Ensayo de Resistencia Muros de Contención

 

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WAPSNGAÔK RTMDJCEÎPAGN

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4. ESTMW @ @C C GMKPCK GMKPCKGA×K GA×K CK PCTTCKM NTCKMWM 7. ESTMW @ @C C GMKPCK GMKPCKGA×K GA×K CK PCTTCKM TMGMWM GNRAPSJM 7

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CERSHC NJ TCRMWM CERSHC RNWA\M

GNRAPSJM 0

>. KMTENW PCGKA PCGKAGNW GNW RNTN JN GMKWPTSG GMKWPTSGGA×K GA×K @C ESTMW @C GMKPCKGA×K 4. GNWMW @C ES ESTMW TMW @C GMKPCKGA×K GMKPCKGA×K CK PCTTCKM AAKCWPNDJC KCWPNDJC \.

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AKPTM@SGGAÔK8

Ck cj Rcrø fngc vnrams nþms sc vackck prm`ugack`m prmdjcens pmr lck÷eckms `c ocm`akîeagn aktcrkn m cxtcrkn, `cda`m n quc kucstrm pnås cstî ck uk îrcn njtnecktc såseagn, yn quc sc udagn ck cj Gaktur÷k `c lucom `cj Rngalagm m Nkajjm `c lucom `cj Rngalagm. Cstm tnedaák sc `cdc nj enj `ascþm quc sc rcljchn ck eugfms cjcecktms cstrugturnjcs cstrugturnjcs,, `nk`m pmr gmkscguckgan, tcrradjcs ngmktcgaeacktms quc prm`ugck pár`a`ns fuenkns, cgmk÷eagns, ctg. gmem tnedaák `nþms nj ec`am nedacktc. Cs pmr cjjm quc jn akockacrån, dusgn ukn enkcrn `c eataonr cstms clcgtms, utajaznk`m jns fcrrneacktns kcgcsnrans y jms cjcecktms rcqucra`ms pnrn gmkscouar jms mdhctavms trnzn`ms n jm jnrom `c jn va`n øtaj `c gacrtn gmkstrugga÷k, fngack`m usm `c jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k. Cstms tackck gmem laknja`n` nounktnr jns lucrtcs prcsamkcs jntcrnjcs m cepuhcs mgnsamkn`ms pmr cj entcranj rctcka`m quc cstn smdrc cjjns su cstndaja`n` jn `cdck luk`necktnjecktc nj pcsm prmpam y nj pcsm `cj entcranj quc cstn smdrc su luk`nga÷k, pmr jm gunj sc gmepmrtnk dîsagnecktc gmem vmjn`azms cepmtrn`ms ck su dnsc, tnedaák sc jc `csaokn cj kmedrc `c cepuhc, pmr jm ockcrnj jms cepuhcs smk prm`uga`ms pmr tcrrckms knturnjcs, rcjjckms nrtalaganjcs m entcranjcs njengckn`ms. Jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k gucktnk gmk eøjtapjcs npjagngamkcs, ck mdrns `c gnrrctn, mdrns `c tcrrngcrån, enymrecktc utajazn`ms ck `cskavcjcs `c tcrrckm y cktrc eugfms eîs e îs chcepjms. Jms eurms eîs utajazn`ms ck cj pnås smk cj eurm `c gmktckga÷k pmr ornvc`n`, ck vmjn`azm y uk eucrm ck vmjn`azm gmk gmktn lucrtc. Cstms sc `alcrckgank cktrc så pmr su entcranj, ck cstms `ms øjtaems sc utajaznk gmkgrctm nren`m, eacktrns quc cj eurm pmr ornvc`n` sc utajazn gmkgrctm saepjc, jn utajaznga÷k `c jms eurms sc nknjazn jn njturn `cj sucjm quc cstn pmstcramr n cstms. Sk eurm `c ornvc`n` sc cepjcn pnrn rctckcr uk sucjm `c njturn eckmr n gakgm ectrms, km mdstnktc, cj eurm pmr ornvc`n` km cs cj økagm quc sc puc`c cepjcnr pnrn cstc tapm `c tcrrckm, jms eurms ck vmjn`azm sc

 

cepjcnk pnrtagujnrecktc ck tcrrckms gmk ukn njturn `c fnstn kucvc ectrms pnrn jm gunj tnedaák gnjalagn pnrn rccepjnznr nj eurm pmr ornvc`n`, cstc eurm gucktn gmk jn vcktnhn quc jms cslucrzms `c trngga÷k jm ndsmrdc jn nren`urn y cj cslucrzm `c gmeprcsa÷k jm ndsmrdc cj ngcrm.

WAPSNGA×K RTMDJCEÎPAGN8

Gmkstrugga÷k `c eurms `c gmktckga÷k ck tcrrckms akcstndjcs jms gunjcs km tackck supcrvasa÷k `c pcrsmknj gnpngatn`m mraoaknk`m nså `csjazneacktms pmr crrmrcs `c gîjgujm ➤ 

JMGNJ8 Cstms prmdjcens sc prcscktnk enymrecktc ck jms nscktneacktms fuenkms, uk chcepjm scrån cj nscktneacktm fuenkm ‚Fármcs `c Gckcpn― ck \.C.W. gmk rclcrckgan `c ukn

jn`crn gcrgnkn nj enr gmk sucjm rmgmsm, mtrm gnsm udagn`m ck cj easem `astratm scrån ck jn zmkn `c ‚Jmem `c Gmrvakn―, yn quc pmr km cstnr dack aklmren`ms y nj km gmktrntnr gmk uk pcrsmknj gnpngatn`m, mgurrck crrmrcs `c gîjgujm nj rcnjaznr jn gmkstrugga÷k eurms ck cstn zmkn, jm gunj cs kcgcsnram pnrn mdtckcr uk duck rcsujtn`m, `cda`m n jns gmk`agamkcs `cj tcrrckm y jn pck`acktc quc pmscc. ➤ 

AKPCTKNGAMKNJ8 Ck asjns G Gnknrans nknrans udagn`m ck Cspnþ Cspnþn, n, tnedaák sc prcsckt÷ cj lnjjm `c uk eurm `c gmktckga÷k ck jn vån `c Jmem gndnjjm - \ajjn `c akockam `cda`m n jn lnjtn `c enktckaeacktm ck cstc, jn gunj mraoaknran uk pmtckganj `csnstrc `cda`m n jn zmkn tnk gmkgurra`n `mk`c sc ckgmktrndn, yn quc cj eurm cepcz÷ n `csemrmknrsc.

 

AAA.

NTOSECKPNGAÔK GNRAPSJM > >. @CLAKAGA×K Q RNTPCW @C JMW ESTMW @C GMKPC GMKPCKGA×K KGA×K

Jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k m smstckaeacktms `c tacrrn smk ukn cstrugturn s÷ja`n fcgfn n dnsc `c enepmstcrån, gmkgrct gmkgrctmm rclmrzn`m u fmreao÷k nren`m, jn gunj guepjc jn lukga÷k `c gcrrneacktm, pmr jm quc  cj cepuhc tcepmrnj m pcrenkcktc `cj cstî suhctn n ljcxa÷k, smpmrtnk`m smpmrtnk`m cj sucjm, cvatnk`m cj vmjgneacktm m `csjazneacktm pmr clcgtm `c jns gnrons fmrazmktnjcs m akgjakn`ns quc sc chcrgck smdrc áj. Rnrtcs `cj eurm `c gmktckga÷k8 pukt crn8 dnsc m gaeacktm `cj eurm (Sdagn`n `cdnhm -  Ruktn m puktcrn8

`cj aktrn`÷s y km aktrm`uga`n dnhm cj tcrrckm gmktcka`m. -  Png÷k8   Rnrtc `c jn dnsc quc sc aktrm`ugc ck cj sucjm pnrn

onrnktaznr ukn enymr suhcga÷k y cstndaja`n`. -  Pnj÷k8  Rnrtc `c jn dnsc ck mpmsaga÷k n jn puktcrn (Wc udagn pmr `cdnhm `cj trns`÷s y ndnhm `cj entcranj gmktcka`m) Njzn`m `m m gucrpm8  Cstn pnrtc `cj eurm cs jn quc scrî jcvnktn`m -  Njzn

smdrc jms gaeacktms (su njturn y ormsmr `cpck`crî `c jn gnron y lucrzns n gmktckcr. eur m. -  Aktrn`÷s8  Wupcrlagac cxtrcen `cj njzn`m m gucrpm `cj eurm. -  Prns`÷s8  Wupcrlagac aktcrkn `cj njzn`m m gucrpm `cj eurm.

4. \CKPNHNW \CKPNH NW @C JMW EST ESTMW MW @C GMKPCKGA×K \cktnhns ▨ 

Gmktackck y `nk cstndaja`n` n jns mmdrns drns `mk`c cxast cxastcc emvaeacktm `c tacrrn

▨ 

Wmk mdrns eîs cgmk÷eagns gmepnrn`ns gmk mtrns cstrugturns `c gmktckga÷k

▨ 

Wc n`nptnk n`nptnk lîgajecktc n `al `alcrcktcs crcktcs gmk`agamkcs `c tmpmornlån `cj tcrrckm

▨ 

Nyu`nk n gmktrmjnr jn crmsa÷k `cj sucjm

 

7. PARMW @C ESTM @C GMKPCKGAÔK Gmeprck`ck `alcrcktcs lmrens `c ngucr`m n su scgga÷k trnksvcrsnj y n jn easa÷k m lukga÷k quc cjjms `cdck `csnrrmjjnr, sack`m smecta`ms n jns gmk`agamkcs låsagn ocmj÷oagns `cj juonr.

Wcoøk Wc oøk su lu kga÷k8   Gmktckga÷k `c tacrrns •

Cstm sc rcquacrc gunk`m cj eurm sc `cstakn n gmktckcr s÷ja`ms, ástms pmr jm ockcrnj smk tacrrns9 sc `cdc tckcr ck gucktn jn aepcrecndajaznga÷k y cj  cj `rcknhc. `rcknhc.     Gmktc Gmktckga÷k kga÷k `c jåqua`ms

•

Cs kcgcsnram pnrn cstn lukga÷k gmkscouar jn  jn  gmktakua`n` `cj duckn aepcrecndajaznga÷k. aepcrecndajaznga÷k.  Rnrn cjjm fmreao÷k pnrn jmornr ukn duckn  fmreao÷k  sc `cdc clcgtunr uk vadrn`m n`cgun`m, cvatnk`m nså fucgms. Wcoøk Wc oøk s u `as cþm8

  Gmk Pnj÷k y Ruktcrn Rukt crn

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Rnrn gmkstruar cstc eurm, cs kcgcsnram smdrcpnsnr jn jåkcn `c c`alagnga÷k, n kavcj `c jms gaeacktms.   Wak Pnj÷k Pnj÷k

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Nj gmkstruarjm, pmr jm ockcrnj rcsujtn gmk uk nuecktm `c `aecksa÷k ck jn puktcrn `c jn znpntn.   Gmk tnj÷k

•

Cs kcgcsnram smdrcpnsnr jn jåkcn `c c`alagnga÷k, `n`m quc nså `n ukn echmr smjuga÷k nktc akcstndaja`n`cs pmr pmsadjc vucjgm. Wcoøk Wc oøk cj tapm `c gmkstrugga÷k

  @c ornvc`n`

•

Wmk eurms gmk ornk ensn quc rcsastck cj cepuhc ec`anktc su prmpam pcsm y cj pcsm `cj sucjm quc sc npmyc ck cstms.

 

  @c scea ornvc`n or nvc`n` `

•

Cstc eurm cs saeajnr gmk cj eurm `c ornvc`n`, gmk jn `alcrckgan quc sc `aseakuyck jns `aecksamkcs `c jn scgga÷k, jm gunj aepjagn quc sc smectn n cslucrzms `c ljcxa÷k, y pnrn cstm sc `cdc nþn`ar uk pcqucþm rclucrzm `c ngcrm pnrn gmktrnrrcstnrjm   Ck vmjn`azm m cstrugturnj

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Cstms eurms smk `c ornk `aecksa÷k, mgupnk`m ornk cspngam. Tcsastc cj cepuhc `c jn tacrrn, pmr ec`am `c jn ngga÷k `cj vmjn`azm `c ukn pnktnjjn cepmtrn`n ck ukn jmzn fmrazmktnj.   Gmk gmk trnlucrtcs trnlucrtcs

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Ruc`ck gmjmgnrsc ck jn gnrn cxtcramr m aktcramr `c jn pnktnjjn ck gmktngtm gmk cj sucjm9 cs `cgar gmktrn jn pnktnjjn vcrtagnj y jn dnsc. 0. RTMGC@AEACKPM RNWN WS GMKWPTSGGA×K 

Rnrn rcnjaznr uk eurm `c gmktckga÷k sc rcquacrc `c eugfms pnsms, nså gmem n`vcrtckgans quc kms nyu`nk n prcvckar gunjquacr `clcgtm m lnjjn `c kucstrm prmycgtm pmr gmkscgucktc cj prmgc`aeacktm cs8 ➤ 

Rraecrm `cdcems trnznr jn gaeckt gaecktnga÷k nga÷k `cj tcrrckm ukn vcz fcgfm cstm prmgc`cems n cxgnvnr tm`n jn zmkn trnzn`n pcrm

➤ 

saceprc gmktrmjnk`m jn njturn `c jn cxgnvnga÷k. Jucom npjagnems cj smjn`m quc kms nyu`n y gmksastc ck vnganr ukn pcqucþn pnrtc `c gnpn `c gmkgrctm pmdrc m tnedaák jm quc cs jn eczgjn `c gcecktm y nrckn pucstm quc cstm kms pcreatc tckcr ukn supcrlagac pjnkn.

➤ 

Rrmgc`cems n gmjmgnr cj rclucrzm pnrn cj eurm gmjm gmjmgn`m gn`m ck cj ngcrm `c jn gaecktnga÷k huktm gmk csm cj ngcrm `cj prmpam eurm.

➤ 

Nfmrn pnsnrcems n jn gmjmg gmjmgnga÷k nga÷k `c jms tudm tudmss `c `rck `rcknhc nhc pucst pucstmm quc npckns fnynems fcgfms jms prmgc`aeacktms nktcramrcs sc prcpnrn cj gucrpm prakgapnj `cj eurm `c gmkgrctm.

 

➤ 

Skn vcz fcgfm cstm pnsnrcems nj ckgmlrn`m vcral vcralagnems agnems sa jn gmjmgnga÷k `cj ngcrm tnktm vcrtagnj gmem fmrazmktnj cstî dack sc gmjmgn cj ckgmlrn`m pcrm quc jn en`crn quc`c scpnrn`n `cj ngcrm

➤ 

Cgfnems cj gmkgrctm ggmk mk uk vad vadrn`mr rn`mr m vnrajjn pnrn cspnrgar dack `chnems quc sc scquc y prmgc`cems n rctarnr cj emj`c `cj eurm `c gmktckga÷k. 

3. RNPMJMOANW RNPMJ MOANW

CK J JN N

GMKWPTSGGA×K @C ESTMW

@C

GMKPCKGA×K

Jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k puc`ck jjconr n prcscktnr `avcrsns lnjjns m lasurns `cda`m n prmdjcens pmr lnjtn `c enktckaeacktm, crrmrcs ck su gmkstrugga÷k m pmr jns akgjceckgans `cj gjaen y cstms `csckgn`cknk ck `avcrsns pntmjmoåns cktrc jns gunjcs tckcems8 @csjazneacktms

Cstn pntmjmoån sugc`c gunk`m jns lucrzns `cj cepuhc `cj tcrrckm supcrnk nj lngtmr `c scoura`n` `cj eurm, cstn pntmjmoån sugc`c pmr km gnjgujnr dack jn lucrzn `c cepuhc `cj tcrrckm y km echmrnr cj lngtmr `c scoura`n` `cj eurm pnrn quc nså cstc puc`n rcsastar tm`n jn gnron y cepuhc `cj tcrrckm. Rrmdjcens `c lasurns

Cstn pntmjmoån sc puc`c cva`ckganr ck jn pnrtc `c jn trngga÷k `cj eurm y jn gunj cs uk crrmr euy ornvc, yn quc sa jn lasurn cs euy fmk`n cstn puc`c jjconr n gmrrmcrsc `cda`m n jms sujlntms `cj tcrrckm cj gunj mgnsamknrån uk `cdajatneacktm ck jn cstrugturn. Fuk`aeacktm `c jms eurms

Cstm sugc`c `cda`m n uk lnjjm `c gîjgujm, yn quc cj pcsm `cj eurm smdrcpnsn n jn rcsastckgan `cj tcrrckm y nj laknj cstc tcreakn gc`ack`m.

 

Tmturn pmr ljcxa÷k

Wc prm`ugc pmr uk smdrccslucrz smdrccslucrzmm `c ljcxa÷k jm gunj mraoakn `avcrsns rmturns ck cj eurm9 cstn pntmjmoån km cs vasadjc n saepjc vastn pmr jm gunj ` km `ctcgtnrsc n tacepm prm`ugarån ornk`cs `nþms ck jn gmkstrugga÷k. Tmturn pmr cslucrzm gmrtnktc

Wc prm`ugck rmturns quc puc`ck prcscktnrsc ck cj tnj÷k, tng÷k m cj njzn`m `cj eurm y nj aounj quc jn rmturn pmr ljcxa÷k cstms prmdjcens puc`ck scr euy pcrhu`aganjcs `c km `ctcgtnrsc n tacepm. GNRAPSJM 4 >. NKÎ NKÎJAWAW JAWAW @C JMW WSC WSCJMW JMW NTCKMWMW Q TM TMGMWMW GMWMW WSCJMW NTCKMWMW

Cj sucjm eîs sckgajjm `c a`cktalagnr. Nj lrmtnrjn cktrc jms `c`ms jn pcrgcpga÷k cs îspcrn y km sc mdscrvnk prcsckgan `c pnrtågujns lakns (nrgajjn). Tcspcgtm n gmjmr jms sucjms nrckmsms smk orascs y eîs msgurns quc mtrm tapm `c sucjm. Wa sc norcon noun y nj trntnr `c lmrenr ukn dmjn sc `asorcon lîgajecktcJn cstrugturn cs `c ornkm saepjc y gmksastckgan sucjtn. @c ngucr`m n jn ornkujmectrån jn scechnkzn cs jn saouacktc8   Euy orucsn orucsn / orucsn (2,3-4 e ee) e) Wcechn Wcechnktc ktc n jn nrckn orucsn

•

jnvn`n `c gmkstrugga÷k   Euy lakn / lakn (2,23-2,3 ee) Wcechnktc n jn nrckn lakn `c gmkstrugga÷k (ckjuga`m)

•

  Ec`an (2,3-2,43 ee) Watunga÷k aktcrec`an `c jns `ms nktcramrcs

•

✗ 

Rcrecndjcs nj narc y nj no noun un

✗ 

Gmktcka`m dnhm `c kutraecktms

✗ 

Njtm gmktcka`m `c gunrzm

✗ 

Tcgmkmgaeacktm sc cs csgnpn gnpn cktrc jms `c` `c`ms ms

✗ 

N cstc tapm `c sucjm ccss kcgcsnram nu nuecktnr ecktnr jn lrngga÷k føeagn y jn gnkta`n` `c entcran mroîkagn

 

WSCJMW TMGMWMW

Jms sucjms rmgmsms sc ckgucktrnk enymrecktc ck jms gcrrms y smk susgcptadjcs `c smpmrtnr gmk csgnsn `clmrenga÷k cj pcsm `c jns c`alagngamkcs. Ntck`ack`m nj tapm `c rmgn, jns tcksamkcs n`easadjcs smdrc cj tcrrckm ck jn gmtn `c npmym `c jn gaecktnga÷k sc eucstrnk ck jn saouacktc tndjn

Pndjn >

Gunk`m rcnjaznems jns cxgnvngamkcs `c gnjagntns, sc rcoastrnrîk nljmrneacktms rmgmsms. Jn gnrngtcraznga÷k `cj engazm rmgmsm sc rcnjaz÷ saouack`m cj Wastcen `c Gjnsalagnga÷k Ocmecgîkagn. 4. ESTMW @C GMKPCKGA×K CK PCTTCKM PCTTCKM NTCKMWM

Rnrn tm`n gmkstrugga÷k `cs`c cj gmeackzm sc `cdc nknjaznr jns gnrngtcråstagns låsagns y ecgîkagn `cj sucjm, cstm pmrquc sarvc `c smpmrtc n jn cst cstrugturn. rugturn.

Cj sucjm nrckmsm kkmm onrnk onrnktazn tazn ck jn

gaecktnga÷k `c jn cstrugturn ukn larec cstndajaznga÷k pmr jns gnrngtcråstagns `cj easem. Ck uk eurm `c gmktckga÷k cktrc jms `astaktms tapms quc cxastck akorcsnk trcs tapms `c sucjms n gmksa`crnr, cj sucjm `c luk`nga÷k, cj sucjm `c rcjjckm y sucjm lrmktnj. Cs `c suen aepmrtnkgan gmkmgcr jn rcsastckgan `cj sucjm yn scn `c luk`nga÷k m lrmktnj pmrquc cstm pcreatc jmornr ÷ptaems `ascþms `c jns cstrugturns gmem tnedaák ukn gmrrcgtn gaecktnga÷k, jm gunj mtmron enymr scoura`n` y rcsastckgan. Gmkmgack`m quc cj tapm `cj tcrrckm cs nrckmsm gmkjjcvnrån n uk prmgcsm `c rclmrzneacktm `c sucjm. Cstc tcrrckm prcscktn enymrcs prmdjcens ck jns gmkstruggamkcs pucstm quc cs gnpnz `c sulrar `clmrengamkcs pmr jms emvaeacktms såseagms m `clmrengamkcs knturnjcs.

 

  7. ESTMW @C GMKPCKGA×K CK PCTTCKM TMGMWM  Cj eurm `c gmktckga÷k cs ukn gmepmsaga÷k tacsn m ljcxadjc y n ornvc`n`, prm`uga`m fndatunjecktc `c enepmstcrån, gmkgrctm m onva÷k quc mlrcgc cstndaja`n` y tackc cj `csjazneacktm `c ensns `c tacrrn u mtrm entcranj mgnsamkn`m pmr cj emvaeacktm `c ástns (cxgnvngamkcs, gmrtcs m tcrrnpjckcs). \cktnhns8 ▨ 

Cstndaja`n` `mk`c fny emvaeacktm `c tacrrns.

▨ 

Mdrns cgmk÷eagns cgmk÷eagns ck ggmepnrnga÷k mepnrnga÷k gmk mmtrns trns cstrug cstrugturns turns `c gmktckga÷k.

▨ 

Pc drak`n scoura`n` gunk`m cxastc emvaeacktm `c ensn.

▨ 

Rrmtcoc n jns våns tcrrcstrcs `c `crruedcs.

▨ 

Enktckaeacktm lîgaj `c rcnjaznr.

Cxastck eurms `c gmktckga÷k eîs gmeukcs cstms smk8 Eurms `c gmktckga÷k `c gmkgrctm rclmrzn`m

Tcjntavnecktc csdcjtms y fndatunjecktc ck J, gmk rcjjckm ck tacrrn pmr nrradn `c jn gaecktnga÷k. Eurms `c gmktckga÷k `c enepmstcrån

Wmk ukn eczgjn `c pac`rn drnzn gmk emrtcrm `c gcecktm, sc ngmem`n eugfm echmr n `chnr uk pmrgcktnhc eckmr `c fucgms rcjjckms `c emrtcrm. Eurms `c gmktckga÷k `c on onvamkcs vamkcs

Jms eurms `c onvamkcs smk gnhmkcs `c enjjn `c njnedrc onjvnkazn`m quc sc rcjjcknk `c gnktms `c pac`rn. Cstn gjnsc `c eurm cs ukn gmepmsaga÷k `c ornvc`n`, pmr jm gunj sc `cdc `c nrtagujnr gmk gua`n`m cj nenrrc cktrc jns uka`n`cs `c onvamkcs pnrn cvn`ar cj `cspjnzneacktm `c pnrtcs nasjn`ns y pm`cr nscournr uk eurm emkmjåtagm.

 

GNRAPSJM 7 >. CERSHC JN JNPCTNJ PCTNJ

Cj cepuhc jntcrnj cs jn prcsa÷k quc cj sucjm chcrgc fngan ukn cstrugturn gmem eurms gaecktngamkcs cspcgålag cspcgålagnecktc necktc n cstrugturns quc cstîk ck gmktngtm gmk cj tcrrckm `mk`c tck`rî prcsamkcs jntcrnjcs. Cstm cs rcjcvnktc ck jn ecgîkagn `c sucjms `mk`c cstu`anrcems cj gmepmrtneacktm `cj tcrrckm, tackc nktc cj eurm `c gmktckga÷k. Pm`m cstm scrî gmk cj lak `c ckgmktrnr cj tapm `c cepuhc jntcrnj quc tck`rî jn cstrugturn cktrc cjjns tckcems gmem cj cepuhc ngtavm quc sc rclacrc ngga÷k `c jn tacrrn gmk jn cstrugturn, cj cepuhc pnsavm quc sc rclacrc cj gmepmrtneacktm `c jn cstrugturn smdrn jn tacrrn.

Aenock >

4. PARMW @C CERSHC @C @C PACTTN

Jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k sc ckgnronk `c rcsastar n jjms ms saouacktcs tapms `c cepuhc `c tacrrn8 4.>.

CERSHC NGPA\M N GPA\M Cj cepuhc ngtavm sc prm`ugc smdrc jn pnktnjjn `c jn cstrugturn

`c gmktckga÷k, `c tnj enkcrn quc cj tcrrckm sc `csgmepraec. Pm`m cstm cs prm`uga`m gunk`m sc njgnkzn jn enymr rcsastckgan `c gmrtc gc`ack`m m ngcptnk`m cj `cspjngc `c gacrtn enokatu`, cstc cepuhc sc ockcrn pmr jn cxpanga÷k jntcrnj y jn gnå`n `cj îrcn jadrc `cj sucjm prm`ugack`m cj `cspjnzneacktm `c jn pnktnjjn pm`cems `cgar quc cs jn ngga÷k quc chcrgc jn tacrrn `cj rcjjckm gmdrc jn pnrtc trnscrn `cj eurm. Rmr tnktm, sc cepjcnrî cj cepuhc ck cj gîjgujm `c eurms `c

 

gmktckga÷k m eurms ck eáksujn, e áksujn, cktmkgcs pnrn cquajadrnr cstn gmk`aga÷k `cdcems tckcr ck gucktn jms saouacktcs cslucrzms8 cj pcsm (_), jn rcngga÷k (^) y ukn rcngga÷k (Tn).

Aenock 4

4.4.

CERSHC NJ TCRMW TCRMWM M

Gunk`m gnsa km fny `cspjnzneacktm `c jn cstrugturn `c gmktckga÷k, sc ockcrnrî uk cepuhc cstîtagm. Cstm sugc`c gunk`m jn cstrugturn cstî gmrrcgtnecktc npmyn`n. Sk chcepjm tåpagm cs uk eurm `c s÷tnkm ck uk c`alagam, `mk`c ukn m eîs jmsns `c pasm quc smstackck cj eurm cvatnk quc sc eucvn fngan nrradn ngtunk`m gmem tndaqucs ak`clmrendjcs.

Aenock 7

4.7.

CERSHC RNWA\M RN WA\M

Rmr cepuhc pnsavm sc cktack`c quc, ck aounj satunga÷k `cj cepuhc ngtavm, vn n cxastar ukn `clmrenga÷k fmrazmktnj. Nqucjjn tck`rî ukn `astaktn `arcgga÷k quc cj ngtavm nj cstnr mracktn`n fngan jn ensn `c sucjm quc sc vn gmktckcr, jn gmeprcsa÷k pmr fmrazmktnj cs enymr n jn ockcrn`n pmr vcrtagnj.

 

Cstc tapm `c cepuhc cs gmksa`crn`m pmr `cj gratcram `cj `ascþn`mr, sa cj sucjm quc ockcrn `agfm cepuhc cstnrî pnrn jn va`n øtaj `cj entcranj, pmr jm quc sc vc mdrns `c gnrrctcrn y pucktcs cstc vnjmr cs kujm. (Dnjj÷k y Cgfckaquc, 42>?, p.76)

Aenock 0

GNRAPSJM 0

>. KMTENW PÁGKAGNW RNTN JN GMKWPTSGGA×K @C ESTMW @C GMKPCKGA×K Cstn kmren tackc gmem prmp÷satm cstndjcgcr jms rcquasatms tágkagms quc sc `cdck guepjar pnrn jn gmkstrugga÷k `c eurms `c gmktckga÷k utajazn`ms ck jms `alcrcktcs kcomgams `c CRE. Jns cspcgalagngamkcs pnrtagujnrcs `c jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k, ck gunktm n sus `aecksamkcs, entcranjcs, sastcen `c `rcknhc y ``ctnjjcs ctnjjcs gmkstrugtavms `cdck cstnr gmksaokn`ns ck jms pjnkms cstrugturnjcs, y su gmkstrugga÷k `cdc rcnjaznrsc scoøk `agfn aklmrenga÷k. @MGSECKPM KWT->2

KMEDTC  Tcojnecktm gmjmedankm `c gmkstrugga÷k sasemrrcsastcktc

KG-EK-MG2?-2> Kmren `c `c gmkstrugga÷k `c gmkgrctms KG-EK-MG2?-24 Kmren `c `c gmkstrugga÷k `c gaecktngamkcs KG-EK-MG2?-2? Kmren `c gmkstrugga÷k `c ngcrm `c rclucrzm KCOG-420-22

Kmren y cspcgalagnga÷k ockcrnj `c gmkstrugga÷k jjckms gmepngtn`ms

KG-EK-MG27-2> Kmren `c gmkstrugga÷k `c cxgnvngamkcs KPG-77>6 Kmren tágkagn gmjmedankn `c gmkgrctms KCGO-040-22 Pndjn 4

ocmtcxtaj pnrn cstrugturns `c gmktckga÷k

 

4. GNWMW @C ESTMW @C GMKPCKGA×K CK PCTTCKM AKCWPNDJC Ck cj nscktneacktm fuenkm ‚Fármcs `cj Gckcpn― sc puc`c cva`ckganr

cj gnsm `c gmkstrugga÷k `c 4 eurms `c gmktckga÷k ck uk tcrrckm akcstndjc ‚nrckmsm―9 cs nså quc cstms 4 eurms gmkstrua`ms puc`ck

jjconr n gmjnpsnr ck gnsm `c quc sugc`n uk sasem `c ornk enokatu` mgnsamknk`m nså uk `cspjmec `cj tnju` pmkack`m ck pcjaorm jn va`n `c jn ocktc quc vavc ck cstc juonr.

Aenock 3

4.>.  NKPCGC@CKPCW  Cj tcrrckm ck cj quc sc ckgucktrnk cstms eurms cs ck uk tcrrckm nrckmsm c akcstndjc `cda`m n su gcrgnkån gmk cj enr, yn quc fngc vnrams nþms ukn ornk pnrtc `c vajjn cj snjvn`mr crn pjnyn pmr jm gunj gmk cj pnsnr `c nþms cj enr sc fn a`m njchnk`m `nk`m nså cj mraock n jn zmkn `mk`c cstî gmkstrua`n cj nscktneacktm fuenkm cj gunj cs ukn jn`crn gcrgnkn nj enr. 4.4.

GNTNGPCTAWPAGNW @C JMW ESTMW CKGMKPTN@MW

Jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k gmkstrua`ms ck cj juonr smk `c 4.02e `c njtm x 2.02e `c nkgfm y sc ckgucktrnk gaecktn`ms n >.22e `c prmluk`a`n` Cstms eurms a`cktalagn`ms ck cj juonr sc ckgucktrnk ck jns enkznkns E y J `cj nscktneacktm fuenkm9 mtrns gnsns gmk eckmr prcsupucstm smjm gmjmgnrmk pnrc`cs `c jjnktns, jns gunjcs smk ec`a`ns `c smjuga÷k ru`aecktnrans pnrn onrnktaznr jn cstndaja`n` `cj sucjm, pcrm cstm km cs nså, yn quc cstns jjnktns smjm cstîk gmjmgn`ns ukn ckgaen `c mtrn y pmr ck`c km onrnktazn kakoukn cstndaja`n`, yn quc nktc uk emvaeacktm såseagm `c ornk enokatu` jjconrnk n gmjnpsnr.

 

4.7.

RTMDJCENW ^SC RSC@NK WSTOAT

4.7.>. RCJAOTMW RMT JNW C@ALAGNGAMKCW Jns pcrsmkns quc vavck ck cj juonr akvn`acrmk y gmkstruycrmk

sus

nprmxaen`necktc

gnsns 42

nþms

ck

cstn

`nk`m

zmkn

mraock

fngc nså

nj

nscktneacktm fuenkm ‚Fármcs `cj Gckcpn―, pcrm ck csc

tacepm cjjms enk`nrmk n gmkstruar sus gnsns n encstrms `c mdrn `cj juonr, jms gunjcs km rcnjaznrmk kakoøk cstu`am `c sucjm ka gîjgujm, eîs dack saepjcecktc gmkstruycrmk ck cj juonr, jm gunj fn mgnsamkn`m uk pcjaorm n jms fndatnktcs `cj juonr, yn quc cj tcrrckm fn a`m gc`ack`m pmr jns ornk`cs gmkstruggamkcs `c 4 m 7 pasms quc sc fnk rcnjazn`m ck cj juonr prmpagank`m pcqucþns gnå`ns `c tacrrn.

4.7.4. RCJAOTMW RMT CJ PCTTCKM Ck cj îrcn sc puc`c jjconr n cva`ckganr `crruedcs y gmjnpsms `cj tnju` `cda`m nj tcrrckm akcstndjc `c cstc, yn quc nj rcnjaznr jns gmkstruggamkcs `c jns gnsns sc jjco÷ n rcnjaznr gmrtcs y rcjjckms ck cj tnju` `cj juonr mgnsamknk`m nså akcstndaja`n` ck cj tcrrckm cj gunj gmk cj pnsnr `c jms nþms dusgnrn lmrenr ukn pck`acktc `c cquajadram `cda`m n quc cstc cstî gmepucstm `c nrckn sucjtn9 pmr cstn rnz÷k jns gmkstruggamkcs ck cj juonr smk uk ornk pcjaorm pnrn jns pcrsmkns quc fndatnk nfå. 

Aenock <

 

\.

GMKGJSWAMKCW

>. Ck rcjnga÷k n jm cxpucstm sc puc`c ngjnrnr quc cj sucjm saceprc puc`c prcscktnr prmdjcens `c cstndaja`n`, pmr jm quc ckgmktrnr cj cepuhc quc sc chcrgc ck uk sucjm tmen rcjcvnkgan r cjcvnkgan nj emecktm nscournr cj cquajadram y gmrrcgtm lukgamkneacktm `c ukn cstrugturn gmem ck cstc gnsm cj `c uk eurm `c gmktckga÷k. 4. @cdcems `c rcnjaznr saceprc uk cstu`am `c sucjms pnrn gmkstruar uk eurm `c gmktckga÷k, yn quc sa jm gmkstruaems ck uk tcrrckm nrckmsm gmk ornk pck`acktc cstc sc pmkc ck racsom `c `cdajatnrsc y `csemrmknr mgnsamknk`m nså uk ornvc ngga`cktc quc puc`c tckcr pár`a`ns fuenkns pmr csm `cdcems ouanrkms `cj rcojnecktm y `c jns dnscs quc tckcems pnrn rcnjaznr uk duck trndnhm gmk scoura`n` y clagngan. 7. @cdcems `c tckcr eugfm gua`n`m y prcstnr tm`n kucstrn ntckga÷k nj prmgcsm gmkstrugtavm `c jms eurms `c gmktckga÷k, yn quc, sakm rcvasnems nj `ctnjjc, cstms puc`ck jjconr n sulrar pntmjmoåns `cdajatnk`m nså jn cstrugturn grcn`n y tnedaák `cdcems `c `ctcgtnr `c enkcrn tceprnkn njoøk prmdjcen m lnjjn prcscktc ck cj eurm e urm 0. Cs euy aepmrtnktc quc cj prmycgtastn gmksa`crc ck cj prmycgtm `cj eurm, cj `ascþm `c uk lajtrm, yn quc gunjquacr rcjjckm saceprc tackc jn pmsadaja`n` `c snturnr `c noun, y nj km gmksa`crnrsc jn enkcrn `c `csnjmhnrjn lucrn `cj rcjjckm, sc nuecktnrån cj cepuhc gmksa`crndjcecktc gmktrn cj rcspnj`m `cj eurm, trnyck`m gmem gmkscguckgan jn lnjjn ndruptn, sak nvasms prcgursmrcs.

 

\A.

TCLCTCKGA TCLCTCKGANW NW DADJAMOTÎLAGNW DAD JAMOTÎLAGNW  >. Dnjj÷k, N. y Cgfckaquc, H. Nkîjasas H.  Nkîjasas `c cstndaja`n` `c eurms `c gmktckga÷k `c ngucr`m n jns zmkns såseagns `cj Rcrø. Nkîjasas Rcrø.  Nkîjasas `c cstndaja`n` `c eurms `c gmktckga÷k `c ngucr`m n jns zmkns såseagns `cj Rcrø. YCk jåkcnU 42>?. YGatn`m cj8 7 `c Hujam `c 424>.U fttps8//rcpmsatmramngn`ceagm.upg.c`u.pc/datstrcne/fnk`jc/>2?3?/1. YGatn`m cj8 46 `c Hukam `c 424>.U fttps8//vagtmrycpcs.djmos.upv.cs/42>1/>>/4?/cepuhc-`c-tacrrns-echmr-gmujmed-mrnkiakc/. 7. Kuþcz, H. Akspcgga÷k H. Akspcgga÷k `c scoura`n` låsagn NN. FF. Fármcs `cj Gckcpn. Jaen. Akspcgga÷k `c scoura`n` låsagn NN. FF. Fármcs `cj Gckcpn. Jaen. YCk jåkcnU Mgtudrc `c 42>2. fttps8//rcpmsatmram.akoceect.omd.pc/datstrcne/42.322.>4300/>66/N.U fttps8//www.76. YGatn`m cj8 20 `c Enym `c 424>.U fttps8//rcpmsatmry.ukaeakutm.c`u/datstrcne/fnk`jc/>20.p`l.

 

\AA.

NKCVMW

Aenock ?

Aenock 1

Aenock >>

Aenock >7

Aenock 6

Aenock >2

Aenock >4

Aenock >0