgt gtra ra`d `dtr tràf àf hd @fsfs @fsfs ds ub ubff pa pahd hdra rasf sf tígb tígbmg mgff `mgr `mgra a fb fbfi fiàt àtmgf mgf us usfh fhff pf pfrf rf mh mhdb dbtm tmcmg cmgfr  fr  ga`pudstas hdsgabagmhas, pfrf gufbtmcmgfr ga`pudstas gabagmhas, y pfrf diugmhfr if dstrugturf y  prapmdhfhds quà`mgfs hd `aiíguifs. If hdtdggm÷b hd ga`pudstas pudhd sdr iidvfhf f gfoa gab gfbtmhfhds rdfi`dbtd pdqudöfs (filubas p`aids) hd `udstrf y aotdbdr mbcar`fgm÷b gfrfgtdràstmgf ga`a di pdsa y filubfs vdgds if dstrugturf hdi fbfimta. Db tahas ias gfsas, filubf car`f hd dbdrlàf ds trfbscdrmhf trfbscdrmhf f ifs `aiíguifs `aiíguifs f fbfimzfr pfrf fcdgtfr if mabmzfgm÷b. Db if tígbmgf giæsmgf hd m`pfgta didgtr÷bmga (didgtr÷b mabmzfgm÷b DM), filubfs hd ifs `aiíguifs mabmzfhfs hdi fbfimta ’dxpiatfb‐ db ubf vfrmdhfh hd crfl`dbtas mabmzfhas, di pftr÷b hd crfl`d crf l`dbtf btfgm÷ gm÷b b rdsuitf rdsuitfbtd btd fsà ga`a ga`a ias mabds mabds rdsmhu rdsmhufids fids gabstmt gabstmtuyd uydb b di dspdgtr dspdgtra a hd `fsfs. `fsfs. Db  prmbgmpma, di dspdgtra hd `fsfs hd gfhf ga`pudsta ds ûbmga y pudhd sdr usfha ga`a sd ’nudiif quà`mgf‐ pfrf gfrfgtdrmzfr di fbfimta. If nmstarmf hd if Dspdgtra`dtràf hd @fsfs tmdbd ubf nmstarmf `frgfhf gab prd`mas Baodi y ubf tdgbaialàf gabtmbuf`dbtd db fvfbgd qud nf fpartfha m`partfbtds vàfs db di hdsguorm`mdbta 3 hd hralfs, gfrfgtdrmzfgm÷b hd pratdàbfs d mbgiusa db hmflb÷stmga hd dbcdr`dhfhds. If nmstarmf hd if gm gmdb dbgm gmff `uds `udstr trff gifr gifrf` f`db dbtd td qud qud if Ds Dspd pdgt gtra ra`d `dtr tràf àf hd @fsf @fsfss tmdb tmdbdd su suss rf rfàg àgds ds db if càsm càsmgf gf,, rf`mcmgæbhasd f if quà`mgf y db ifs ûitm`fs has hígfhfs nf mbgursmabfha db if omaialàf.

MBMGMAW HD IF DWZDGXA@DX_MF HD @FWF Garràf di föa 6=6? gufbha di gmdbtàcmga K. K. Xna`sab (Zrd`ma Baodi db 6=:3) d`pukfha par su fcæb hd hd hdsgu sguor ormr mr ia iass sdgrd sdgrdta tass `æs `æs pr prac acub ubha hass hd if qu quà` à`mg mgf, f, sd if ifss mb mbld ldbm bm÷ ÷ pf pfrf rf grdfr grdfr di pr prm` m`dr  dr  dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsf y aotdbdr hd íi ias prm`dras dspdgtras hd did`dbtas ga`a A?, B?, GA y GAGi?. Zdra di `írmta ba cud saia hd íi, yf qud if dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs ga`dbz÷ f vdr if iuz db di föa 6>>3 gufbha Laihstdmb hdsguorm÷ ias mabds pasmtmvas, smlum÷ galmdbha car`f gab \. \mdb qud gabsmlum÷ fbfimzfrias par hdcidxm÷b `flbítmgf db 6>=> y qud hma ub pfsa hdcmbmtmva gufbha \. Efuc`f` gabsmlum÷ fbfimzfr ias rfyas gft÷hmgas usfbha gf`pas diígtrmgas y `flbítmgas pfrfidias db 6=:6. Xahas dstas fvfbgds pdr`mtmdrab f if prmvmidlmfhf `dbtd hd K. K. Xna`sab mhdfr di prm`dr  dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsfs. F pfrtmr hd dsd hàf sd ga`dbz÷ f usfr db ias ifoarftarmas hd quà`mgf pfrf sdpfrfr mabds ft÷`mgas y `aid `a idgu guifr ifrds ds db cubg cubgm÷ m÷b b hd hdii ga gagm gmdb dbtd td `fsf/ `fsf/gf gfrl rlff ga gab b if ub ubmh mhfh fh Xna` Xna`sa sab b (Xn) (Xn) ga ga`a `a ub ubmh mhfh fh cubhf`dbtfi. ] fubqud su fvfbgd drf cmr`d, su usa pfrf fbfimzfr `fgra`aiíguifs ba cud pasmoid nfstf if hígfhf hd ias >:, gufbha di pracdsar K. O. Cdbb utmimz÷ di `ítaha hd mabmzfgm÷b par didgtra  puivdrmzfgm÷b ("didgtrasprfy") hd ubf saiugm÷b fguasf hd pratdàbfs. Hd dstf car`f gabsmlum÷ prahugmr   pdqudöfs latfs hd ubf `udstrf qud sd rdhugdb hd tf`föa fi dvfparfrsd di fluf qud ifs trfbspartf, `mdbtrfs ias mabds hd pratdàbfs pdr`fbdgdb db car`f hd suspdbsm÷b imord. If rdifgm÷b `fsf/gfrlf hd ias mabds fsà aotdbmhas pdr`mtd su fbæimsms db gufiqumdr dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsfs. Om÷ialas y quà`mgas  pudhdb fnarf ræpmhf`dbtd mhdbtmcmgfr ifs pratdàbfs y aotdbdr su m`fldb trmhm`dbsmabfi. If dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs ft÷`mgfs ds ubf ndrrf`mdbtf `uy vdrsætmi y ûtmi pfrf mhdbtmcmgfr ias did`dbtas prdsdbtds db ubf `udstrf y hdtdr`mbfr ifs gabgdbtrfgmabds hd gfhf ubf hd ifs `ftdrmfs qud if ga`pabdb. Dstf tígbmgf bas pdr`mtd hdtdr`mbfr prægtmgf`dbtd tahas ias did`dbtas hdi smstd`f  pdrm÷hmga.

 

Dstf tígbmgf acrdgd bu`drasfs vdbtfkfs crdbtd f ifs tígbmgfs dspdgtracata`ítrmgfs yf qud; 





Ias ià`mtds hd hdtdggm÷b qud sab, pfrf `ugnas did`dbtas, trds ÷rhdbds hd `flbmtuh `æs sdbsmoids crdbtd f ias `ítahas ÷ptmgas. Dspdgtras Dspdgt ras batfoid`dbt batfoid`dbtdd `æs sdbgmiias, sdbgmiias, ldbdrfi`db ldbdrfi`dbtd td ûbmgas ûbmgas y gab crdgudbgmf cægmi`dbtd mbtdrprdtfoids. Gfpfgmhfh pfrf `dhmr rdifgmabds msat÷pmgfs ft÷`mgfs.

Db gf`oma, tf`omíb tmdbdb ubf sdrmd hd hdsvdbtfkfs qud ba pahd`as aovmfr ga`a;   

Di gastd hdi mbstru`dbta ds hd has f trds vdgds di hd ias mbstru`dbtas ÷ptmgas ft÷`mgas. If hdrmvf hdi mbstru`dbta pudhd sdr hdi arhdb hdi 4 a 6:%/narf. Gabtmdbd ubfs hdtdr`mbfhfs mbtdrcdrdbgmfs.

Gab if dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs sa`as gfpfgds hd prapargmabfr mbcar`fgm÷b fgdrgf hd; 

   

If ga`pasmgm÷b did`dbtfi hd ifs `udstrfs; hd dstf sd dbgfrlf if dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs ft÷`mga. Hd if ga`pasmgm÷b hd ifs `aiíguifs mbarlæbmgfs, arlæbmgfs y omai÷lmgfs. Hd if ga`pasmgm÷b gufimtftmvf y gufbtmtftmvf hd `dzgifs ga`pidkfs. Hd if dstrugturf y ga`pasmgm÷b hd supdrcmgmds s÷imhfs. Hd ifs rdifgmabds msat÷pmgfs hd æta`as db ifs `udstrfs.

Nay db hàf sd gabtmbûf fvfbzfbha y gfod gmtfr fi gmdbtàcmga kfpabís E. Xfbfef, qud oa`ofrhdfbha `udstrfs hd `fgra`aiíguifs omai÷lmgfs db dstfha s÷imha a vmsgasa gab rfyas iæsdr, gabsmlum÷ su hmspdrsm÷b db pargmabds mabmzfhfs hd pdqudöàsm`a tf`föa, fptfs pfrf su fbæimsms par dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs. Tb `ítaha pfrf hdtdr`mbfr if `fsf hd `fgra`aiíguifs db dspdgtra`dtràf ds fgdidrfrifs db ubf gæ`frf hd vfgàa y `dhmr su "tmd`pa hd vudia". Ias oifbgas hdi dspdgtr÷`dtra sab figfbzfhas  par ifs `aiíguifs db ub arhdb hdtdr`mbfha par sus ubmhfhds Xna`sab. Ifs `æs ræpmhfs sab ifs `æs imldrfs y hd `fyar gfrlf. Dstas `ítahas pasddb `ugnfs fpimgfgmabds ga`a sab di hdsfrraiia hd prahugtas cfr`fgíutmgas, gabtrai hd sustfbgmfs butrmtmvfs y hmflb÷stmgas prdgagds hd dbcdr`dhfhds ga`a if `fifrmf, gæbgdr hd `f`f, gæbgdr hd pr÷stftf, dtg.

CTBHF@DBXAW XDA_MGA-XDGBMGA XDA_MGA-XDGBMGA Nay db hàf, dstf tígbmgf gabtmbûf tdbmdbha ias `ms`as cubhf`dbtas qud db su armldb, fubqud di dspdgtr÷`dtra hd nay db hàf paga tdblf qud vdr gab su prdhdgdsar. If dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs sd cubhf`dbtf db if sdpfrfgm÷b hd pfrtàguifs `aidguifrds a ft÷`mgfs par  su hmcdrdbtd `fsf. If dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs pudhd sdr usfhf pfrf di fbæimsms hd `ugnas tmpas hd `udstrfs, hdshd ubmhfhds did`dbtfids nfstf lrfbhds pratdàbfs y paià`dras. Di pragdsa hd if dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs ga`prdbhd oæsmgf`dbtd guftra dtfpfs;  Mabmzfgm÷b hd if `udstrf.  Fgdidrfgm÷b hd ias mabds par ub gf`pa diígtrmga.  Hmspdrsm÷b hd ias mabds sdlûb su `fsf/gfrlf.  Hdtdggm÷b hd ias mabds y prahuggm÷b hd if garrdspabhmdbtd sdöfi diígtrmgf.

 

 Cml.6; Dsqud`ftmzfgm÷b hdi pfsa hd hd ubf `udstrf par ias prmbgmpfids ga`pa ga`pabdbtds bdbtds hd ub mbstru`dbta hd dspdgtrasgapmf hd `fsfs. F.

Mabmzfgm÷b hd if `udstrf 

If mabmzfgm÷b hd if `udstrf sd gabsmlud par oa`ofrhda `dhmfbtd didgtrabds (d-) sdlûb di pragdsa;

@ + d- ê @+ + ?dO.

Fgdidrfgm÷b hd ias mabds par ub gf`pa diígtrmga

Gabvdrtm`as ubf crfggm÷b smlbmcmgftmvf hd ias æta`as car`fhas db if dtfpf 6 db ub ciuka hd mabds, ldbdrfi`dbtd pasmtmvas y hd gfrlf ûbmgf. If vdiagmhfh qud fhqumdrdb vmdbd rdlmhf par if c÷r`uif; v 0 U?dS/`P °

Habhd

S

ds

di

patdbgmfi

fpimgfha,

’d‐

if

gfrlf

hdi

didgtr÷b

y

’`‐

if

`fsf.

Gufbha ifs pfrtàguifs fgdidrfhfs sd sa`dtdb f if fggm÷b hd ub gf`pa `flbítmga (N) hdsgrmodb ubf trfydgtarmf gmrguifr hd rfhma r firdhdhar hd dstd gf`pa, hdsfrraiifbha ubf cudrzf gdbtràculf `v?/r, if gufi ds mlufi f if cudrzf hd ftrfggm÷b hdi gf`pa Ndv.

Hd dsta hdhugm`as qud di rfhma ds mlufi f; r 0 (?S`/N?d) ° G.

Hmspdrsm÷b hd ias mabds sdlûb su rdifgm÷b `fsf/gfrlf 

Ofsæbhabas db if dgufgm÷b fbtdrmar pahd`as gfiguifr if rdifgm÷b `/d qud ds; `/d 0 N?.r?/?S

 

Hfha qud if `fyaràf hd ias mabds car`fhas car`fhas db if sdlubhf sdlubhf dtfpf tmdbdb ubf saif gfrlf y qud di rdsta hd pfræ fræ`dtr dtras sd `fb fbttmdbdb gabstfb fbttds, if rdifg fgmm÷b `/d sud sudid sd sdrr if `fsf hdi mab. If utmimhfh fbfiàtmgf hd ub dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsfs hdpdbhd hd if rdsaiugm÷b hdi mbstru`dbta, a gfpfgmhfh hdi `ms`a pfrf sdpfrfr has pfrtàguifs hd hmcdrdbtd `fsf. H.

Hdtdggm÷b hd ias mabds y prahuggm÷ prahuggm÷b b hd if garrdspabh garrdspabhmdbtd mdbtd sdöfi diígtrmgf

Di arhdbfhar fi qud dstæ gabdgtfha di fpfrfta rdgald ifs hmstmbtfs sdöfids y ifs rdprahugd db car`f hd dspdgtralrf`f, car`fta hd cægmi mbtdrprdtfgm÷b.

MBWX_T@DBXFGM×B MBWX_T@DBXF GM×B DB DWZDGXA@DX_ DWZDGXA@DX_MF MF HD @FWF Oæsmgf`dbtd ub dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsfs gastf dsdbgmfi`dbtd hd ifs smlumdbtds pfrtds;  Wmstd`f hd dbtrfhf hd `udstrfs.  Gæ`frf hd mabmzfgm÷b.  Fgdidrfhar.  Fbfimzfhards.  Hdtdgtar. a

Wmstd`f hd dbtrfh dbtrfhff hd `u `udstrfs. dstrfs.

Db di smstd`f hd dbtrfhf hd `udstrfs, ub `mgra `ai a `dbas hd `udstrf sd gabvmdrtd fi dstfha lfsdasa par gfidbtf`mdbta f ubas 8::»G y sd mbtrahugd idbtf`dbtd db if gæ`frf hd mabmzfgm÷b. If cmbfimhfh hdi smstd`f hd dbtrfhf ds pdr`mtmr if mbtrahuggm÷b hd ubf `udstrf rdprdsdbtftmvf db if cudbtd hd mabds gab if `àbm`f pdrhmhf hd vfgàa. Db ias dspdgtr÷`dtras hd `fsfs `æs `ahdrbas dbgabtrf`as hmcdrdbtds tmpas hd smstd`fs hd dbtrfhf; 

Wmstd`fs mbhmrdgtas hd dbtrfhf;  ds di smstd`f `æs giæsmga y di `æs sm`pid, db di gufi if `udstrf sd vaiftmimzf dxtdrbf`dbtd y sd mbtrahugd db if rdlm÷b hd mabmzfgm÷b qud dstæ f ofkf  prdsm÷b. Di smstd`f hd dbtrfhf ds bar`fi`dbtd hd vmhrma pfrf dvmtfr pasmoids pírhmhfs par  fhsargm÷b.



Dbtrfhf par sabhf mbhmrdgtf;  ias iàqumhas y ias s÷imhas ba vaiætmids sd pudhdb mbtrahugmr db if rdlm÷b hd mabmzfgm÷b mabmzfgm÷b `dhmfbtd ub sapartd pfrf `udstrf a sabhf, di gufi sd mbsdrtf f trfvís hd ub gmdrrd hd vfgàa. Di smstd`f hd gmdrrd sd utmimzf pfrf gabtraifr if gfbtmhfh hd fmrd qud dbtrf hdspuís hd if mbsdrgm÷b hd if sabhf db if rdlm÷b hd mabmzfgm÷b. Ifs sabhfs tf`omíb sd usfb gufbha if gfbtmhfh hd `udstrf ds im`mtfhf yf qud sd pmdrhd `ugnf `dbas gfbtmhfh.



Wmstd`fs hd dbtrfhf gra`ftalræcmgas y hd didgtracardsms gfpmifr;  ds ub tmpa hd smstd`f smstd`f hd dbtrfhf dspdgmfi, dstæ mbhmgfha su usa gufbha fi dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsf vf fgapifha ub smst smstd` d`ff hd gr gra` a`ft ftal alrf rfcà càff hd lfsd lfsdss a hd iàqu iàqumh mhas as hd fi fitf tf dcmg dcmgfg fgmf mf a f ga gaiu iu`b `bfs fs hd didgtracardsms gfpmifr qud pdr`mtdb if sdpfrfgm÷b y hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd ias ga`pabdbtds hd `dzgifs ga`pidkfs.

a

Gæ`frf Gæ`f rf hd mab mabmzfg mzfgm÷b m÷b

Ifs cudbtds hd mabds hd ias dspdgtr÷`dtras hd `fsfs, tmdbdb tahfs ubfs gfrfgtdràstmgfs ga`ubds, pdsd fmabds. if vfrmfomimhfh hd tmpas dxmstdbtd y ds qud tahfs trfbscar`fb ias ga`pabdbtds hd ubf `udstrf db Db `ugn `ugnas as gf gfsa sass di sm smstd std`f `f hd db dbtr trfh fhff y if cu cudb dbtd td hd ma mabd bdss dstæb dstæb ga ga`o `omb mbfh fhas as db ub ûb ûbmg mga a

 

ga`pabdbtd. Db tahas ias gfsas, sd aotmdbd ub nfz hd mabds pasmtmvas a bdlftmvas (bar`fi`dbtd  pasmtmvas) qud pastdrmar`dbtd sd fgdidrf nfgmf di mbtdrmar hdi fbfimzfhar hd `fsfs a smstd`f sdpfrfhar  sd pfrfhar  f trfvís hdi fgdidrfhar. If car` car`fgm fgm÷b ÷b hd ma mabd bdss hd hdii fb fbfi fimt mta a ds di pu pubt bta a hd frrfb frrfbqu qudd hd fr frrf rfbq bqud ud hd ub fb fbæi æimsm msmss pa par  r  dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs. Di fspdgta hd ias dspdgtras hd `fsfs pfrf hmstmbtfs dspdgmds `aidguifrds, hdpdbhd db lrfb `dhmhf hdi `ítaha utmimzfha pfrf if car`fgm÷b hd ias mabds. Dstas `ítahas ias  pahd`as hmvmhmr db has gftdlaràfs; gftdlaràfs; 

Cudbtds hd cfsd lfsdasf; db dstfs prm`dra sd vaiftmimzf if `udstrf y iudla sd mabmzf.

Dstæb ldbdrfi`dbtd rdstrmblmhfs f ga`pudstas tír`mgf`dbtd dstfoids qud tdblfb pubtas hd douiimgm÷b `dbards hd ubas 4::»G. Db if `fyaràf hd ias gfsas, dstas rdqudrm`mdbtas im`mtfb if utmimzfgm÷b hd ifs cudbtds hd cfsd lfsdasf f ga`pudstas gab pdsas `aidguifrds `dbards hd ubas 6:7 Hfitabs. Wab fpimgfoids fpimgfoids f `udstrfs `udstrfs ba vaiætmids y tír`mgf`dbtd tír`mgf`dbtd mbdstfoids. mbdstfoids. Bar`fi`dbt Bar`fi`dbtdd ias dspdgtr÷`dtr dspdgtr÷`dtras as hd `fsfs `fsfs dstæb dstæb dqumpf dqumpfhas has gab fggdsar fggdsarmas mas qud pdr`mt pdr`mtdb db mbtdrgf mbtdrgf`om `omfr fr f`oas f`oas tmpas tmpas hd cudbtd cudbtds. s. Wab fpimgfoids f ga`pudstas qud tmdbdb pdsas `aidguifrds supdrmards hd 6::: Hfitabs. 

Cudbtdss hd hdsargm÷ Cudbtd hdsargm÷b b; ds dstfs dstfs if `udstrf `udstrf db dstfha dstfha s÷imha s÷imha a iàqumh iàqumha, a, sd trfbsca trfbscar`f r`fb b hmrdgtf`dbtd db mabds lfsdasas.

Ifs cudbtds hd mabds sd pudhdb gifsmcmgfr tf`omíb db cudbtds hurfs y cudbtds oifbhfs.  Cudbtds hurfs; ga`ubmgfb sucmgmdbtd dbdrlàf f ifs `aiíguifs pfrf qud dstíb db ub dstfha hd

db dbdr drlà làff fitf fitf`d `dbt btdd dx dxgm gmtf tfha ha.. If rdifk rdifkfgm fgm÷b ÷b pa pastd stdrm rmar ar,, m`pi m`pimg mgff if ra ratu turf rf hd if ifss ub ubma mabd bdss  prahugmdbha mabds crfl`dbtfhas. Wu dspdgtra hf iulfr f `ugnas pmgas y bas hf mbcar`fgm÷b fgdrgf hd if bfturfidzf hd ias lrupas cubgmabfids d mbcar`fgm÷b dstrugturfi hd ias fbfimtas.  Cudbtds oifbhfs; hfb iulfr f pagf crfl`dbtfgm÷b y di rdsuitfha ds ub dspdgtra gab `uy pagas  pmgas hæbhabas mbcar`fgm÷b ûtmi yf qud bas pdr`mtd if hdtdr`mbfgm÷b dxfgtf hdi pdsa `aidguifr hd if `aiíguif a `aiíguifs

XMZA Cfsd Lfsdasf

BA@O_D ] FG_×BM@A

FLDBXD MABM[FBXD

M`pfgta hd didgtrabds (DM)

didgtrabds dbdrlítmgas

Mabmzfgm÷b quà`mgf (GM)

mabds lfsdasas rdfgtmvas

Mabmzfgm÷b par gf`pa (CM) Hdsargm÷b par gf`pa (CH)

didgtr didg tra aha  patdbgmfi didg di dgtr tra aha  patdbgmfi

hd

didv di dvfh fha a

hd

didv di dvfh fha a

Mabmzf Mabm zfgm÷ gm÷b b par par didgt didgtra ra bdou bdouim imzf zfgm gm÷b ÷b (DWM (DWM)) gf`pa gf`p a diígtr diígtrmga mga did didvf vfha ha Hdsa Hd sarg rgm÷ m÷b/ b/ma mabm bmzf zfgm gm÷b ÷b fs fsms mstm tmhf hf pa parr ub ubff nf nfzz hd iæ iæsd sdr  r 

 

`ftrmz (@FIHM)

Hdsargm÷b Hdsargm÷b par pifs`f (ZH) Oa`ofrhda gab æta`as ræpmhas (CFO) Dsp spddgt gtrra`dtràf hd sdgubhfrmas (WM@W)

`fsf sfss

hd

mabds

Mabm Ma bmzf zfgm gm÷b ÷b pa parr tdr tdr`a `a bd bdou ouim imzf zfgm gm÷b ÷b (X (XW) W)

crfl`dbtas hd cmsm÷b hdi ?4?Gc  nfz hd æta`as dbdrlítmgas nfz hd mabds dbdrlítmgas didv di dvfh fhff td` td`pd pdrf rftu turf rf

 Cml. 6; Gifsmcmgfgm÷b hd ias hmstmbtas tmpas hd gæ`frfs  sus ba`ords y fgr÷bm`as y dspdgmcmgfbha gfhf sus fldbtds mabmzfbtds.

hd

mabmzfgm÷b,

mbhmgfbha

XMZAW HD GF@F_FW HD MABM[FGM×B5 

CTDBXDW CTDB XDW HD CFW CFWD D LFWDA LFWDAWF WF

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M`pfgta hd didgt didgtrabds rabds ((DM). DM).

Wd sa`dtd sa`dtd f if `udstrf `udstrf f ubf td`pdrftu td`pdrfturf rf sucmgm sucmgmdbt dbtd`d d`dbtd btd didvfh didvfhff (bar`f (bar`fi`d i`dbtd btd `dhmfb `dhmfbtd td ub cmif`d cmif`dbta bta gfimdbtd gfimdbtd hd waicrf waicrf`ma `ma a hd rdbma) rdbma) ga`a ga`a pfrf pfrf prahug prahugmr mr ub vfpar vfpar `aidgu `aidguifr ifr,, di gufi gufi  pastdrmar`dbtd sd mabmzf oa`ofrhdfbha ifs `aiíguifs armlmbfhfs gab ub nfz hd didgtrabds hd didvfhf dbdrlàf. Zdsd f sus hdsvdbtfkfs, dstf tígbmgf ds if qud sd nf usfha pfrf hdtdr`mbfr if `fyaràf hd ias dspdgtras qud ga`pabdb ifs gaidggmabds hd dspdgtras. 

Cudbtds hd mabmzfgm÷b quà`mgf (GM). 

Db if mabmzfgm÷b quà`mgf ias æta`as lfsdasas hd if `udstrf (tfbta hd ub smstd`f hd dbtrfhf mbhmrdgta ga`a hd ubf sabhf gfimdbtd) sd mabmzfb fi gaimsmabfr gab ias mabds prahugmhas fi oa`ofrhdfr gab didgtr did gtrabd abdss ub dxgdsa dxgdsa hd lfs rdfgtm rdfgtmva va (bar`f (bar`fi`d i`dbtd btd `dtfba `dtfba). ). Bar`fi Bar`fi`db `dbtd td sd utmimz utmimzfb fb mabds mabds bdlftmvas, fubqud if mabmzfgm÷b quà`mgf hd mabds bdlftmvas sd utmimzf agfsmabfi`dbtd db fqudiias fbfimtas qud gabtmdbdb æta`as `uy didgtrabdlftmvas. 

Cudbtds hd mabmzfgm÷ mabmzfgm÷b b par gf`pa gf`p a (CM).

Db ifs cudbtds hd mabmzfgm÷b par gf`pa, ias mabds sd car`fb ofka if mbciudbgmf hd ub gf`pa diígtrmga didvfha (6:> S/g`). Dstas gf`pas sd prahugdb fi fpimgfr didvfhas patdbgmfids (6: f ?: eS) f d`msard d`m sardss dspdgmf dspdgmfi`d i`dbtd btd gabstru gabstrumha mhas. s. Vud dstæb dstæb car`fh car`fhas as par bu bu`dr `drasfs asfs pubtfs pubtfs cmbfs cmbfs guyas guyas hmæ`dtras sab `dbards f 6 ´`. F `dbuha dstas d`msards fhqumdrdb if car`f hd ub cmba nmia hd waicrf`ma waicr f`ma db di gufi sd nfb car`fha car`fha hdbhrmtfs a cmif`dbtas cmif`dbtas `mgrasg÷pmgas `mgrasg÷pmgas hd gfroaba gfroaba par pmraimsms pmraimsms hd odbzabmtrmia db ub gf`pa diígtrmga didvfha. Di rdsuitfha hd dstd trftf`mdbta ds if fpfrmgm÷b hd gdbtdbfrds hd `mgra flukfs hd gfro÷b qud d`drldb hdshd if supdrcmgmd hdi nmia. Db dstd gfsa di fbfimta fhqumdrd pagf dbdrlàf vmorfgmabfi y ratfgmabfi par ia qud tmdbd pagf crfl`dbtfgm÷b. 

CTDBXDW CTDB XDW HD HD HDWA_G WA_GM×B M×B

Db ifs has ûitm`fs hígfhfs sd nfb hdsfrraiifha bu`drasas `ítahas hd mabmzfgm÷b par hdsdrgm÷b pfrf trftfr trf tfr `udstrf `udstrfss ba vaiætm vaiætmids ids a tdr`ahm tdr`ahmbæ` bæ`mgf` mgf`dbtd dbtd mbdstf mbdstfoid oids. s. Dstfs Dstfs tígbmg tígbmgfs fs prdsgmb prdsgmbhdb hdb hd if vaiftmimzfgm÷b y hd if pastdrmar mabmzfgm÷b y db su iulfr sd su`mbmstrf dbdrlàf f if `udstrf s÷imhf a iàqumhf hd hmvdrsfs `fbdrfs, hd `aha qud sd pravagf if car`fgm÷b hmrdgtf hd mabds lfsdasas. Ga`a gabsdgudbgmf sd aotmdbdb dspdgtras `uy sm`pimcmgfhas.

 

Cudbtds hd hdsargm÷b par gf`pa (CH). Dstf cudbtd hd mabmzfgm÷b usf ub d`msar gab `ûitmpids pubtfs, sm`mifr fi usfha db ifs cudbtds hd mabmzfgm÷b par gf`pa. Db dstd gfsa di didgtraha sd gaiagf saord ubf sabhf qud pudhd rdtmrfrsd y rdguormrsd gab ubf hmsaiugm÷b hd if `udstrf, hdspuís hd rdmbsdrtfrif if mabmzfgm÷b sd prahugd trfs  prapargmabfr ub patdbgmfi didvfha f dstd didgtraha. Db agfsmabds agfs mabds ds bdgdsfrma gfidbtfria nfgmíbhaid  pfsfr ubf garrmdbtd pdra pudhd agurrmr ubf hdlrfhfgm÷b tír`mgf fbtds hd ga`pidtfrsd if hdlrfhfgm÷b.

Hdsargm÷b/mabmzfgm÷b Hdsargm÷b /mabmzfgm÷b par iæsdr fsmstmhf par ubf `ftrmz (@FIHM). Dstf tígbmgf hd rdgmdbtd hdsguorm`mdbta bas pdr`mtd gfiguifr pdsas `aidguifrds dxfgtas hd dxtrfgtas hd omapaià`dras paifrds db ub mbtdrvfia hd `fsfs `aidguifrds hd vfrmas gmdbtas hd `mids hd Hfitabs. Db dstf tígbmgf sd `dzgif ubf hmsaiugm÷b fguasa/figan÷imgf hd if `udstrf gab ub dxgdsa hd ubf sustfbgmf `ftrmz qud fosarod if rfhmfgm÷b. If hmsaiugm÷b rdsuitfbtd sd dvfparf db if supdrcmgmd hd ubf sabhf `dtæimgf qud sd utmimzf pfrf if mbtrahuggm÷b hd if `udstrf. If `dzgif s÷imhf sd dxpabd f if fg fggm gm÷b ÷b hd ub nf nfzz hd iæsdr iæsdr pu puisf isfbt btd, d, pr prav avag agfb fbha ha if suoi suoim` m`fg fgm÷ m÷b b hd hdii fb fbfi fimt mta a f ma mabd bdss qu qudd sab sab mbtrahugmhas db ub dspdgtr÷`dtra hd tmd`pa hd vudia pfrf di fbæimsms hd `fsfs.

Mabmzfgm÷b par didgtra bdouimzfgm÷b (DWM/@W). Dstf tígbmgf sd nf gabvdrtmha db ubf hd ifs `æs m`partfbtds pfrf di fbæimsms hd oma`aiíguifs hd pdsas supdrmards f 6::.::: Hfitabs. Wd rdfimzf db gabhmgmabds ft`ascírmgfs hd prdsm÷b y td`pdrfturf. If hmsaiugm÷b hd if `udstrf sd  oa`ofrhdf f trfvís hd ubf flukf gfpmifr hd fgdra mbaxmhfoid f ub ciuka hd filubas `mgra imtras par  `mbuta. Ifs flukfs sd `fbtmdbdb f ub patdbgmfi hd vfrmas eS gab rdspdgta fi didgtraha gmiàbhrmga qud rahdf f hmgnf flukf. If bmdoif hd cmbfs latmtfs gfrlfhfs rdsuitfbtds pfsf f trfvís hd ub gfpmifr hd hdsaivftfgm÷b habhd sd prahugd if dvfparfgm÷b hdi hmsaivdbtd y hd ifs `aiíguifs hdi fbfimta y habhd dstfs fhqumdrdb if gfrlf. Hdomha f qud ifs latmtfs sd vudivdb `æs pdqudöfs par if dvfparfgm÷b hdi hmsaivdbtd, su hdbsmhfh fu`dbtf prahugmíbhasd if hdsargm÷b hd ias mabds db if ft`÷scdrf lfsdasf.

Cudbtds hd oa`ofrhda gab æta`as ræpmhas (CFO). Gab dstd tmpa hd cudbtds, ifs `udstrfs db ub dstfha gabhdbsfha, f `dbuha db ubf `ftrmz hd ubf hmsaiugm÷b hmsai ugm÷b hd limgdrai, sd mabmzfb mabmzfb par oa`ofrhda oa`ofrhda gab æta`as æta`as hd xdb÷b a frl÷b hd didvfhf dbdrlàf. Xfbta ias mabds pasmtmvas ga`a bdlftmvas hdi fbfimta sab dxpuisfhas hd if supdrcmgmd hd if `udstrf  par ub pragdsa hd hdsargm÷b. Di nfz hd æta`as ræpmha sd aotmdbd pfsfr pfsf r mabds fgdidrfhas hd ffrl÷b rl÷b a xdb÷b hd ubf cudbtd a gfö÷b hd mabds f trfvís hd ubf gæ`frf qud gabtmdbd æta`as hd frl÷b a xdb÷b f ubf prdsm÷b hd ubas 6:-4 tarr. Wdtas Wdt as dxpdrm` dxpdrm`dbt dbtfb fb ubf rdfggm÷ rdfggm÷b b hd mbtdrgf mbtdrgf`om `oma a hd didgtra didgtrabds bds db rdsabfb rdsabfbgmf gmf gab ias æta`as æta`as aotdbmíbhasd ub nfz hd æta`as hd fitf dbdrlàf.

Hdsargm÷b par pifs`f (ZH). Di hdtdrmara hdi ?4?Gc prahugd has crfl`dbtas hd cmsm÷b qud vmfkfb db hmrdggmabds apudstfs. Tb crfl`dbta laipdf if `udstrf fbuifbha dbtrd 6-6: mabds fbfiàtmgas. Di atra crfl`dbta laipdf ub hdtdgtar y hdsdbgfhdbf if pudstf db `frgnf hd if fhqumsmgm÷b hd hftas. Dstd `ítaha ds dspdgmfi`dbtd mbtdrdsfbtd pfrf `aiíguifs ifrlfs hd armldb omai÷lmga.

Dspdgtra`dtràf Dspdgtra`d tràf hd `fsfs hd mabds sdgubhfrmas (WM@W).

 

Tb nfz hd iuz mabmzfha prm`mtmva ga`a 7Nd+,63A+, a 8:Fr+ ds fgdidrfha y dbcagfha nfgmf if supdrcmgmd supdr cmgmd hd if `udstrf y gnmsparratd gnmsparratdff dbtrfbha hdbtra hd if cfsd lfs. Fpraxm`fhf`db Fpraxm`fhf`dbtd td di 6% hdi `ftdrmfi gnmsparratdfha dbtrf db car`f mabmzfhf, di gufi yf pudhd sdr fbfimzfha. WM@W tmdbd if vd vdbt btfk fkff qu qudd pu pudh dhdd sdr ga gabt btmb mbuf uf`d `dbt btdd gn gnms mspa parra rratdf tdfha ha hd hdsh shdd if supd supdrc rcmg mgmd md y hd hdtd tdr` r`mb mbfr fr if ifss ga gabg bgdb dbtr trfg fgma mabd bdss fb fbfi fiàt àtmgf mgfss db cu cubg bgm÷ m÷b b hd if hmst hmstfb fbgm gmff hd hdsh shdd if supd supdrc rcmg mgmd md ar arml mlmb mbfi fi (p (pdr drcmi cmi hd  pracubhmhfh)

Mabmzfgm÷b par tdr`a bdouimzfgm÷b (XW). If mabmzfgm÷b par tdr`a bdouimzfgm÷b sd usf pfrf did`dbtas rdcidgtfbtds. Tbf `udstrf ds hdpasmtfhf dbgm`f hd ubf gmbtf `dtæimgf, qud pudhd sdr hd Zt a _d y ubf garrmdbtd diígtrmgf gfimdbtf di `dtfi f fitfs td`pdrfturfs. If gmbtf ds rdvdstmhf hd lrfcmta qud rdhugd if hdscrfl`dbtfgm÷b. 

Wmstd`f fgdidrfhar fgdidrfhar. .

Db di smstd`f fgdidrfhar ifs pfrtàguifs mabmzfhfs prahugmhfs par di m`pfgta hd ias didgtrabds sab aoimlfhas f ftrfvdsfr ubf prm`drf rfburf fgdidrfharf par ubf pdqudöf hmcdrdbgmf hd patdbgmfi. Dbtrd dstf prm`drf y ubf sdlubhf rfburf dxmstd ubf hmcdrdbgmf hd patdbgmfi `uy didvfhf qud m`prm`d f ifs  pfrtàguifs su vdiagmhfh cmbfi. Tbf tdrgdrf rfburf fgtûf ga`a gaim`fhar hdi nfz hd pfrtàguifs. 

Fbfimzfhards hd `fsf. 

Zfrf if sdpfrfgm÷b hd mabds gab hmcdrdbtd rdifgm÷b `/d sd hmspabd hd vfrmas hmspasmtmvas. Ia mhdfi ds qud di fbfimzfhar cudrf gfpfz hd hmstmblumr dbtrd hmcdrdbgmfs `uy pdqudöfs hd `fsf. Fhd`æs, ias fbfimzfhards hdodràfb hd pdr`mtmr di pfsa hdi bû`dra sucmgmdbtd pfrf prahugmr garrmdbtds m÷bmgfs cægmids hd `dhmr. Fi mlufi qud sugdhd gab ias `abagra`fhards  ÷ptmgas, f ias qud ias fbfimzfhards sab fbæialas, dstfs has prapmdhfhds ba sab ga`pftmoids y sd hdod hd iidlfr f ub dqumimorma qud dstæ rdlmha par if rdsaiugm÷b hdi dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsf.

Dxmstdb hmcdrdbtds tmpas hd fbfimzfhards hd `fsfs; 

Fbfimzfhards hd sdgtar `flbítmga ; ias fbfimzfhards hd sdgtar `flbítmga utmimzfb ub m`æb  pdr`fbdbtd a ub didgtram`æb pfrf nfgdr qud di nfz pragdhdbtd hd if cudbtd hd mabds sd hdspifgd gab ubf trfydgtarmf gmrguifr hd 6>:, =: a 3:». Dstas fbfimzfhards tf`omíb sab iif`fhas hd dbcaqud sm`pid.

 Cml.7; Hmflrf`f dsqud`ætmga hd hd ub fbfimzfhar hd `fsfs `fsfs hd sdgtar 

 

`flbítmga dqumvfidbtd f ias utmimzfhas db dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs, rdgfigfr if uomgfgm÷b hdi sdgtar `flbítmga (if`mbftdh `flbdt) 

Dspdgtr÷`dtras hd haoid dbcaqud ; dstd tír`mba sd usf db ias dspdgtr÷`dtras db ias gufids

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ifs fodrrfgmabds hmrdggmabfids y ifs fodrrfgmabds hd dbdrlàf hd ubf paoifgm÷b hd mabds sd `mbm`mzfb `mbm` mzfb sm`uitæbdf` sm`uitæbdf`dbtd. dbtd. Di haoid haoid dbcaqud dbcaqud sd gabsmlud gabsmlud utmimzfbha ga`ombfgmabds ga`ombfgmabds hd gf`pas `flbítmgas y didgtrastætmgas gumhfhasf`dbtd sdidggmabfhas. Dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsf gufhrupaifr; sab bar`fi`dbtd `dbas gfras y `æs raoustas qud ias hd sdgtar `flbítmga, fhd`æs tf`omíb acrdgdb if vdbtfkf hd d`pidfr tmd`pas hd ofrrmha  pdqudöas (96::`s), ia gufi ds pfrtmguifr`dbtd ûtmi pfrf rdfimzfr ofrrmhas hd pmgas gra`ftalræcmgas db tmd`pa rdfi. Wab, gab hmcdrdbgmf ias `æs utmimzfhas nay db hàf.

 Cml.8; Hmflrf`f hd ub dspdgtr÷`dtra hd `fsf gufhrupaif gufhrupaifr, r, qud ds uba hd ias tmpas hd fbfimzfhards hd `fsf `æs utmimzfhas db dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs hfha su ofka prdgma y raoustdz. 

Fbfimzfhards hd `fsfs hd tmd`pa hd vudia (XAC); db dstas fpfrftas sd prahugdb ias mabds  pasmtmvas pdrm÷hmgf`dbtd par oa`ofrhda hd if `udstrf gab m`puisas hd didgtrabds, didg trabds, hd mabds sdgubhf sdgu bhfrma rmass a hd catabd catabdss ldbdrfh ldbdrfhas as par iæsdr. Ias mabds mabds prahug prahugmha mhass hd dstf dstf car`f car`f sab fgdidrfhas db ub tuoa fbfimzfhar imord hd gf`pa `dhmfbtd ub gf`pa diígtrmga puisfbtd hd 6:7 f 6:8 S. If sdpfrfgm÷b hd ias mabds db cubgm÷b hd if `fsf sd prahugd hurfbtd su rdgarrmha nfgmf nfg mf di hdtdgt hdtdgtar, ar, smtufha smtufha fi cmbfi cmbfi hdi tuoa. Dstas fpfrft fpfrftas as prdsdb prdsdbtfb tfb vdbtfkfs vdbtfkfs ga`a ga`a if

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raoustdz, sm`pimgmhfh, cægmi fggdsa f ifs cudbtds hd mabds y di vmrtufi`dbtd mim`mtfha mbtdrvfia hd `fsfs, pdra tmdbdb ba aostfbtd ubf sdbsmomimhfh y ubf rdsaiugm÷b im`mtfhfs. Fbfimzfhards hd trf`pf hd mabds ; ds ub hmspasmtmva db di qud ias gftmabds a fbmabds lfsdasas pudhdb car`frsd y qudhfr gabcmbfhas hurfbtd ifrlas pdrmahas hd tmd`pa par if fggm÷b hd gf`pas diígtrmgas y/a `flbítmgas. Ias dspdgtr÷`dtras hd trf`pf hd mabds sab `æs raoustas, ga`pfgtas y `æs dgab÷`mgas qud ias fbtdrmards. Xrfbscar`fhf hd Caurmdr (CX); Ga`a sugdhd gab ias mbstru`dbtas hd mbcrfrraka y hd rdsabfb rdsa bfbgmf gmf `flbít `flbítmgf mgf bugidfr bugidfr,, ias dspdgtr dspdgtr÷`d ÷`dtra trass hd `fsfs `fsfs hd trfbscar trfbscar`fh `fhff hd Caurmd Caurmdr  r   prapargmabfb `dkards rdifgmabds sdöfi/rumha, vdiagmhfhds `fyards y sdbsmomimhfh y rdsaiugm÷b `æs didvfhfs.

If pfrtd cubhf`dbtfi hd ub mbstru`dbta hd trfbscar`fhf hd Caurmdr ds ubf trf`pf hd mabds db if gufi ias mabds gmrguifb db ÷romtfs omdb hdcmbmhfs hurfbtd ifrlas pdrmahas. Xfids gfvmhfhds sd gabstruydb fpravdgnfbha di cdb÷`dba hd rdsabfbgmf m÷bmgf gmgia tr÷bmgf. If rdsaiugm÷b ds dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs hd trfbscar`fhf hd Caurmdr dstæ im`mtfhf par if prdgmsm÷b db if `dhmhf hd if crdgudbgmf `æs qud par ifs rdbhmkfs a ifs `dhmhfs hd gf`pa.

 

Ds pasmoid figfbzfr ubf rdsaiugm÷b rdsaiugm÷b dxtrd`fhf`dbtd dxtrd`fhf`dbtd didvfhf (supdrmar (supdrmar f 6:3) hfha qud ifs `dhmhfs `dhmhfs hd crdgudbgmf sd pudhdb rdfimzfr gab didvfhf prdgmsm÷b.

 Cml.4; Hmflrf`f hd ub ub fbfimzfhar hd `fsf hd trfbscar`fhf trfbscar`fhf hd Caurmdr  habhd pahd`as vdr sus hmcdrdbtds did`dbtas, rdsdöfr if smtufgm÷b hd if  pa`pf hd mabds (turoa pu`p) pu`p) guyf cubgm÷b sd sdöfif frrmof  y qud ds pfrtd cubhf`dbtfi hd dstd mbstru`dbta. 

Hdtdgtards. 

Ias mabds pragdhdbtds hdi smstd`f fgdidrfhar iidlfb fi hdtdgtar di gufi ldbdrfi`dbtd dstæ gabstmtumha  par ub gætaha d`msar qud fi rdgmomr di m`pfgta prahugmha prahugmha par ifs pfrtàguifs gfrlfhfs d`mtd didgtrabds. Dstas didgtrabds sab fgdidrfhas nfgmf ub hmbaha di gufi d`mtd vfrmas didgtrabds `æs fi rdgmomr di m`pfgt m`p fgta a hd gfhf gfhf didgtr÷ didgtr÷b. b. Dstd Dstd pragdsa pragdsa sd rdpmtd rdpmtd vfrmfs vfrmfs vdgds vdgds nfstf nfstf aotdbd aotdbdrsd rsd ubf gfsgfhf gfsgfhf hd didg didgtr trab abds ds qu qudd iidl iidlff fi ga gaid idgt gtar ar ia ialr lræb æbha hasd sd ub ubff ga garrm rrmdb dbtd td cu cudr drtd` td`db dbtd td f`pi f`pimc mcmg mgfh fhf, f, pa parr ub  pragdhm`mdbta `uy sm`mifr fi qud sd utmimzf db ias tuoas cata`uitmpimgfhards. If garrmdbtd aotdbmhf  pudhd f`pimcmgfrsd hd budva par pragdhm`mdbtas pragdhm`mdbtas didgtr÷bmgas y sd iidvf f ub smstd`f rdlmstrfhar.

AOXDBGM×B ] FBÆIMWMW HD TB DWZDGX_AL_F@F HD @FWFW. Ga`a gabsdgudbgmf hdi oa`ofrhda didgtr÷bmga db if gæ`frf hd mabmzfgm÷b, ifs `aiíguifs sd ra`pdb db ubf sdrmd hd crfl`dbtas, smd`prd qud ubf `ms`f `aiíguif sd ra`pf db ifs `ms`fs gabhmgmabds bas bas hfræ hfræ di `ms` `ms`a a tmpa tmpa y bû`d bû`dra ra hd cr crfl fl`d `dbt btas as y ga gabs bstm tmtu tuyd ydb b if crfl` crfl`dbtf dbtfgm÷b gm÷b pftr pftr÷b ÷b. Lrfgmfs f dsta sd pudhdb hdtdr`mbfr qud ds if `udstrf par ga`pfrfgm÷b y par atrf pfrtd, if mbtdbsmhfh rdiftmvf hd ias hmstmbtas pmgas, pdr`mtd hdhugmr if prapargm÷b db qud gfhf ga`pabdbtd sd dbgudbtrf db if `udstrf. Di pmga hdi dspdgtralrf`f qud fpfrdgd gab vfiar `æs didvfha hd `/d garrdspabhd f if `aiíguif ma mabm bmzf zfhf hf smb crfl` crfl`db dbtfr tfr y rd rdgm gmod od di ba ba`o `ord rd hd `fsf pftr÷ pftr÷b. b. Dstf Dstf `f `fsf sf pf pftr÷ tr÷b b ba bass pd pdr` r`mt mtdd hdtdr`mbfr gab rfpmhdz y prdgmsm÷b if `fsf `aidguifr, smd`prd qud sd apdrd gab ubf tdbsm÷b hd mabmzfgm÷b ba dxgdsmvf`dbtd didvfhf, if gufi prahugmràf if crfl`dbtfgm÷b tatfi hd if `aiíguif. Di pmga `fyar hdi dspdgtralrf`f hd `fsf sd iif`f pmga ofsd. Bar`fi`dbtd if fiturf hd dstd pmga sd

 

ta`f ga`a vfiar gmdb. Ifs mbtdbsmhfhds hd ias hd`æs pmgas sd dxprdsfb db pargdbtfkds hd if mbtdbsmhfh hdi pmga ofsd.

 Cml.3; Fspdgta giæsmga hd ub dspdgtralrf`f hd `fsfs, db di qud sd sdöfifb su pmga o ofsd fsd  y su mab `aidguifr `æs m`partfbtd. If tfoif smtufhf f if hdrdgnf b bas as mbhmgf if gabgdbtrfgm÷b  y if rdifgm÷b `/z hd gfhf uba hd hd ias did`dbtas prdsdbtds db di fbfimta

FZIMGFGMABDW FZIMGFGMABD W HD DWZDGX_A@DX DWZDGX_A@DX_MF _MF HD @FWF Ifs fpimgfgmabds sab tfb bu`drasfs y fofrgfb tfbtas gf`pas qud rdsuitf ga`pimgfha gmtfrifs tahfs, f gabtmbufgm÷b vdrd`as ifs `æs gfrfgtdràstmgfs; a a a a a a

Diugmhfgm÷b hd if dstrugturf hd `aiíguifs arlæbmgfs y omai÷lmgfs. Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hdi pdsa `aidguifr hd píptmhas, pratdàbfs y aimlabugidmgas. Mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd ias ga`pudstas hd gra`ftalrf`fs db gfpf cmbf y pfpdi. Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd sdgudbgmfs hd f`mbaægmhas db `udstrfs hd paimpíptmhas y pratdàbfs. Hdtdggm÷b d mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd dspdgmds sdpfrfhfs par gra`ftalrfcàf y didgtracardsms gfpmifr. Mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd hralfs hd fousa y sus `dtfoaimtas db sfblrd, armbf y sfimvf.

a a

a a a a

Gabtrai hd lfsds db dbcdr`as rdspmrftarmas hurfbtd ias pragdsas qumrûrlmgas. Zrudofs pfrf gabcmr`fr if prdsdbgmf hd hralfs db sfblrd hd gfofiias hd gfrrdrfs y db ftidtfs aià`pmgas. Hftfgm÷b hd dkd`pifrds db frqudaialàf. Fbæimsms hd pfrtàguifs db fdrasaids. Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd rdsmhuas hd pdstmgmhfs db fim`dbtas. Gabtrai hd ga`pudstas arlæbmgas vaiætmids db di fluf hd su`mbmstra

Sf`as f vdr fnarf hd ub `aha `æs dxtdbsa ifs prmbgmpfids fpimgfgmabds hd dstf tígbmgf. 

Fpimgfgmabds Fpimgfgmab ds gufimtftmvfs gufimtft mvfs

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Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hdi pdsa `aidguifr  hd tahfs ifs sustfbgmfs qud pudhdb vaiftmimzfrsd par if

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 pasmgm÷b hdi pmga garrdspabhmdbtd f if `fsf pftr÷b. Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd if car`uif `aidguifr . Wm di mbstru`dbta mbstru`dbta ds hd lrfb rdsaiugm÷b ofstfræ ofstfræ if hdtdr`mbfgm÷b prdgmsf hd su `fsf `aidguifr pfrf pahdr ftrmoumrid ubf c÷r`uif d`pàrmgf. Atrfs

 

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vdgds pudhd hdtdr`mbfrsd par if rdifgm÷b dbtrd ifs fiturfs hdi pmga garrdspabhmdbtd f if `fsf  pftr÷b y if hd ias pmgas hd ias ms÷tapas. Dxmstd ubf tdrgdrf car`f qud sdràf gab if rdlif hdi bmtr÷ldba, sdlûb if gufi tahfs ifs sustfbgmfs arlæbmgfs gab pdsa `aidguifr pfr hdodb hd gabtdbdr ub bû`dra pfr a bmblûb æta`a hd B y ias hd bû`dra m`pfr hdodb hd gabtdbdr ub bû`dra bû`dr a m`pfr. m`pfr. Zar di gabtrfrma gabtrfrma ias crfl`dbtas crfl`dbtas `aidguifrds `aidguifrds par raturf raturf hd dbifgd, tmdbdb ubf `fsf m`pfr sm gabtmdbdb gdra a bû`dra pfr hd æta`as hd B y `fsf pfr sm di bû`dra hd æta`as hd B ds m`pfr. Mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd ga`pudstas par su crfl`dbtfgm÷b pftr÷b; if crfl`dbtfgm÷b hd if `fyar   pfrtd hd ifs `aiíguifs prahugd ub lrfb bû`dra hd pmgas qud pdr`mtdb if mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd bu`drasas ga`pudstas y di rdgabagm`mdbta hd gmdrtas lrupas cubgmabfids hd diias. Wd nfb hdsgrmta ubf sdrmd hd rdlifs ldbdrfids qud rmldb ias pragdsas hd crfl`dbtfgm÷b, ias gufids sab hd lrfb utmimhfh pfrf if hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd ias dspdgtras. Mhdbtmcmgfgm÷b hd prahugtas hd rdfggm÷b a hd prahugtas `dtfo÷imgas;  sd usf db gmbítmgf quà`mg quà `mgff y db cfr`fga cfr`fgaial ialàf àf puhmíb puhmíbhas hasdd iidlfr iidlfr f mhdbtm mhdbtmcmgf cmgfrr m`purd m`purdzfs zfs y `dtfoa `dtfoaimt imtas as f gabgdbtrfgmabds hd pagfs pfrtds par `mii÷b. Gfrfgtdrmzfgm÷b Gfrfgtdrmzfg m÷b y fbæimsms hd paià`dras;  di paià`dra sd pmraimzf db gabhmgmabds gabtraifhfs y ias prahugtas vaiætmids sd nfgdb pfsfr f ub dspdgtr÷`dtra pfrf su fbæimsms. Fbæimsms hd sfblrd; lrfgmfs f if rfpmhdz hdi `ítaha, sd pudhd d`pidfr mbgiusa ga`a gabtrai hurfbtd ub pragdsa qumrûrlmga. Fsà sd pudhd hdtdr`mbfr f lrfb vdiagmhfh ifs gabgdbtrfgmabds nd`ætmgfs hd `ab÷xmha y hm÷xmha hd gfroaba, gfr oaba, axàldba, bmtr÷ldba, lfsds fbdstísmgas (ga`a di  BA).

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cmbfimhfh gab if cud grdfhf tígbmgf ys Dstuhmfr iffimhfh foubhfbgmf ms÷tapas; db if fgtufim fgtu hfh sd usf hd pfrf fbæimsm fbæimsms Dstf s par parcud hmiugm hmiif ugm÷b ÷b hd ms÷tap ms÷ tapas, as,qud dstuhma dstu hmas s gabiftrfzfhard trfzfh ards msatr÷pmgas, dstuhmfr if dhfh hd ifs `udstrf par su prapargm÷b hd ms÷tapas gab if vdbtfkf crdbtd f ias rfhmfgtmvas qud sd pudhdb `dhmr ias ms÷tapas ba rfhmfgtmvas. 

Fpimgfgmabds gufbtmtftmvfs. 

Zfrf if hdtdr`mbfgm÷b gufbtmtftmvf hd ias ga`pabdbtds hd ubf `dzgif ds gabvdbmdbtd qud gfhf uba hd diias prdsdbtd par ia `dbas ub pmga qud hmcmdrf gifrf`dbtd hd ias hd`æs. If gfimorfgm÷b sd rdfimzf par  ga`pfr ga` pfrfgm fgm÷b ÷b hd ias pmgas pmgas gab pftrabds pftrabds fhdguf fhdgufha has. s. Ifs fiturfs fiturfs hd ias pmgas pmgas sab hmrdgtf hmrdgtf`db `dbtd td  prapargmabfids f ifs prdsmabds pfrgmfids hd ias ga`pabdbtds vaiftmimzfhas db if `udstrf. Ifs fpimgfgmabds gufbtmtftmvfs hd if dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs pfrf fbæimsms gufbtmtftmva sab hd has tmpas; 

Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b gufbtmtftmvf hd dspdgmds `aidguifrds  a tmpas hd dspdgmds `aidguifrds db `udstrfs arlæbmgfs, omai÷lmgfs y agfsmabfi`dbtd mbarlæbmgfs;  bar`fi`dbtd tfids fbæimsms sd iidvfb f gfoa nfgmdbha pfsfr if `udstrf f trfvís hd ubf gaiu`bf gra`ftralræcmgf a hd didgtracardsms gfpmifr y pastdrmar`dbtd par di dspdgtr÷`dtra.

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Hdtdr`mbfgm÷b hd if gabgdbtrfgm÷b hd did`dbtas db `udstrfs mbarlæbmgfs y, db `dbar `dhmhf, hd `udstrfs arlæbmgfs y omai÷lmgfs;  ifs gabgdbtrfgmabds hd fbfimta db dstd gfsa sd aotmdbdb hmrdgtf`dbtd aotmdbdb hmrdgtf`dbtd f pfrtmr hd ifs fiturfs fiturfs hd ias pmgas hd ias dspdgtras dspdgtras hd `fsfs. Wd grdfb gurvfs hd gfimorfha qud bas pdr`mtdb di fbæimsms fbæimsms gufbtmtftmva gufbtmtftmva lrfgmfs lrfgmfs f if dxmstdbgmf dxmstdbgmf hd pmgas ûbmgas pfrf gfhf ga`pabdbtd y gfhf vfiar hd `/z.

GABGITWMABDW Dspdra qud di dstuhma rdfimzfha saord if Dspdgtra`dtràf hd `fsfs pudhf rdsuitfr hd fyuhf f ias id idgt gtar ards ds y ids ids fy fyuh uhdd f db dbtd tdbh bhdr dr ds dstd td ga ga`p `pidk idka a mb mbst stru ru`d `dbt bta a y pa pahd hdrr fp fpim imgfr gfria ia ga gab b ub ubff `fya `fyar  r  dcdgtmvmhfh.

 

Hd dstd trfofka `d lustfràf hdstfgfr if m`partfbgmf hd dstf tígbmgf hdshd sus ga`mdbzas nfgd `æs hd gmdb föas nfstf if fgtufimhfh habhd bas if dbgabtrf`as ga`a ub mbstru`dbta fitf`dbtd dspdgmfimzfha dspdgmfimz fha y fpimgfoid db `uitmtuh hd gf`pas. _dsuit÷ mbhmspdbsfoid db di gabagm`mdbta hd if dstrugturf `aidguifr, fyuh÷ f sdbtfr ifs ofsds càsmgaquà`mgfs fgtufids y f hdrru`ofr di `ahdia ft÷`mga hd Oanr. Zdsd f sus gfsm gmdb föas hd dhfh gabtmbuf smdbha uba hd ias mbstru`dbtas `æs rdgurrmhas f if narf hd fbfimzfr taha tmpa hd `udstrfs yf qud hd diif sd hdstfgf su lrfb vdrsftmimhfh, cfgmimhfh hd usa y cubhf`dbtfi`dbtd, parqud ds uba hd ias pagas mbstru`dbtas qud td pdr`mtdb rdfimzfr ub fbæimsms gufimtftmva y gufbtmtftmva hd car`f sm`uitæbdf y hd gfimhfh. Wus æ`omtas hd usa sd dbgudbtrfb ub tfbta rdstrmblmhas hfha su didvfha prdgma, su prmbgmpfi dbd`mla y rdtrfgtar, pdra qud ba dstæ m`pmhmdbha qud gfhf hàf sd m`pablf `æs crdbtd f atrfs `æs mbbavfharfs y su hd`fbhf ba nflf `æs qud fu`dbtfr. Sd`as qud di dstuhma dxnfustmva hd dstd mbstru`dbta ds cubhf`dbtfi pfrf su ÷ptm`f utmimhfh, yf qud td pdr`mtd ga`ombfr hmcdrdbtds hmcdrdbtds tmpas hd gfhf uba hd sus did`dbtas did`dbtas pfrf fhdgufria fhdgufria f ifs bdgdsmhfhds bdgdsmhfhds hd gfhf mbvdstmlfgm÷b. Nay db hàf sd gabtmbûf mbvdstmlfbha db budvfs mbstru`dbtas hd `dkarf pfrf dstf tígbmgf, yf qud gfhf hàf sd dxmldb rdsuitfhas gab `fyar prdgmsm÷b a sm`pid`dbtd parqud sd fbfimzfb `udstrfs db ifs qud sd rdqumdrd ubf `fyar dspdgmfimzfgm÷b. Dstf vfrmfomimhfh nf ndgna qud gabtmbûd vmldbtd y sd `fbtdblf fitf`dbtd fhfptfhf db if fgtufimhfh, ubmha, ga`a ba, f su fitf fpimgfomimhfh db gf`pas tfb vfrmfhas ga`a if `dhmgmbf, grm`mbfiàstmgf, M+H cfr`fgíutmgf a ias ifoarftarmas hd omaialàf `aidguifr dbtrd atras.

FZÍBHMGDW LIAWF_MA 

_difgm÷b `fsf/gfrlf; Dstf dxprdsm÷b, fordvmfhf `/z , ds if rdifgm÷b hdi bû`dra hd `fsf (`) hd ubf pfrtàguif hfhf dbtrd di bû`dra ( z ) hd ubmhfhds gfrlfhfs didgtrastætmgf`dbtd (d ( d) qud pasdd if pfrtàguif. Fsà, `/z ds ubf rdifgm÷b fhm`dbsmabfi  qud ds di pfræ`dtra `dhmha  par di fbfimzfhar hd `fsfs. If `fsf hd ubf pfrtàguif hfhf ds mlufi f if su`f hd sus `fsfs

ft÷`mgfs (db Hfitabs) hd tahas ias did`dbtas qud ga`pabdb if pfrtàguif. Di sà`oaia pfrf ifs ubmhfh hd `fsf ds u, y garrdspabhd f 6/6? hd if `fsf hdi 6?G, fi qud sd if nf fsmlbfha ub vfiar hd 6?.:::::: par gabvdbgm÷b.  Mabds haoid`dbtd gfrlfhas; Ds pasmoid pfrf ubf `aiíguif pdrhdr has didgtrabds hurfbtd di pragdsa hd mabmzfgm÷b. Dstas mabds qud dstæb haoid`dbtd gfrlfhas prahugmræb ub pmga db di dspdgtra hd `fsfs db ub vfiar `/z bu`írmgf`dbtd mlufi f if `mtfh hd if `fsf `aidguifr hdi mab. Ias mabds haoid`dbtd gfrlfhas sab mbsmlbmcmgfbtds db di dspdgtra hd `fsf pfrf if `fyaràf hd ias ga`pudstas. Wmb d`ofrla, pfrf fqudiifs `aiíguifs qud ias  prahuzgfb db car`f dstfoid, ias pmgas garrdspabhmdbtds db di dspdgtra hd `fsfs pudhdb sdr usfhas db if mbtdrprdtfgm÷b hd hftas.  Mab `aidguifr; Di mab `aidguifr rdsuitf hd if mabmzfgm÷b hd if `aiíguif f fbfimzfr. Dstd mab mab rdpr rdprds dsdb dbtf tf if `aií `aiígu guif if mbtf mbtfgt gtff y ds di ûi ûitm tm`a `a pr prdg dgur ursa sarr hd ta taha hass ia iass ma mabd bdss crfl`dbtfhas qud ga`pabdb di dspdgtra hd `fsfs Di pmga hdi mab `aidguifr fpfrdgd f ub vfiar `/z bu`írmgf`dbtd mlufi fi pdsa `aidguifr hdi ga`pudsta.

 

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Zmga ofsd; Ds di pmga `æs mbtdbsa db di dspdgtra hd `fsfs. Ds usfha ga`a ofsd pfrf bar`fimzfr ifs mbtdbsmhfhds hd ias  atras pmgas. Fi pmga ofsd sd id fsmlbf ubf mbtdbsmhfh rdiftmvf hd 6::%.

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Mbtdbsmhfh rdiftmvf; If mb mbtd tdbs bsmh mhfh fh rdift rdiftmv mvff hd ub pm pmga ga rdprds rdprdsdb dbtf tf su mb mbtd tdbs bsmh mhfh fh db ga`pfrfgm÷b gab di pmga ofsd. Wd rdprdsdbtf  ga`a % rdspdgta fi pmga ofsd qud ds 6::%. 6::%. Zar gabvdbgm÷b, dstd hfta sd mbhmgf db if mzqumdrhf hdi dspdgtra hd  `fsfs. Zargdbtfkd tatfi hd mabmzfgm÷b; Dstd tír`mba dxprdsf if foubhfbgmf hd ub mab mbhmvmhufi ga`pfrfha gab if su`f hd ifs foubhfbgmfs hd tahas  ias mabds db ub rfbla hd `fsf

dspdgàcmga. If dsgfif hd pargdbtfkd tatfi hd mabmzfgm÷b dstæ rdprdsdbtfhf f if  hdrdgnf hdi dspdgtra hd `fsfs gab di sà`oaia (%Wb), dstd hfta pudhd sdr utmimzfha pfrf ga`pfrfr  hmcdrdbtds dspdgtras hd `fsfs hd hmcdrdbtds ga`pudstas.  Dspdgtra hd `fsfs; Tb dspdgtra hd `fsfs ds ubf lræcmgf hd mbtdbsmhfh rdiftmvf hdi mab ga`a cubgm÷b hd if rdifgm÷b `fsf/gfrlf  (`/z ). ). Di dspdgtra hd `fsfs ds crdgudbtd`dbtd rdpr rdprdsd dsdbt btfh fha a ga ga`a `a ub nmst nmstal alrf` rf`ff sm sm`p `pid id.. Dstf Dstf ca car` r`ff hd rd rdlm lmst stra ra hd ma mabd bdss y su suss mbtdbs mbt dbsmhf mhfhds hds smrvdb smrvdb pfrf pfrf dstfoi dstfoidgdr dgdr di pdsa pdsa `aidgu `aidguifr ifr y dstrugt dstrugturf urf hdi ga`pud ga`pudsta sta f sdr  fbfimzfha. Hdomha f qud agurrd if crfl`dbtfgm÷b hdi fbfimta, ifs crfggmabds hdi mab fpfrdgdb db di dspdgtra f  vfiards `/z `dbards qud if `aiíguif ga`pidtf mabmzfhf (mab `aidguifr) f pfrtmr hd dstas hftas sd hdhugd if  dstrugturf y pdsa `aidguifr hd if `aiíguif ga`pidtf.

Z_AGDHDBGMF HD IFW MITWX_FGMABDW Cml.6; M`fldb hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www.ulr.ds/~quma rdh/dspdg/`s6.nt` Cml.?; Nfrvdy, ?::?, pfl.?=3. Cml.7; M`fldb hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www7.m`pdrmfi.fg.ue/dfr tnsgmdbgdfbhd tnsgmd bgdfbhdblmbddr blmbddrmbl/ mbl/ rdsdf rdsdfrgn/llp rgn/llp/mgp`s /mgp`s`uitmg `uitmgaiidg aiidgtt ar/`mg ar/`mgra`fss ra`fssmsapraod msapraod Cml.8; M`fldb hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www.gn`.orms.fg.ue/`s/tndary/qufh-`fssspdg.nt`i Cml.4; M`fldb hmspabmoid db; nttp;//gaiifoarftary.d`si.pbi.lav/prakdgts/FFFW/ctmgr/sih::6.nt` Cml.3; M`fldb hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www.ulr.ds/~quma rdh/dspdg/`s6.nt`

OMOIMAL_FCÀF 

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Grddi F., Nawfrh C., 6==7, Zraspdgts 6==7,  Zraspdgts car tnd Fbfiysms ac Nmln @aifr @fss @fss Zaiy`drs Tsmbl  @FIHM @fss Wpdgtra`dtry. Wpdgtra`dtry. Xrdbhs mb Zaiy`dr Wgmdbgd , _dfhmbl  , _dfhmbl (TE), Dh; Zurd fbh Fppimdh @fgra`aidguifr Gnd`mstry Lraup.@fgra Lraup TE, Sai.6, b»66 Hmggmabfrma @íhmga Miustrfha hd oaismiia Harifbh. ?::6. @fhrmh; @gLrfw-Nmii ‗ Mbtdrf`drmgfbf hd Dspföf, W.F.T. Dhmgm÷b ?3, 6=4 pls.  Didgtrasprfy Mabmzftmab Caurmdr Xrfbscar` Mab Gygiarmb Gygiarmb _dsabfbgd @fss Wpdgtra`dtdr , Zfgmcmg Bartnwdst Bftmabfi Ifoarftary5Ofttdiid @d`armfi Mbstmtutd (db imbdf).Hmspabmoid db; nttp;//gaiifoarftary.d`si.pbi.lav/prakdgts/FFFW/ctmgr/sih::6.nt` Lftds, Z., ?::8,ac Vufhrupid (VVV) Fbfiysms,(db Xnd Tbmvdrsmty ac Ormstai, Wgnaai Gnd`mstry&5 Xrmpid @FWWVufhrupaid WZDGX_A@DX WZDGX_A@DX_] _]@fss _DWAT_GD imbdf). Hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www.gn`.orms.fg.ue/`s/tndary/qufh-`fssspdg.nt`i

 

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Lrupa hd Vuà`mgf Ga`putfgmabfi , Hdpfrtf`dbta hd Vum`mgf Càsmgf hd if Tbmvdrsmhfh hd Ga`pastdif, Ga`pastdif, (db imbdf). Hmspabmoid db; nttp;//wdo.usg.ds/~qctkdsus/ Nfrvdy, H., ?::?, Vuà`mgf Fbfiàtmgf @ahdrbf, @fhrmh; @g Lrfw Nmii / Mbtdrf`drmgfbf hd Dspföf s.f., 4, Xígbmgfs Mbstru`dbtfids db Cfr`fgmf y Gmdbgmfs hd if Wfiuh, Ofrgdiabf; Zmras, 43> pls.  Zifsgdbgmf Smiif, L., ?::7,  @fdstr @fdstràf àf Db Gmdbgmf Gmdbgmfss Omaquà`mg Omaquà`mgfs5 fs5 @ítaha s5 Dspdgtra`dtr Gursa Hd @ítahas5 Dspdgt ra`dtràf àf Hd @fsfs, Mbstmtuta hd Omatdgbaialàfs5Tbmvdrsmhfh Fubt÷ba`f Bfgmabfi hd @dxmga, @dxmga H.C., (db imbdf) Hmspabm Hms pabmoid oid db; d b; nttp;// nttp;//ww ww w.mot.ubf w.mot.ubf`.`x/ga` `.`x/ga`puta/phc puta/phcs/`dt s/`dt/WpdgQ@ /WpdgQ@fsfs fsfs.phc .phc

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_audssdg F., _audssdfg C., ?::7, Fbæimsms ?::7, Fbæimsms Vuà`mga; @ítahas y Xígbmgfs Mbstru`dbtfids  @ahdrbfs, @fhrmh;  @ahdrbfs,  @fhrmh; @g Lrfw Nmii, 838 pls. _uombsab, K., _uombsab, B, ?::: , Fbfimsms Mbstru`dbtfi , @fhmh; Zrdbtmgd Nfii, ? pls. Weaal,H.F, Nmiidr C.K, Bmd`fb X.F, ?::6, Zrmbgmpmas ?::6, Zrmbgmpmas hd Fbfimsms Mbstru`dbtfi , @fhrmh; @g Lrfw Nmii, 4ª Dhmgm÷b, 8=: pls.

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Xutarmfi hd Dspdgtrasgapmf5 Diugmhfgm÷b dstrugturfi, ?::8, Tbmvdrsmhfh hd Lrfbfhf5 Cfguitfh hd gmdbgmfs, Hpta. Vuà`mgf Arlæbmgf. (db iàbdf hmspabmoid db; nttp;//www.ulr.ds/~quma rdh/dspdg/`s6.nt`

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Sfigærgdi Gfsds, @., L÷`dz Ndbs, F., 6=>>. Xígbmgfs Fbfiàtmgfs hd Wdpfrfgm÷b. Ofrgdiabf; _dvdrtí. \miifrh, N.N., dt fi., 6==6 , @ítahas Mbstru`dbtfids hd Fbæimsms. Fbæimsms. @dxmga; Lrupa Dhmtarmfi F`drmgfbf, ?ª Dhmgm÷b, ? pls.

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